cross cultural psychology assignment

Cross-Cultural Psychology

WEIRD, Culture

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that explores the similarities and differences in thinking and behavior between individuals from different cultures.

Scientists using a cross-cultural approach focus on and compare participants from diverse cultural groups to examine ways in which cognitive styles, perception, emotional expression, personality , and other psychological features relate to cultural contexts. They also compare cultural groups on broad dimensions such as individualism and collectivism—roughly, how much a culture emphasizes its members’ individuality versus their roles in a larger group.

Psychologists who are interested in expanding psychology’s focus on diverse cultures have pointed out that the majority of research participants are, to use a popular term, WEIRD: they are from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic societies. Cross-cultural research has made it clear that what psychologists conclude about this slice of the world’s population does not always extend to people with other cultural backgrounds.

• What Is Cross-Cultural Psychology?
• Psychological Differences Across Cultures
• The WEIRDness of Psychology

Psychology’s mission to understand how humans think and behave requires studying humanity as broadly as possible—not just the humans to which researchers tend to be nearest. Psychologists who conduct cross-cultural research investigate the richness of human psychological variation across the world, including points of consistency and divergence between populations with distinct cultural backgrounds, such as those in Western and East Asian countries.

Psychological research that incorporates a more global sample of people provides insights into whether findings and models (such as those about the structure of personality or the nature of mental illness) are universal or not, the extent to which psychological phenomena and characteristics vary across cultures, and the potential reasons for these differences. Cross-cultural research demonstrates that experimental effects, correlations, or other results that are observed in one cultural context—for example, the tendency of Western participants to rate their abilities as better-than-average—do not always appear in the same way, or at all, in others.

While various definitions are used, culture can be understood as the collection of ideas and typical ways of doing things that are shared by members of a society and have been passed down through generations. These can include norms, rules, and values as well as physical creations such as tools.

Cross-cultural studies allow psychologists to make comparisons and inferences about people from different countries or from broader geographic regions (such as North America or the Western world). But psychologists also compare groups at smaller scales, such as people from culturally distinct subpopulations or areas of the same country, or immigrants and non-immigrants. 

While there is overlap between these approaches, there are also differences. Cross-cultural psychology analyzes characteristics and behavior across different cultural groups, with an interest in variation as well as human universals. Cultural psychology involves comparison as well, but has been described as more focused on psychological processes within a particular culture. In another approach, indigenous psychology, research methods, concepts, and theories are developed within the context of the culture being studied.

The inhabitants of different regions and countries have a great deal in common : They build close social relationships, follow rules established by their communities, and engage in important rituals. But globally, groups also exhibit somewhat different psychological tendencies in domains ranging from the strictness of local rules to how happiness and other emotions are conceived. Of course, within each region, nation, or community, there is plenty of individual variation; people who share a culture never think and act in exactly the same way. Cross-cultural psychology seeks to uncover how populations with shared cultures differ on average from those with other cultural backgrounds—and how those differences tie back to cultural influence.

While there are shared aspects of emotional experience across cultural groups, culture seems to influence how people describe, evaluate, and act on emotions. For example, while the experience of shame follows perceived wrongdoing across cultures, having shame may be evaluated more positively in some cultures than in others and may be more likely to prompt behavioral responses such as reaching out to others rather than withdrawing. Different emotional concepts (such as “ anxiety ,” “ fear ,” and “ grief ”) may also be thought of as more or less closely related to each other in different cultures. And cultural differences have been observed with regard to how emotions are interpreted and the “display rules” that individuals learn about appropriate emotional expression.

While happiness seems to be one of the most cross-culturally recognizable emotions in terms of individual expression, culture can influence how one thinks about happiness. Research indicates that people in different cultures vary in how much value they place on happiness and how much they focus on their own well-being. Culture may also affect how people believe happiness should be defined and achieved —whether a good life is to be found more in individual self-enhancement or through one’s role as part of a collective, for example. 

Some mental health conditions, in addition to being reported at markedly different rates in different countries, can also be defined and even experienced in different ways. The appearance of depression may depend partly on culture —with mood-related symptoms emphasized in how Americans think of depression , for example, and bodily symptoms potentially more prominent in China. Features of certain cultural groups, such as highly stable social networks, may also serve as protective factors against the risk of mental illness. Increased understanding of cultural idiosyncrasies could lead to gains in mental health treatment.

Individualism and collectivism are two of the contrasting cultural patterns described in cross-cultural psychology. People in relatively collectivist cultures are described as tending to define themselves as parts of a group and to heed the norms and goals of the group. Those in relatively individualistic cultures are thought to emphasize independence and to favor personal attitudes and preferences to a greater degree. Cross-cultural psychologists have pointed to East Asia, Latin America, and Africa as regions where collectivism is relatively prominent and much of Europe, the U.S., and Canada as among those where individualism is more pronounced. But individualism-collectivism is thought of as a continuum, with particular countries, and cultures within those countries, showing a balance of each.

Tightness and looseness are contrasting cultural patterns related to how closely people adhere to social rules. Each culture has its own rules and norms about everything from acceptable public behavior to what kinds of intimate relationships are allowed. But in some cultures, or even in particular domains within cultures (such as the workplace), the importance placed on rules and norms and the pressure on people to follow them are greater than in other cultural contexts. Relatively rule-bound cultures have been described as “tight” cultures, while more permissive cultures are called “loose.” As with individualism and collectivism, tightness and looseness are thought of as opposite ends of the same dimension.

It seems to be. In the West, the Big Five model of personality traits and related models were developed to broadly map out personality differences, and they have been tested successfully in multiple countries. But research suggests that in some cultures, the Big Five traits are not necessarily the best way to describe how people perceive individual differences. Scientists have also found that associations between personality traits and outcomes that appear in some cultures may not be universal. For example, while more extraverted North Americans appear to be happier, on average, extraverts may not have the same advantage elsewhere.

While some mating preferences, such as a desire for kindness and physical attractiveness in a partner, appear in many if not all cultures, preferences also differ in some ways across cultures—like the importance placed on humor or other traits. In the realm of physical attraction , both men’s preferences and women’s preferences seem to depend partly on the cultural context, with research suggesting that men in wealthier societies more strongly favor women of average-to-slender weight, for instance.

In cross-cultural psychology, an analytic cognitive style roughly describes a tendency to focus on a salient object, person, or piece of information (as in an image or a story) independently from the context in which it appears. A holistic cognitive style, in contrast, involves a tendency to focus more on the broader context and relationship between objects. Using a variety of tasks—such as one in which a scene with both focal objects and background elements is freely described—psychologists have reported evidence that participants from Western cultures (like the U.S.) tend to show a more analytic cognitive style, while those from East Asian cultures (like Japan) show a more holistic cognitive style. Analytic thinking and holistic thinking have been theorized to stem, respectively, from independent and interdependent cultural tendencies.

