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Problem Solving from a Behavioral Perspective: Implications for Behavior Analysts and Educators

• Original Paper
• Published: 09 March 2018
• Volume 28 , pages 275–300, ( 2019 )

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• Andrew R. Kieta 1 ,
• Traci M. Cihon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7577-7063 2 &
• Awab Abdel-Jalil 2  

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The nature of problem solving has been a difficult one to pin down, with much of the focus placed on hypothetical cognitive structures based on technological metaphors that change as quickly as the currently popular technologies after which they are modeled. While behavior analysts have made use of several effective instructional methodologies to produce reliable and impressive convergent learning outcomes, mainstream education has increasingly shifted toward divergent learning outcomes. Educators desire instructional models that are free flowing, spontaneous, and creative, producing students capable of solving problems in a wide array of domains. The analysis provided by a science of human behavior, combined with the aforementioned effective instructional strategies, reveals problem solving to be an area ripe for behavior analytic dissemination and interdisciplinary coordination. Behavior analysis offers a distinctly selectionist account of problem solving that focuses on the interaction between the learner and the environment. This paper serves three functions. First, the authors present a detailed and comprehensive account of human problem solving from a behavior analytic perspective, with a special focus on the role of verbal behavior. Second, research that supports this conceptualization is thoroughly detailed. Lastly, the authors describe effective problem solving curricula and instructional methods derived from a behavior analytic framework to assist educators as to how to create optimal learning environments to promote and nurture cultures of successful problem solving.

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Readers are encouraged to thoroughly review Tiemann and Markle’s ( 1990 ) discussion of complex cognitive learning for a behavioral approach to such learning.

There are no doubt additional variables at play. The concept of response strength is one that has attracted criticism and merits further investigation (see Shahan 2017 ). Nonetheless, response strength serves as a useful tool for making sense of the other processes that may be involved in problem solving.

A principle called extinction (Skinner 1953 ).

In 1957, Skinner produced the first, comprehensive analysis of verbal behavior from a behavior analytic perspective— Verbal Behavior . He defines his subject matter, verbal behavior, as behavior that is reinforced not through direct contact with the environment (as is the case with non-verbal behavior); rather, verbal behavior is reinforced through consequences that are mediated from another individual who has been explicitly conditioned by the verbal community to reinforce verbal behavior (Skinner 1957 , pp. 224–226). In essence, verbal behavior consists of a set of interlocking contingencies between a speaker (the one engaging in verbal behavior) and the listener (the one who reinforces the speaker’s verbal behavior) in which the listener functions as a discriminative stimulus for the verbal behavior of the speaker; the verbal behavior of the speaker serves as the discriminative stimulus for the listener’s behavior that subsequently serves as the consequence for the speaker’s behavior.

Skinner ( 1957 ) contrasts the subject matter of verbal behavior with the foci of disciplines such as linguistics whose emphasis is on the general trends of groups of people (such as all of those who speak Swahili) or the features of the language itself (e.g., differentiating transparent from non-transparent languages—such as Italian and English, respectively) by emphasizing that verbal behavior focuses on the behavior of the individual speaker and the meaning of what is communicated is found through the analysis of the environmental controlling variables.

Skinner ( 1957 ) outlines several verbal operants—or classes of verbal responses that are defined by their antecedent and consequence controlling variables—such as the mand, tact, echoic, and intraverbal. Each of these verbal operants specify not the exact topography of the response; instead, they predict the environmental conditions under which a number of potential responses, both verbal and non-verbal, might be strengthened and therefore be more likely to be emitted depending on the individual’s past history of reinforcement under similar conditions. The notion of the verbal operant is particularly helpful in designing interventions that support language acquisition (as is evidenced by a large body of empirical support; see for example, The Analysis of Verbal Behavior —1982 to present). Skinner ( 1957 ) purports that a specific topography of verbal behavior (i.e., a word or words) may serve many different functions for the speaker and therefore may need to be taught (i.e., reinforced) in a number of different situations. The individual who says “coffee” may do so when they “want” a cup of coffee (mand), when they see a cup of coffee (tact), after someone else says coffee (echoic), or when someone asks, “what do you drink every morning before going to work” (intraverbal).

Authors selected to include the terms “memory” and “memory strategies” as these terms are consistent with the literature cited throughout this section of the manuscript.

Skinner ( 1957 ) defines the autoclitic as, “[verbal] behavior which is based upon or depends upon other verbal behavior” (p. 315).

TAPS is available at http://www.talkaloudproblemsolving.com/ .

Several studies did not meet the search criteria used for the current paper. However, a number of researchers have explored problem solving from a behavioral perspective (e.g., Foxx et al. 1988 , 1989 ; Martella et al. 1992 ). These papers were excluded from this literature review but should be acknowledged given their contributions to our work (and that of others) on problem solving from a behavior analytic perspective.

Sequelic behavior was defined as a subtype of intraverbal responding, where the form of the responses did not match the form or the order of the preceding verbal stimulus (Vargas 1986 ).

Verbal operants not identified. Likely a combination of intraverbals and other operants under multiple control.

Isawa ( 2002 ) described the request for further information as a mand; however, it was more likely a multiply controlled verbal operant consisting of stimulus controls associated with both mand and intraverbal operants.

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Kieta, A.R., Cihon, T.M. & Abdel-Jalil, A. Problem Solving from a Behavioral Perspective: Implications for Behavior Analysts and Educators. J Behav Educ 28 , 275–300 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-018-9296-9

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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Solving problems the cognitive-behavioral way, problem solving is another part of behavioral therapy..

Posted February 2, 2022 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• What Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy?
• Find a therapist who practices CBT
• Problem-solving is one technique used on the behavioral side of cognitive-behavioral therapy.
• The problem-solving technique is an iterative, five-step process that requires one to identify the problem and test different solutions.
• The technique differs from ad-hoc problem-solving in its suspension of judgment and evaluation of each solution.

As I have mentioned in previous posts, cognitive behavioral therapy is more than challenging negative, automatic thoughts. There is a whole behavioral piece of this therapy that focuses on what people do and how to change their actions to support their mental health. In this post, I’ll talk about the problem-solving technique from cognitive behavioral therapy and what makes it unique.

The problem-solving technique

While there are many different variations of this technique, I am going to describe the version I typically use, and which includes the main components of the technique:

The first step is to clearly define the problem. Sometimes, this includes answering a series of questions to make sure the problem is described in detail. Sometimes, the client is able to define the problem pretty clearly on their own. Sometimes, a discussion is needed to clearly outline the problem.

The next step is generating solutions without judgment. The "without judgment" part is crucial: Often when people are solving problems on their own, they will reject each potential solution as soon as they or someone else suggests it. This can lead to feeling helpless and also discarding solutions that would work.

The third step is evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. This is the step where judgment comes back.

Fourth, the client picks the most feasible solution that is most likely to work and they try it out.

The fifth step is evaluating whether the chosen solution worked, and if not, going back to step two or three to find another option. For step five, enough time has to pass for the solution to have made a difference.

This process is iterative, meaning the client and therapist always go back to the beginning to make sure the problem is resolved and if not, identify what needs to change.

Advantages of the problem-solving technique

The problem-solving technique might differ from ad hoc problem-solving in several ways. The most obvious is the suspension of judgment when coming up with solutions. We sometimes need to withhold judgment and see the solution (or problem) from a different perspective. Deliberately deciding not to judge solutions until later can help trigger that mindset change.

Another difference is the explicit evaluation of whether the solution worked. When people usually try to solve problems, they don’t go back and check whether the solution worked. It’s only if something goes very wrong that they try again. The problem-solving technique specifically includes evaluating the solution.

Lastly, the problem-solving technique starts with a specific definition of the problem instead of just jumping to solutions. To figure out where you are going, you have to know where you are.

One benefit of the cognitive behavioral therapy approach is the behavioral side. The behavioral part of therapy is a wide umbrella that includes problem-solving techniques among other techniques. Accessing multiple techniques means one is more likely to address the client’s main concern.

Salene M. W. Jones, Ph.D., is a clinical psychologist in Washington State.

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Behaviorism In Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral learning theory, is a theoretical perspective in psychology that emphasizes the role of learning and observable behaviors in understanding human and animal actions. Behaviorism is a theory of learning that states all behaviors are learned through conditioned interaction with the environment. Thus, behavior is simply a response to environmental stimuli. The behaviorist theory is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner. Some of the key figures of the behaviorist approach include B.F. Skinner, known for his work on operant conditioning, and John B. Watson, who established the psychological school of behaviorism.

Principles of Behaviorism

The behaviorist movement began in 1913 when John B. Watson wrote an article entitled Psychology as the behaviorist views it , which set out several underlying assumptions regarding methodology and behavioral analysis:

All behavior is learned from the environment:

One assumption of the learning approach is that all behaviors are learned from the environment. They can be learned through classical conditioning, learning by association, or through operant conditioning, learning by consequences.

Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior to the near exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on learning. Therefore, when born, our mind is “tabula rasa” (a blank slate).

Classical conditioning refers to learning by association, and involves the conditioning of innate bodily reflexes with new stimuli.

Pavlov’s Experiment

Ivan Pavlov showed that dogs could be classically conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented while they were given food.

He first presented the dogs with the sound of a bell; they did not salivate so this was a neutral stimulus. Then he presented them with food, they salivated.

The food was an unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response.

Pavlov then repeatedly presented the dogs with the sound of the bell first and then the food (pairing) after a few repetitions, the dogs salivated when they heard the sound of the bell.

The bell had become the conditioned stimulus and salivation had become the conditioned response.

Examples of classical conditioning applied to real life include:

• taste aversion – using derivations of classical conditioning, it is possible to explain how people develop aversions to particular foods
• learned emotions – such as love for parents, were explained as paired associations with the stimulation they provide
• advertising – we readily associate attractive images with the products they are selling
• phobias – classical conditioning is seen as the mechanism by which – we acquire many of these irrational fears.

Skinner argued that learning is an active process and occurs through operant conditioning . When humans and animals act on and in their environmental consequences, follow these behaviors. 

If the consequences are pleasant, they repeat the behavior, but if the consequences are unpleasant, they do not.

Behavior is the result of stimulus-response:

Reductionism is the belief that human behavior can be explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts.

Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems, and use the simplest explanations to understand how they work.

Psychology should be seen as a science:

Theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained through careful and controlled observation and measurement of behavior. Watson (1913) stated:

“Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is … prediction and control.” (p. 158).

The components of a theory should be as simple as possible. Behaviorists propose using operational definitions (defining variables in terms of observable, measurable events).

Behaviorism introduced scientific methods to psychology. Laboratory experiments were used with high control of extraneous variables.

These experiments were replicable, and the data obtained was objective (not influenced by an individual’s judgment or opinion) and measurable. This gave psychology more credibility.

Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion:

The starting point for many behaviorists is a rejection of the introspection (the attempts to “get inside people’s heads”) of the majority of mainstream psychology.

While modern behaviorists often accept the existence of cognitions and emotions, they prefer not to study them as only observable (i.e., external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically measured.

Although theorists of this perspective accept that people have “minds”, they argue that it is never possible to objectively observe people’s thoughts, motives, and meanings – let alone their unconscious yearnings and desires.

Therefore, internal events, such as thinking, should be explained through behavioral terms (or eliminated altogether).

There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals:

There’s no fundamental (qualitative) distinction between human and animal behavior. Therefore, research can be carried out on animals and humans.

The underlying assumption is that to some degree the laws of behavior are the same for all species and that therefore knowledge gained by studying rats, dogs, cats and other animals can be generalized to humans.

Consequently, rats and pigeons became the primary data source for behaviorists, as their environments could be easily controlled.

Types of Behaviorist Theory

Historically, the most significant distinction between versions of behaviorism is that between Watson’s original methodological behaviorism, and forms of behaviorism later inspired by his work, known collectively as neobehaviorism (e.g., radical behaviorism).

John B Watson: Methodological Behaviorism

As proposed by John B. Watson, methodological behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that maintains that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors and not internal mental processes.

According to Watson, since thoughts, feelings, and desires can’t be observed directly, they should not be part of psychological study.

Watson proposed that behaviors can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.

He argued that all behaviors in animals or humans are learned, and the environment shapes behavior.

Watson’s article “Psychology as the behaviorist views it” is often referred to as the “behaviorist manifesto,” in which Watson (1913, p. 158) outlines the principles of all behaviorists:

“Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness.”

In his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute.

Man’s behavior, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist’s total scheme of investigation.

This behavioral perspective laid the groundwork for further behavioral studies like B.F’s. Skinner who introduced the concept of operant conditioning.

Radical Behaviorism

Radical behaviorism was founded by B.F Skinner , who agreed with the assumption of methodological behaviorism that the goal of psychology should be to predict and control behavior.

Radical Behaviorism expands upon earlier forms of behaviorism by incorporating internal events such as thoughts, emotions, and feelings as part of the behavioral process.

Unlike methodological behaviorism, which asserts that only observable behaviors should be studied, radical behaviorism accepts that these internal events occur and influence behavior.

However, it maintains that they should be considered part of the environmental context and are subject to the same laws of learning and adaptation as overt behaviors.

Another important distinction between methodological and radical behaviorism concerns the extent to which environmental factors influence behavior. Watson’s (1913) methodological behaviorism asserts the mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) at birth.

In contrast, radical behaviorism accepts the view that organisms are born with innate behaviors and thus recognizes the role of genes and biological components in behavior.

Social Learning

Behaviorism has undergone many transformations since John Watson developed it in the early part of the twentieth century.

