essay about communication model

8 Communication Models: Understanding What They Are and How They Work

Every day we communicate with one another, so we all understand how communication takes place, right? 

Actually, not always. 

To understand how we communicate, communication theorists have developed models that illustrate how communication plays out.

In a way, as the US communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell said, the theorists’ task is to answer the question “Who says what to whom with what effect?” . 

So, in this guide, we will:

• Introduce you to the models of communication that are most frequently encountered in the literature, 
• Explain how these models help with workplace communication, and 
• Dive deep into major models of communication and explain them in detail.

Without further ado, let’s begin!

Table of Contents

What are communication models?

According to Denis McQuail’s book Mass Communication Theory , “a model is a selective representation in verbal or diagrammatic form of some aspect of the dynamic process of mass communication.”   

In other words, models of communication provide us with a visual representation of the different aspects of a communication situation .

Since communication is a complex process, it’s often challenging to determine where a conversation begins and ends. 

That is where models of communication come in — to simplify the process of understanding communication .

Some models are more detailed than others, but even the most elaborate ones cannot perfectly represent what goes on in a communication encounter. 

How can communication models help with work communication?

Since communication is the lifeblood of any organization , we have to strive to understand how it works. 

Understanding communication models can help us:

• Think about our communication situations more deliberately , 
• Learn from our previous experiences , and 
• Better prepare for future communication situations . 

Do you remember the last time you had a misunderstanding with a colleague? 

Was the workplace miscommunication caused by a wrongly interpreted tone of a message? 

Or, maybe the email you had sent to your coworker ended up in the spam folder, so they didn’t even get it? 

Whatever the misunderstanding was, we have to come to terms with the fact that some communication encounters are successful, others not so much.

That is why we have so many current communication models we can utilize to plan successful communication situations . 

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Now that we have seen what communication models are and why they are important for our workplace communication, it is time we take a closer look at the 8 models of communication.

8 Major communication models

There are 8 major models of communication, which can be divided into 3 categories:

• Aristotle’s communication model, 
• Lasswell’s communication model,
• The Shannon-Weaver communication model, and
• Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model.
• The Osgood-Schramm communication model, and
• The Westley and Maclean communication model.
• Barnlund’s transactional communication model, and
• Dance’s Helical communication model. 

In the following paragraphs, we will analyze each of these models in detail, starting with linear models. 

Linear models of communication 

The linear communication model is straightforward and used mainly in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with customers.

What is a linear model of communication? 

Linear communication models suggest that communication takes place only in one direction . 

The main elements in these models are:

• The channel , 
• The sender , and 
• The receiver . 

Some linear models of communication also mention noise as one of the factors that have a role in the communication process. Noise acts as the added (background) element that usually distracts from the original message. 

But, we’ll talk more about the role of noise in the communication process later on. For now, let’s start with the basic elements of the linear communication model. 

As illustrated in the linear communication model diagram below, this communication model is pretty straightforward. 

Simply put, the sender transmits the message via a channel. 

The channel, as the medium, changes the message into speech, writing, or animation. 

The message then finally reaches the receiver, who decodes it. 

We already mentioned the 3 most prominent linear models of communication, and now it is time to analyze each one of them in more detail.

1. Aristotle’s model of communication 

The oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC, Aristotle’s model was designed to examine how to become a better and more persuasive communicator . 

What is Aristotle’s model of communication? 

Aristotle’s model of communication primarily focuses on the sender (public speaker, professor, etc.) who passes on their message to the receiver (the audience).

The sender is also the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is passive. This makes Aristotle’s communication model a foolproof way to excel in public speaking, seminars, and lectures. 

What are the main elements of Aristotle’s communication model? 

Aristotle identified 3 elements that improve communication within this model:

• Ethos — Defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility, authority, and power by being an expert in a field of their choice.
• Pathos — Connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions (anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)
• Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to be interesting — it needs to follow the rules of logic.

As shown in Aristotle’s communication model diagram below, Aristotle also suggested that we look at 5 components of a communication situation to analyze the best way to communicate: 

• Speaker ,  
• Speech ,  
• Occasion ,  
• Target audience , and  
• Effect .  

Aristotle’s communication model example 

Picture this: 

Professor Hustvedt is giving a lecture on neurological disorders to her students. 

She delivers her speech persuasively, in a manner that leaves her students mesmerized. 

The professor is at the center of attention, whereas her audience — her students — are merely passive listeners. Nevertheless, her message influences them and makes them act accordingly. 

So, in this situation, professor Hustvedt is the speaker , and her lecture on disorders is the act of speech . 

The occasion in question is a university lecture, while the students are her target audience . 

The effect of her speech is the students gaining knowledge on this subject matter.

One of the major drawbacks of this model is that it does not pay attention to the feedback in communication because the audience is passive.

2. Lasswell’s model of communication 

The next linear model on our list is Lasswell’s Model of mass communication. 

