criminological theories assignment

Introduction to Criminological Theory

In this overview, we will go over the following topics:

What theory is

What scientific theory is (not)

What makes theory better

What criminological theory is

Criminology is an interdisciplinary field

Course sections

What this course does not do

Development of criminology

Theorist video annotations

Video discussions

What to do after this overview

What Theory Is

Discussing what theory is can be complicated and confusing. In part, that’s because people have different definitions of “theory.” Debates over what theory is are important. But they are not important to this course because they would be more confusing to you than useful. In this course, the word “theory” simply refers to a statement, or idea, about how something affects something else.

Any time a person makes a statement about how something affects something else, they have produced a theory. You probably make theories all the time. For example, “My boy- or girlfriend did ‘something’ because of ‘something.’” Or, “‘Something’ happened during class because of ‘something.’” Of course, those are very simple ideas, but the point you need to grasp is that a theory is a statement about how something affects something else.

Another reason that theory can be complicated and confusing is there are many aspects of it with different names. For this class, though, if you see any of the following words, just think of them as synonymous with “theory” as defined above: “perspective,” “model,” “explanation,” “prediction,” “principle,” “proposition,” “hypothesis.” Again, the differences between these are important, but will be ignored in this class because they would be more confusing than useful.

What Scientific Theory Is (Not)

Whether a theory is scientific depends on its relationship to empirical phenomena and the scientific method. “Empirical” means something that can be heard, seen, touched, smelled, or tasted. Put simply, scientific theories make statements about how something that is empirical affects something else that is empirical. In truth, criminological theories rarely entirely focus on empirical phenomena, which is a problem, but let’s forget about that because, again, it will be more confusing than useful.

The reason it is important to focus on empirical things is because they can be “observed” and, therefore, theories of them can be “tested” and thereby falsified or given support. To be clear, however, scientific theories are not “facts.” Instead, think of them as informed speculation. Theories are like rules: they are meant to be broken. Indeed, part of what makes theories “scientific” is that they can be shown to be wrong because they deal with empirical (i.e., observable) phenomena, unlike religious and philosophical theories.

This paragraph is very important because we’ll be continually talking about “independent variables” and “dependent variables” throughout this course: A few lines above, you read: “scientific theories make statements about how something that is empirical affects something else that is empirical.” In other words, what that means is that scientific theories make statements about how “independent variable(s)” change a “dependent variable.” For example, a theory we all know is that consuming more calories (an independent variable) leads to more weight (a dependent variable), but weight is decreased by running more (another independent variable).

You’ll read more about all this in the Wikipedia entry on “Scientific Theory.”

What Makes Theory Better

Whether a theory is “valid” – meaning “correct” or “right” – is one way that people judge how good it is. However, there are other ways to evaluate theory. For example, is the statement simple or complicated? Does it apply to a lot of communities, people, and situations, or only a few? Is it truly a new idea or essentially a rip-off of a prior one? Does it offer practical ideas for how to solve problems – such as how to reduce crime – or not? Thus, what makes one theory better than another is not simply whether it is valid, but also if it is simpler, more general, more original, and more useful.

Throughout this course, you should not simply ask yourself, “Do I think ‘this’ theory is valid?” Rather, you should also be asking yourself: "Is it (too) simple or (too) complicated? Is it (too) specific or (too) general? Is it useful or useless? Is it too focused on being useful and, thus, potentially biased? Is it original or unoriginal?"

What Criminological Theory Is

Discussing what a “criminological theory” is can be complicated and confusing, also. Like the word theory, people have different meanings and words for “criminological” and its synonym “criminology.” In this class, “criminological theory” and “criminology” only refer to statements about what affects crime. In other words, crime is the dependent variable. What criminological theories do is specify the independent variables that affect crime.

The vast majority of criminological theories make statements about the types of communities, individuals, and situations most likely to have or commit crime.

“Community-level” theories make statements about why some communities have more crime or criminals than others. For example, why is there more crime in a particular neighborhood, city, state, region of the U.S., or country than others? Also, why is there more or less crime over time in any given community?

“Individual-level” theories make statements about why some people commit more crime. For example, why do you commit more or less crime than me? And, why do you or I commit more or less crime over time?

“Situational-level” theories make statements about why some interactions or small geographic areas are more associated with crime. For example, why are robbers more likely to rob strangers than friends? Why do some bars have more crime than others? And why does any given bar have more crime at some hours, days, or times of the year?