One more recent extension of this approach has been the development of social learning theory, which emphasizes the role of plans and expectations in people’s behavior.

Under social learning theory , people were no longer seen as passive victims of the environment, but rather they were seen as self-reflecting and thoughtful.

The theory is often called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.

Historical Timeline

• Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on conditioning after originally studying digestion in dogs.
• Watson (1913) launches the behavioral school of psychology, publishing an article, Psychology as the behaviorist views it .
• Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka Little Albert) to fear a white rat.
• Thorndike (1905) formalized the Law of Effect .
• Skinner (1938) wrote The Behavior of Organisms and introduced the concepts of operant conditioning and shaping.
• Clark Hull’s (1943) Principles of Behavior was published.
• B.F. Skinner (1948) published Walden Two , describing a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles.
• Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior began in 1958.
• Chomsky (1959) published his criticism of Skinner’s behaviorism, “ Review of Verbal Behavior .”
• Bandura (1963) published a book called the Social Leaning Theory and Personality development which combines both cognitive and behavioral frameworks.
• B.F. Skinner (1971) published his book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity , where he argues that free will is an illusion.

Applications

Mental health.

Behaviorism theorized that abnormal behavior and mental illness stem from faulty learning processes rather than internal conflicts or unconscious forces, as psychoanalysis claimed.

Based on behaviorism, behavior therapy aims to replace maladaptive behaviors with more constructive ones through techniques like systematic desensitization, aversion therapy, and token economies. Systematic desensitization helps phobia patients gradually confront feared objects.

The behaviorist approach has been used in treating phobias. The individual with the phobia is taught relaxation techniques and then makes a hierarchy of fear from the least frightening to the most frightening features of the phobic object.

He then is presented with the stimuli in that order and learns to associate (classical conditioning) the stimuli with a relaxation response. This is counter-conditioning.

Aversion therapy associates unpleasant stimuli with unwanted habits to discourage them. Token economies reinforce desired actions by providing tokens redeemable for rewards.

The implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less important than those of  operant conditioning , but there is still a need for teachers to try to make sure that students associate positive emotional experiences with learning.

If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school, then this can obviously have bad results, such as creating a school phobia.

For example, if a student is bullied at school, they may learn to associate the school with fear. It could also explain why some students show a particular dislike of certain subjects that continue throughout their academic career. This could happen if a teacher humiliates or punishes a student in class.

Cue reactivity is the theory that people associate situations (e.g., meeting with friends)/ places (e.g., pub) with the rewarding effects of nicotine, and these cues can trigger a feeling of craving (Carter & Tiffany, 1999).

These factors become smoking-related cues. Prolonged use of nicotine creates an association between these factors and smoking based on classical conditioning.

Nicotine is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), and the pleasure caused by the sudden increase in dopamine levels is the unconditioned response (UCR). Following this increase, the brain tries to lower the dopamine back to a normal level.

The stimuli that have become associated with nicotine were neutral stimuli (NS) before “learning” took place but they became conditioned stimuli (CS), with repeated pairings. They can produce the conditioned response (CR).

However, if the brain has not received nicotine, the levels of dopamine drop and the individual experiences withdrawal symptoms, therefore, is more likely to feel the need to smoke in the presence of the cues that have become associated with the use of nicotine.

Issues & Debates

Free will vs. determinism.

Strong determinism of the behavioral approach as all behavior is learned from our environment through classical and operant conditioning. We are the total sum of our previous conditioning.

Softer determinism of the social learning approach theory recognizes an element of choice as to whether we imitate a behavior or not.

Nature vs. Nurture

Behaviorism is very much on the nurture side of the debate as it argues that our behavior is learned from the environment.

The social learning theory is also on the nurture side because it argues that we learn behavior from role models in our environment.

The behaviorist approach proposes that apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity for learning, all complex behavior is learned from the environment.

Holism vs. Reductionism

The behaviorist approach and social learning are reductionist ; they isolate parts of complex behaviors to study.

Behaviorists believe that all behavior, no matter how complex, can be broken down into the fundamental processes of conditioning.

Idiographic vs. Nomothetic

It is a nomothetic approach as it views all behavior governed by the same laws of conditioning.

However, it does account for individual differences and explains them in terms of differences in the history of conditioning.

Critical Evaluation

Behaviorism has experimental support: Pavlov showed that classical conditioning leads to learning by association. Watson and Rayner showed that phobias could be learned through classical conditioning in the “Little Albert” experiment.

An obvious advantage of behaviorism is its ability to define behavior clearly and measure behavior changes. According to the law of parsimony, the fewer assumptions a theory makes, the better and the more credible it is. Therefore, behaviorism looks for simple explanations of human behavior from a scientific standpoint.

Many of the experiments carried out were done on animals; we are different cognitively and physiologically. Humans have different social norms and moral values that mediate the effects of the environment.

Therefore people might behave differently from animals, so the laws and principles derived from these experiments, might apply more to animals than to humans.

Humanism rejects the nomothetic approach of behaviorism as they view humans as being unique and believe humans cannot be compared with animals (who aren’t susceptible to demand characteristics). This is known as an idiographic approach.

In addition, humanism (e.g., Carl Rogers) rejects the scientific method of using experiments to measure and control variables because it creates an artificial environment and has low ecological validity.

Humanistic psychology also assumes that humans have free will (personal agency) to make their own decisions in life and do not follow the deterministic laws of science . 

The behaviorist approach emphasis on single influences on behavior is a simplification of circumstances where behavior is influenced by many factors. When this is acknowledged, it becomes almost impossible to judge the action of any single one.

This over-simplified view of the world has led to the development of ‘pop behaviorism, the view that rewards and punishments can change almost anything. 

Therefore, behaviorism only provides a partial account of human behavior, that which can be objectively viewed. Essential factors like emotions, expectations, and higher-level motivation are not considered or explained. Accepting a behaviorist explanation could prevent further research from other perspectives that could uncover important factors.

For example, the psychodynamic approach (Freud) criticizes behaviorism as it does not consider the unconscious mind’s influence on behavior and instead focuses on externally observable behavior. Freud also rejects the idea that people are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) and states that people are born with instincts (e.g., eros and Thanatos).

Biological psychology states that all behavior has a physical/organic cause. They emphasize the role of nature over nurture. For example, chromosomes and hormones (testosterone) influence our behavior, too, in addition to the environment.

Behaviorism might be seen as underestimating the importance of inborn tendencies. It is clear from research on biological preparedness that the ease with which something is learned is partly due to its links with an organism’s potential survival.

Cognitive psychology states that mediational processes occur between stimulus and response, such as memory , thinking, problem-solving, etc.

Despite these criticisms, behaviorism has made significant contributions to psychology. These include insights into learning, language development, and moral and gender development, which have all been explained in terms of conditioning.

The contribution of behaviorism can be seen in some of its practical applications. Behavior therapy and behavior modification represent one of the major approaches to the treatment of abnormal behavior and are readily used in clinical psychology.

The behaviorist approach has been used in the treatment of phobias, and systematic desensitization .

Many textbooks depict behaviorism as dominating and defining psychology in the mid-20th century, before declining from the late 1950s with the “cognitive revolution.”

However, the empirical basis for claims about behaviorism’s prominence and decline has been limited. Wide-scope claims about behaviorism are often based on small, unrepresentative samples of historical data. This raises the question – to what extent was behaviorism actually dominant in American psychology?

To address this question, Braat et al. (2020) conducted a quantitative bibliometric analysis of 119,278 articles published in American psychology journals from 1920-1970.

They generated cocitation networks, mapping similarities between frequently cited authors, and co-occurrence networks of frequently used title terms, for each decade. This allowed them to examine the structure and development of psychology fields without relying on predefined behavioral/non-behavioral categories.

Key findings:

• In no decade did behaviorist authors belong to the most prominent citation clusters. Even a combined “behaviorist” cluster accounted for max. 28% of highly cited authors.
• The main focus was measuring personality/mental abilities – those clusters were consistently larger than behaviorist ones.
• Between 1920 and 1930, Watson was a prominent author, but behaviorism was a small (19%) slice of psychology. Larger clusters were mental testing and Gestalt psychology.
• From the 1930s, behaviorism split into two clusters, possibly reflecting “classical” vs. “neobehaviorist” approaches. However, the combined behaviorist cluster was still smaller than mental testing and Gestalt clusters.
• The influence of behaviorism did not dramatically decline after 1950. The behaviorist cluster was stable at 28% during the 1940s-60s, and its citation count quadrupled.
• Contrary to narratives, Skinner was not highly cited in the 1950s-60s – he did not dominate behaviorism after WWII.
• Analyses challenge assumptions that behaviorism was the single dominant force in mid-20th-century psychology. The story was more diverse.

However, behaviorist vocabulary became more prominent over time in title term analyses. This suggests behaviorists were influential in shaping psychological research agendas, if not fully dominating the field.

Overall, quantitative analyses provide a richer perspective on the development of behaviorism and 20th-century psychology. Claims that behaviorism “rose and fell” as psychology’s single dominant school appear too simplistic.

Psychology was more multifaceted, with behaviorism as one of several influential but not controlling approaches. The narrative requires reappraisal.

Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development . New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

Braat, M., Engelen, J., van Gemert, T., & Verhaegh, S. (2020). The rise and fall of behaviorism: The narrative and the numbers. History of Psychology, 23 (3), 252-280.

Carter, B. L., & Tiffany, S. T. (1999). Meta‐analysis of cue‐reactivity in addiction research.  Addiction ,  94 (3), 327-340.

Chomsky, N. (1959). A review of BF Skinner’s Verbal Behavior . Language, 35(1) , 26-58.

Holland, J. G. (1978). BEHAVIORISM: PART OF THE PROBLEM OR PART OF THE SOLUTION?  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis ,  11 (1), 163-174.

Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory . New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Pavlov, I. P. (1897). The work of the digestive glands . London: Griffin.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis . New York: Appleton-Century.

Skinner, B. F. (1948). Walden two. New York: Macmillan.

Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity . New York: Knopf.

Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The elements of psychology . New York: A. G. Seiler.

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it . Psychological Review, 20 , 158-178.

Watson, J. B. (1930). Behaviorism (revised edition). University of Chicago Press.

Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions . Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3 , 1, pp. 1–14.

What is the theory of behaviorism?

What is behaviorism with an example.

An example of behaviorism is using systematic desensitization in the treatment of phobias. The individual with the phobia is taught relaxation techniques and then makes a hierarchy of fear from the least frightening to the most frightening features of the phobic object.

How behaviorism is used in the classroom?

In the conventional learning situation, behaviorist pedagogy applies largely to issues of class and student management, rather than to learning content.

It is very relevant to shaping skill performance. For example, unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussions, can be extinguished by being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to them).

Who founded behaviorism?

John B. Watson founded behaviorism. Watson proposed that psychology should abandon its focus on mental processes, which he believed were impossible to observe and measure objectively, and focus solely on observable behaviors.

His ideas, published in a famous article “ Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It ” in 1913, marked the formal start of behaviorism as a major school of psychological thought.

Is behavior analysis the same as behaviorism?

No, behavior analysis and behaviorism are not the same. Behaviorism is a broader philosophical approach to psychology emphasizing observable behaviors over internal events like thoughts and emotions.

Behavior analysis , specifically applied behavior analysis (ABA), is a scientific discipline and set of methods derived from behaviorist principles, used to understand and change specific behaviors, often employed in therapeutic contexts, such as with autism treatment.

The Basics of Behaviourism – Understanding the Key Principles

Behaviourism is a psychological theory that emphasizes the importance of observable behaviour, as opposed to inner thoughts or feelings, as the key to understanding how people learn, develop habits, and respond to stimuli in their environment.

Table of Contents

Behaviourists believe that the only way to understand behaviour is to observe it directly, and that mental states (such as thoughts and feelings) cannot be studied scientifically.

The basic principles of behaviorism have been applied in various fields, including education, therapy, and even animal training.

In this article, we will explore the basics of behaviourism and its key principles in more depth.

The Origins of Behaviourism

The Russian psychologist Pavlov is often credited with being the founder of behaviourism. He conducted experiments in which he conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell, by ringing the bell every time they were given food. After a period of time, the dogs began to associate the sound of the bell with food and would salivate even when there was no food present.

This phenomenon became known as classical conditioning. The dogs in Pavlov’s experiment were said to be classically conditioned to respond to the bell.

The Evolution of Behaviourism – from classical to operant conditioning

Behaviourism was spearheaded in the US by John B. Watson (1878-1958), who popularised the term ‘behaviourism’ and argued that the study of behaviour should be the sole focus of psychology. He conducted an infamous experiment in which he conditioned a young boy, known as ‘Little Albert’, to be afraid of a white rat by making a loud noise every time the child came into contact with the rat.

Watson’s work led to the development of operant conditioning, a type of learning in which behaviour is controlled by the consequences that follow it. If a behaviour is followed by a positive consequence (such as a reward), it is more likely to be repeated; if it is followed by a negative consequence (such as punishment), it is less likely to be repeated.

Watson’s views were strongly opposed by Gestalt psychologists, who argued that behaviour cannot be understood without taking into account mental processes such as perception and cognition.

B. F. Skinner, another influential behaviourist, developed the theory of radical behaviourism, which argues that all behaviour is determined by environmental factors and that free will does not exist. He conducted experiments using a device called a ‘Skinner box’, which he designed to study operant conditioning in rats. The Skinner box contained a lever that the rat could press to receive a food reward. Skinner found that the rats would quickly learn to press the lever in order to get food, and that they would continue to do so even when the food was no longer given as a reward.

