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Practical C Programming, 3rd Edition by Steve Oualline

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Chapter 4. Basic Declarations and Expressions

A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step.

If carpenters made buildings the way programmers make programs, the first woodpecker to come along would destroy all of civilization.

Elements of a Program

If you are going to construct a building, you need two things: the bricks and a blueprint that tells you how to put them together. In computer programming, you need two things: data (variables) and instructions (code or functions). Variables are the basic building blocks of a program. Instructions tell the computer what to do with the variables.

Comments are used to describe the variables and instructions. They are notes by the author documenting the program so that the program is clear and easy to read. Comments are ignored by the computer.

In construction, before we can start, we must order our materials: “We need 500 large bricks, 80 half-size bricks, and 4 flagstones.” Similarly, in C, we must declare our variables before we can use them. We must name each one of our “bricks” and tell C what type of brick to use.

After our variables are defined, we can begin to use them. In construction, the basic structure is a room. By combining many rooms, we form a building. In C, the basic structure is a function. Functions can be combined to form a program.

An apprentice builder does not start out building the Empire State Building, but rather starts on a one-room house. In this chapter, we will concentrate on constructing simple one-function programs.

Basic Program Structure

The basic elements of a program are the data declarations, functions, and comments. Let’s see how these can be organized into a simple C program.

The basic structure of a one-function program is:

Heading comments tell the programmer about the program, and data declarations describe the data that the program is going to use.

Our single function is named main . The name main is special, because it is the first function called. Other functions are called directly or indirectly from main . The function main begins with:

and ends with:

The line return(0); is used to tell the operating system (UNIX or MS-DOS/Windows) that the program exited normally (Status=0). A nonzero status indicates an error—the bigger the return value, the more severe the error. Typically, a status of 1 is used for the most simple errors, like a missing file or bad command-line syntax.

Now, let’s take a look at our Hello World program ( Example 3-1 ).

At the beginning of the program is a comment box enclosed in /* and */ . Following this box is the line:

This statement signals C that we are going to use the standard I/O package. The statement is a type of data declaration. [ 5 ] Later we use the function printf from this package.

Our main routine contains the instruction:

This line is an executable statement instructing C to print the message “Hello World” on the screen. C uses a semicolon ( ; ) to end a statement in much the same way we use a period to end a sentence. Unlike line-oriented languages such as BASIC, an end-of-line does not end a statement. The sentences in this book can span several lines—the end of a line is treated just like space between words. C works the same way. A single statement can span several lines. Similarly, you can put several sentences on the same line, just as you can put several C statements on the same line. However, most of the time your program is more readable if each statement starts on a separate line.

The standard function printf is used to output our message. A library routine is a C procedure or function that has been written and put into a library or collection of useful functions. Such routines perform sorting, input, output, mathematical functions, and file manipulation. See your C reference manual for a complete list of library functions.

Hello World is one of the simplest C programs. It contains no computations; it merely sends a single message to the screen. It is a starting point. After you have mastered this simple program, you have done a number of things correctly.

Simple Expressions

Computers can do more than just print strings—they can also perform calculations. Expressions are used to specify simple computations. The five simple operators in C are listed in Table 4-1 .

Multiply ( * ), divide ( / ), and modulus ( % ) have precedence over add ( + ) and subtract (-). Parentheses, ( ), may be used to group terms. Thus:

yields 12, while:

Example 4-1 computes the value of the expression (1 + 2) * 4 .

Although we calculate the answer, we don’t do anything with it. (This program will generate a “null effect” warning to indicate that there is a correctly written, but useless, statement in the program.)

Think about how confused a workman would be if we were constructing a building and said,

“Take your wheelbarrow and go back and forth between the truck and the building site.” “Do you want me to carry bricks in it?” “No. Just go back and forth.”

We need to store the results of our calculations.

Variables and Storage

C allows us to store values in variables . Each variable is identified by a variable name .

In addition, each variable has a variable type . The type tells C how the variable is going to be used and what kind of numbers (real, integer) it can hold. Names start with a letter or underscore ( _ ), followed by any number of letters, digits, or underscores. Uppercase is different from lowercase, so the names sam , Sam , and SAM specify three different variables. However, to avoid confusion, you should use different names for variables and not depend on case differences.

Nothing prevents you from creating a name beginning with an underscore; however, such names are usually reserved for internal and system names.

Most C programmers use all-lowercase variable names. Some names like int , while , for , and float have a special meaning to C and are considered reserved words . They cannot be used for variable names.

The following is an example of some variable names:

The following are not variable names:

Avoid variable names that are similar. For example, the following illustrates a poor choice of variable names:

A much better set of names is:

Variable Declarations

Before you can use a variable in C, it must be defined in a declaration statement .

A variable declaration serves three purposes:

It defines the name of the variable.