Criminology is an Interdisciplinary Field

What makes one criminological theory different from another is how they answer those questions. Some theories are very different, but others are more similar. The reason for differences and similarities across theories reflects how criminology is an “interdisciplinary field.”

This too can get a bit complicated and confusing, but, basically, a “discipline” is a major branch of knowledge. Disciplines include economics, biology, sociology, psychology, anthropology, and so on. A “field” is a more specific area of study, such as crime. Thus, to say “criminology is an interdisciplinary field” means that multiple disciplines are used to study crime.

Course Sections

After this introductory period, the course has seven sections. These sections reflect major disciplinary approaches to the study of crime. However, because criminology is interdisciplinary, sometimes the lines between disciplines have become murky, so some of the sections have elements of multiple disciplines.

Section 1 is an overview of and introduction to criminological theories. Section 2 is about how economic factors affect crime. Section 3 does the same, but also touches on ecology. Section 4 is about biological influences on crime. Sections 5 through 8 blend sociology and psychology, with the first and last of those (i.e., 5 and 8)  having biological and anthropological influences, too.

What This Course Does Not Do

Before going further, it may be useful to specify what will not be done in this course. Because criminology strictly refers (in this course) to the study of crime, we will not examine theories of law, policing, courts, or corrections; in other words, we will not treat these things as dependent variables. However, some criminological theories treat law, policing, courts, or corrections as independent variables that affect crime, so those things will become relevant when examining those theories.

Nor will we examine every criminological theory, or even close to that. There are hundreds if not thousands of such theories. Instead, then, we will only cover some of the most popular theories, though that does not necessarily mean they are the best. For this introductory section, you’ll gain a broad overview of criminological theory by reading a Wikipedia entry on “Criminology” and also a couple articles, mentioned below.

Development of Criminology

To better understand what you’ll be doing in this course, we should take a step back and discuss the “development of criminology.” What does it mean to say that criminology “develops”? Because theories are not facts, they change. A useful analogy is to think of theories as like people who are part of a lineage. Like people, theories are born, develop, grow old, and die. And like people, all theories have parents, and some have children.

That analogy is important for another reason: namely, it emphasizes that theories are developed by people, or “theorists.” Why does this matter? Because by making it personal, it is easier to remember who did what and to see how ideas are different or similar. For instance, you may know how different types of music are related, such as how jazz led to rock and roll as well as how they compare to rap, and associate different individuals with each of these. Likewise, I know the key traits of different theories, their connections, and the individuals associated with them. You should be able to do the same by the end of this course.

You’ll learn about the development of criminology by watching overview lectures like this one, by reading older and newer “works” (meaning scholarly articles and book excerpts), and watching Theorist Videos (more is said about those later). For this introductory section, you’ll gain a broad overview of criminology’s development by reading two articles: Jeffrey’s “The Historical Development of Criminology” and Dooley’s “The Emergence of Contemporary Criminology”.

In Jeffrey’s “The Historical Development of Criminology”, you’ll read about some of criminology’s “pioneers,” meaning scholars who made a big impact on the field’s beginning and subsequent development. Think of them as the great-grandparents of criminology. Early in the course, you’ll read some of their works, such as those of Bentham and Lombroso. You’ll also learn about some of the key developments and “schools of thought” in the history of criminology.

Sometimes, theories are referred to as “classic.” In this course, to say a theory is classic simply means it is old(er), though note that the word “classicAL” is used in other ways among criminologists, too (you’ll see another way in the Wikipedia entry on “Criminology”).

Newer theories are referred to as “contemporary.” As time goes on, what used to be contemporary theory becomes classic. In this course, for example, you’ll read works of Foucault, Shaw, McKay, Hirschi, Elias, Wolfgang, Sutherland, and Merton. Think of them as the grandparents of criminology, as they did criminology in the early- and mid-20th century.

In Dooley’s “The Emergence of Contemporary Criminology”, you’ll read about some of criminology’s foremost contemporary theorists. These are the scholars making the biggest impact on the field at present. Think of them as parents of what goes on today in criminology. Over the span of this course, you’ll read works of Clarke, Gould, Raine, Sampson, Laub, Gottfredson, Pinker, Anderson, Akers, Rosenfeld, Messner, and Agnew.

Maybe now is the best time to mention that you’ll be quizzed over all the readings, including those for this introductory section.