Skinner’s work led to the development of Applied Behaviour Analysis, a type of therapy that uses operant conditioning to change problem behaviours.

The debate between behaviourists and Gestalt psychologists led to a split in psychology, with behaviourism becoming its own separate field of study. In the mid-20th century, behaviourism was replaced by cognitive perspectives as the dominant approach to psychological research.

Key Principles of Behaviourism

Behaviourism is built on the notion that all behaviours can be explained by conditioning, which occurs through interaction with the environment. It focuses on observable behaviour rather than internal mental processes such as thoughts or feelings.

The following are some key principles of behaviourism:

The role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behaviour – Reinforcement refers to any consequence that increases the likelihood of a specific behaviour occurring again in the future. Punishment, on the other hand, refers to any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a specific behaviour occurring again in the future. Both reinforcement and punishment play an important role in shaping our behaviours.

Classical conditioning vs operant conditioning – Classical conditioning is a type of learning where an association between two stimuli is made (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs). Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behaviors are reinforced or punished based on their consequences (e.g., Skinner’s box).

The concept of extinction – Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior no longer produces reinforcement, resulting in a decrease in frequency or even cessation of that behavior over time.

By understanding these key principles, we can gain insights into how people learn new behaviours and how we can modify our own behaviours through reinforcement and punishment techniques.

In addition, we can apply these principles to various real-world scenarios such as education, therapy, and workplace management to achieve desired outcomes effectively.

Applications of Behaviourism

Behaviorism has been applied in various fields to address a range of issues. Here are some examples:

Behavioural therapy techniques

Behaviourism has been used extensively in the field of psychology to develop effective treatments for mental health conditions such as phobias, anxiety disorders, and addiction. Exposure therapy, for example, is a behavioural technique that involves gradually exposing an individual to their fear or anxiety-inducing stimulus until they no longer experience a negative response.

Behavioural approaches to education and learning

Behaviourism has also been applied in the field of education to develop effective teaching strategies that focus on observable behaviours such as student engagement, academic performance, and classroom management. This approach emphasizes the importance of positive reinforcement and feedback in promoting desired behaviours and discouraging unwanted ones.

Behavioural management strategies in the workplace

Behaviourism has also been used in the workplace to improve employee performance, productivity, and job satisfaction. This approach emphasizes the use of positive reinforcement such as rewards and recognition programs to motivate employees to perform well while discouraging unwanted behaviours through punishment or corrective feedback.

In conclusion, behaviourism has proven to be a valuable tool in addressing many real-world problems across different fields. Its emphasis on observable behaviour makes it a practical approach that can be easily applied in various situations from therapy settings to classrooms and workplaces.

Critiques and Limitations of Behaviourism

While behaviourism has been useful in addressing many real-world problems, it is not without its limitations and criticisms. Here are some critiques of behaviourism:

Overly simplistic or reductionistic – Some critics argue that behaviorism’s focus on observable behavior oversimplifies human experience and ignores important internal mental processes such as thoughts, emotions, and motivation.

Ignores individual differences – Behaviourism assumes that all humans respond to the same environmental stimuli in the same way, ignoring unique individual differences in personality, culture, and context.

Ethical concerns – The use of punishment as a means of shaping behaviour has been criticized for being unethical and potentially harmful to individuals.

However, it’s important to note that other theoretical frameworks complement or challenge behaviorist principles. For example:

Cognitive psychology – This framework emphasizes the importance of internal mental processes such as perception, memory, attention, problem-solving, and decision-making in shaping behavior.

Social learning theory – This theory incorporates both behavioural and cognitive principles to explain how individuals learn from observing others’ behaviours and outcomes.

Humanistic psychology – This framework emphasizes the importance of personal growth, self-awareness, autonomy, creativity, and subjective experience in understanding human behavior.

In conclusion, while there are valid critiques of behaviourism as an approach to understanding human behaviour, it remains a valuable tool when used appropriately alongside other theoretical frameworks to provide a more comprehensive understanding of complex human experiences.

In conclusion, behaviourism has been a valuable tool in addressing real-world problems across various fields. Its emphasis on observable behavior has helped develop effective treatments for mental health conditions, improve teaching strategies, and enhance workplace performance.

However, behaviourism is not without its limitations and criticisms. Some argue that it oversimplifies human experience and ignores important internal mental processes. Nonetheless, other theoretical frameworks complement or challenge behaviourist principles to provide a more comprehensive understanding of complex human experiences.

Thus, while there are valid critiques of behaviourism as an approach to understanding human behaviour, it remains a valuable tool when used appropriately alongside other theoretical frameworks.

Related terms

Cognitive Psychology – a psychological perspective that emphasises the study of mental processes such as memory, perception, and decision-making.

Gestalt Psychology – a psychological perspective that emphasises the importance of perception and cognition in understanding behaviour.

Operant Conditioning – a type of learning in which behaviour is controlled by the consequences that follow it.

Pavlovian (or Classical) Conditioning – a type of learning in which an animal or person learns to associate a particular stimulus with a particular response.

Radical Behaviourism – a type of behaviourism that argues that all behaviour is determined by environmental factors and that free will does not exist.

Skinner Box – a device used by B. F. Skinner to study operant conditioning in rats. It contains a lever that the rat can press to receive a food reward.

Stimulus – any environmental factor that affects an organism’s behaviour.

Anthropology Glossary Terms starting with B

Behaviourism

Benedict, Ruth

Big Man / Big Woman

Bilateral Kinship

Biological Anthropology

Black Economy

Black Power

Boas, Franz

Bourgeoisie

Bride Capture

Brideprice, Bridewealth and Brideservice

Business Anthropology

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Module 2: Developmental Theories

Behavioral and cognitive theories, what you’ll learn to do: explain key principles of behaviorism and cognitive psychology.

Is all behavior learned from the environment? Should psychology, as science, focus on observable behavior—the result of stimulus-response, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion? Is there little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals? These are types of questions considered by behaviorists, which we’ll learn more about in this section. We’ll also consider cognitive theories, which examine the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem-solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.

Learning outcomes

• Describe the principles of classical conditioning
• Describe the principles of operant conditioning
• Describe social learning theory
• Describe Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
• Describe information processing approaches to cognitive development

Exploring Behavior

The behavioral perspective: a focus on observable behavior.

The behavioral perspective is the psychological approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and external stimuli in the environment. Behaviorism is a theory of learning, and learning theories focus on how we respond to events or stimuli rather than emphasizing internal factors that motivate our actions. These theories provide an explanation of how experience can change what we do.

Behaviorism emerged early in the 20th century and became a major force in American psychology. Championed by psychologists such as John B. Watson (1878–1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) influenced early behaviorism in America. His work on conditioned learning, popularly referred to as classical conditioning, provided support for the notion that learning and behavior were controlled by events in the environment and could be explained with no reference to mind or consciousness (Fancher, 1987).

Classical Conditioning and Emotional Responses

Classical conditioning  theory helps us to understand how our responses to one situation become attached to new situations. For example, a smell might remind us of a time when we were a kid. If you went to a new cafe with the same smell as your elementary cafeteria, it might evoke the feelings you had when you were in school. Or a song on the radio might remind you of a memorable evening you spent with your first true love. Or, if you hear your entire name (Isaiah Wilmington Brewer, for instance) called as you walk across the stage to get your diploma and it makes you tense because it reminds you of how your father used to use your full name when he was mad at you, then you’ve been classically conditioned.

Figure 1 . Ivan Pavlov

Classical conditioning explains how we develop many of our emotional responses to people or events or our “gut level” reactions to situations. New situations may bring about an old response because the two have become connected. Attachments form in this way. Addictions are affected by classical conditioning, as anyone who’s tried to quit smoking can tell you. When you try to quit, everything that was associated with smoking makes you crave a cigarette.

Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. “This,” he thought, “is not natural!” One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when the food hit their palate, but before the food comes? Of course, what happened is that the dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The keyword here is “learned.”

A learned response is called a “conditioned” response. Pavlov began to experiment with this “psychic” reflex. He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus. The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov’s jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).

Figure 2 . Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not produce a response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus.

View the following video to learn more about Pavlov and his dogs:

Watson and Behaviorism

Let’s think about how classical conditioning is used on people, and not just with dogs. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson. Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was able to explain all aspects of human psychology. He established the psychological school of behaviorism, after doing research on animal behavior. This school was extremely influential in the middle of the 20th century when B.F. Skinner developed it further.

Watson believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public. He believed that parents could be taught to help shape their children’s behavior and tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18-month-old boy named “Little Albert.” Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced.

Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order. Parenting advice was not the legacy Watson left us, however; where he really made his impact was in advertising. After Watson left academia, he went into the world of business and showed companies how to tie something that brings about a natural positive feeling to their products to enhance sales. Thus the union of sex and advertising!

Link to Learning: Little Albert

View scenes from John Watson’s experiment in which Little Albert was conditioned to respond in fear to furry objects. As you watch the video, look closely at Little Albert’s reactions and the manner in which Watson and Rayner present the stimuli before and after conditioning. In the experiment with Little Albert, check to see if you can identify the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and responses: identify the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, and, after conditioning, the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning

Now we turn to the second type of associative learning, operant conditioning. In operant conditioning , organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence (Table 1). A pleasant consequence makes that behavior more likely to be repeated in the future. For example, Spirit, a dolphin at the National Aquarium in Baltimore, does a flip in the air when her trainer blows a whistle. The consequence is that she gets a fish.

Psychologist B. F. Skinner saw that classical conditioning is limited to existing behaviors that are reflexively elicited, and it doesn’t account for new behaviors such as riding a bike. He proposed a theory about how such behaviors come about. Skinner believed that behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: the reinforcements and punishments. His idea that learning is the result of consequences is based on the law of effect , which was first proposed by psychologist Edward Thorndike. According to the law of effect, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated (Thorndike, 1911). Essentially, if an organism does something that brings about a desired result, the organism is more likely to do it again. If an organism does something that does not bring about a desired result, the organism is less likely to do it again. An example of the law of effect is in employment. One of the reasons (and often the main reason) we show up for work is because we get paid to do so. If we stop getting paid, we will likely stop showing up—even if we love our job.

Working with Thorndike’s law of effect as his foundation, Skinner began conducting scientific experiments on animals (mainly rats and pigeons) to determine how organisms learn through operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938). He placed these animals inside an operant conditioning chamber, which has come to be known as a “Skinner box” (Figure 1). A Skinner box contains a lever (for rats) or disk (for pigeons) that the animal can press or peck for a food reward via the dispenser. Speakers and lights can be associated with certain behaviors. A recorder counts the number of responses made by the animal.

Figure 3 . (a) B. F. Skinner developed operant conditioning for the systematic study of how behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their consequences. (b) In a Skinner box, a rat presses a lever in an operant conditioning chamber to receive a food reward. (credit a: modification of work by “Silly rabbit”/Wikimedia Commons)

Skinner believed that we learn best when our actions are reinforced. For example, a child who cleans his room and is reinforced (rewarded) with a big hug and words of praise is more likely to clean it again than a child whose deed goes unnoticed. Skinner believed that almost anything could be reinforcing. A reinforcer is anything following a behavior that makes it more likely to occur again. It can be something intrinsically rewarding (called intrinsic or primary reinforcers), such as food or praise, or it can be something that is rewarding because it can be exchanged for what one really wants (such as receiving money and using it buy a cookie). Such reinforcers are referred to as secondary reinforcers.

Link to Learning

Watch the following clip to learn more about operant conditioning and to watch an interview with Skinner as he talks about conditioning pigeons.

Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning

Social cognitive (learning) theory: observational learning.

Figure 4. Children observing a social model (an experienced chess player) to learn the rules and strategies of the game of chess. [Image: David R. Tribble, https://goo.gl/nWsgxI, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://goo.gl/uhHola]

Social Cognitive Theory  (SCT), originally known as the Social Learning Theory (SLT), began in the 1960s through research done by Albert Bandura. The theory proposes that learning occurs in a social context. It takes into consideration the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and their own behavior. [1]

Not all forms of learning are accounted for entirely by classical and operant conditioning. Imagine a child walking up to a group of children playing a game on the playground. The game looks fun, but it is new and unfamiliar. Rather than joining the game immediately, the child opts to sit back and watch the other children play a round or two. Observing the others, the child takes note of the ways in which they behave while playing the game. By watching the behavior of the other kids, the child can figure out the rules of the game and even some strategies for doing well at the game. This is called observational learning.

Observational learning is a component of Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977), which posits that individuals can learn novel responses via observation of key others’ behaviors. Observational learning does not necessarily require reinforcement, but instead hinges on the presence of others, referred to as social models. Social models are normally of higher status or authority compared to the observer, examples of which include parents, teachers, and police officers. In the example above, the children who already know how to play the game could be thought of as being authorities—and are therefore social models—even though they are the same age as the observer. By observing how the social models behave, an individual is able to learn how to act in a certain situation. Other examples of observational learning might include a child learning to place her napkin in her lap by watching her parents at the dinner table, or a customer learning where to find the ketchup and mustard after observing other customers at a hot dog stand.

Bandura theorizes that the observational learning process consists of four parts. The first is  attention —one must pay attention to what they are observing in order to learn. The second part is  retention : to learn one must be able to retain the behavior they are observing in memory. The third part of observational learning,  initiation , acknowledges that the learner must be able to execute (or initiate) the learned behavior. Lastly, the observer must possess the  motivation  to engage in observational learning. In our vignette, the child must want to learn how to play the game in order to properly engage in observational learning.