It defines the type of the variable (integer, real, character, etc.).

It gives the programmer a description of the variable. The declaration of a variable answer can be:

The keyword int tells C that this variable contains an integer value. (Integers are defined below.) The variable name is answer . The semicolon ( ; ) marks the end of the statement, and the comment is used to define this variable for the programmer. (The requirement that every C variable declaration be commented is a style rule. C will allow you to omit the comment. Any experienced teacher, manager, or lead engineer will not.)

The general form of a variable declaration is:

where type is one of the C variable types ( int , float , etc.) and name is any valid variable name. This declaration explains what the variable is and what it will be used for. (In Chapter 9 , we will see how local variables can be declared elsewhere.)

Variable declarations appear just before the main() line at the top of a program.

One variable type is integer. Integer numbers have no fractional part or decimal point. Numbers such as 1, 87, and -222 are integers. The number 8.3 is not an integer because it contains a decimal point. The general form of an integer declaration is:

A calculator with an 8-digit display can only handle numbers between 99999999 and -99999999. If you try to add 1 to 99999999, you will get an overflow error. Computers have similar limits. The limits on integers are implementation dependent, meaning they change from computer to computer.

Calculators use decimal digits (0-9). Computers use binary digits (0-1) called bits. Eight bits make a byte. The number of bits used to hold an integer varies from machine to machine. Numbers are converted from binary to decimal for printing.

On most UNIX machines, integers are 32 bits (4 bytes), providing a range of 2147483647 (2 31 -1) to -2147483648. On the PC, most compilers use only 16 bits (2 bytes), so the range is 32767 (2 15 -1) to -32768. These sizes are typical. The standard header file limits.h defines constants for the various numerical limits. (See Chapter 18 , for more information on header files.)

The C standard does not specify the actual size of numbers. Programs that depend on an integer being a specific size (say 32 bits) frequently fail when moved to another machine.

Question 4-1 : The following will work on a UNIX machine, but will fail on a PC :

Why does this fail? What will be the result when it is run on a PC? (Click here for the answer Section 4.12 )

Assignment Statements

Variables are given a value through the use of assignment statements. For example:

is an assignment. The variable answer on the left side of the equal sign ( = ) is assigned the value of the expression (1 + 2) * 4 on the right side. The semicolon ( ; ) ends the statement.

Declarations create space for variables. Figure 4-1 A illustrates a variable declaration for the variable answer . We have not yet assigned it a value so it is known as an uninitialized variable . The question mark indicates that the value of this variable is unknown.

Assignment statements are used to give a variable a value. For example:

is an assignment. The variable answer on the left side of the equals operator ( = ) is assigned the value of the expression (1 + 2) * 4 . So the variable answer gets the value 12 as illustrated in Figure 4-1 B.

The general form of the assignment statement is:

The = is used for assignment. It literally means: Compute the expression and assign the value of that expression to the variable. (In some other languages, such as PASCAL, the = operator is used to test for equality. In C, the operator is used for assignment.)

In Example 4-2 , we use the variable term to store an integer value that is used in two later expressions.

A problem exists with this program. How can we tell if it is working or not? We need some way of printing the answers.

printf Function

The library function printf can be used to print the results. If we add the statement:

the program will print:

The special characters %d are called the integer conversion specification . When printf encounters a %d , it prints the value of the next expression in the list following the format string. This is called the parameter list .

The general form of the printf statement is:

where format is the string describing what to print. Everything inside this string is printed verbatim except for the %d conversions. The value of expression-1 is printed in place of the first %d , expression-2 is printed in place of the second, and so on.

Figure 4-2 shows how the elements of the printf statement work together to generate the final result.

The format string "Twice %d is %d\n" tells printf to display Twice followed by a space, the value of the first expression, then a space followed by is and a space, the value of the second expression, finishing with an end-of-line (indicated by \n ).

Example 4-3 shows a program that computes term and prints it via two printf functions.

The number of %d conversions in the format should exactly match the number of expressions in the printf . C will not verify this. (Actually, the GNU gcc compiler will check printf arguments, if you turn on the proper warnings.) If too many expressions are supplied, the extra ones will be ignored. If there are not enough expressions, C will generate strange numbers for the missing expressions.

Floating Point

Because of the way they are stored internally, real numbers are also known as floating-point numbers. The numbers 5.5, 8.3, and -12.6 are all floating-point numbers. C uses the decimal point to distinguish between floating-point numbers and integers. So 5.0 is a floating-point number, while 5 is an integer. Floating-point numbers must contain a decimal point. Floating-point numbers include: 3.14159, 0.5, 1.0, and 8.88.

Although you could omit digits before the decimal point and specify a number as .5 instead of 0.5, the extra clearly indicates that you are using a floating-point number. A similar rule applies to 12. versus 12.0. A floating-point zero should be written as 0.0.