Wikipedia. Scientific Theory. (Open access here .) Wikipedia. Criminology. (Open access here .) Jeffrey, Clarence Ray. 1959. The Historical Development of Criminology. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 50:3-19. (Open access here .) Wolfgang, Marvin E. 1963. Criminology and the Criminologist. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 54:155-162. (Open access here .) Dooley, Brendan. 2016. The Emergence of Contemporary Criminology: An Oral History of Its Development as an Independent Profession. Crime, Law & Social Change 66:339-357. (Paywalled here but open access here .)

These quizzes make up the Overview and Reading Quizzes. The syllabus and Overview and Reading Quizzes assignment guide have more details on what exactly you’ll be doing.

Theorist Video Annotations

Another reason you’ll read Dooley’s article is it introduces you to a major part of the course: Theorist Videos. These videos were collected as part of the Oral History of Criminology Project , which is directed by Dooley. You’ll watch, annotate, and be quizzed over a theorist video for each of the major theoretical perspectives covered in this course. Some of these are more entertaining than others, but each is interesting. By watching each video, you’ll gain a greater sense of how criminology developed, and also come to better appreciate that criminology is personal.

In each theorist video, a “parent” is interviewed by Dooley or someone else. During these conversations, the parents discuss their ideas, where their ideas came from, and where the ideas may be going. As explained on the project’s website,

[It] is an ongoing effort to preserve the accounts of prominent scholars of their role in shaping the evolution of the field. Through the use of taped interviews, an enduring record—an “oral history”—is established of how personal, social, historical and professional influences intersected to give rise to criminology’s landmark ideas and initiatives.

The syllabus and Theorist Video Annotations assignment guide have more details on what exactly you’ll be doing.

Crime Video Discussions

The best test of whether someone really understands a theory is whether they can apply it to the real world. Think of different theories as different sets of eyeglasses, such as those with different lens colors and different prescriptions. When wearing one pair or the other, you see the world differently even though the same things are within sight. Thus, when looking at data on crime, a rational choice theorist may see something different than does a biological theorist, for instance. Neither is necessarily wrong. Rather, what they see reflects the theoretical perspective that they look at the world with.

To see if you really understand criminological theories, you’ll complete a video discussion for each of the major theoretical perspectives covered in this course. The syllabus and Crime Video Discussions assignment guide have more details on what exactly you’ll be doing.

Now that you have reviewed this overview lecture, you should do the following: Complete the study guide material, which covers material in this introductory overview and in the syllabus. After that, you should do the four readings listed in the course outline. While doing so, you’ll also want to complete the study guide for those readings. Once you complete the study guide and mostly memorize the material, you’ll be ready to complete the associated quiz. And after all that, take a breather before moving on to the course’s next section.

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• Updated research, data, and statistics.
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• Expanded coverage of campus sexual assault, future and cybercrimes, and romance scams.
• New methodological tools such as network analysis and photo-ethnography.
• Updated real-world examples and news events are provided to illustrate the connection between criminological theory, crime types, and the real-world.
• Comprehensive coverage of the foundational material and often-neglected areas of study introduces students to important topics around organized crime, terrorism, white-collar crime, environmental crime, political crime, and gangs.
• "Theory and Crime" and "The Theory-Policy Connection" sections in all the chapters in Parts I and II help students understand the integration of theory and crime and its effects on the world around them.
• A standalone chapter on cybercrime helps students develop a well-rounded perspective of the future of crime.
• "Crime in the Media" boxes highlight the increasing attention and effect that the media has on public perception of crime.
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Criminal Justice Academy (CJA) Instructor Toolkit: Criminological Theories

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Criminological Theories

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Briefly stated, criminology is the scientific study of criminal behavior. The rich literature of criminology dates back to 1764, with the publication of Cesare Beccaria’s  On Crimes and Punishments , in which he developed various principles of crime and punishment that remain key features of the modern system of criminal justice in America. In addition to covering the major criminological theories (e.g., differential association, labeling theory, routine activities, etc.), the course familiarizes students with the social science research evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of theories that explain criminal behavior. A key point to emphasize to students is that although developmental criminology comes close to approximating a “gold standard” in explaining criminal behavior, there is still no single, unified theory of crime.

Below is a model syllabus from LaGuardia Community College based on a 13-week semester. The learning objectives were developed by John Jay faculty and should be included on all syllabi.