What is Lasswell’s model of communication? 

Lasswell’s communication model views communication as the transmission of a message with the effect as the result. 

The effect in this case is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver of the message that is caused by the elements of communication. 

If any of the elements change, the effect also changes. 

What are the main elements of Lasswell’s communication model? 

Lasswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its elements: 

• Who created the message? 
• What did they say?
• What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
• To whom did they say it?
• What effect did it have on the receiver?

The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:

• Communicator ,
• Audience/Receiver , and
• Effect .   

If we take a look at Lasswell’s communication model diagram below, we can get a better understanding of how these main components are organized.

Lasswell’s communication model example

Let’s say you are watching an infomercial channel on TV and on comes a suitcase salesman, Mr. Sanders. 

He is promoting his brand of suitcases as the best. Aware that millions of viewers are watching his presentation, Mr. Sanders is determined to leave a remarkable impression. 

By doing so, he is achieving brand awareness, promoting his product as the best on the market, and consequently increasing sales revenue. 

So, in this instance, Mr. Sanders is the communicator . 

The message he is conveying is the promotion of his brand of suitcases as the best. 

The medium he uses is television.

His audience consists of evening TV viewers in the US.

The effect he is achieving by doing this is raising brand awareness and increasing sales revenue. 

3. The Shannon-Weaver model of communication 

Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver model. 

Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their work during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed to discover which channels are most effective for communicating. 

So, although they were doing research as part of their engineering endeavors, they claimed that their theory is applicable to human communication as well. 

And, they were right. 

What is the Shannon-Weaver model of communication? 

The Shannon-Weaver communication model, therefore, is a mathematical communication concept that proposes that communication is a linear, one-way process that can be broken down into 5 key concepts. 

What are the main elements of the Shannon-Weaver communication model? 

As the Shanon-Weaver communication model diagram below shows, the main components of this model are:

• Decoder , and
• Receiver .  

Shannon and Weaver were also the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication process. In his book Introduction to Communication Studies , John Fiske defines noise as: 

“Anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is not intended by the source.”   

The noise appears in the form of mishearing a conversation, misspelling an email, or static on a radio broadcast.  

The Shannon-Weaver communication model example

Paula, a VP of Marketing in a multinational company, is briefing Julian on new marketing strategies they are about to introduce next month. 

She wants a detailed study of the competitor’s activity by the end of the week. 

Unfortunately, while she was speaking, her assistant Peter interrupted her, and she forgot to tell Julian about the most important issue. 

At the end of the week, Julian did finish the report, but there were some mistakes, which had to be corrected later on. 

Let’s take a moment to briefly analyze this example.

Paula is the sender , her mouth being the encoder . 

The meeting she held was the channel . 

Julian’s ears and brain were decoders , and Julian was the receiver . 

Can you guess Peter’s role? 

Yes, he was the noise .

The trouble in this process was the lack of feedback. Had Julian asked Paula for clarification after Peter interrupted her, the whole communication process would have been more effective, and there would have been no mistakes. 

Updated version of the Shannon-Weaver communication model 

Since the original version didn’t include it, the principle of feedback was added to the updated version, so the model provided a more truthful representation of human interaction. 

The concept of feedback was derived from the studies of Norbert Wiener , the so-called father of cybernetics. 

Simply put, feedback is the transfer of the receiver’s reaction back to the sender . 

It allows the speaker to modify their performance according to the reaction of the audience. 

Maybe the most important function of feedback is the fact that it helps the receiver feel involved in the communication process. 

That makes the receiver more receptive to the message because they feel their opinion is being taken into account.

🎓 Pumble Pro Tip  

In addition to being an important element in this communication model, feedback is also an integral part of effective workplace communication. To find out more about why it’s essential and how to practice it in the workplace, take a look at our resources:

• How to give constructive feedback when working remotely  
• How to ask your manager for feedback
• Feedback vs feedforward: Moving from feedback to feedforward  

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication 

Berlo’s model of communication was first defined by David Berlo in his 1960 book The Process of Communication . 

This communication model is unique in the sense that it gives a detailed account of the key elements in each step.

What is Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication?

Simply put, Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model is a linear model of communication that suggests communication is the transfer of information between 4 basic steps or key elements.  

What are the main elements of Berlo’s Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model? 

As shown in Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model diagram below, these steps are the following:

• Source , 
• Channel , and

Let’s consider the key elements that affect how well the message is communicated, starting with the source. 

Step #1: The source

The source or the sender carefully puts their thoughts into words and transfers the message to the receiver. 

So, how does the sender transfer the information to the receiver according to Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model?