The psychological findings that get the most attention are disproportionately derived from a fraction of the world’s population. Some scientists call this relatively well-examined subgroup of human societies WEIRD: that is, Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. As long as people who live in countries that meet these descriptors are the primary subjects of psychological research—and that has long been the case—it will often be difficult for psychologists to determine whether an observation applies to people in general or only to those in certain cultural contexts. Increasing the representation of people from diverse cultures in research is therefore a goal of many psychologists.

WEIRD populations are those who are broadly part of the Western world and who live in democratic societies that feature high levels of education , wealth, and industrialization. While there is not a single agreed-upon list of WEIRD cultures—and populations within particular countries can show different levels of these characteristics—commonly cited examples of WEIRD countries include the U.S., Canada, the U.K. and other parts of Western Europe, and Australia. 

Sampling top psychology journals in the mid-2000s, psychologist Jeffrey Arnett observed that 96 percent of research subjects came from Western, industrialized countries that represented just 12 percent of the world’s population, and that about two-thirds were from the U.S. Subjects seemed to largely be sourced from the countries in which the researchers lived. In 2010, citing this finding and others, Joseph Henrich, Steven Heine, and Ara Norenzayan introduced the term WEIRD to describe this subpopulation. They expanded on the problems with focusing so exclusively on such participants and with assuming that findings from a relatively unrepresentative group generalized to the rest of the world.

In numerical terms, it seems, not much. While the problems with global underrepresentation in psychology research have gained more attention in recent years, an updated analysis of top journals in the mid-2010s found that the vast majority of samples were still from Western, industrialized countries, with about 60 percent from the U.S.

In many ways, WEIRD populations seem to be less representative of humans in general than non-WEIRD populations are. Overlapping with other findings from cross-cultural psychology, psychological differences between people from relatively WEIRD countries and those from elsewhere have been noted: WEIRD samples show higher levels of individualism and lower levels of conformity , on average, among other characteristics. One scientist behind the WEIRD concept theorizes that societal changes in the West caused by the Catholic Church, and their subsequent cultural impact, help explain these signature differences.

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What Is Cross-Cultural Psychology?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior. While many aspects of human thought and behavior are universal, cultural differences can lead to often surprising differences in how people think, feel, and act.

Some cultures, for example, might stress individualism and the importance of personal autonomy. Other cultures may place a higher value on collectivism and cooperation among members of the group. Such differences can play an influential role in many aspects of life.

This article discusses the history of cross-cultural psychology, different types of cross-cultural psychology, and applications of this field. It also discusses the impact it has had on the understanding of human psychology.

What Is Culture?

Culture refers to many characteristics of a group of people, including attitudes , behaviors, customs, religious beliefs, and values that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Cultures throughout the world share many similarities but are also marked by considerable differences. For example, while people of all cultures experience happiness , how this feeling is expressed varies from one culture to the next.

The goal of cross-cultural psychologists is to look at both universal behaviors and unique behaviors to identify the ways in which culture influences behavior, family life, education, social experiences, and other areas.

History of Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology is an important topic. Researchers strive to understand both the differences and similarities among people of various cultures throughout the world.

The International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972, and this branch of psychology has continued to grow and develop since that time. Today, increasing numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs among various cultures throughout the world.

After prioritizing European and North American research for many years, Western researchers began to question whether many of the observations and ideas once believed to be universal might apply to cultures outside of these areas. Could their findings and assumptions about human psychology be biased based on the sample from which their observations were drawn?

Many of the findings described by psychologists are focused on a specific group of people, which some researchers have dubbed Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic, often referred to by the acronym WEIRD.

As a result, cross-cultural psychologists suggest that many observations about human thought and behavior may only be generalizable to specific subgroups. To develop a broader, richer understanding of people that can be applied to a wider variety of cultural settings, it is essential for researchers to also look at people from diverse cultures.

Despite recognizing that research has a strong Western bias, evidence suggests that this bias persists today. According to one analysis of six prominent psychology research journals, around 90% of participants in psychology research are drawn from Western, industrialized countries, 60% of which were American.

Cross-cultural psychologists work to rectify many of the biases that may exist in the current research and determine if the phenomena that appear in European and North American cultures also appear in other parts of the world.

Types of Cross-Cultural Psychology

Many cross-cultural psychologists choose to focus on one of two approaches:

• The etic approach studies culture through an "outsider" perspective, applying one "universal" set of concepts and measurements to all cultures.
• The emic approach studies culture using an "insider" perspective, analyzing concepts within the specific context of the observed culture.

It is also common for cross-cultural psychologists to take a combined emic-etic approach.

Meanwhile, some cross-cultural psychologists also study something known as ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism refers to a tendency to use your own culture as the standard by which to judge and evaluate other cultures.

In other words, taking an ethnocentric point of view means using your understanding of your own culture to gauge what is "normal." This can lead to biases and a tendency to view cultural differences as abnormal or in a negative light. It can also make it difficult to see how your cultural background influences your behaviors.

Cross-cultural psychologists often look at how ethnocentrism influences our behaviors and thoughts, including how we interact with individuals from other cultures.  

Psychologists are also concerned with how ethnocentrism can influence the research process. For example, a study might be criticized for having an ethnocentric bias.

Topics in Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology explores many subjects, focusing on how culture affects different aspects of development, thought, and behavior. Some important areas of study include:

• Emotions : This field seeks to understand if all people experience emotions the same way and if emotional expressions are universal.
• Language acquisition : This area explores whether language development follows the same path throughout different cultures.
• Child development : This topic investigates how culture affects child development and whether different cultural practices influence the course of development. For example, psychologists might investigate how child-rearing practices differ in various cultures and how these practices impact variables such as achievement, self-esteem, and subjective well-being .
• Personality : This area researches the degree to which different aspects of personality might be influenced or tied to cultural influences.
• Social behavior : Cultural norms and expectations can have a powerful effect on social behavior, which this topic seeks to understand.
• Family and social relationships : Familial and other interpersonal relationships can also be heavily influenced by societies and cultures.
• Mental health: Professionals who provide mental health services should embrace cultural sensitivity. There can be significant differences in emotional expression, social behaviors, and spiritual beliefs across cultures that are "normal" within the context of the person's culture and should not be treated as a symptom or disorder.