In this experiment, Bandura (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961) had children individually observe an adult social model interact with a clown doll (Bobo). For one group of children, the adult interacted aggressively with Bobo: punching it, kicking it, throwing it, and even hitting it in the face with a toy mallet. Another group of children watched the adult interact with other toys, displaying no aggression toward Bobo. In both instances, the adult left and the children were allowed to interact with Bobo on their own. Bandura found that children exposed to the aggressive social model were significantly more likely to behave aggressively toward Bobo, hitting and kicking him, compared to those exposed to the non-aggressive model. The researchers concluded that the children in the aggressive group used their observations of the adult social model’s behavior to determine that aggressive behavior toward Bobo was acceptable.

While reinforcement was not required to elicit the children’s behavior in Bandura’s first experiment, it is important to acknowledge that consequences do play a role within observational learning. A future adaptation of this study (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963) demonstrated that children in the aggression group showed less aggressive behavior if they witnessed the adult model receive punishment for aggressing against Bobo. Bandura referred to this process as vicarious reinforcement because the children did not experience the reinforcement or punishment directly yet were still influenced by observing it.

Do parents socialize children or do children socialize parents?

Bandura’s (1986) findings suggest that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. There is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us. This concept is called reciprocal determinism . An example of this might be the interplay between parents and children. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently to their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along, they have very different expectations of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment. Today there are numerous other social influences, from TV, games, the Internet, i-pads, phones, social media, influencers, advertisements, etc.

Watch this clip to better understand Bandura’s research on social learning.

Exploring Cognition

The cognitive perspective: the roots of understanding.

Cognitive theories focus on how our mental processes or cognitions change over time. The t heory of cognitive development  is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence first developed by Jean Piaget. It is primarily known as a developmental stage theory, but in fact, it deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans come gradually to acquire it, construct it, and use it. Moreover, Piaget claims that cognitive development is at the center of the human organism and language is contingent on cognitive development. Let’s learn more about Piaget’s views about the nature of intelligence and then dive deeper into the stages that he identified as critical in the developmental process.

Piaget: Changes in thought with maturation

Figure 5.  Jean Piaget.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists in development, inspired to explore children’s ability to think and reason by watching his own children’s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children’s intelligence differs from that of adults. He became interested in this area when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time that that maturation rather than training brings about that change. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.

Making sense of the world

Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium or a balance or cohesiveness in what we see and what we know. Children have much more of a challenge in maintaining this balance because they are constantly being confronted with new situations, new words, new objects, etc. When faced with something new, a child may either fit it into an existing framework ( schema ) and match it with something known ( assimilation ) such as calling all animals with four legs “doggies” because he or she knows the word doggie, or expand the framework of knowledge to accommodate the new situation ( accommodation ) by learning a new word to more accurately name the animal. This is the underlying dynamic in our own cognition. Even as adults we continue to try and make sense of new situations by determining whether they fit into our old way of thinking or whether we need to modify our thoughts.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolded in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object permanence , which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants’ reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused.

In Piaget’s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can’t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.

Piaget’s second stage is the preoperational stage , which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child’s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term operational refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be pre -operational). Children’s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny’s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of conservation , which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.

During this stage, we also expect children to display egocentrism , which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let’s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko’s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. At some point during this stage and typically between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM).

Piaget’s third stage is the concrete operational stage , which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?

Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of reversibility , which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops).

The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget’s theory is the  formal operational stage , which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions.  In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget’s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget’s discrete stages (Courage & Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia & Spelke, 2010). Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages, and Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances.

According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent (or adult) in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues or integrate systems of thought.

It seems that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other.

Robert Kegan explains the constructive developmental theory, which is based on, and an extension of, Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. According to Kegan, development continues into adulthood as we are able to more deeply understand ourselves and the world.

Information-Processing Approaches to Development

Information-processing approaches have become an important alternative to Piagetian approaches. The theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. As a model, it assumes that even complex behavior such as learning, remembering, categorizing, and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual, specific steps, and as a person develops strategies for processing information, they can learn more complex information.  This perspective equates the mind to a computer, which is responsible for analyzing information from the environment.

The most common information-processing model is applied to an understanding of memory and the way that information is encoded, stored, and then retrieved from the brain (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968), but information processing approaches also apply to cognitive processing in general. In one study, Stephanie Thornton assessed how children solved the problem of building a small bridge out of playing blocks to cross a small “river.” A single block was not wide enough to reach across the river, so the bridge could only be built by having two of the blocks meet in the middle, then by using extra blocks on the top of the sides of the bridge to serve as counterweights to hold the bridge upright. This task was relatively easy for older children (7 and 9 years old), but significantly harder for 5-year-olds (in the study, only one 5-year-old eventually completed the task by using trial and error). [2] This supports the idea that cognitive development is specific to the individual.

Psychologists who use information processing approaches examine how children tackle tasks such as the ones described above, whether it be through trial and error, building upon previous life experiences, or generalizing insights from external sources. [3]

Neo-Piagetian Theories

Cognitive neuroscience approaches.

The scientific interface between cognitive neuroscience and human development has evoked considerable interest in recent years, as technological advances make it possible to map in detail the changes in brain structure that take place during development. These approaches look at cognitive development at the level of brain processes. Cognitive neuroscience  is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes.

Like other cognitive perspectives, cognitive neuroscience approaches consider internal, mental processes, but they focus specifically on the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem-solving, and other cognitive behavior. Cognitive neuroscientists seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activities. For example, using sophisticated brain scanning techniques, cognitive neuroscientists have demonstrated that thinking about the meaning of a word activates different areas of the brain than thinking about how the word sounds when spoken.

Also, cognitive abilities based on brain development are studied and examined under the subfield of developmental cognitive neuroscience. It examines how the mind changes as children grow up, interrelations between that and how the brain is changing, and environmental and biological influences on the developing mind and brain. This shows brain development over time, analyzing differences and concocting possible reasons for those differences. [6]

• Behavioral Change Models. The Social Cognitive Theory. Retrieved from http://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/SB/BehavioralChangeTheories/BehavioralChangeTheories5.html . ↵
• Thorton, S. (1999). Creating conditions for cognitive change: The interaction between task structures and specific strategies. Child Development , 70, 588-603. ↵
• Chen, Zhe and Robert Siegler (2013). Young children’s analogical problem solving: Gaining insights from video displays. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology . Retrieved from http://siegler.tc.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Chen-Sieg13.pdf . ↵
• Yan, Z., & Fischer, K. W. (2002). Always under construction: Dynamic variations in adult cognitive development. Human Development, 45, 141–160. LeFevre, J.-A. (2016). Numerical cognition: Adding it up. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 70(1), 3-11. Loewen, Susan. (2006). Exceptional intellectual performance: A neo-Piagetian perspective. High Ability Studies - HIGH ABIL STUD. 17. ↵
• Feldman, Robert (2018) Discovering the Life Span, 4th Edition. Pearson ↵
• Introduction to Behavioral and Cognitive Theories. Authored by : Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Modification, adaptation, and original content. Authored by : Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Girl Boy Sitting. Authored by : shuraki. Located at : https://pixabay.com/images/id-105523/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
• Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. Authored by : Laura Overstreet. Located at : http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• History of Psychology section on the history of behaviorism. Authored by : David B. Baker and Heather Sperry. Provided by : Noba Psychology. Located at : https://nobaproject.com/textbooks/introduction-to-psychology-the-full-noba-collection/modules/history-of-psychology#vocabulary-behaviorism . Project : The Noba Collection. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Paragraph on John B. Watson. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• The History of Psychologyu2014Behaviorism and Humanism. Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/reading-behaviorism/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Operant Conditioning. Authored by : Lumen Learning. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/reading-operant-conditioning/ . Project : Introduction to Psychology. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Sections on Social Learning Theory: Observational Learning. Authored by : Mark E. Bouton. Provided by : University of Vermont. Located at : https://nobaproject.com/modules/conditioning-and-learning . Project : The Noba Project. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Conditioning. Provided by : OpenStax . Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:lAYBvVZM@5/History-of-Psychology . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]
• Cognitive Development sections on Piaget. Authored by : Lumen Learning. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/lifespan-theories-cognitive-development/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Information Processing Theory. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing_theory . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Developmental cognitive neuroscience. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_cognitive_neuroscience . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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• Cognitive Neuroscience. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov. Authored by : BullyingNewsVideos. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube license
• Baby Albert Experiments. Authored by : Jaap van der Steen. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=11&v=FMnhyGozLyE . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube license
• Operant conditioning. Authored by : jenningh. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• The Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment. Authored by : PsychHub. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eqxjc4IUDyY . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• Piaget's stages of cognitive development | Processing the Environment | MCAT . Provided by : Khan Academy. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jt3-PIC2nCs . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• The Further Reaches of Adult Development - Robert Kegan. Authored by : The RSA. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BoasM4cCHBc . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
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What Is Problem-Solving Therapy?

Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of The Anxiety Workbook and founder of the website About Social Anxiety. She has a Master's degree in clinical psychology.

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

Verywell / Madelyn Goodnight

Problem-Solving Therapy Techniques

How effective is problem-solving therapy, things to consider, how to get started.

Problem-solving therapy is a brief intervention that provides people with the tools they need to identify and solve problems that arise from big and small life stressors. It aims to improve your overall quality of life and reduce the negative impact of psychological and physical illness.

Problem-solving therapy can be used to treat depression , among other conditions. It can be administered by a doctor or mental health professional and may be combined with other treatment approaches.

At a Glance

Problem-solving therapy is a short-term treatment used to help people who are experiencing depression, stress, PTSD, self-harm, suicidal ideation, and other mental health problems develop the tools they need to deal with challenges. This approach teaches people to identify problems, generate solutions, and implement those solutions. Let's take a closer look at how problem-solving therapy can help people be more resilient and adaptive in the face of stress.

Problem-solving therapy is based on a model that takes into account the importance of real-life problem-solving. In other words, the key to managing the impact of stressful life events is to know how to address issues as they arise. Problem-solving therapy is very practical in its approach and is only concerned with the present, rather than delving into your past.

This form of therapy can take place one-on-one or in a group format and may be offered in person or online via telehealth . Sessions can be anywhere from 30 minutes to two hours long. 

Key Components

There are two major components that make up the problem-solving therapy framework:

• Applying a positive problem-solving orientation to your life
• Using problem-solving skills

A positive problem-solving orientation means viewing things in an optimistic light, embracing self-efficacy , and accepting the idea that problems are a normal part of life. Problem-solving skills are behaviors that you can rely on to help you navigate conflict, even during times of stress. This includes skills like:

• Knowing how to identify a problem
• Defining the problem in a helpful way
• Trying to understand the problem more deeply
• Setting goals related to the problem
• Generating alternative, creative solutions to the problem
• Choosing the best course of action
• Implementing the choice you have made
• Evaluating the outcome to determine next steps

Problem-solving therapy is all about training you to become adaptive in your life so that you will start to see problems as challenges to be solved instead of insurmountable obstacles. It also means that you will recognize the action that is required to engage in effective problem-solving techniques.

Planful Problem-Solving

One problem-solving technique, called planful problem-solving, involves following a series of steps to fix issues in a healthy, constructive way:

• Problem definition and formulation : This step involves identifying the real-life problem that needs to be solved and formulating it in a way that allows you to generate potential solutions.
• Generation of alternative solutions : This stage involves coming up with various potential solutions to the problem at hand. The goal in this step is to brainstorm options to creatively address the life stressor in ways that you may not have previously considered.
• Decision-making strategies : This stage involves discussing different strategies for making decisions as well as identifying obstacles that may get in the way of solving the problem at hand.
• Solution implementation and verification : This stage involves implementing a chosen solution and then verifying whether it was effective in addressing the problem.

Other Techniques

Other techniques your therapist may go over include:

• Problem-solving multitasking , which helps you learn to think clearly and solve problems effectively even during times of stress
• Stop, slow down, think, and act (SSTA) , which is meant to encourage you to become more emotionally mindful when faced with conflict
• Healthy thinking and imagery , which teaches you how to embrace more positive self-talk while problem-solving

What Problem-Solving Therapy Can Help With

Problem-solving therapy addresses life stress issues and focuses on helping you find solutions to concrete issues. This approach can be applied to problems associated with various psychological and physiological symptoms.

Mental Health Issues

Problem-solving therapy may help address mental health issues, like:

• Chronic stress due to accumulating minor issues
• Complications associated with traumatic brain injury (TBI)
• Emotional distress
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Problems associated with a chronic disease like cancer, heart disease, or diabetes
• Self-harm and feelings of hopelessness
• Substance use
• Suicidal ideation

Specific Life Challenges

This form of therapy is also helpful for dealing with specific life problems, such as:

• Death of a loved one
• Dissatisfaction at work
• Everyday life stressors
• Family problems
• Financial difficulties
• Relationship conflicts

Your doctor or mental healthcare professional will be able to advise whether problem-solving therapy could be helpful for your particular issue. In general, if you are struggling with specific, concrete problems that you are having trouble finding solutions for, problem-solving therapy could be helpful for you.

Benefits of Problem-Solving Therapy

The skills learned in problem-solving therapy can be helpful for managing all areas of your life. These can include:

• Being able to identify which stressors trigger your negative emotions (e.g., sadness, anger)
• Confidence that you can handle problems that you face
• Having a systematic approach on how to deal with life's problems
• Having a toolbox of strategies to solve the issues you face
• Increased confidence to find creative solutions
• Knowing how to identify which barriers will impede your progress
• Knowing how to manage emotions when they arise
• Reduced avoidance and increased action-taking
• The ability to accept life problems that can't be solved
• The ability to make effective decisions
• The development of patience (realizing that not all problems have a "quick fix")

Problem-solving therapy can help people feel more empowered to deal with the problems they face in their lives. Rather than feeling overwhelmed when stressors begin to take a toll, this therapy introduces new coping skills that can boost self-efficacy and resilience .