Additionally, the number may include an exponent specification of the form:

For example, 1.2e34 is a shorthand version of 1.2 x 10 34 .

The form of a floating-point declaration is:

Again, there is a limit on the range of floating-point numbers that the computer can handle. This limit varies widely from computer to computer. Floating-point accuracy will be discussed further in Chapter 16 .

When a floating-point number using printf is written , the %f conversion is used. To print the expression 1.0/3.0 , we use this statement:

Floating Point Versus Integer Divide

The division operator is special. There is a vast difference between an integer divide and a floating-point divide. In an integer divide, the result is truncated (any fractional part is discarded). So the value of 19/10 is 1.

If either the divisor or the dividend is a floating-point number, a floating-point divide is executed. So 19.0/10.0 is 1.9. (19/10.0 and 19.0/10 are also floating-point divides; however, 19.0/10.0 is preferred for clarity.) Several examples appear in Table 4-2 .

C allows the assignment of an integer expression to a floating-point variable. C will automatically perform the conversion from integer to floating point. A similar conversion is performed when a floating-point number is assigned to an integer. For example:

Notice that the expression 1 / 2 is an integer expression resulting in an integer divide and an integer result of 0.

Question 4-2 : Why is the result of Example 4-4 0.0”? What must be done to this program to fix it? (Click here for the answer Section 4.12 )

Question 4-3 : Why does 2 + 2 = 5928? (Your results may vary. See Example 4-5 .) (Click here for the answer Section 4.12 )

Question 4-4 : Why is an incorrect result printed? (See Example 4-6 .) (Click here for the answer Section 4.12 )

The type char represents single characters. The form of a character declaration is:

Characters are enclosed in single quotes ( ' ). 'A' , 'a' , and '!' are character constants. The backslash character (\) is called the escape character . It is used to signal that a special character follows. For example, the characters \ " can be used to put a double quote inside a string. A single quote is represented by \' . \n is the newline character. It causes the output device to go to the beginning of the next line (similar to a return key on a typewriter). The characters \\ are the backslash itself. Finally, characters can be specified by \ nnn , where nnn is the octal code for the character. Table 4-3 summarizes these special characters. Appendix A contains a table of ASCII character codes.

While characters are enclosed in single quotes ( ' ), a different data type, the string, is enclosed in double quotes ( " ). A good way to remember the difference between these two types of quotes is to remember that single characters are enclosed in single quotes. Strings can have any number of characters (including one), and they are enclosed in double quotes.

Characters use the printf conversion %c . Example 4-7 reverses three characters.

When executed, this program prints:

Answer 4-1 : The largest number that can be stored in an int on most UNIX machines is 2147483647. When using Turbo C++, the limit is 32767. The zip code 92126 is larger than 32767, so it is mangled, and the result is 26590.

This problem can be fixed by using a long int instead of just an int . The various types of integers will be discussed in Chapter 5 .

Answer 4-2 : The problem concerns the division: 1/3 . The number 1 and the number 3 are both integers, so this question is an integer divide. Fractions are truncated in an integer divide. The expression should be written as:

Answer 4-3 : The printf statement:

tells the program to print a decimal number, but there is no variable specified. C does not check to make sure printf is given the right number of parameters. Because no value was specified, C makes one up. The proper printf statement should be:

Answer 4-4 : The problem is that in the printf statement, we used a %d to specify that an integer was to be printed, but the parameter for this conversion was a floating-point number. The printf function has no way of checking its parameters for type. So if you give the function a floating-point number, but the format specifies an integer, the function will treat the number as an integer and print unexpected results.

Programming Exercises

Exercise 4-1 : Write a program to print your name, social security number, and date of birth.

Exercise 4-2 : Write a program to print a block E using asterisks ( * ), where the E has a height of seven characters and a width of five characters.

Exercise 4-3 : Write a program to compute the area and perimeter of a rectangle with a width of three inches and a height of five inches. What changes must be made to the program so that it works for a rectangle with a width of 6.8 inches and a length of 2.3 inches?

Exercise 4-4 : Write a program to print “HELLO” in big block letters; each letter should have a height of seven characters and width of five characters.

Exercise 4-5 : Write a program that deliberately makes the following mistakes:

Prints a floating-point number using the %d conversion.

Prints an integer using the %f conversion.

Prints a character using the %d conversion.

[ 5 ] Technically, the statement causes a set of data declarations to be taken from an include file. Chapter 10 , discusses include files.

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Statements and declarations

JavaScript applications consist of statements with an appropriate syntax. A single statement may span multiple lines. Multiple statements may occur on a single line if each statement is separated by a semicolon. This isn't a keyword, but a group of keywords.

Statements and declarations by category

For an alphabetical listing see the sidebar on the left.

Control flow

Specifies the value to be returned by a function.