Model Syllabus: Introduction to Criminology

Course Description: This introductory undergraduate course explores the nature, causes, and treatment of criminal behavior with an emphasis on classical and contemporary theories. The biological, social, psychological, and environmental theories underlying crime and deviance are explored, as well as current approaches to punishment, treatment, and prevention. Course material will be analyzed through readings, lectures, discussion, activities, and assignments.

Blackboard: Classes are supplemented with a  course website  where you can obtain important information and study tools such as PowerPoints, chapter outlines, assignments, and announcements.

Required Textbooks: Siegel, L.J. (2010).  Criminology: The core . (4th ed). Los Angeles, CA: Wadsworth.

Learning Objectives: Assuming active study and attendance, by the end of the semester students should be able to meet the following learning objectives:

• Students will be expected to show evidence of having read and understood the core literature and debates presented in the course, specifically those related to the socially constructed nature of crime and deviance, measurement, causes, and key aspects of crime control policy.
• Identify the main thinkers and leading classical and contemporary theories of crime causation.
• Understand how theory relates to definitions of crime, criminal behavior, and policy.
• Students will demonstrate the ability to make reasoned and informed judgments on issues relating to crime and punishment.  
• Be able to challenge conventional wisdom about crime and punishment.
• Show the ability to put debates on crime and punishment and policies relating to the control of crime in their wider social, historical, political, and economic context.

Attendance  Attendance is mandatory. If you have  more than five absences , you will automatically fail the course. If you are not present when I take attendance (during the first five minutes of class), you will be marked late. Three “lates” equals one absence.

Position Papers: You are required to write a series of one-page response papers to  several case studies that you will find posted on Blackboard . The papers are due on the date noted in the syllabus. There will be a total of ten (10) position papers, one for each case study assigned. Papers should be typed, double-spaced, and approximately 500 words—maximum! Do NOT write more than one page. Do NOT use a cover sheet. Type your name in a header or the upper left corner, double-space twice, and begin. During class sessions, we will discuss selected case studies and relevant criminological theories related to the case. Position papers should present an argument/position in favor of or opposing the issue surrounding the case and should also defend the position assumed.  No late papers will be accepted.  Papers will be graded on content (comprehensiveness, accuracy, etc.) and writing (punctuation, style, and grammar). This is an exercise in meeting deadlines, writing with correct grammar and punctuation, and critical thinking and analysis. Your papers should demonstrate sound arguments and not a mere summary of the reading material.

Midterm and Final Exam: The exams will consist of multiple choice and true/false questions as well as short essays. No makeup exams will be given without a verifiable excuse.

Classroom Etiquette :  Students are advised that lectures and discussions about criminal justice involve sensitive issues that may challenge personal beliefs. Therefore, the norms of academic discussion and debate will be maintained at all times. Students will not interrupt one another. Students will raise their hands before speaking. Students will be prepared to state why they hold a certain belief (how they know what they know) if they expect to persuade others. In this college, we come from a diverse range of ethnic, social, religious, and cultural backgrounds. As such, all classroom discussions will be conducted with respect and sensitivity toward differing viewpoints.

Please refrain from any behavior that interferes with the learning environment of the classroom. No earphones, no texting. Turn off and put away all electronic devices at the beginning of class.

Academic Integrity : This class will be conducted in compliance with  LaGuardia Community College’s policy on academic integrity .  Students suspected of cheating or plagiarism will be reported to the college. If found guilty, penalties for academic dishonesty range from getting an “F” on a given test/assignment to failing the course or being suspended or expelled from the college.

Class Schedule:

Read Ch. 1, “Crime and Criminology” and Ch. 2, “Nature and Extent of Crime”

Read Ch. 4, “Choice Theory: Because They Want To”

Read Ch. 5, “Trait Theory”

Read Ch. 6, “Social Structure Theory”

Read Ch. 7, “Social Process Theories”

Read Ch. 8, “Social Conflict and Critical Criminology”

Read Ch. 10, “Violent Crimes”

Read Ch. 12, “Enterprise Crime: White Collar Crime, Cyber Crime, and Organized Crime”

Read Ch. 13, “Public Order Crimes”

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1.7 Conclusion

This book will cover how crime is measured and why that matters as criminologists try to figure out criminal behavior; early criminological theories that set the stage for all those that came later; theories of society’s influence on criminal behavior; theories of individual characteristics that may influence criminal behavior; and society’s reaction to crime and how behavior changes over the span of someone’s lifetime. Then, we will dig deeper into different types of crime. We will explore crimes against people, property crimes, crimes against the public order, white collar crime, cybercrime, organized crime, hate crimes, mass murder, terrorism, and homeland security. All in all, this book will give you a good foundational understanding of criminology.