Cross-cultural psychology seeks to understand how culture influences many different aspects of human emotion, thought, and behavior. Cross-cultural psychologists often study child development, personality, and social relationships. Mental health professionals should be culturally sensitive to differing norms in the context of culture.

Uses for Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology touches on a wide range of topics, so students interested in other psychology topics may choose to also focus on this area of psychology. For example, a child psychologist might study how child-rearing practices in different cultures impact development.

Cross-cultural psychology can help teachers, educators, and curriculum designers who create multicultural education lessons and materials learn more about how cultural differences affect student learning, achievement, and motivation.

In the field of social psychology, applying a cross-cultural view might lead researchers to study how social cognition might vary in an individualist culture versus a collectivist culture. Do people from each culture rely on the same types of social cues? What cultural differences might influence how people perceive each other ?

Impact of Cross-Cultural Psychology

Many other branches of psychology focus on how parents, friends, and other people impact human behavior. However, most do not take into account the powerful impact that culture may have on individual human actions.

Cross-cultural psychology focuses on studying human behavior in a way that takes the effects of culture into account.

The study of cross-cultural psychology and the inclusion of more representative and diverse samples in psychology research is essential for understanding the universality and uniqueness of different psychological phenomena. Recognizing how different factors manifest in various cultures can help researchers better understand the underlying influences and causes.

A Word From Verywell

Cross-cultural psychology plays an important role in the understanding of behavior throughout the cultures of the world. While much of psychology research remains primarily Western and Eurocentric, there is a stronger awareness of the importance of representation and diversity in the research process.

Mathews G. Happiness, culture, and context . Int J Wellbeing. 2012;2(4):299-312. doi:10.5502/ijw.v2.i4.2

Lonner WJ. On the growth and continuing importance of cross-cultural psychology . Eye on Psi Chi. 2000;4(3):22-26. doi:10.24839/1092-0803.Eye4.3.22

International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology. About us .

Henrich J, Heine SJ, Norenzayan A. Most people are not WEIRD . Nature . 2010;466(7302):29-29. doi:10.1038/466029a

Thalmayer AG, Toscanelli C, Arnett JJ. The neglected 95% revisited: Is American psychology becoming less American ? American Psychologist . 2021;76(1):116-129. doi:10.1037/amp0000622

Wang Q. Why should we all be cultural psychologists? Lessons from the study of social cognition . Perspect Psychol Sci . 2016;11(5):583-596. doi:10.1177/1745691616645552

Cheung FM, van de Vijver FJ, Leong FT. Toward a new approach to the study of personality in culture . Am Psychol . 2011;66(7):593-603. doi:10.1037/a0022389

Keith KD. Visual illusions and ethnocentrism: Exemplars for teaching cross-cultural concepts . Hist Psychol . 2012;15(2):171-176. doi:10.1037/a0027271

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cross-Cultural Research Methodology In Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Cross-cultural research allows you to identify important similarities and differences across cultures. This research approach involves comparing two or more cultural groups on psychological variables of interest to understand the links between culture and psychology better.

As Matsumoto and van de Vijver (2021) explain, cross-cultural comparisons test the boundaries of knowledge in psychology. Findings from these studies promote international cooperation and contribute to theories accommodating both cultural and individual variation.

However, there are also risks involved. Flawed methodology can produce incorrect cultural knowledge. Thus, cross-cultural scientists must address methodological issues beyond those faced in single-culture studies.

Methodology

Cross-cultural comparative research utilizes quasi-experimental designs comparing groups on target variables.

Cross-cultural research takes an etic outsider view, testing theories and standardized measurements often derived elsewhere. 

• Studies can be exploratory , aimed at increasing understanding of cultural similarities and differences by staying close to the data.
• In contrast, hypothesis-testing studies derive from pre-established frameworks predicting specific cultural differences. They substantially inform theory but may overlook unexpected findings outside researcher expectations (Matsumoto & van de Vijver, 2021).

Each approach has tradeoffs. Exploratory studies broadly uncover differences but have limited explanatory power. While good for revealing novel patterns, exploratory studies cannot address the reasons behind cross-cultural variations.

Hypothesis testing studies substantially inform theory but may overlook unexpected findings. Optimally, cross-cultural research should combine elements of both approaches.

Ideal cross-cultural research combines elements of exploratory work to uncover new phenomena and targeted hypothesis testing to isolate cultural drivers of observed differences (Matsumoto & van de Vijver, 2021).

Cross-cultural scientists should strategically intersect exploratory and theory-driven analysis while considering issues of equivalence and ecological validity.

Other distinctions include: comparing psychological structures versus absolute score levels; analysis at the individual versus cultural levels; and combining individual-level data with country indicators in multilevel modeling (Lun & Bond, 2016; Santos et al., 2017)

Methodological Considerations

Cross-cultural research brings unique methodological considerations beyond single-culture studies. Matsumoto and van de Vijver (2021) explain two key interconnected concepts – bias and equivalence.

Bias refers to systematic differences in meaning or methodology across cultures that threaten the validity of cross-cultural comparisons.

Bias signals a lack of equivalence, meaning score differences do not accurately reflect true psychological construct differences across groups.

There are three main types of bias:

• Construct bias stems from differences in the conceptual meaning of psychological concepts across cultures. This can occur due to incomplete overlap in behaviors related to the construct or differential appropriateness of certain behaviors in different cultures.
• Method bias arises from cross-cultural differences in data collection methods. This encompasses sample bias (differences in sample characteristics), administration bias (differences in procedures), and instrument bias (differences in meaning of specific test items across cultures).
• Item bias refers to specific test items functioning differently across cultural groups, even for people with the same standing on the underlying construct. This can result from issues like poor translation, item ambiguity, or differential familiarity or relevance of content.

Techniques to identify and minimize bias focus on achieving equivalence across cultures. This involves similar conceptualization, data collection methods, measurement properties, scale units and origins, and more.

Careful study design, measurement validation, data analysis, and interpretation help strengthen equivalence and reduce bias.

Equivalence

Equivalence refers to cross-cultural similarity that enables valid comparisons. There are multiple interrelated types of equivalence that researchers aim to establish:

• Conceptual/Construct Equivalence : Researchers evaluate whether the same theoretical construct is being measured across all cultural groups. This can involve literature reviews, focus groups, and pilot studies to assess construct relevance in each culture. Claims of inequivalence argue concepts can’t exist or be understood outside cultural contexts, precluding comparison.
• Functional Equivalence : Researchers test for identical patterns of correlations between the target instrument and other conceptually related and unrelated constructs across cultures. This helps evaluate whether the measure relates to other variables similarly in all groups.
• Structural Equivalence : Statistical techniques like exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis are used to check that underlying dimensions of multi-item instruments have the same structure across cultures.
• Measurement Unit Equivalence : Researchers determine if instruments have identical scale properties and meaning of quantitative score differences within and across cultural groups. This can be checked via methods like differential item functioning analysis.