Other Types of Therapy

Other similar types of therapy include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) . While these therapies work to change thinking and behaviors, they work a bit differently. Both CBT and SFBT are less structured than problem-solving therapy and may focus on broader issues. CBT focuses on identifying and changing maladaptive thoughts, and SFBT works to help people look for solutions and build self-efficacy based on strengths.

This form of therapy was initially developed to help people combat stress through effective problem-solving, and it was later adapted to address clinical depression specifically. Today, much of the research on problem-solving therapy deals with its effectiveness in treating depression.

Problem-solving therapy has been shown to help depression in: 

• Older adults
• People coping with serious illnesses like cancer

Problem-solving therapy also appears to be effective as a brief treatment for depression, offering benefits in as little as six to eight sessions with a therapist or another healthcare professional. This may make it a good option for someone unable to commit to a lengthier treatment for depression.

Problem-solving therapy is not a good fit for everyone. It may not be effective at addressing issues that don't have clear solutions, like seeking meaning or purpose in life. Problem-solving therapy is also intended to treat specific problems, not general habits or thought patterns .

In general, it's also important to remember that problem-solving therapy is not a primary treatment for mental disorders. If you are living with the symptoms of a serious mental illness such as bipolar disorder or schizophrenia , you may need additional treatment with evidence-based approaches for your particular concern.

Problem-solving therapy is best aimed at someone who has a mental or physical issue that is being treated separately, but who also has life issues that go along with that problem that has yet to be addressed.

For example, it could help if you can't clean your house or pay your bills because of your depression, or if a cancer diagnosis is interfering with your quality of life.

Your doctor may be able to recommend therapists in your area who utilize this approach, or they may offer it themselves as part of their practice. You can also search for a problem-solving therapist with help from the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Society of Clinical Psychology .

If receiving problem-solving therapy from a doctor or mental healthcare professional is not an option for you, you could also consider implementing it as a self-help strategy using a workbook designed to help you learn problem-solving skills on your own.

During your first session, your therapist may spend some time explaining their process and approach. They may ask you to identify the problem you’re currently facing, and they’ll likely discuss your goals for therapy .

Keep In Mind

Problem-solving therapy may be a short-term intervention that's focused on solving a specific issue in your life. If you need further help with something more pervasive, it can also become a longer-term treatment option.

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Shang P, Cao X, You S, Feng X, Li N, Jia Y. Problem-solving therapy for major depressive disorders in older adults: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials .  Aging Clin Exp Res . 2021;33(6):1465-1475. doi:10.1007/s40520-020-01672-3

Cuijpers P, Wit L de, Kleiboer A, Karyotaki E, Ebert DD. Problem-solving therapy for adult depression: An updated meta-analysis . Eur Psychiatry . 2018;48(1):27-37. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.11.006

Nezu AM, Nezu CM, D'Zurilla TJ. Problem-Solving Therapy: A Treatment Manual . New York; 2013. doi:10.1891/9780826109415.0001

Owens D, Wright-Hughes A, Graham L, et al. Problem-solving therapy rather than treatment as usual for adults after self-harm: a pragmatic, feasibility, randomised controlled trial (the MIDSHIPS trial) .  Pilot Feasibility Stud . 2020;6:119. doi:10.1186/s40814-020-00668-0

Sorsdahl K, Stein DJ, Corrigall J, et al. The efficacy of a blended motivational interviewing and problem solving therapy intervention to reduce substance use among patients presenting for emergency services in South Africa: A randomized controlled trial . Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy . 2015;10(1):46. doi:doi.org/10.1186/s13011-015-0042-1

Margolis SA, Osborne P, Gonzalez JS. Problem solving . In: Gellman MD, ed. Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine . Springer International Publishing; 2020:1745-1747. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39903-0_208

Kirkham JG, Choi N, Seitz DP. Meta-analysis of problem solving therapy for the treatment of major depressive disorder in older adults . Int J Geriatr Psychiatry . 2016;31(5):526-535. doi:10.1002/gps.4358

Garand L, Rinaldo DE, Alberth MM, et al. Effects of problem solving therapy on mental health outcomes in family caregivers of persons with a new diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment or early dementia: A randomized controlled trial . Am J Geriatr Psychiatry . 2014;22(8):771-781. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2013.07.007

Noyes K, Zapf AL, Depner RM, et al. Problem-solving skills training in adult cancer survivors: Bright IDEAS-AC pilot study .  Cancer Treat Res Commun . 2022;31:100552. doi:10.1016/j.ctarc.2022.100552

Albert SM, King J, Anderson S, et al. Depression agency-based collaborative: effect of problem-solving therapy on risk of common mental disorders in older adults with home care needs . The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry . 2019;27(6):619-624. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2019.01.002

By Arlin Cuncic, MA Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of The Anxiety Workbook and founder of the website About Social Anxiety. She has a Master's degree in clinical psychology.

behaviourist approach to depression

Behavioural theories of depression, cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt): a comprehensive overview, the behaviourist approach to depression, the principles of the behaviourist approach, cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt), exposure therapy, contingency management, problem solving therapy, disadvantages of the behaviourist approach to depression, in reflection on behaviourist approach to depression.

The behaviorist approach to depression is one of the most popular forms of depression treatment. It focuses on changing behaviors that contribute to depression, rather than trying to change the thoughts and feelings associated with it. This approach looks at the environment and how it can influence emotions and behavior, as well as how individuals can use specific techniques to modify their behaviors in order to reduce symptoms of depression. This approach can be beneficial for those who are struggling with depression, but it is important to note that there are other forms of treatment available as well. The behaviourist approach to depression is an evidence-based psychotherapy that is designed to help people change patterns of thought and behaviour associated with their depression. This approach emphasizes the role of learning in the development and maintenance of psychological problems, including depression. It focuses on identifying and changing maladaptive behaviours, such as avoidance, negative thinking, or self-criticism. By teaching people to identify their own dysfunctional behaviours and how they can modify them, the behaviourist approach helps people break depressive cycles and gain control over their thoughts and behaviours. The ultimate goal is to reduce the symptoms of depression and improve overall wellbeing.

Behaviourism

Behaviourism is a psychological approach that focuses on the observable behaviour of humans and animals. It suggests that all behaviour can be explained by environmental factors, rather than internal processes such as thoughts and emotions. This theory was first developed by American psychologist John B. Watson in the early 1900s, and since then has greatly influenced the field of psychology .

Behaviourism is based on the idea that behaviours are learned through conditioning. This means that an individual’s behaviour can be altered or changed through positive or negative reinforcement. For example, if a child receives praise for completing homework on time, they are more likely to complete it again in future because they have been positively reinforced for doing so. Similarly, if a child is scolded for not completing homework on time, they are less likely to do it again in future because they have been negatively reinforced for not doing so.

Behaviourism also has implications for education and learning. According to behaviourists, teachers should focus on teaching students through reinforcement rather than punishment. This means teachers should reward students who demonstrate good behaviour or correct answers with praise or rewards, rather than punishing them when they make mistakes or display bad behaviour.

Therefore, behaviourism has implications for mental health treatment as well as everyday life. For example, people suffering from anxiety or depression can use behavioural therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) to learn how to change their thought patterns and behaviours in order to better cope with their condition. Similarly, everyday people can use behavioural principles such as goal-setting and positive reinforcement to help them reach their goals and stay motivated to achieve them.

Depression is a serious mental disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. It can have a devastating impact on one’s life, leading to feelings of hopelessness and despair. While there are many theories that attempt to explain the causes of depression, behavioural theories are among the most popular. These theories suggest that people’s behaviour plays an important role in the development and maintenance of depression.

Behavioural theories focus on how certain behaviours can lead to or worsen depression. According to these theories, people who engage in certain behaviours are more likely to become depressed than those who do not engage in these behaviours. For example, people who avoid social situations may be more likely to become depressed than those who are more socially active. Similarly, people who have negative thoughts about themselves or their future may be more prone to depression than those who look on the bright side of life.

Behavioural theories also suggest that certain behaviours can worsen or even maintain depression once it has taken hold. For instance, a person with depression may try to avoid difficult situations or tasks, such as meeting new people or going for job interviews. This kind of avoidance behaviour can make it harder for them to get better as it reinforces their belief that they can’t cope with challenging situations and makes it less likely for them to take risks and learn new skills that could help them overcome their depression.

In addition, behavioural theories suggest that some behaviours can actually prevent depression from taking hold in the first place. For example, engaging in activities such as exercise, spending time with friends and family members, engaging in hobbies and other enjoyable activities, and setting realistic goals can help protect against developing depression by providing positive experiences and helping you build a sense of mastery over your life.

Overall, behavioural theories provide an important perspective on how our behaviour affects our mental health and wellbeing. By understanding what behaviours might lead to or worsen depression we can take steps to protect ourselves from developing this debilitating condition or manage it more effectively if we do become depressed.

CBT is a powerful tool used to help individuals manage any kind of emotional, mental and behavioural issues. It is a short-term, evidence-based therapy that focuses on helping individuals identify and modify unhelpful negative thought patterns and behaviours. It can be used to treat a variety of mental health issues such as anxiety , depression, phobias and eating disorders. CBT has been shown to be effective in reducing symptoms of many different psychological problems.

The main goal of CBT is to help people become aware of their thoughts, feelings and behaviours and how these affect their lives. Through this awareness, they can then begin to identify patterns that are causing them distress or difficulty. By working with a therapist, they can then start to challenge these patterns and adopt more helpful or adaptive ways of thinking and behaving.

One way that CBT works is by helping individuals become aware of negative thought patterns that are causing them distress or difficulty. Through this awareness, they can then start to identify how these thoughts may be impacting their moods or behaviour in an unhelpful way. The therapist will then help the individual to develop strategies for challenging these thought patterns by providing evidence for why the thought might be inaccurate or false.

In addition to helping individuals become aware of their thoughts and beliefs, CBT also helps them build effective problem-solving skills so they can better manage difficult situations in the future. By teaching individuals how to break down problems into smaller steps, set realistic goals and use coping strategies when needed, CBT helps them gain greater control over their lives.

Therefore, CBT also helps individuals develop healthier relationships with themselves and others by teaching them new communication skills such as active listening, assertiveness training and conflict resolution strategies. By learning how to communicate more effectively with others, they can learn how to build stronger relationships which can further reduce stress levels in life.

Overall, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is an evidence-based approach used for treating a variety of mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, phobias and eating disorders. Through its use of cognitive restructuring techniques like identifying negative thoughts and challenging them with evidence-based strategies; problem solving skills; developing healthier relationships; as well as communication skills – it has been shown to be an effective tool for helping people manage difficult emotions and behaviours in order to live happier lives.

The behaviourist approach to depression is one of the most common strategies used by health professionals in treating mental health issues. It involves using behavioural interventions, such as cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT), to modify behaviours and reduce depressive symptoms. The aim of this approach is to help individuals become more aware of their thoughts and behaviours that may be contributing to their depression, and then work on changing them in order to reduce depression symptoms. The objectives of this approach are to increase positive thinking, improve coping skills, and reduce irrational beliefs about oneself and the world.

One of the main approaches used within the behaviourist approach is cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT). This type of therapy focuses on identifying maladaptive thought patterns or beliefs that can contribute to depression, such as negative self-talk or rumination. Then, it works on replacing these negative thoughts with more positive ones. CBT also aims to teach effective coping strategies in order to help individuals manage their emotions more effectively and decrease depressive symptoms.

Another technique used within the behaviourist approach is exposure therapy . This type of treatment helps individuals confront their fears through repeated exposure in a safe environment, which can help them learn how to cope with anxiety-provoking situations or emotions more effectively without becoming overwhelmed. Exposure therapy can also be used to increase an individual’s tolerance for distress and decrease avoidance behaviours that can perpetuate depression symptoms.

Other techniques used within the behaviourist approach include problem solving, relaxation techniques, stress reduction activities, lifestyle changes, and making meaningful connections with others. All these techniques aim at helping individuals gain better control over their thoughts and behaviours in order to reduce depression symptoms over time.

Overall, the behaviourist approach uses various behavioural interventions that are designed to help individuals become aware of negative thought patterns and behaviours that may be contributing to their depression, as well as teach them how to replace these with healthier ones in order to reduce depressive symptoms over time. This type of treatment has been found to be very effective for managing depression symptoms when combined with other types of treatments such as psychotherapy or medication.

Behaviourism is an approach to psychology that focuses on the study of observable behaviour. It is based on the idea that all behaviour is learned through experience and interaction with the environment. In this approach, behaviour is seen as a response to stimuli in the environment and can be studied objectively. The principles of behaviourism can be broken down into three main components: reinforcement, shaping and extinction.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is a process whereby a behaviour is strengthened by providing a reward or some other type of positive reinforcement for performing that behaviour. Reinforcement can be either positive or negative, depending on the desired outcome. Positive reinforcement involves rewarding desirable behaviours, while negative reinforcement involves punishing undesirable ones.

Shaping involves gradually increasing or decreasing certain behaviours over time in order to achieve a desired outcome. This can involve providing rewards for incremental steps towards achieving a goal or punishing behaviours that are not conducive to reaching it. For example, if someone wanted to learn how to play the piano, they could use shaping by rewarding themselves for small successes such as playing one note correctly or playing two notes in succession without any mistakes.