Terminates the current loop, switch, or label statement and transfers program control to the statement following the terminated statement.

Terminates execution of the statements in the current iteration of the current or labeled loop, and continues execution of the loop with the next iteration.

Throws a user-defined exception.

Executes a statement if a specified condition is true. If the condition is false, another statement can be executed.

Evaluates an expression, matching the expression's value to a case clause, and executes statements associated with that case.

Marks a block of statements to try, and specifies a response, should an exception be thrown.

Declaring variables

Declares a variable, optionally initializing it to a value.

Declares a block scope local variable, optionally initializing it to a value.

Declares a read-only named constant.

Functions and classes

Declares a function with the specified parameters.

Generator Functions enable writing iterators more easily.

Declares an async function with the specified parameters.

Asynchronous Generator Functions enable writing async iterators more easily.

Declares a class.

Creates a loop that executes a specified statement until the test condition evaluates to false. The condition is evaluated after executing the statement, resulting in the specified statement executing at least once.

Creates a loop that consists of three optional expressions, enclosed in parentheses and separated by semicolons, followed by a statement executed in the loop.

Iterates over the enumerable properties of an object, in arbitrary order. For each distinct property, statements can be executed.

Iterates over iterable objects (including arrays , array-like objects, iterators and generators ), invoking a custom iteration hook with statements to be executed for the value of each distinct property.

Iterates over async iterable objects, array-like objects, iterators and generators , invoking a custom iteration hook with statements to be executed for the value of each distinct property.

Creates a loop that executes a specified statement as long as the test condition evaluates to true. The condition is evaluated before executing the statement.

An empty statement is used to provide no statement, although the JavaScript syntax would expect one.

A block statement is used to group zero or more statements. The block is delimited by a pair of curly braces.

An expression statement evaluates an expression and discards its result. It allows the expression to perform side effects, such as executing a function or updating a variable.

Invokes any available debugging functionality. If no debugging functionality is available, this statement has no effect.

Used to export functions to make them available for imports in external modules, and other scripts.

Used to import functions exported from an external module, another script.

Provides a statement with an identifier that you can refer to using a break or continue statement.

Extends the scope chain for a statement.

Difference between statements and declarations

In this section, we will be mixing two kinds of constructs: statements and declarations . They are two disjoint sets of grammars. The following are declarations:

• async function
• async function*
• export (Note: it can only appear at the top-level of a module )
• import (Note: it can only appear at the top-level of a module )

Everything else in the list above is a statement.

The terms "statement" and "declaration" have a precise meaning in the formal syntax of JavaScript that affects where they may be placed in code. For example, in most control-flow structures, the body only accepts statements — such as the two arms of an if...else :

If you use a declaration instead of a statement, it would be a SyntaxError . For example, a let declaration is not a statement, so you can't use it in its bare form as the body of an if statement.

On the other hand, var is a statement, so you can use it on its own as the if body.

You can see declarations as " binding identifiers to values", and statements as "carrying out actions". The fact that var is a statement instead of a declaration is a special case, because it doesn't follow normal lexical scoping rules and may create side effects — in the form of creating global variables, mutating existing var -defined variables, and defining variables that are visible outside of its block (because var -defined variables aren't block-scoped).

As another example, labels can only be attached to statements.

Note: there's a legacy grammar that allows function declarations to have labels , but it's only standardized for compatibility with web reality.

To get around this, you can wrap the declaration in braces — this makes it part of a block statement .

Browser compatibility

BCD tables only load in the browser with JavaScript enabled. Enable JavaScript to view data.

• Expressions and operators

Declaration and Assignment Statements

In GSQL, different types of variables and objects follow different rules when it comes to variable declaration and assignment. This section discusses the different types of declaration and assignment statements and covers the following subset of the EBNF syntax:

Variable scopes

Different types of variable declarations use different scoping rules. There are two types of scoping rules in a GSQL query:

Block scoping

Global scoping.

In GSQL, curly brackets, as well as IF .. THEN , ELSE , WHILE ... DO , FOREACH ... DO statements create a block.A SELECT statement also creates a block.A block-scoped variable declared inside a block scope is only accessible inside that scope.

Additionally, variables declared in a lower scope can use the same name as a variable already declared in a higher scope.The lower-scope declaration will take precedence over the higher-scope declaration until the end of the lower scope.

The following types of variables use block scoping:

Accumulators

Base type variables, local base type variables.

File objects

Vertex or edge aliases

A global-scoped variable is always accessible anywhere in the query once it has been declared regardless of where it is declared.One also cannot declare another variable with the same name as a global-scoped variable that has already been declared.

The following types of variables use global scoping:

Vertex set variables

Declaration statements.