Multifaceted assessment of equivalence is key for valid interpretation of score differences reflecting actual psychological variability across cultures.

Establishing equivalence requires careful translation and measurement validation using techniques like differential item functioning analysis, assessing response biases, and examining practical significance. Adaptation of instruments or procedures may be warranted to improve relevance for certain groups.

Building equivalence into the research process reduces non-equivalence biases. This avoids incorrect attribution of score differences to cultural divergence, when differences may alternatively reflect methodological inconsistencies.

Procedures to Deal With Bias

Researchers can take steps before data collection (a priori procedures) and after (a posteriori procedures) to deal with bias and equivalence threats. Using both types of procedures is optimal (Matsumoto & van de Vijver, 2021).

Designing cross-cultural studies (a priori procedure)

Simply documenting cultural differences has limited scientific value today, as differences are relatively easy to obtain between distant groups. The critical challenge facing contemporary cross-cultural researchers is isolating the cultural sources of observed differences (Matsumoto & Yoo, 2006).

This involves first defining what constitutes a cultural (vs. noncultural) explanatory variable. Studies should incorporate empirical measures of hypothesized cultural drivers of differences, not just vaguely attribute variations to overall “culture.”

Both top-down and bottom-up models of mutual influence between culture and psychology are plausible. Research designs should align with the theorized causal directionality.

Individual-level cultural factors must also be distinguished conceptually and statistically from noncultural individual differences like personality traits. Not all self-report measures automatically concern “culture.” Extensive cultural rationale is required.

Multi-level modeling can integrate data across individual, cultural, and ecological levels. However, no single study can examine all facets of culture and psychology simultaneously.

Pursuing a narrow, clearly conceptualized scope often yields greater returns than superficial breadth (Matsumoto & van de Vijver, 2021). By tackling small pieces thoroughly, researchers collectively construct an interlocking picture of how culture shapes human psychology.

Sampling (a priori procedure)

Unlike typical American psychology research drawing from student participant pools, cross-cultural work often cannot access similar convenience samples .

Groups compared across cultures frequently diverge substantially in background characteristics beyond the cultural differences of research interest (Matsumoto & van de Vijver, 2021).

Demographic variables like educational level easily become confounds making it difficult to interpret whether cultural or sampling factors drive observed differences in psychological outcomes. Boehnke et al. (2011) note samples of greater cultural distance often have more confounding influences .

Guidelines exist to promote adequate within-culture representativeness and cross-cultural matching on key demographics that cannot be dismissed as irrelevant to the research hypotheses. This allows empirically isolating effects of cultural variables over and above sample characteristics threatening equivalence.

Where perfect demographic matching is impossible across widely disparate groups, analysts should still measure and statistically control salient sample variables that may form rival explanations for group outcome differences. This unpacks whether valid cultural distinctions still exist after addressing sampling confounds.

In summary, sampling rigor in subject selection and representativeness support isolating genuine cultural differences apart from method factors, jeopardizing equivalence in cross-cultural research.

Designing questions and scales (a priori procedure)

Cross-cultural differences in response styles when using rating scales have posed persistent challenges. Once viewed as merely nuisance variables requiring statistical control, theory now conceptualizes styles like social desirability, acquiescence, and extremity as a meaningful individual and cultural variation in their own right (Smith, 2004).

For example, an agreeableness acquiescence tendency may be tracked with harmony values in East Asia. Efforts to simply “correct for” response style biases can thus discount substantive culture-linked variation in scale scores (Matsumoto & van de Vijver, 2021).

Guidelines help adapt item design, instructions, response options, scale polarity, and survey properties to mitigate certain biases and equivocal interpretations when comparing scores across groups.

It remains important to assess response biases empirically through statistical controls or secondary measures. This evaluates whether cultural score differences reflect intended psychological constructs above and beyond style artifacts.

Appropriately contextualizing different response tendencies allows judiciously retaining stylistic variation attributable to cultural factors while isolating bias-threatening equivalence. Interpreting response biases as culturally informative rather than merely as problematic noise affords richer analysis.

In summary, response styles exhibit differential prevalence across cultures and should be analyzed contextually through both control and embrace rather than simplistically dismissed as invalid nuisance factors.

A Posteriori Procedures to Deal With Bias

After data collection, analysts can evaluate measurement equivalence and probe biases threatening the validity of cross-cultural score comparisons (Matsumoto & van de Vijver, 2021).

For structure-oriented studies examining relationships among variables, techniques like exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and multidimensional scaling assess similarities in conceptual dimensions across groups. This establishes structural equivalence.

For comparing group mean scores, methods like differential item functioning, logistic regression, and standardization identify biases causing specific items or scales to function differently across cultures. Addressing biases promotes equivalence (Fischer & Fontaine, 2011; Sireci, 2011).

Multilevel modeling clarifies connections between culture-level ecological factors, individual psychological outcomes, and variables at other levels simultaneously. This leverages the nested nature of cross-cultural data (Matsumoto et al., 2007).

Supplementing statistical significance with effect sizes evaluates the real-world importance of score differences. Metrics like standardized mean differences and probability of superiority prevent overinterpreting minor absolute variations between groups (Matsumoto et al., 2001).

In summary, a posteriori analytic approach evaluates equivalence at structural and measurement levels and isolates biases interfering with valid score comparisons across cultures. Quantifying practical effects also aids replication and application.

Ethical Issues

Several ethical considerations span the research process when working across cultures. In design, conscious efforts must counteract subtle perpetuation of stereotypes through poorly constructed studies or ignorance of biases.

Extensive collaboration with cultural informants and members can alert researchers to pitfalls (Matsumoto & van de Vijver, 2021).

Recruiting participants ethically becomes more complex globally, as coercion risks increase without shared assumptions about voluntary participation rights.

Securing comprehensible, properly translated informed consent also grows more demanding, though remains an ethical priority even when local guidelines seem more lax. Confidentiality protections likewise prove more intricate across legal systems, requiring extra researcher care.

Studying sensitive topics like gender, sexuality, and human rights brings additional concerns in varying cultural contexts, necessitating localized ethical insight.

Analyzing and reporting data in a culturally conscious manner provides its own challenges, as both subtle biases and consciously overgeneralizing findings can spur harm.