Extinction occurs when a particular behaviour no longer results in any reward or punishment. When this happens, the behaviour becomes less likely to occur in the future because there is no incentive to perform it. For example, if someone was rewarded for studying every day but then stopped receiving rewards for this behaviour, they would eventually stop studying altogether because there was no longer any incentive to do so.

Behaviourism is an effective approach for understanding and predicting human behaviour and has been used successfully in many fields such as education and therapy . By understanding these principles, we can gain insight into how people learn and how best to modify their behaviour in order to achieve desired outcomes.

Behaviourist Approach to Depression

Depression is a serious mental health issue and the behaviourist approach has been used to help people overcome this condition. This approach is based on the idea that our behaviour is shaped by our environment, and that by changing the environment, we can change our behaviour. The behaviourist approach focuses on altering behaviours that are associated with depression, such as avoiding social contact or being inactive. By changing these behaviours, people can reduce the symptoms of depression and improve their overall wellbeing.

The behaviourist approach uses a variety of techniques to help people manage their depression. These include cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), exposure therapy, contingency management, and problem solving therapy.

CBT is a type of psychotherapy that helps people identify and change negative thought patterns that contribute to their depression. Through CBT, people learn how to challenge their negative thoughts and replace them with more positive ones. This can help reduce symptoms of depression and improve mood.

Exposure therapy is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy in which people are gradually exposed to triggers for their depression. These triggers could be stressful experiences or situations they find difficult to cope with. Through exposure therapy, people learn how to cope with these triggers in an effective way, helping them reduce the symptoms of depression in the long-term.

Contingency management is a type of behavioural intervention in which rewards are given for engaging in activities that help improve mood or reduce depressive symptoms. For example, rewards could be given for engaging in physical activities or social activities such as attending support groups or meeting friends for coffee dates. Contingency management helps motivate people to do things they may not otherwise do because it gives them something positive to focus on when they feel down.

Problem solving therapy is another form of cognitive behavioural therapy used for treating depression. It focuses on helping individuals develop strategies for solving problems they face in their everyday lives that might be contributing to their feelings of sadness or hopelessness. Through problem solving therapy, individuals learn how to identify problems and develop solutions that will help them cope better with difficult situations and improve their overall mental health over time.

Advantages of the Behaviourist Approach to Depression

The behaviourist approach to depression is based on the idea that our behaviour is determined by our experiences and that it can be modified and controlled through the use of rewards and punishments. This approach has several advantages when it comes to treating depression. Firstly, it focuses on changing behaviours that are linked to depression rather than attempting to resolve underlying psychological issues. This means that people are able to receive treatment quickly, without waiting for a diagnosis or lengthy therapeutic sessions. In addition, behaviourist techniques are relatively simple and easy to learn, making them ideal for self-help strategies. Therefore, the use of rewards and punishments means that people are able to see results quickly, which can be very motivating.

Despite its advantages, there are several drawbacks associated with the behaviourist approach to depression. Firstly, this approach does not take into account underlying psychological issues which may be causing or contributing to symptoms of depression. As such, it is important for people using this method of treatment to also seek professional help in order to address any underlying issues. Secondly, this approach does not focus on building emotional resilience or developing healthy coping mechanisms for dealing with difficult emotions or situations. Therefore, rewards and punishments may not always be effective in changing long-term behaviours and some forms of reward may even be detrimental in the long term.

Behaviourist approaches to depression have been widely endorsed and used by psychiatrists, psychologists and other mental health professionals. These approaches focus on the individual’s behaviour and its consequences, rather than on the underlying cause of the depression. The primary goal is to reduce or eliminate the symptoms of depression through the use of behavioural principles such as reinforcement and punishment, extinction, shaping, desensitization and cognitive restructuring.

Behavioural interventions have been found to be effective in treating depression in both children and adults. They can help reduce symptoms of depression by teaching individuals healthier coping skills, increasing social support networks, encouraging healthy lifestyle changes and providing support for those who are struggling with managing their depression. Behavioural interventions can also provide a sense of empowerment by helping individuals understand their own thoughts, feelings and behaviours.

In reflection, behavioural approaches have been found to be an effective form of treatment for many people suffering from depression. They help individuals become empowered by understanding their own thoughts, feelings and behaviours; they provide structure for managing symptoms; they give individuals tools for dealing with stressors; and they help build social support networks that will offer additional support when needed. As a result of these benefits, behaviourist approaches are likely to remain a popular form of treatment among mental health professionals in the years to come.

Author Bio:

P. Cutler is a passionate writer and mental health advocate based in England, United Kingdom. With a deep understanding of therapy's impact on personal growth and emotional well-being, P. Cutler has dedicated their writing career to exploring and shedding light on all aspects of therapy.

Through their articles, they aim to promote awareness, provide valuable insights, and support individuals and trainees in their journey towards emotional healing and self-discovery.

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Problems of Teaching the Behaviorist Perspective in the Cognitive Revolution

This article offers some personal reflections on the difficulty of teaching the behaviorist perspective in the psychology classroom. The problems focus on the inadequacy of introductory textbooks—which mischaracterize behaviorism, only present the most extreme behaviorist positions, make no mention of the neobehaviorist perspective, fail to discuss that there is no accepted criteria for determining what type of behavior is cognitive, and provide a definition of cognition that is, not only inconsistent across texts, but so broad as to overshadow the behaviorist contributions. Suggestions are provided for instructors on how to present to their students an accurate portrayal of behaviorism.

1. Introduction

What is cognition? A look through any introductory textbook and most cognitive texts gives the student an impression that cognition is practically all of psychology. They will see sections on, for example, Cultural Cognition, Analytical Cognition, Holistic Cognition, Neonatal Cognition, Cognition in the Mini-Brain, Cognitive Architecture, and one of my personal favorites, Unconscious Cognition.

This article offers some personal reflections on the problems associated with teaching principles of behaviorism within the cognitive revolution. I hope to lend a voice to educators such as myself who are dissatisfied, and perhaps even saddened, by a revolution that neglects some of the greatest contributors to the analysis of behavior; by a revolution that misrepresents the behaviorist position in textbooks; by a revolution where traditional behavioral issues are being tossed aside and all but forgotten by a new generation of students [ 1 , 2 ]. It is this dissatisfaction that has led to the publication of this special issue on “What is Cognition?”

I shall briefly comment on several issues that have concerned me as a teacher of psychology. Students are never told, for example, about the wide variety of behaviorist positions, are presented with definitions of cognition that are so broad that they are meaningless at best, and at worst, overshadow the behaviorist contribution to psychology, and are not told that there are no general criteria to determine whether a process is cognitive. The issues voiced in this paper are not unique to me. They have been expressed by many individuals including Frederick Adams [ 3 ], Abraham Amsel [ 4 ], Howard Cromwell [ 5 ], James Grice [ 6 ], Vickie Lee [ 7 ], Jay Moore [ 8 , 9 ], Geir Overskeid [ 10 ], Jaak Panksepp [ 5 ] and Thom Verhave [ 11 , 12 ].

To provide the reader with a context for my comments I teach a course on the psychology of learning in a department where I am probably the only behaviorist—at least the only one proud to say so. In my 18 years of teaching both the undergraduate and graduate courses on learning, I am often shocked by how little colleagues and students know about behaviorism apart from the catch-phrases and stereotypes associated with attacks on John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner. Behaviorists are often considered by colleagues as out of touch, anti-intellectual, old fashioned, and one of my personal favorites—simple minded. The cognitivists, on the other hand, are cutting edge, forward thinking, insightful, and entering new frontiers.

Over the course of a semester, my students are surprised to learn that the behaviorist approach is still vital and has much to recommend it as a scientific enterprise. They are surprised that the behaviorist perspective can provide a framework to study complex human behavior; they are surprised to learn that the behaviorist perspective is more than rats in mazes and pigeons pecking disks, and they become disillusioned with a psychology that fails to teach them viable alternatives to the prevailing cognitive zeitgeist.

The issues, accompanying citations, and teaching exercises presented in this article have been useful as a basis for a dialog in both my undergraduate and graduate courses when behaviorism and cognitivism are discussed. This article will also be of some value to readers of this special issue who may begin to see behaviorism in a more positive light and lead them to a more accurate portrayal of behaviorism in their own classroom environments.

2. What Behaviorism are We Talking about?

When discussing behaviorism in the classroom, students (and faculty) are often surprised that there are several different types of behaviorism. Students must learn that when a professor attacks behaviorism they must ask the professor at least three questions: (1) “What form of behaviorism are you talking about?” (2) “If behaviorists focus on observable behaviors what do cognitivists focus on—unobservable behavior?” and (3) “If behaviorists do not reference mental processes, how do you explain the contributions of Hull, Tolman, and Miller and their use of intervening variables?”

No serious social scientist questions the inaccuracy and racism of lumping Mexicans, Spaniards, and Puerto Ricans into the general category of “Hispanic” or Arapahos, Choctaws, Poncas, or Pawnees into the general category of “Native Americans.” The use of such categories precludes serious comparative analysis, prohibits an understanding of nuances among differing theoretical positions, and leads to the grossest forms of generalization. Yet these same social scientists feel free to lump together the various behaviorist perspectives. Behaviorism has never been a unitary psychological perspective and proponents differ significantly in terms of methodology and theoretical outlook [ 8 , 9 ]. In introductory textbooks, and textbooks devoted to cognition, typically only two types of behaviorism are mentioned those of John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner.

I would encourage the reader to examine Behaviorism: A battle line [ 13 ] and to compare its outlook toward behaviorism with their own. This book is noteworthy for several reasons. First, unlike the vast majority of contemporary introductory and cognitive texts, it clearly acknowledges the existence of several different types of behaviorism. In addition to the behaviorism of Watson, there is the behaviorism associated with, for example, John Dewey, Walter B. Pillsbury, Edward L. Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Howard C. Warren, and Robert M. Yerkes [ 14 ]. Readers interested in offering their students some of the history associated with very early forms of behaviorism should assign Roback [ 15 ] and Verhave [ 11 ]. Verhave’s work is especially interesting because it highlights the contribution of a little known American Professor of Physiology Joseph R. Buchanan. Buchanan’s book The philosophy of human nature [ 16 ] contains several laws of association that found their way into formal behaviorist approaches. Students will also benefit on reading some of the early philosophical contributions to behaviorism by, for example, Gottfried W. Leibniz who was not as anti-associationist as many believe [ 12 ], Plato [ 17 ], and Francis Hutcheson [ 18 ].

Second, it is interesting to note that all the contributors in Behaviorism: A battle line warns that behaviorism as taught in universities and across the United States is a dangerous enterprise and must be stopped. McDougall [ 19 ] relates a story describing the reaction of a teacher to the spread of behaviorism in the classroom as “…wherever he goes, he finds Behaviorism rampant in the schools, and that, because he cannot accept it, he finds himself regarded by his colleagues as hopelessly out-of-date” ([ 19 ], p. 48). My the times have certainly changed! It is now unchecked cognitivism that is rampaging through our universities and colleges and producing a class of students who know next to nothing about a still vital and vibrant conception of psychology.

Third, there is the vilification of behaviorism. Each chapter of Behaviorism: A battle line is full of malicious comments directed at Watson in particular and behaviorism in general. Many of these comments have a modern ring to them that I am sure the reader will recognize. These comments were ridiculous then as they are over 80 years later. Behaviorism is called a cult, absurd, nonsense, grim, unethical, and poison. It is suggested that an acceptance of behaviorism increases anti-social and criminal behavior, that behaviorism leads to moral decay and, is at the same time a religious cult yet anti-religious, amoral and suppresses artistic expression. This tone is very similar to how democrats portray republicans. As Coffin [ 20 ] wrote “So Behaviorism appears as a pathetic figure circling around in the backwash of the widening swiftly flowing stream of science.” ([ 20 ], p. 255). For those readers interested in another entertaining early book critical of behaviorism see The Religion Called Behaviorism [ 21 ].

Given such criticism it is remarkable that behaviorism became the dominant form of psychology in the United States for several decades. It is also remarkable that those few still working within the behaviorist perspective continue to make substantial contributions way beyond the small number of contemporary practitioners. To paraphrase Winston Churchill: Never in the field of social science was so much owed by so many to so few.

That various types of behaviorisms exist is an important point often overlooked in the classroom and in textbooks. When professors discuss behaviorism in the classroom they must inform their students that there are several different perspectives just as there are different perspectives to cognitive psychology such as information processing. This is not done. As Amsel [ 4 ] aptly points out, usually the only behaviorist positions students are exposed to are those of Watson and Skinner. Even here, when discussing their views, textbook authors focus on the extreme positions. For example, Watson’s early work [ 22 , 23 ] is very different in perspective from his later position after he was forced to leave academia [ 24 ].

When considering Watson’s extreme positions, authors often mischaracterize it. Consider just a few of the many examples that can be found in Behaviorism: A battle line many of which students and faculty believe and repeat to the present day.

1. Some texts claim that Watson was “…prepared to produce from any human infants given over wholly to his tender mercies a corresponding number of human beings of any desired type, geniuses of the first water, mathematicians, musicians, artists, scientists, statesmen, executives, anything, in fact (other than theologians or metaphysicians), according to specifications given.” ([ 18 ], p. 47).

This statement borders on the outrages and is often used to discredit the entire behaviorist approach. Watson’s full quote on which McDougall’s (see also [ 25 ], p. 294) is based, contains several lines that are typically and conveniently left out. These lines are: “I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary, and they have been doing it for thousands of years” ([ 24 ], p. 104). When this line is included, Watson’s meaning becomes clear.