There are six types of variable declarations in a GSQL query:

Accumulator

Base type variable

Local base type variable

File object

The first five types each have their own declaration statement syntax and are covered in this section. Aliases are declared implicitly in a SELECT statement.

Accumulator declaration is discussed in Accumulators .

In a GSQL query body, variables holding values of types INT , UINT , FLOAT , DOUBLE , BOOL , STRING , DATETIME , VERTEX , EDGE , JSONOBJECT and JSONARRAY are called base type variables.The scope of a base type variable is from the point of declaration until the end of the block where its declaration took place.

A base type variable can be declared and accessed anywhere in the query. To declare a base type variable, specify the data type and the variable name. Optionally, you can initialize the variable by assigning it a value with the assignment operator ( = ) and the desired value on the right side. You can declare multiple variables of the same type in a single declaration statement.

When a base type variable is assigned a new value in an ACCUM or POST-ACCUM clause, the change will not take place until exiting the clause. Therefore, if there are multiple assignment statements for the same base type variable in an ACCUM or POST-ACCUM clause, only the last one will take effect.

For example, in the following query, a base type variable is assigned a new value in the ACCUM clause, but the change will not take place until the clause ends. Therefore, the accumulator will not receive the value and will hold a value of 0 at the end of the query.

Base type variables declared in a DML-sub statement, such as in a statement inside a ACCUM , POST-ACCUM , or UPDATE SET clause, are called local base type variables .

Local base type variables are block-scoped and are accessible in the block where they are declared only. Within a local base type variable’s scope, you cannot declare another local base type variable, local container variable, or local tuple variable with the same name at the same level. However, you can declare a local base type variable or local container variable with the same name at a lower level, where the lower-level declaration will take precedence over the previous declaration.

In a POST-ACCUM clause, each local base type variable may only be used in source vertex statements or only in target vertex statements, not both.

Local base type variables are not subject to the assignment restrictions of regular base type variables. Their values can be updated inside an ACCUM or POST-ACCUM clause and the change will take place immediately.

Local container variable

Variables declared inside a DML-block storing container type values are called local container type variables . Their values can be updated inside an ACCUM or POST-ACCUM clause and the change will take place immediately.

Local container variables can store values of a specified type. The following types are allowed:

You must declare which type the container variable will be storing when you declare the container variable.

Local container variables are block-scoped and are accessible in the block where they are declared only. Within a local container variable’s scope, you cannot declare another local container variable, local tuple variable, or local base type variable with the same name at the same level. However, you can declare a variable with the same name at a lower level, where the lower-level declaration will override the previous declaration.

In a POST-ACCUM clause, each local container variable may only be used in source vertex statements or only in target vertex statements, not both.

Query example

In the following example, the SELECT statement in the main query declares three local container variables, each containing:

A base type

A user-defined tuple

An anonymous tuple

Local tuple variable

Variables declared inside a DML-block storing tuple values are called local tuple variables . The value of a local tuple variable is assigned at declaration. The value of a local tuple variable can be updated inside an ACCUM or POST-ACCUM clause and the change will take place immediately.

Local tuple variables are block-scoped and are accessible in the block where they are declared only. Within a local tuple variable’s scope, you cannot declare another local tuple variable, local container variable, or local base type variable with the same name at the same level. However, you can declare a variable with the same name at a lower level, where the lower-level declaration will override the previous declaration.

You can declare tuple variables of defined types and anonymous types.

Variables that contain a set of one or more vertices are called vertex set variables. Vertex set variables play a special role within GSQL queries. They are used for both the input and output of SELECT statements.

Vertex set variables are global-scoped. They are also the only type of variable that isn’t explicitly typed during declaration. To declare a vertex set variable, assign an initial set of vertices to the variable name.

The query below lists all ways of assigning a vertex set variable an initial set of vertices (that is, forming a seed set).

A vertex parameter, untyped or typed, enclosed in curly brackets

A vertex set parameter, untyped or typed

A global SetAccum<VERTEX> accumulator, untyped or typed

A vertex type followed by .* to indicate all vertices of that type, optionally enclosed in curly brackets.

_ or ANY to indicate all vertices, optionally enclosed in curly brackets.

A list of vertex IDs in an external file

Copy of another vertex set

A combination of individual vertices, vertex set parameters, or base type variables, enclosed in curly brackets

Union of vertex set variables

When declaring a vertex set variable, you may opt to specify the vertex set type for the vertex set variable by enclosing the type in parentheses after the variable name.

If the vertex set variable set type is not specified explicitly, GSQL determines the type implicitly by the vertex set value. The type can be ANY , _ (equivalent to ANY ), or any explicit vertex type(s).

After a vertex set variable is declared, the vertex type of the vertex set variable is immutable. Every assignment (e.g. SELECT statement) to this vertex set variable must match the type. The following is an example in which we must declare the vertex set variable type.