1.7.1 Application Exercises

• How might a criminologist look at the crime problem during the pandemic in other areas outside of Oregon? Look at the crime rates at https://econofact.org/crime-in-the-time-of-covid or other sources you may find for comparison. Put on your criminologist hat and explain why  crime may have gone up during this time.
• Criminologist Craig Pinkney discusses in his TEDxBrum Talk “The Real Roots of Youth Violence” some possible root causes of youth violence. Watch his presentation here https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uWNTMmktoCQ&t=277s and discuss his recommendations for intervening in youth violence.
• Choose a recent local, state, or national news story about crime and brainstorm some possible criminogenic factors that played a role in leading to the criminal behavior. Is there anything that could possibly have been done to address the criminogenic factors and stop the crime from happening?

1.7.2 Discussion Questions

• Former Portland City Commissioner Jo Ann Hardesty said, “I do not believe Portland has a gang problem. I think Portland has a problem in investing in our youth.” What does she mean by that and how is that related to criminology and criminogenic factors? (Gazaway, 2021).
• Can you think of some other examples of spuriousness like the ice cream/murder rate example in the chapter?
• As asked in the chapter: Interestingly, although all these theories and research exist, we have not yet stopped crime. Consider some reasons this may be the case. If we know the problem, why might we not be working on the solutions? Give some thought to what forces may be standing in the way of addressing the causes of crime identified by criminologists, particularly in contemporary history (over the last 150 years). In this amount of time, one could argue we could have fixed this problem if we really wanted to. What do you think?
• Looking at the timeline of 50 of the most prominent criminology theories, why do you think they are so clustered in the last 150 years? Can you guess any possible trends in the field based solely on the names and dates of the theories in the timeline?

1.7.3 Key Terms

• Criminal justice
• Criminogenic
• Criminogenic factors
• Criminology
• Logical consistency
• Operational definition
• Spuriousness

1.7.4 Summary

Criminology is the study of crime and why it happens. Criminologists look at both individual and societal factors to figure out what drives criminal behavior. It is important for criminal justice and criminology to work hand in hand to have a positive impact on public safety. A theory is an attempt to explain what is happening and in criminology that means explaining what is happening in terms of crime and criminal behavior. A theory begins with a hypothesis that is tested through research. Criminology as a science is dynamic and involves a lot of different perspectives that do not always agree on what they are seeing. For this reason, we have to always be aware of potential biases that may be affecting how we see what we think we see. Any claims of a new theory must go through multiple levels of evaluation before they are to be considered valid. A criminological theory must have logical consistency, scope, parsimony, testability, empirical validity, and usefulness. Theories look at who is most likely to commit crime (biological theories), or what happened to them that made them commit a crime (psychological theories), and sometimes they look at outside forces that led to someone committing crime (sociological theories). Through these theories, we can identify risks (criminogenic factors) that make it more likely a crime will happen. Through criminology, we can also get a better understanding of the goals of different laws, the courts, and law enforcement.

1.7.5 Resources

• The American Society of Criminology (ASC) offers a lot of resources to its members, and anyone interested in criminology research. Find out more at asc41.com .
• CriminologyWeb  on YouTube has lots of helpful videos explaining different theories and important information that are a great supplement to this book. Check it out at https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCY8HnjAb_RYmQNGJPn0bPwg .
• “Criminology” is a true crime podcast on Apple Podcasts. Every episode takes a deep dive into different crimes, going into great detail to understand what happened.

1.7.6 Licenses and Attributions for Conclusion

“Conclusion” by Taryn VanderPyl is licensed under CC BY 4.0 .

 Introduction to Criminology Copyright © by Taryn VanderPyl. All Rights Reserved.

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Using film analysis to apply and evaluate criminological theory

• Victoria Kurdyla

How to Cite

Download citation, usage notes, learning goals and assessments.

Learning Goal(s):

• Demonstrate the ability to conduct a review of sociological research on a particular criminological theory.
• Apply criminological theory and concepts to observed patterns within a film or television show.
• Critically evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of chosen criminological theory.