Above all, ethical cross-cultural research requires recognizing communities as equal partners, not mere data sources. From first consultations to disseminating final analyses, maintaining indigenous rights and perspectives proves paramount to ethical engagement.

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Matsumoto, D., & Juang, L. P. (2023). Culture and psychology (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Matsumoto, D., & van de Vijver, F.J.R. (2021). Cross-cultural research methods in psychology. In H. Cooper (Ed.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 97-113). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000318-005

Matsumoto, D., & Yoo, S. H. (2006). Toward a new generation of cross cultural research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1 (3), 234-250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00014.x

Nezlek, J. (2011). Multilevel modeling. In D. Matsumoto & F. J. R. van de Vijver (Eds.), Cross-cultural research methods in psychology (pp. 299–347). Cambridge University Press.

Shweder, R. A. (1999). Why cultural psychology? Ethos, 27 (1), 62–73.

Sireci, S. G. (2011). Evaluating test and survey items for bias across languages and cultures. In D. Matsumoto & F. J. R. van de Vijver (Eds.), Cross-cultural research methods in psychology (pp. 216–243). Cambridge University Press.

Smith, P. B. (2004). Acquiescent response bias as an aspect of cultural communication style. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35 (1), 50–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022103260380

van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2009). Types of cross-cultural studies in cross-cultural psychology. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2 (2). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1017

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Cross-Cultural Assessment

Cross-cultural assessment is a vital dimension of contemporary psychology, marked by the necessity of understanding and addressing cultural diversity in the assessment process. This article explores the foundations, methods, and challenges of cross-cultural assessment, emphasizing the critical role of cultural competence in effective psychological evaluation. The introduction sets the stage by highlighting the importance of this field, while the subsequent sections delve into the historical evolution, cultural factors, linguistic considerations, and ethical dimensions of cross-cultural assessment. Special attention is given to the diverse tools and approaches available, including the cultural adaptation of assessment instruments. Additionally, the article addresses current debates, technological influences, and future directions in cross-cultural assessment, emphasizing the significance of ongoing research. In conclusion, the article underscores the imperative for psychologists to embrace cultural competence and adapt assessment practices in an ever-diverse global context.

Introduction

Cross-cultural assessment is a critical component of modern psychology, acknowledging the diverse cultural tapestry of the human experience. It encompasses the process of evaluating an individual’s psychological attributes, behaviors, and cognitive functioning within the context of their cultural background. Understanding cultural diversity is essential for accurate, fair, and effective psychological assessment. This introduction provides a gateway into the world of cross-cultural assessment, shedding light on its fundamental significance in the field of psychology.

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The necessity of cultural competence in psychological assessment cannot be overstated. Cultural competence refers to the ability of psychologists to work effectively with individuals from various cultural backgrounds, ensuring that the assessment process is unbiased, respectful, and responsive to cultural nuances. Without cultural competence, assessments may be inherently flawed, leading to inaccurate conclusions, misdiagnoses, and inadequate interventions. The cultural competence of assessors is pivotal in fostering trust and rapport with clients, as well as in producing assessments that are valid and culturally sensitive.

The primary objective of this article is to provide a comprehensive exploration of cross-cultural assessment, offering insights into its foundations, methodologies, challenges, and future directions. By delving into this multifaceted subject, we aim to equip psychologists, researchers, and practitioners with the knowledge and tools necessary to conduct culturally competent assessments. This article is structured into three distinct parts. The first part examines the foundations of cross-cultural assessment, discussing the conceptualization of culture, its historical development, and the cultural factors that influence assessment outcomes. Part II is dedicated to the methods and instruments employed in cross-cultural assessment, addressing linguistic considerations, acculturation, and the importance of culturally sensitive approaches. In Part III, we explore contemporary issues and future trends in cross-cultural assessment, emphasizing the ongoing need for research, collaboration, and cultural adaptation. The conclusion of this article will summarize the key insights and underscore the central role of cultural competence in shaping the future of psychological assessment. Together, this article offers a roadmap to navigate the intricate terrain of cross-cultural assessment in the diverse and interconnected world of psychology.

Foundations of Cross-Cultural Assessment

The notion of culture is central to cross-cultural assessment, and understanding its role is paramount. Culture encompasses a wide array of elements, including shared values, beliefs, traditions, and practices that characterize a particular group or society. In the context of psychological assessment, culture refers to the ways in which an individual’s cultural background influences their behaviors, perceptions, and responses to assessment measures. Recognizing this influence is critical because it enables assessors to account for cultural variations and biases that may affect assessment outcomes. Moreover, culture is not limited to ethnicity or nationality; it can encompass subcultures, generational differences, and even the impact of globalization on identity formation.

Cross-cultural assessment has evolved significantly over the years, reflecting changing societal dynamics and the growing awareness of cultural diversity. Initially, psychological assessments were primarily designed with a Western, Eurocentric perspective, assuming universality in the human experience. However, this approach has proven to be inadequate for addressing the unique needs and characteristics of diverse populations. As a response to these limitations, the field of cross-cultural assessment emerged, driven by the recognition that culture shapes cognition, emotional expression, and behavior. Historical milestones in the development of cross-cultural assessment include the publication of culturally adapted tests and the establishment of ethical guidelines to ensure that assessments are culturally sensitive and fair.

Culture exerts a profound influence on every stage of the assessment process. From the selection of assessment tools to the interpretation of results, cultural factors must be considered. Language, for instance, plays a pivotal role in communication and comprehension during assessments. Individuals who speak languages other than the one in which the assessment is administered may face linguistic barriers that hinder accurate evaluation. Cultural norms and expectations regarding appropriate behavior, emotional expression, and social interaction also impact assessment responses. These cultural factors necessitate the development of culturally competent assessment strategies to mitigate biases and enhance the validity of results.

Cross-cultural assessment is not without its challenges and potential biases. Common biases may arise due to cultural misunderstandings, stereotyping, and ethnocentrism, where the assessor unconsciously evaluates individuals from the perspective of their own culture. This can lead to misinterpretations and inaccuracies in assessment outcomes. Other challenges include cultural mistrust, where individuals from minority or marginalized groups may be skeptical of the assessment process due to historical or institutional biases. The challenge of achieving equivalence in assessment, ensuring that assessment tools are valid and reliable across different cultural groups, is an ongoing concern. The recognition of these biases and challenges is a crucial step towards improving the quality of cross-cultural assessment.