In the above example, the query returns the set of vertices after a 5-step traversal from the input person vertex. If we declare the vertex set variable S without explicitly giving a type, because the type of vertex parameter m1 is person , the GSQL engine will implicitly assign S to be person type. However, if S is assigned to person type, the SELECT statement inside the WHILE loop causes a type-checking error, because the SELECT block will generate all connected vertices, including non-person vertices. Therefore, S must be declared as an ANY-type vertex set variable.

FILE objects

A FILE object is a sequential text storage object, associated with a text file on the local machine.

When a FILE object is declared, associated with a particular text file, any existing content in the text file will be erased. During the execution of the query, content written to or printed to the FILE object will be appended to the FILE object. When the query where the FILE object is declared finishes running, the content of the FILE object is saved to the text file.

Assignment and Accumulate Statements

Assignment statements are used to set or update the value of a variable after it has been declared. This applies to base type variables, vertex set variables, and accumulators. Accumulators also have the special += accumulate statement, which was discussed in the Accumulator section. Assignment statements can use expressions to define the new value of the variable.

Restrictions on Assignment Statements

In general, assignment statements can take place anywhere after the variable has been declared. However, there are some restrictions. These restrictions apply to "inner level" statements which are within the body of a higher-level statement:

The ACCUM or POST-ACCUM clause of a SELECT statement

The SET clause of an UPDATE statement

The body of a FOREACH statement

LOADACCUM Statement

LOADACCUM() can initialize a global accumulator by loading data from a file. LOADACCUM() has 3+n parameters explained in the table below, where n is the number of fields in the accumulator.

One assignment statement can have multiple LOADACCUM() function calls. However, every LOADACCUM() referring to the same file in the same assignment statement must use the same separator and header parameter values.

Function Call Statements

Typically, a function call returns a value and so is part of an expression . In some cases, however, the function does not return a value (i.e., returns VOID ) or the return value can be ignored, so the function call can be used as an entire statement. This is a Function Call Statement.

Clear Collection Accumulators

Collection accumulators (e.g., ListAccum , SetAccum , MapAccum ) grow in size as data is added. Particularly for vertex-attached accumulators, if the number of vertices is large, their memory consumption can be significant. It can improve system performance to clear or reset collection accumulators during a query as soon as their data is no longer needed. Running the reset_collection_accum() function resets the collection(s) to be zero-length (empty). If the argument is a vertex-attached accumulator, then the entire set of accumulators is reset.

• Assignment Statement

An Assignment statement is a statement that is used to set a value to the variable name in a program .

Assignment statement allows a variable to hold different types of values during its program lifespan. Another way of understanding an assignment statement is, it stores a value in the memory location which is denoted by a variable name.

The symbol used in an assignment statement is called as an operator . The symbol is ‘=’ .

Note: The Assignment Operator should never be used for Equality purpose which is double equal sign ‘==’.

The Basic Syntax of Assignment Statement in a programming language is :

variable = expression ;

variable = variable name

expression = it could be either a direct value or a math expression/formula or a function call

Few programming languages such as Java, C, C++ require data type to be specified for the variable, so that it is easy to allocate memory space and store those values during program execution.

data_type variable_name = value ;

In the above-given examples, Variable ‘a’ is assigned a value in the same statement as per its defined data type. A data type is only declared for Variable ‘b’. In the 3 rd line of code, Variable ‘a’ is reassigned the value 25. The 4 th line of code assigns the value for Variable ‘b’.

Assignment Statement Forms

This is one of the most common forms of Assignment Statements. Here the Variable name is defined, initialized, and assigned a value in the same statement. This form is generally used when we want to use the Variable quite a few times and we do not want to change its value very frequently.

Tuple Assignment

Generally, we use this form when we want to define and assign values for more than 1 variable at the same time. This saves time and is an easy method. Note that here every individual variable has a different value assigned to it.

(Code In Python)

Sequence Assignment

(Code in Python)

Multiple-target Assignment or Chain Assignment

In this format, a single value is assigned to two or more variables.

Augmented Assignment

In this format, we use the combination of mathematical expressions and values for the Variable. Other augmented Assignment forms are: &=, -=, **=, etc.

Browse more Topics Under Data Types, Variables and Constants

• Concept of Data types
• Built-in Data Types
• Constants in Programing Language 
• Access Modifier
• Variables of Built-in-Datatypes
• Declaration/Initialization of Variables
• Type Modifier

Few Rules for Assignment Statement

Few Rules to be followed while writing the Assignment Statements are:

• Variable names must begin with a letter, underscore, non-number character. Each language has its own conventions.
• The Data type defined and the variable value must match.
• A variable name once defined can only be used once in the program. You cannot define it again to store other types of value.
• If you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite the previous value and assign the new value.

FAQs on Assignment Statement

Q1. Which of the following shows the syntax of an  assignment statement ?