Goal Assessment(s):

• The assignment requires students utilize library resources to collect additional criminological data about the chosen theory.
• The assignment requires students to apply theoretical explanations learned during the semester.
• The assignment asks students to compare and evaluate theoretical explanations and their practical applications.

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Theories of Crime – CJUS 700

CG • Section 8WK • 11/08/2019 to 04/16/2020 • Modified 02/01/2024

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Course Description

This course offers an advanced exploration of the theories of crime causation. Biological, psychological, sociological, cultural, and political theories may be examined using a "cause of crime" perspective. Emphasis is placed around the key concepts used in theories of crime and the multidisciplinary source of these concepts, how they are applied to criminological theory, and their importance for understanding the present state of criminological theory.

For information regarding prerequisites for this course, please refer to the  Academic Course Catalog .

Criminal Justice 700 is the foundational course in the Doctor of Philosophy in Criminal Justice program. As such, the student in this course explores the theoretical conceptualizations of why individuals commit crime.

Course Assignment

Textbook readings and lecture presentations/notes

Course Requirements Checklist

After reading the Course Syllabus and Student Expectations , the student will complete the related checklist found in the Course Overview.

Discussions (2)

Discussions are collaborative learning experiences. Therefore, the student is required to create a thread in response to the provided topic for each Discussion. Each thread must be at least 600 words, demonstrate course-related knowledge, and use a minimum of 3 properly formatted citations in addition to at least 1 Holy Bible reference. In addition to the thread, the student is required to reply to 2 other classmates’ threads. Each reply must be at least 300 words, and requires a minimum of 1 properly formatted citation in addition to at least 1 Holy Bible reference.  Citations must be in current APA format.

Biblical Position Paper Assignment

The purpose of this assignment is to get you thinking about the nature of human behavior, specifically the deviant side of human behavior.  A detailed discussion of 5-6 pages of the various aspects of the fall of man and the temporal ramifications will be explored.  The heart of man and the wayward desires of the heart should also be explored in an effort to better understand the ease of finding oneself on the wrong side of the law. For this assignment, your only source should be Scripture.

Journal Article Review Assignment

In this assignment you will critically review one (1) recent peer-reviewed article in a minimum of a five (5) pages.  You may wish to spend some time researching critical review techniques for journal articles prior to starting this assignment. At a minimum, you should pay particular attention to the identification the premise and supporting points of the article, a synthesis of the article with positivist school of criminology theories, and a critical evaluation of the premise(s) and supporting points of the article.  The paper must follow current APA guidelines. The page count does not include the title page, abstract, reference section, or any extra material. See the assignment instructions and grading rubric for additional instructions and guidance.

Chapter Application Paper Assignment

The purpose of this paper is to present your well-articulated perspective and thoughts from the chapters assigned from the reading in 8-10 pages.  Each paper must identify the premise and supporting points of the chapter, a synthesis of the information from the chapter, and a critical application of the premise(s) and supporting points from the chapter to an issue of criminal offending.  Formatting must conform to the current APA formatting style.

Research Paper Assignment

In this assignment, you will select one (1) topic: a serial murderer or a policy.  Whichever topic is selected, an introduction to the individual or policy should be detailed followed by a 11-14 page analysis of the theories that might be used to explain or support the individual’s move into criminality or the underpinnings of the policy.  The paper (a total of 16-18 pages) should incorporate a Christian Worldview throughout or have a specific section of dedicated to Christian Worldview.  It is extremely important that you keep the paper between 16-18 page requirement.  Each paper must be thorough but not exhaustive.  At least 15-20 sources, including the Holy Bible and no more than 2 books, must be used and cited.  The paper must be written in the current APA format.

The student will complete a quiz affirming that he or she has access to the HSOG Doctoral Community Canvas page, and that he or she agrees to be bound to all policies contained therein.

Quizzes (8)

Each quiz will cover the Learn material for the Module: Week in which it is assigned with the final quiz in Module 8: Week 8 covering all chapters. Each quiz will be open-book/open-notes, contain 10 multiple-choice and 2 essay questions, and have a 1-hour and 30-minute time limit.

In quiz essays, as in all graduate-level writing, any information other than common knowledge should be cited.  This is especially true for information taken from the course textbooks.  Citations need to conform to current APA format. 

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