2. “Since such states or attitudes as love, hate, fear, courage, pain, hope, loyalty, and aspiration, cannot so be recorded, they are regarded by the Behaviorist as of no consequence.” ([ 26 ], p. 63).

This is not true of Watson (see [ 27 ]—“A schematic outline of the emotions”) and it is certainly not true of the group of behaviorists known as neobehaviorists. As but three examples of literally 100s that I can select from, consider the work of O. H. Mower on fear and hope [ 28 , 29 ], Amsel’s work on frustration [ 30 ] and Neil Miller’s work on conflict [ 31 ].

3. The type of behavior that Watson studied is characterized as “Muscular reactions and glandular secretions” ([ 32 ], p. 90).

4. “Extreme Behaviorism denies all mental life, including conscious, purposive experience…” ([ 33 ], p. 213).

5. Heredity unquestionably plays a role in our physical and mental make-up ([ 34 ], p. 279).

6. “All human behavior is a matter of stimulus and response” ([ 25 ], p. 294).

Even the most causal reader of the original source material by Watson knows that statements 3, 4, 5, and 6 are demonstrably false as characterized by cognitivists. It is vitally important for students to understand the time period and the state of psychology during Watson’s era. Watson [ 22 , 23 ] advocated observation, verbal reports, psychological tests, statistical training, laboratory training, acknowledges the importance of emotions (specifically commenting on fear, rage, love), instinctive responses, and the importance of heredity. In the opening chapter to his Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist [ 23 ] he suggested that the training of psychology students include the study of physiology, chemistry, and zoology (read Chapter 1—Problems and Scope of Psychology, especially the section on Preparation for Psychology).

As Cohen notes [ 35 ], Watson’s perspective is characterized by an attempt to catalog behavior, to make observations under laboratory and field conditions, to study developmental influences, to conduct controlled and repeatable experiments in an attempt to understand human nature. He was one of the first to study development, human sexual behavior, behavior modification, and imprinting. This is a behaviorism not of the “glandular squint” as portrayed in textbooks and by cognitivists but a dynamic approach that has impacted many fields including behavior therapy and industry. It has earned the right to be properly discussed in textbooks used to train the next generation of psychology professionals.

The portrayal of Skinner’s version of behaviorism (known sometimes as radical behaviorism) is also given “short shrift” in textbooks and classroom discussions. Perhaps the most entertaining example of this can be found in a collection of his seminal papers with commentary [ 36 ]. What is unique about this volume of collected papers is that he is given the opportunity to respond to the commentaries. His commentaries on the commentaries are interesting because he spends a large portion of his time correcting the inaccuracies the commentators have on his positions. It is well worth reading and incorporating his comments into student reading lists. Moore [ 8 ] also describes errors in communicating Skinner’s view of cognitive or mental events.

In between the so-called extremes of Watson and Skinner’s approaches to behaviorism is an entire group of behaviorists that are shamefully neglected in introductory and cognitive texts. This type of behaviorism is known as neobehaviorism. Neobehaviorism is an approach to theorizing arguably begun by Clark Hull that makes extensive use of intervening variables. The Hullian approach is also known as molecular behaviorism in contrast to the molar behaviorism of Tolman, the contiguity approach of Edwin R. Guthrie, and the radical behaviorism approach of Skinner. All the various behaviorist approaches (even the behaviorism of the “Watsonian Type”) regularly consider what are now called cognitive processes [ 8 ].

It is important to note that not all neobehaviorists would feel comfortable being labeled a behaviorist. In his chapter on “Behavioristics”, Edwin G. Boring [ 37 ] discusses that Clark Hull and his collaborators would be “puzzled if called behaviorists.” Nevertheless, categories are important and the work of Hull and his colleagues clearly fall into the general category of behaviorism and neobehaviorism in particular.

The neobehaviorists represent some of the most significant figures in the history of psychology and I dare say that few readers of this article have ever heard of them, or their contributions, other than in the context of an historical curiosity. In addition to Hull, Abram Amsel, Neal E. Miller, O. H. Mower, and Kenneth W. Spence, for example, have made many contributions in areas that are now co-opted by cognitivists, many of whom apparently do not even know the history of their own research area. If the reader would like to amuse him or herself during the evaluation of a job candidate’s seminar, simply ask the candidate to describe the behaviorist contribution to the research area that they are supposedly experts on. The response will most often be “never heard of any contribution” and many of your colleagues will think you just asked a trick question.

Even a shallow look at the Psychological Review papers of Clark Hull reveals a real concern with tackling issues such as “Knowledge and purpose as habit mechanisms”, Goal attraction and directing ideas conceived as habit phenomena”, “The mechanisms of the assembly of behavior segments in novel combinations suitable for problem solution”, “Mind, mechanism, and adaptive behavior”, “The problem of intervening variables in molar behavior theory.” These and other topics related to Hull’s Psychological Review papers are conveniently collected with commentary in the edited volume of Amsel and Rashotte [ 38 ]. At least some of these papers and their commentaries should be assigned to students (and mentioned in introductory and cognitive texts) if students are really to be given a legitimate opportunity to understand what the behaviorist approach has to offer the cognitive one. Webster and Coleman [ 39 ] offer some insights why the influence of Hull’s theory declined.

Hull is certainly not alone in investigating issues that are considered cognitive. The psychological literature from the 1920s through the 1960s literally overflows with behaviorists tacking problems now thought to have originated with contemporary cognitivists. One nice example was reported by the “Connectionist Behaviorist” E. L. Thorndike on learning without awareness (known now as “unconscious cognition!”) [ 40 ]. His volume of collected papers is still will worth a look [ 41 ].

Other examples include the “Contiguous Behaviorist” E. R. Guthrie’s [ 42 ] The psychology of human conflict (for some interesting extensions of Gurthrie see [ 43 ] and the work of Haraway [ 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ], the “Purposive Behaviorist” E. C. Tolman’s Purposive behavior in animals and men [ 48 ] and see his Collected papers in psychology [ 49 ].

The neobehaviorist Neal E. Miller’s work with John Dollard on the application of behaviorist principles to Freudian theory [ 50 ] is especially exciting and worth reading. Miller’s efforts represent a fine example of the vitality and scope of behaviorism—a behaviorism that students never experience. A glance through his volume of collected papers [ 51 ] reveals to the student richness in subject area and methodology that they never thought possible for a psychological perspective that is considered “absurd, nonsense, grim, unethical, and poison.” Miller’s collected papers are full of interesting experiments on what is now considered cognitive topics—all of them conducted within a behaviorist perspective. His experiments include work on “Theory and experiment relating psychoanalytic displacement to stimulus-response generalization”, “Learning resistance to pain and fear: effects of overlearning, exposure, and rewarded exposure in context”, and “Failure to find a learned drive based on hunger; evidence for learning motivated by “exploration” [ 51 ].

Another example of the behaviorist interest in complex human processes is in the seldom cited work of Arthur W. and Carolyn K. Staats. Staats and Staats [ 52 ] cogently demonstrate the richness and vitality of applying the behaviorist approach to complex human behavior. They examine a host of what are now considered cognitive topics. These topics include child development, personality, language, and motivation. Of course, they are not the only behaviorists who attempt to tackle the intricacies of human behavior and are part of the tradition of Watson, Hull, Miller, Tolman, Guthrie, Mower, and Skinner among others.

Attempts at reconciliation of the cognitive and behaviorist positions are also not mentioned in textbooks. The positions are portrayed as one having replaced the other. This is unfortunate because it further suggests to students that the behaviorist position is outdated and has little to recommend it. A paper by Denny [ 53 ] is especially useful in this regard. Denny shows that by modifying the definitions of stimulus and response, cognitive and behaviorist approaches can be reconciled. This attempt is similar to the efforts of MacCorquodale and Meehl [ 54 ] that endeavored to reconcile Hull’s theory with the cognitive behaviorism of Tolman. In doing so, they revealed many points of agreement. Miller [ 55 ] has also shown that modifying some neobehaviorist concepts can help psychologists better understand motivation and conflict. These papers should be assigned to students to get them to think critically about how the behaviorist and cognitivist perspectives can be combined.

In addition to presenting the view that the cognitivist position has supplanted the behaviorist position without mentioning attempts to reconcile the two perspectives, textbooks for introductory or cognitive psychology have never in my experience given the student the sense of the excitement and discovery associated with the efforts of behaviorists. The period from the 1920s through the early 1960s is one of the most exciting times in the history of behaviorism, indeed in the history of psychology. This time period is characterized by laboratories working to replicate and extend findings, developing new experimental designs in the area of, for example, latent learning, successive negative contrast, and avoidance learning, creating new apparatus and techniques, and testing the limits of differing conceptualizations of animal and human conduct. I am sure that I am not voicing the popular opinion but it is a real intellectual tragedy, and I would further say intellectually dishonest, that students are not exposed to an accurate account of the behaviorist perspectives in introductory and cognitive classes. This work will never be brought to the attention of a new generation of students if their own faculty do not know of its existence and journals refuse to allow authors to cite the relevant historical literature.

3. Definitions of Cognition in Textbooks

In addition to problems faced by professors who must battle inaccurate and often outrageous portrayals of the behaviorist perspectives, is the definition of cognition. The definition of cognition in textbooks is an important issue for those of use who are behaviorists. Cognition definitions are so broad that they seemly cover every aspect of psychology even those areas that were traditional first developed and stimulated by behaviorists.

Students rely on textbooks as one of the most important sources of information and the glossary, in particular, helps identify and highlight important terms that the author considers important [ 2 , 56 , 57 ]. I urge the reader to visit your bookshelves and look at the glossary of your introductory psychology or cognitive textbooks plus the preliminary comments related to the definition of cognition and the behaviorist approach. What you will find are definitions of cognition that cover the entire spectrum of psychology and therefore are essentially meaningless while the definitions of the behavioral perspective are consistent although sometimes wrong when they exclude “ inner events.” As another exercise, use the thesaurus function on your word professor. If it is like mine, there are various entries for the word “behavior” such as performance, deeds, and actions. If you type in “cognition” there are no entries.

There is a real need to offer a universally accepted definition of cognition that can be compared to other perspective approaches to psychology. Without a precise definition of cognition, or at least the cognitive perspective, students are left with the impression that there are no serious alternatives to the cognitive model. Those readers, who teach psychology courses from the behaviorist perspective like me, find it difficult to provide students with materials that adequately and fairly present alternative perspectives. This is a serious issue because it affects the training of the next generation of students.

To document the inconsistencies in definitions of cognition, I took the opportunity to examine eight recent introductory psychology texts. What I found confirms the lack of consistency in the definition of cognition. In contrast to definitions of behaviorism, there is no consensus on what cognitive psychology is and the definitions are designed to cover almost every area of psychology. This is in contrast to definitions of behaviorism that all stress the focus on observables. None of the definitions of cognition mention that a cognitive psychologist does not see a “cognition” or “cognit” they, like the behaviorists only see observables.

The lack of consistency in cognitive definitions is not a surprise given the history of the field. In what is erroneously considered the first textbook in cognitive psychology (see T.V. Moore’s Cognitive Psychology, [ 58 ]; Knapp, [ 59 ]). Neisser [ 60 ] defines cognitive psychology as “all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.” Moreover, as Amsel [ 4 ] noted, the founding editor of the journal Cognitive Psychology when asked to define this field replied that it is “What I like.” At best such a reply precludes any meaningful discussion on what is and what is not cognition and worse disrespects alternative approaches and leads to an influx of such terms as cultural cognition, analytical cognition, holistic cognitive, neonatal cognition, and cognition in the mini-brain.

Ciccarelli and White [ 61 ] do not define cognition in the glossary but they do define, cognitive dissonance, cognitive arousal theory, cognitive-behavior therapy, cognitive-meditational theory, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive psychologists, cognitive therapy and cognitive universalism. Behaviorism is defined as “The science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only.” There is no mention of the existence of various behaviorist perspectives such as neobehaviorism, nor are the problems we investigate such as learning and problem solving mentioned. Yet in the preliminary comments, the cognitive perspective is defined as “Modern perspective that focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving and learning.” The reader can only assume that by using the word “modern” the authors of the text believe that the behaviorist approach is antiquated.

Gray [ 62 ] also does not define cognition in the glossary but defines cognitive-behavior therapy, cognitive dissonance, and cognitive therapy. Behaviorism is defined, but the definition includes the statement that …”behavior should be understood in terms of its relationship to observable events in the environment rather than in terms of hypothetical events within the individual.” Given my earlier comments on the various types of behaviorisms I hope the reader is aware how uniformed this statement is. When you examine introductory texts for their treatment of behaviorism, you will see that they are wrong to characterize behaviorism this way without mentioning that there are several behaviorist approaches. This statement may or may not be true of the radical behaviorism advocated by B. F. Skinner but it is certainly not true of the neobehaviorists such as Hull and Tolman. In the preliminary comments, cognition is defined as: “The term cognition refers to information in the mind—that is, to information that is somehow stored and activated by the workings of the brain.” The definition of cognition offered by Gray is different than that offered by Ciccarelli and White [ 61 ].

Yet a third definition of cognition is presented by Huffman [ 63 ]. In the glossary, she defines cognition as “Mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge.” Definitions are offered for cognitive behavior therapy, cognitive dissonance, cognitive map, cognitive perspective, cognitive restructuring, cognitive-social theory, cognitive therapy. Behaviorism is not defined. Astonishingly, Clark Hull is listed in a table entry (Table 1.2, page 15) as representing the cognitive perspective! This is simply ridiculous. One would have thought that Tolman would have been a better choice. For those readers who have never heard of Hull or Tolman—both were neobehaviorists.