Ethical considerations are at the core of cross-cultural assessment, as the potential for harm, misdiagnosis, and perpetuation of stereotypes is significant. Psychologists and assessors must adhere to ethical principles, such as beneficence and non-maleficence, when conducting assessments across cultures. This includes the responsibility to maximize the benefits of assessment while minimizing potential harm. Additionally, respect for individuals’ autonomy and confidentiality is essential in the assessment process. Ethical guidelines stress the importance of cultural competence, encouraging assessors to be aware of their biases, seek ongoing training, and approach each assessment with humility and respect for the individual’s cultural context. The development and utilization of culturally sensitive assessment tools and approaches are imperative for ethical cross-cultural assessment.

Methods and Instruments in Cross-Cultural Assessment

Standardized assessment tools are fundamental in psychology, offering a consistent and systematic means of evaluating various psychological attributes. However, these tools may be influenced by cultural biases and may not be universally applicable. This section provides an overview of the standardized assessment instruments commonly used in psychological assessment and introduces the concept of cultural adaptation. Cultural adaptation involves modifying assessment tools to make them more suitable for use across different cultural groups. This process may include translation, revalidation, and norming on culturally diverse populations. The adaptation of assessments is vital for ensuring that they are fair and unbiased, and this section explores the principles and challenges associated with cultural adaptations.

Language is a central element in psychological assessment, and linguistic considerations play a critical role in cross-cultural assessment. Language barriers can significantly impact the validity and reliability of assessment results. When individuals are assessed in a language they are not proficient in, their true abilities and psychological characteristics may not be accurately represented. This section delves into the challenges of language in assessment, including issues related to translation, interpretation, and the importance of ensuring linguistic equivalence. It also discusses the need for linguistic and cultural competence among assessors to effectively navigate language-related challenges.

Acculturation and assimilation are processes that individuals undergo when adapting to a new cultural environment. These processes have implications for psychological assessment. Individuals who are in the process of acculturating or assimilating may experience shifts in their self-identity, values, and beliefs, which can influence their responses to assessment measures. This section examines the impact of acculturation and assimilation on assessment and highlights the need for assessors to understand and account for these dynamics. Strategies for assessing individuals at different stages of acculturation are explored, recognizing the complexity of measuring cultural change within the context of psychological assessment.

Cultural competence is essential for conducting culturally sensitive assessments. This section introduces various approaches to achieving cultural competence among assessors. It emphasizes the importance of self-awareness, ongoing education, and cultural humility. Culturally sensitive assessment requires assessors to recognize their own biases, challenge stereotypes, and approach each assessment with an open mind. This section also discusses the value of collaborative assessment, which involves working closely with individuals from the same cultural background or using cultural liaisons when conducting assessments. Culturally competent assessors are better equipped to understand the unique cultural contexts of their clients and to make informed decisions throughout the assessment process.

To provide practical insights into the concepts discussed in this section, real-world case studies and examples of culturally adapted assessments are presented. These case studies demonstrate how cultural adaptation, linguistic considerations, and the understanding of acculturation dynamics can be applied in practice to enhance the validity and fairness of assessments. These examples underscore the significance of cultural competence in ensuring that assessments accurately reflect an individual’s psychological attributes within their cultural context.

Issues and Future Directions in Cross-Cultural Assessment

Cross-cultural assessment is a field characterized by ongoing debates and controversies. One of the central debates centers on the universal versus culture-specific aspects of psychological constructs. Assessors grapple with the question of whether there are psychological traits or disorders that are universally applicable across cultures, or if these constructs are entirely culture-dependent. Additionally, debates exist regarding the appropriateness of using Western-derived assessment tools in non-Western cultures. This section delves into these debates, exploring the challenges and implications of these ongoing controversies in the field.

The contemporary world is marked by globalization and the rapid advancement of technology. These factors have significant implications for cross-cultural assessment. The increased movement of individuals across borders and the interconnectivity of cultures have led to a more complex landscape for assessment. Furthermore, technology has opened new avenues for conducting assessments remotely and has introduced digital tools and platforms. This section discusses how globalization and technology have shaped and continue to reshape cross-cultural assessment, examining the benefits, challenges, and ethical considerations associated with these changes.

Cross-cultural assessment extends beyond cultural diversity to encompass diversity in various other dimensions, including gender, age, and sexual orientation. This section explores the challenges and considerations associated with assessing psychological attributes within these diverse populations. Gender and age, in particular, influence how individuals experience and express their psychological characteristics, requiring assessors to adapt their approaches. Sexual orientation adds another layer of complexity, as stigma, discrimination, and societal attitudes may impact assessment outcomes. The section highlights the need for assessments that are sensitive to the unique experiences and challenges faced by these diverse groups.

Advancements in psychometrics and statistical approaches have revolutionized the field of cross-cultural assessment. This section explores the latest developments in measurement theory, item response theory, and differential item functioning analysis. These advancements allow assessors to identify and correct cultural biases in assessment items and enhance the comparability of assessment results across different cultural groups. Additionally, statistical techniques have been developed to determine the degree of invariance in assessment measures, helping assessors ascertain whether the same constructs are being measured across cultures. These advancements provide powerful tools for improving the accuracy and fairness of cross-cultural assessments.

Cross-cultural assessment is a dynamic field that continually evolves in response to societal changes and emerging research. Research and collaboration are the lifeblood of this field. This section emphasizes the importance of ongoing research to address current issues, refine existing practices, and develop new strategies. Collaborative efforts between psychologists, researchers, and individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds are crucial in enhancing the relevance and quality of assessments. Moreover, cross-disciplinary collaborations with experts in anthropology, sociology, and linguistics contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the cultural dimensions of assessment. The section concludes by highlighting the importance of a collective effort to advance cross-cultural assessment and promote its ethical and effective practice.

This comprehensive exploration of cross-cultural assessment has shed light on the intricate landscape of psychological evaluation within diverse cultural contexts. We have discussed the foundations of cross-cultural assessment, including the conceptualization of culture, its historical development, and the cultural factors that influence assessment. The methods and instruments used in cross-cultural assessment, such as standardized tools, language considerations, and cultural adaptation, have been examined. Moreover, we have delved into contemporary issues and future trends in this field, including ongoing debates, the impact of globalization and technology, the assessment of diverse populations, and advancements in psychometrics. Now, we summarize the key insights to underscore the critical importance of cultural competence in the practice of psychology.

Cultural competence is the linchpin of cross-cultural assessment. Assessors must possess the awareness, knowledge, and skills required to conduct evaluations that are fair, accurate, and respectful of diverse cultural backgrounds. Without cultural competence, assessments are vulnerable to biases, misunderstandings, and inaccuracies. Recognizing the significance of cultural competence in assessment is essential to ensure that individuals from various cultural backgrounds receive equitable and meaningful evaluations.