• variablename = expression ;
• expression = variable ;
• datatype = variablename ;
• expression = datatype variable ;

Answer – Option A.

Q2. What is an expression ?

• Same as statement
• List of statements that make up a program
• Combination of literals, operators, variables, math formulas used to calculate a value
• Numbers expressed in digits

Answer – Option C.

Q3. What are the two steps that take place when an  assignment statement  is executed?

• Evaluate the expression, store the value in the variable
• Reserve memory, fill it with value
• Evaluate variable, store the result
• Store the value in the variable, evaluate the expression.

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• Declaration statements
• 3 contributors

A declaration statement declares a new local variable, local constant, or local reference variable . To declare a local variable, specify its type and provide its name. You can declare multiple variables of the same type in one statement, as the following example shows:

In a declaration statement, you can also initialize a variable with its initial value:

The preceding examples explicitly specify the type of a variable. You can also let the compiler infer the type of a variable from its initialization expression. To do that, use the var keyword instead of a type's name. For more information, see the Implicitly-typed local variables section.

To declare a local constant, use the const keyword , as the following example shows:

When you declare a local constant, you must also initialize it.

For information about local reference variables, see the Reference variables section.

Implicitly-typed local variables

When you declare a local variable, you can let the compiler infer the type of the variable from the initialization expression. To do that use the var keyword instead of the name of a type:

As the preceding example shows, implicitly-typed local variables are strongly typed.

When you use var in the enabled nullable aware context and the type of an initialization expression is a reference type, the compiler always infers a nullable reference type even if the type of an initialization expression isn't nullable.

A common use of var is with a constructor invocation expression . The use of var allows you to not repeat a type name in a variable declaration and object instantiation, as the following example shows:

You can use a target-typed new expression as an alternative:

When you work with anonymous types , you must use implicitly-typed local variables. The following example shows a query expression that uses an anonymous type to hold a customer's name and phone number:

In the preceding example, you can't explicitly specify the type of the fromPhoenix variable. The type is IEnumerable<T> but in this case T is an anonymous type and you can't provide its name. That's why you need to use var . For the same reason, you must use var when you declare the customer iteration variable in the foreach statement.

For more information about implicitly-typed local variables, see Implicitly-typed local variables .

In pattern matching, the var keyword is used in a var pattern .

Reference variables

When you declare a local variable and add the ref keyword before the variable's type, you declare a reference variable , or a ref local:

A reference variable is a variable that refers to another variable, which is called the referent . That is, a reference variable is an alias to its referent. When you assign a value to a reference variable, that value is assigned to the referent. When you read the value of a reference variable, the referent's value is returned. The following example demonstrates that behavior:

Use the ref assignment operator = ref to change the referent of a reference variable, as the following example shows:

In the preceding example, the element reference variable is initialized as an alias to the first array element. Then it's ref reassigned to refer to the last array element.

You can define a ref readonly local variable. You can't assign a value to a ref readonly variable. However you can ref reassign such a reference variable, as the following example shows:

You can assign a reference return to a reference variable, as the following example shows:

In the preceding example, the GetReferenceToMax method is a returns-by-ref method. It doesn't return the maximum value itself, but a reference return that is an alias to the array element that holds the maximum value. The Run method assigns a reference return to the max reference variable. Then, by assigning to max , it updates the internal storage of the store instance. You can also define a ref readonly method. The callers of a ref readonly method can't assign a value to its reference return.

The iteration variable of the foreach statement can be a reference variable. For more information, see the foreach statement section of the Iteration statements article.

In performance-critical scenarios, the use of reference variables and returns might increase performance by avoiding potentially expensive copy operations.

The compiler ensures that a reference variable doesn't outlive its referent and stays valid for the whole of its lifetime. For more information, see the Ref safe contexts section of the C# language specification .

For information about the ref fields, see the ref fields section of the ref structure types article.

The contextual keyword scoped restricts the lifetime of a value. The scoped modifier restricts the ref-safe-to-escape or safe-to-escape lifetime , respectively, to the current method. Effectively, adding the scoped modifier asserts that your code won't extend the lifetime of the variable.

You can apply scoped to a parameter or local variable. The scoped modifier may be applied to parameters and locals when the type is a ref struct . Otherwise, the scoped modifier may be applied only to local reference variables . That includes local variables declared with the ref modifier and parameters declared with the in , ref or out modifiers.

The scoped modifier is implicitly added to this in methods declared in a struct , out parameters, and ref parameters when the type is a ref struct .

C# language specification

For more information, see the following sections of the C# language specification :

• Reference variables and returns

For more information about the scoped modifier, see the Low-level struct improvements proposal note.