A fourth definition is proposed by Myers [ 64 ]. He defines cognition in the glossary as: “All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communication.” Although behavior is not defined, there is a definition of “Cognitive learning” as: “The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.” No examples are provided of “Non-cognitive learning.” No definition is offered for the word behavior or the behaviorist perspective. Behaviorism is defined as: “The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).” Cleary, the second part of this definition is incorrect. There is some information on the behavioral perspective in the introductory chapter but presents only generalizations such as the focus on “how we learn observable responses” ([ 64 ], p. 9).

Schacter, Gilbert, and Wegner [ 65 ] offer a fifth definition. Although cognition is not specifically defined, the glossary contains an entry for cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology is “The scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning.” Other related entries are: cognitive behavior therapy, cognitive development, cognitive dissonance, cognitive maps, cognitive restructuring, cognitive therapy, and cognitive unconscious. Behaviorism is defined as “An approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior.” In the introductory section of the text, Watson and Skinner are discussed. For both individuals only their extreme views are presented. Hull and Spence are mentioned not for their contributions as neobehaviorists but for their views on homeostasis. Edward Tolman is also mentioned in a section on “cognitive elements of operant conditioning.”

A sixth definition is proposed by Wade and Tavris [ 66 ]. Although once again there is no definition in the glossary for cognition, they define the cognitive perspective as: “A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior.” Other related entries are cognitive dissonance, cognitive schema, and cognitive therapy. It is interesting to note that there is an entry for cognitive ethology, which is defined as “The study of cognitive processes in non-human animals.” Historically, the study of “cognitive processes” is the comparative psychological perspective. Behaviorism is defined as: “An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior.”

The textbook offered by Wood, Wood and Boyd [ 67 ] provides yet another definition—our seventh. Here, cognition is defined in the glossary as: “The mental processes that are involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information and that includes sensation, perception, imagery, concept formation, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and language.” Other terms defined are cognitive dissonance, cognitive map, cognitive processes, cognitive therapies, and cognitive therapy. Cognitive psychology is defined as “The school of psychology that sees humans as active participants in their environment; studies mental processes such as memory, problem solving, reasoning, decision making, perception, language, and other forms of cognition.” Behaviorism is defined as “The school of psychology that views observable, measurable behavior as the appropriate subject matter for psychology and emphasizes the key role of environment as a determinant of behavior.” In comparing the definitions of cognitive psychology and behaviorism one gets the impression that behaviorism only study “inactive participants.”

Our eighth definition of cognition can be found in the Zimbardo, Johnson and McCann [ 68 ]. Although not defined in the glossary, the cognitive perspective is defined as “Another of the main psychological viewpoints distinguished by an emphasis on mental processes, such as learning, memory, perception, and thinking, as forms of information processing.” Other cognitive terms in the glossary are cognitive appraisal, cognitive development, cognitive dissonance, cognitive map, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive restructuring, cognitive therapy, and cognitive-behavior therapy. The behavioral perspective is defined as “A psychological viewpoint that finds the source of our actions in environmental stimuli rather than in inner mental processes.” Once again, the referent that behaviorists do not look at “inner mental processes” is wrong.

I also searched the glossaries and preliminary comments of cognitive texts; the results where the same. I would have expected that in an advanced text the quality and rigor of the definitions would have improved—they did not. Consider the text by Ashcraft and Radvansky [ 69 ] who define cognition as “the collection of mental processes and activities used in perceiving, remembering, thinking, and understanding, as well as the act of using those processes.” Reed [ 70 ] does not have cognition defined in the glossary but does define cognitive psychology as “The scientific study of cognition.” In the introductory comments cognitive psychology is defined as “The science of how the mind is organized to produce intelligent thought and how it is realized in the brain.”

One way to estimate the effect that such a variety of definitions have on students is to simply ask them. I asked approximately 70 upper division psychology students to define cognition. The answers were wide ranging and there was no consensus. Representative samples include “The ability to associate and synthesize multiple learned behaviors,” “Mental processes that occur in an organism,” “The ability for an individual to think clearly and have the ability to decipher right from wrong, or myth from reality,” “Mental processes that help solve problems, perform tasks, remember things, and help you function in everyday life,” “The process of thought, attention, memory,” “The process of thinking,” “Internal schemas which include thoughts, feelings, and desires,” “The ability to understand and perform mental abilities and produce constructs,” “Mental processes of the mind through thoughts, feelings, emotions,” “To functionally process thoughts within the mind,” “Mental thought process,” and “The ability to grasp and understand conceptual events.”

4. Additional Problems with the Cognitive Perspective not Addressed in Introductory Textbooks

In addition to definitional issues and issues related to the mischaracterization of behaviorism, textbooks fail to inform the student of the many problems associated with cognitive psychology. All that seems to be presented are problems associated with behaviorism as an antiquated perspective incapable of contributing to a “science of the mind.” Consider, for example, that textbooks have little or no discussion of the criteria that makes a process cognitive! One would think that this would be a major issue presented to students—it is not. Students are not told that there are no generally accepted criteria used to decide whether a process is cognitive. Rather they are told that learning, perception, thinking, problem solving, concept formation, etc . are examples of cognitive behavior assuming that all such instances must be cognitive. Adams and colleagues have done some excellent work on this issue and propose criteria [ 3 , 71 ]. This work should be included in textbooks and student reading lists.

Overskeid [ 10 ] points out further problems with the cognitive perspective. These include, in contrast to popular belief, a narrow research focus, being forced into an almost mystical position on the lack of a physical substrate for mental events, little to no interest in the functional analysis of behavior, and little effort directed toward the study of the influence of motivation and emotion on behavior. The lack of interest in drive on the part of the cognitivists was pointed out over 20 years ago by Amsel [ 4 ].

Cromwell and Panksepp [ 5 ] echo Amsel’s and Overskeid’s concern about the lack of attention to the motivational and affective in cognitive research. They warn the reader, as others have, that the area of behavioral neuroscience may be in danger by the overuse and misuse of the term cognition. These problems and concerns must be brought to the attention of students if they are to be properly trained in psychology and contribute to psychology as a science.

James Grice [ 6 , 72 ] points out several serious flaws with respect to data analysis and research designs associated with some aspects of cognitive research. His criticisms continue what now amounts to a chorus of concern of psychological research practices such as failure to encourage replication of results, reliance on group data, scaling issues, and an over-dependence on null hypothesis significance testing. Grice proposes a new method called Observation Oriented Modeling (OOM). OOM has a number of advantages over traditional null hypothesis testing including a reliance on replication, use of distribution free methods, and freedom from estimating abstract population parameters from a sample. Perhaps most importantly, observations are treated as primary and the attributes under investigation are not assumed to be structured as continuous quantities. OOM is now being used in the natural sciences [ 72 ] and should find its way into the analysis of cognitive data.

5. Conclusions

This article highlights some of the challenges associated with teaching the behaviorist perspective in the classroom. It is also no easy task. Introductory and cognitive textbook authors must do a better job of incorporating the behaviorist perspective into their texts and bring to the attention of students the many flaws associated with the cognitive perspective. It would also be helpful to correct fundamental errors associated with explaining operant conditioning principles to students [ 73 ]. Teachers of psychology must also do a better job of accurately discussing the behaviorist and cognitivist positions.

One way textbook writers can better incorporate the behaviorist position is to have a behaviorist look at the relevant sections. This is also no easy task. All the classical neobehaviorists are deceased and many who call themselves behaviorists have become seduced by the cognitive revolution. Publishers should also have the courage to seek out authors who can write an introductory text, or at the very minimum, contribute supplemental or ancillary materials from the behaviorist perspective.

A reading list will also be helpful to students. Many of the articles and books cited in this paper can serve as the basis for such a list. Original source material by Watson, Hull, Tolman, Spence, Miller and Skinner should certainly be included. Students will also find fascinating the opinions of Adams, Cromwell, Grice, Overskeid and Panksepp. For professors, I would recommend the little books by Amsel [ 4 ] and Lee [ 7 ]; these books nicely summarize many of the issues discussed in this paper.

Texts and reading lists are not enough. Students must be provided hands-on inquiry based activities designed for the behaviorist perspective. One activity I have found especially useful is an application of the scholastic method made popular by Peter Abelard, Thomas Aquinas, and Albertus Magnus. In my version, students are given research articles on a particular topic. The topic is approach from both a behaviorist and cognitivist perspective. Terms are defined and a real attempt is made to identify inconsistencies in definitions, experimental design, data analysis, and interpretation. It is not a debate, but an honest attempt to reconcile the two positions. An excellent example is the work of MacCorquodale and Meehl [ 54 ] that compared the work of Hull and Tolman. Another example is the work of Greaves [ 74 ] that attempts to find common ground between phenomenology and behaviorism. A third example that I have found useful is for students to consider the use of animals in behavioral research. What do animals have to tell us about human behavior? Muckler [ 75 ] is a good article to assign, as is the work of Watson, if the topic of animals in psychology is to be approached scholastically. Before scholastic exercises are attempted, I would encourage the reader to assign a paper on the educational philosophy of Dorothy Sayers [ 76 ].

Another exercise I have found useful is for students to turn behaviorists into official U.S. Postage stamps. These stamps can include bar codes or QR codes to enable anyone to connect to a website highlighting the individual [ 77 ]. They are easy to make and the students enjoy the project. I have used this project in my history of psychology class to make official postage stamps of various behaviorists.

A further exercise I have found useful is for students to keep a log of instances of conditioning that influence their behavior. This approach uses the form of introspection utilized by Oswald Külpe known as systematic experimental introspection. At first students are surprised that introspection can be used from a behaviorist perspective. As they gain more experience with the technique, many see the advantages in analyzing their own behavior in terms of conditioning principles. Students interpret instances of their behavior in terms of such principles as stimulus intensity, habituation, generalization, history of reinforcement, schedule effects, classical conditioning, etc . One way to get them started is to ask students to find instances in literature that can be explained by conditioning principles. Some issues of the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior contain pertinent illustrations and there is a nice example from the dynastic period in Chinese history [ 78 ].

In addition to the use of scholasticism, stamps, and systematic experimental introspection, students can condition animals in the classroom and be given the opportunity to interpret the results from both the cognitive and behaviorist perspectives. My laboratory has published many papers on conditioning demonstrations suitable for the classroom [ 79 , 80 ]. These demonstrations use inexpensive material and often focus on invertebrate animals. Students quickly see the dangers associated with using cognitive terms to explain the learning of the headless roach, the paramecium, the planarian, the fruit fly, and the honey bee in terms of representations and expectations. Alfred Binet has published a little known book called The psychic life of micro-organisms: A study in experimental psychology [ 81 ] that is a very interesting read. Frankly, it is alarming to see how the cognitive perspective has infiltrated the invertebrate conditioning literature without any consideration of the various behaviorist positions.

Avoidance behavior of invertebrates is an excellent example. The key question in avoidance is: how can the absence of an aversive event be reinforcing? The answer is that it must be “expected.” The data obtained with invertebrates suggests that it is not the absence of an expected aversive event that is reinforcing, it is that fact that is paired in a manner readily explained with basic conditioning principles. Consider honey bee avoidance. Bees trained to fly of a target in response to a cue signaling shock will readily learn to do so after a few cue-shock pairings. However, when the bee leaves the target prior to the delivery of the shock, the shock is no longer paired with the cue. Such a situation represents extinction and the bee begins to stay on the target. This is a straightforward application of Pavlovian principles [ 82 ]. Moreover, several studies have shown in earthworm and crab that the pairing of a cue with an aversive stimulus gives the same performance as a group of animals that are able to avoid the aversive event by responding to the cue. A cognitive account must predict superior performance in the avoidance groups. Furthermore, a cognitive account of avoidance behavior requires that animals first trained on an avoidance schedule will produce poor performance when their avoidance response no longer is effective ( i.e ., extinction). Rather than produce poor performance the invertebrates continue to respond to the cue [ 83 , 84 ]. In another experiment testing the cognitive interpretation of some aspects of honey bee behavior, it was shown that honey bees will only learn to associate a cue with a feeding when the cue is the presentation of a stimulus. When the cue is the absence of a stimulus, conditioning does not occur [ 85 ].

In summary, textbooks authors and faculty must do a better job of presenting the various behaviorist approaches to theory construction. Writers should not fear textbook publishers and journal editors who insist that only “modern” citations ( i.e ., less than 25 years old) be used. Such insistence will further detach the student from a body of literature, and a scientific perspective, that still has much to recommend it—and must be fought. Ancillary materials that are already in the literature should be used to help the student evaluate the behaviorist and cognitive perspectives. Many of us harp on the importance of instilling critical thinking skills in our students yet all of us have run across students and professional researchers that believe cognition can be studied in a snail, tick, planarian, etc . without ever defining what cognition is and not presenting criteria on what is and what is not an instance of cognitive behavior.

Behaviorists also must do a better job of re-asserting our positions not only in the classroom and in print, but also to our colleagues. The behaviorist position is worth fighting for. If not, I fear that as Coffin [ 20 ] wrote “So Behaviorism appears as a pathetic figure circling around in the backwash of the widening swiftly flowing stream of science.” ([ 20 ], p. 255).

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my appreciation to Aaron Place, Chris Varnon, David Craig, and Erika Brown for looking at earlier drafts of this manuscript. Thanks are also due to an anonymous reviewer who brought to my attention the work of Cromwell and Panksepp and Boring’s view that not all behaviorists would consider themselves so. Preparation of this manuscript was supported in part by NSF grants DBI 0552717 and OISE 1043057.