As we look to the future, cross-cultural assessment faces both opportunities and challenges. The ongoing debates regarding the universality of psychological constructs and the appropriateness of Western-derived assessment tools continue to shape the field. Globalization and technology present new possibilities for remote assessments and digital tools but also raise ethical concerns. The assessment of diverse populations, including considerations of gender, age, and sexual orientation, requires tailored approaches that respect individual differences. Advancements in psychometrics and statistical approaches offer powerful tools for addressing cultural biases. However, the field must also grapple with the dynamic nature of cultural diversity and the evolving ways cultures intersect and influence each other.

Psychologists and researchers bear a crucial responsibility in promoting cultural competence in psychological assessment. They must engage in continuous self-examination, seek training in cultural competence, and remain attuned to the nuances of diverse cultural contexts. Collaboration among professionals and across disciplines is indispensable in advancing the field. Through research and collaborative efforts, psychologists and researchers can drive innovation, address existing challenges, and contribute to the ongoing development of culturally competent assessment practices.

In conclusion, cross-cultural assessment is not merely a specialized niche within psychology; it is an imperative aspect of the profession in an increasingly interconnected world. The significance of understanding and addressing cultural diversity in psychological evaluation cannot be overstated. Through cultural competence and an unwavering commitment to fairness and respect, psychologists and researchers can ensure that assessments reflect the unique experiences of individuals within their cultural contexts. In doing so, they contribute to the advancement of psychology as a field that values and respects the diverse tapestry of humanity, recognizing that each thread contributes to the richness and depth of our understanding of the human mind and behavior.

References:

• Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), 697-712.
• Cheung, F. M., & Halpern, D. F. (Eds.). (2010). Women at the top: Challenges, choices, and change. Wiley.
• Geisinger, K. F. (1994). Cross-cultural normative assessment: Translation and adaptation issues influencing the normative interpretation of assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 6(4), 304-312.
• Helms, J. E., & Cook, D. A. (1999). Using race and culture in counseling and psychotherapy: Theory and process. Allyn & Bacon.
• Helms, J. E., & Richardson, T. Q. (1997). Exploring the ethics and rationale of multicultural competence. The Counseling Psychologist, 25(1), 45-52.
• Hui, C. H., & Triandis, H. C. (1985). Measurement in cross-cultural psychology: A review and comparison of strategies. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 16(2), 131-152.
• Lonner, W. J. (2016). Problems in cross-cultural assessment. In F. J. R. van de Vijver, D. A. van Hemert, & Y. H. Poortinga (Eds.), Multilevel analysis of individuals and cultures (pp. 329-345). Psychology Press.
• Padilla, A. M. (1990). Acculturation: Theory, models, and some new findings. In Acculturation: Theory, models and some new findings (Vol. 5, pp. 63-82). Westview Press.
• Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156-176.
• Ponterotto, J. G., & Casas, J. M. (2015). Handbook of multicultural counseling. Sage Publications.
• Rogler, L. H., Malgady, R. G., & Rodriguez, O. (1989). Hispanics and mental health: A framework for research. Malabar, FL: Krieger.
• Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2008). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice. John Wiley & Sons.
• Trimble, J. E. (2003). Introduction: Social, cultural, and cognitive perspectives on the assessment of human strengths. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology assessment (pp. 3-8). American Psychological Association.
• van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Tanzer, N. K. (2004). Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural assessment: An overview. European Review of Applied Psychology, 54(2), 119-135.
• van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Leung, K. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Sage.
• Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4-70.
• Van Geert, P. L. C., & Mos, L. P. (2017). Handbook of international psychological assessment. Psychology Press.
• van Hemert, D. A., Poortinga, Y. H., & van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2002). Understanding acculturation: An analysis of Dutch and Turkish adaptation in the Netherlands. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32(6), 861-880.
• Zane, N., & Mark, K. (2003). Complicating the question of cultural competence. American Psychologist, 58(4), 317-318.
• Zane, N., & Yeh, M. (2002). The use of culturally-based variables in assessment: Studies on loss of face. In K. S. Yang, & K. Hwang (Eds.), Scientific advances in indigenous psychologies (pp. 65-86). Springer.

Cross-cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology is the study of how cultural variables influence human behavior, cognition, and emotion. It is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes under various cultural contexts, including their variety and invariance.

It investigates how culture shapes and influences diverse psychological processes, including common values, beliefs, customs, norms, and practices. It tries to enhance and develop psychology by expanding research approaches to recognize cultural variation in behavior, language, and meaning. This field is critical for understanding how people from various cultural origins think, feel, and behave in different ways.

Because there are concerns that theories dealing with central themes such as affect, cognition, self-concept, and issues such as psychopathology, anxiety, and depression may lack external validity when “exported” to other cultural contexts, cross-cultural psychology re-examines them using methodologies designed to account for cultural variance.

Here are some key aspects of cross-cultural psychology:

• Cultural Variation: It investigates the similarities and differences in psychological processes across cultures. It acknowledges the lack of a universal “one-size-fits-all” model for understanding human behavior and cognition.
• Cultural Relativity: This viewpoint emphasizes the importance of understanding psychological processes within the cultural context in which they occur. What is deemed normal or abnormal, desirable or unpleasant, and moral or immoral varies greatly amongst cultures.
• Cultural Universals: While cultural variations are a primary focus of cross-cultural psychology, researchers also seek cultural universals, or features of human psychology that are consistent across cultures. These are the characteristics, actions, or cognitive processes that seem to be shared by all human societies.
• Acculturation: Acculturation is the process of adapting to a new culture when an individual or group migrates or is exposed to a different cultural environment. Cross-cultural psychology explores how individuals navigate this process, and how it affects their mental health, identity, and well-being.
• Cultural Psychology: Cultural psychology is closely related to cross-cultural psychology, but it focuses on how culture impacts people’s minds and behaviors within a specific cultural setting. It frequently entails doing study inside a specific cultural group to investigate the unique ways in which culture influences psychological processes.

Practical Applications

Cross-cultural psychology is useful in fields such as education, business, healthcare, and international relations. Understanding how culture influences behavior is critical for facilitating effective communication, eliminating misunderstandings, and encouraging collaboration among various cultural groups.

Some opponents have pointed out methodological issues in cross-cultural psychological research, claiming that major errors in the theoretical and methodological foundations used inhibit, rather than help, the scientific search for universal principles in psychology. Cross-cultural psychologists are focusing on how differences (variance) occur rather than looking for universals in the manner of physics or chemistry.