• Object and collection initializers
• ref keyword
• Reduce memory allocations using new C# features
• 'var' preferences (style rules IDE0007 and IDE0008)

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Additional resources

CS101: Introduction to Computer Science I

Variables and Assignment Statements

Read this chapter, which covers variables and arithmetic operations and order precedence in Java.

3. Declaration of a Variable

Yes. Otherwise it would not be clear what its bits represent.

Remember that the meaning of a bit pattern is determined by its context. It is the data type that gives the bits in a variable a context.

Declaration of a Variable

The example program uses the variable  payAmount . The statement

is a declaration of a variable. A  declaration  of a variable is where a program says that it needs a variable. For our small programs, place declaration statements between the two braces of the   main   method.

The declaration gives a name and a data type for the variable. It may also ask that a particular value be placed in the variable. In a high level language (such as Java) the programmer does not need to worry about how the computer hardware actually does what was asked. If you ask for a variable of type  long , you get it. If you ask for the value 123 to be placed in the variable, that is what happens. Details about bytes, bit patterns, and memory addresses are up to the Java compiler.

In the example program, the declaration requests an eight-byte section of memory named  payAmount  which uses the primitive data type  long  for representing values. When the program starts running, the variable will initially have the value 123 stored in it.

The name for a variable must be a legal Java identifier. (Details in a few pages.)

A variable cannot be used in a program unless it has been declared.

Question 3:

Expressions, Declarations, Statements

Introduction, expressions, declarations.

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ICSE, CBSE study notes & home schooling, management notes, solved assignments

How to write declaration for academic projects (Undertaking by Candidate)

December 25, 2018 by studymumbai Leave a Comment

How to write a declaration for school/college projects and for assignments.

Every academic project has to follow a specific format as prescribed by the institution. In most cases, besides the usual parts (index, introduction, conclusion, etc), it also requires a declaration.

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The declaration states that the work is original and done by the efforts of the student, and has not been copied from any other work.

In case you are looking for some format, here is one. Here’s how to write a declaration for an academic project or for assignments.

I, the undersigned Mr. / Miss ……….declare that the work embodied in this project work hereby, titled “…………”, forms my own contribution to the research work carried out under the guidance of Mr./Dr………. is a result of my own research work and has not been previously submitted to any other University for any other Degree/ Diploma to this or any other University.

Wherever reference has been made to previous works of others, it has been clearly indicated as such and included in the bibliography.

I, here by further declare that all information of this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct.

StudyMumbai.com is an educational resource for students, parents, and teachers, with special focus on Mumbai. Our staff includes educators with several years of experience. Our mission is to simplify learning and to provide free education. Read more about us .

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CS101: Introduction to Computer Science I

Variables and Assignment Statements

Read this chapter, which covers variables and arithmetic operations and order precedence in Java.

5. Syntax of Variable Declaration

Syntax of variable deceleration.

The word  syntax  means the grammar of a programming language. We can talk about the syntax of just a small part of a program, such as the syntax of variable declaration.

There are several ways to declare variables:

• This declares a variable, declares its data type, and reserves memory for it. It says nothing about what value is put in memory. (Later in these notes you will learn that in some circumstances the variable is automatically initialized, and that in other circumstances the variable is left uninitialized.)
• This declares a variable, declares its data type, reserves memory for it, and puts an initial value into that memory. The initial value must be of the correct data type.
• This declares  two  variables, both of the same data type, reserves memory for each, but puts nothing in any variable. You can do this with more than two variables, if you want.
• This declares  two  variables, both of the same data type, reserves memory, and puts an initial value in each variable. You can do this all on one line if there is room. Again, you can do this for more than two variables as long as you follow the pattern.

If you have several variables of different types, use several declaration statements. You can even use several declaration statements for several variables of the same type.

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Declare and assign variables in one statement

ID: go-best-practices/merge-declaration-assignment

Language: Go

Severity: Info

Category: Best Practices

Description

In Go, it is recommended to avoid using separate variable declaration and assignment statements and instead prefer initializing variables directly in the declaration.

Here are a few reasons why:

• Simplicity and readability : Initializing a variable in the declaration with  var x uint = 1  provides a clear and concise way to express the intent of assigning an initial value to the variable. It reduces unnecessary lines of code, making the code more readable and easier to understand.
• Avoiding empty initial values : If you declare a variable with  var x uint  and then assign it a value of 1 separately, it might initially have an undesired default value (in this case, 0) before you assign the actual desired value. By initializing the variable directly in the declaration, you ensure it starts with the desired initial value.
• Encouraging good practice : Initializing variables in the declaration is a recommended coding practice in Go. It follows the principle of declaring variables closer to their usage, promotes legible code, and is widely accepted in the Go community.

Therefore, it is preferable to use  var x uint = 1  rather than declaring the variable on one line and assigning it on another. This approach improves code clarity, reduces unnecessary lines, and ensures variables start with the desired initial value.

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