Overall, cross-cultural psychology contributes significantly to our knowledge of human behavior and cognition by emphasizing the impact of culture on these processes. It is especially pertinent in our increasingly globalized society, where individuals from all walks of life communicate and collaborate more than ever before.

Depth Psychology

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CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY

COLBI JOHNSON

Assignments Takeaway

Assignment one was about intercultural sensitivity. Intercultural sensitivity refers to how acceptable an individual is to cultural difference. The assignment required us to read an article about intercultural sensitivity, choose a stage of sensitivity that we identified with, and explain our reasons for identifying with that stage. The level of intercultural sensitivity that I chose was was the acceptance of difference stage. My key points for choosing the acceptance of difference stage included: my behavior, and how I applied my behavior to my daily life and work environment. The examples I used to explain my reasoning included: keeping an open mind with regard to people from different cultures, and attempting to understand the reason behind their choices. I also included debates and discussions with people in my major or related fields. Lastly I included the protests that I participated in and what I fight for regarding equality for all people.

This assignment helped me understand what the different stages of intercultural sensitivity meant, and specifically how people behaved in those different stages. This assignment also broadened my understanding of thought processes among people in situations where there is cultural difference. Lastly this assignment taught me to not to be judgmental of people who think or view things differently than I do. Assignment one was personally relevant to me because it helped me open up to people who may not know me through my writing, I pointed out my expectations for this course, and lastly I was able to express how I would like my semester to be in this course. I can and will continue to apply what I learned from this assignment in my daily life, in my courses which all require me to look at different cultures, and in a professional setting.

Assignment two was about American values. Our instructions were to read an article about the most important values in American cultures, describe the value that was most important to oneself and support it with individual personal experiences. The value I chose was directness, openness, and honesty. I supported my choice by using my personal relationships with loved ones and my professional relationships at work and in the classroom. I also discussed what openness, directness, and honesty meant to me.

This assignment helped me realize that Americans do actually have a list of values that they live by. It is one thing to know what is valued by oneself, but individuals normally do not think about what is valued by the public in american culture. This assignment also helped me slow down and considered how I could potentially offend someone from another culture by being direct, open, and honest. Other cultures view the idea of being, open, direct, and honest as potentially threatening to the social order. Thus, being open, direct, and honest is considered disrespectful and an attempt to embarrass someone rather than showing respect for them and their position. This assignment was personally relevant to me because I learned something new reflected on my own character. I can apply what I learned in my personal life and professional life which is very beneficial for me and the people I encounter now and may encounter in the future.

This assignment required us to read and analyze a student’s blog from studying abroad as well as relate to what was read in the text. I chose Bisi Oyelola’s blog because the location of her study abroad trip was in Accra, Ghana which is somewhere I have ever been. It was also shocking to know someone went to Africa for a study abroad trip. Africa is somewhere I plan to go one day, and a place I did not think study abroad trips occurred. In this assignment I discussed my reason for choosing her blog as well as the transition between her first blog post and her last. I also mentioned that her perspective reminded me of interdependent contrual of self due to the emphasis on famliy and what it means to be Ghanian. I also discussed what she learned while being in Ghana and her feelings towards Ghana before and after her study abroad trip.

I learned a lot by doing this assignment, and I am sure that I can apply it to my life. I plan to study abroad in Spain this summer for about three weeks. I did not pick the student that went to Spain, but I still feel less nervous about going there since I read Bisi’s blog. Bisi was nervous about being welcomed in Ghana, which is what worried me about Spain. I wonder if the citizens there are friendly towards tourists. Bisi’s blog taught me to expect the unexpected which is something I will apply to my life while in Spain, and in my daily life.

While reading Bisi’s blog, I also learned what it means to be patient. I struggle with having patience for anything that seems ridiculous to me. It sometimes causes a strain in my personal relationships with loved ones because I check out and become very nonchalant towards their reactions to my actions. Patience is something I want to have more of, and reading Bisi’s blog put me one step closer to that goal.

    Assignment four was about how gender is portrayed in advertisements. We were tasked with finding 6-12 advertisement in North America and outside of North America. After finding those advertisements, we were instructed to compare them as well as discuss their effect on gender roles in society.

    The advertisements I chose were from Nivea, Gucci, Dolce & Gabbana, a magazine from the Middle East, and Bed, Bath, and Beyond; and American Apparel. Gucci as well as Dolce & Gabbana and American Apparel objectified women for sex, Nivea associated women with purity; Bed, Bath, and Beyond placed women in domestic work, and the magazine from the Middle East completely left women out of the engineering advertisement. Thus, I concluded that all six of those advertisements placed women in traditional gender roles and promoted the idea that women are objects, not suited for work, and controlled by a male presence.

    This assignment made me realize how much influence the media has on society through promotion of traditional roles. It also made me realize how much women are sexually objectified for the purpose of promoting a product; that is the true meaning of the phrase “sex sells.” I can relate to this assignment; when in North Carolina with my husband, a United States Marine, I am expected to take care of our home which included cleaning, preparing dinner while also completing school work. I am also tasked with taking care of any paperwork that needs to be done when he is not around. Doing domestic work is not a burden for, but if I skip a day; consequently, he will have to come home and take of it. He does not complain, but I know it does not please him to come home and complete tasks that I am expected to complete.

    I can and will apply what I learned from this assignment to my life, by recognizing what people think I should be doing without allowing their thoughts on traditions to control the decisions I make.

                                                                      ATA5

          The instructions for assignment five were to choose a country and chapter, then find an article related to the country and chapter chosen. The country I chose to write about was Spain. I chose Spain because I plan on studying abroad there this summer. The chapter I chose was gender. I was curious about how gender affected the view of women in Spain with regard to possessing leadership positions. There was also a comparison between gender stereotypes and how they are expressed between Spain and the United States. The comparison between the two countries was supported by statistics. Reasons for gender inequality in Spain were also provided in the assignment.

           This assignment made realize that gender inequality still exists today just as much as it did in the past; however, it is expressed in different ways with the same reasoning behind it. I learned a little bit about the culture in Spain through the lens of women. This assignment also opened to my eyes to how prejudice the professional world can be for women not only in the United States, but Spain as well. As a result of what I learn I was able to think of ways to provide support for gender equality around the world.

          This assignment was personally relevant to me because as stated before I am studying abroad in Spain this summer. I will apply what I learned from this assignment to my study abroad trip as well as my professional life. I will be mindful of how my social media accounts present who I am as a student and a professional employee.

Psychology Research Guide: Cross-Cultural Comparison / Cumulative Research Assignment

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• Examine a psychological concept and compare it to at least one other, non-American culture.
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