With the help of:

• Communication skills —  First and foremost, the source needs good communication skills to ensure the communication will be effective . The speaker should know when to pause, what to repeat, how to pronounce a word, etc.
• Attitude —  Secondly, the source needs the right attitude. Without it, not even a great speaker would ever emerge as a winner. The source needs to make a lasting impression on the receiver(s). 
• Knowledge — Here, knowledge does not refer to educational qualifications but to the clarity of the information that the source wants to transfer to the receiver.  
• Social system — The source should be familiar with the social system in which the communication process takes place. That would help the source not to offend anyone. 
• Culture — Last but not least, to achieve effective communication , the source needs to be acquainted with the culture in which the communication encounter is taking place. This is especially important for cross-cultural communication . 

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For more on how to improve cross-cultural communication and adapt to the global workforce, learn all about cultural intelligence and how to improve it in our blog post: 

• Cultural intelligence: Definition, importance, and tips   

Step #2: The message

The speaker creates the message when they transform their thoughts into words. 

Here are the key factors of the message:

• Content — Simply put, this is the script of the conversation. 
• Elements — Speech alone is not enough for the message to be fully understood. That is why other elements have to be taken into account: gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc. 
• Treatment — The way the source treats the message. They have to be aware of the importance of the message so that they can convey it appropriately.
• Structure — The source has to properly structure the message to ensure the receiver will understand it correctly. 
• Code — All the elements, verbal and nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do not want your message to get distorted and misinterpreted.

Step #3: The channel 

To get from the source to the receiver, the message goes through the channel .

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model identifies all our senses are the channels that help us communicate with one another. 

Our sense of hearing lets us know that someone is speaking to us. 

Through our sense of taste , we gather information about the spiciness of a sauce we are eating.

Our sense of sight allows us to decipher traffic signs while driving.

We decide whether we like a certain perfume or not by smelling it. 

By touching the water we feel whether it is too cold for a swim.

Step #4: The receiver

A receiver is a person the source is speaking to — the destination of the conveyed message.

To understand the message, the receiver should involve the same elements as the source. They should have similar communication skills, attitudes, and knowledge, and be acquainted with the social system and culture in which they communicate.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model example 

Watching the news on television is the perfect example of Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model of communication.

In this case, the news presenter is the source of the news and they convey the message to the audience. 

The news is the message, the television is the channel, and the audience are the receivers of the message. 

Now that we have become acquainted with linear models of communication, it is time we move on to something a little more complex and dynamic — interactive models of communication.

Interactive models of communication 

Interactive models are used in internet-based and mediated communication such as telephone conversations, letters, etc. 

What is an interactive model of communication?

As more dynamic models, interactive communication models refer to two-way communication with feedback.

However, feedback within interactive communication models is not simultaneous, but rather slow and indirect.

What are the main elements of interactive communication models? 

The main elements of these models, illustrated in the interactive communication model diagram, include the following:

• Feedback , and 
• Field of experience .

You probably noticed the new, previously not seen element — field of experience . 

The field of experience represents a person’s culture, past experiences, and personal history. 

All of these factors influence how the sender constructs a message, as well as how the receiver interprets it. Every one of us brings a unique field of experience into communication situations.

We have already mentioned the most noteworthy interactive models of communication. 

Now it is time for us to consider them in greater detail.

5. The Osgood-Schramm model of communication

In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications , Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.”  

What is the Osgood-Schramm model of communication? 

The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages go in two directions between encoding and decoding. 

As such, this model is useful for describing synchronous, interpersonal communication , but less suitable for cases with little or no feedback.

Interestingly, in the Osgood-Schramm communication model, there is no difference between a sender and a receiver . Both parties are equally encoding and decoding the messages. The interpreter is the person trying to understand the message at that moment. 

Furthermore, the Osgood-Schramm communication model shows that information is of no use until it is put into words and conveyed to other people. 

What are the main principles and steps in the communication process according to this model? 

The Osgood-Schramm communication model proposes 4 main principles of communication: 

• Communication is circular. — Individuals involved in the communication process are changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
• Communication is equal and reciprocal. — Both parties are equally engaged as encoders and decoders.
• The message requires interpretation. — The information needs to be properly interpreted to be understood.
• As shown in the Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram below, this model proposes 3 steps in the process of communication: 
• Decoding , and 
• Interpreting . 

The Osgood-Schramm communication model example

Imagine you have not heard from your college friend for 15 years. Suddenly, they call you, and you start updating each other about what happened during the time you have not seen each other. 

In this example, you and your friend are equally encoding and decoding messages, and your communication is synchronous. You are both interpreting each other’s messages. 

In Information Theory and Mass Communication , Schramm even says: 

“ It is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are really switchboard centers handling and re-routing the great endless current of information .”

6. The Westley and Maclean model of communication 

The next interactive communication model on our list is the Westley and Maclean model of communication. 

This communication model is primarily used for explaining mass communication.

What is the Westley and Maclean communication model? 

The Westley and Maclean communication model suggests that the communication process does not start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors .

This model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background, culture, and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages. 

The very process of communication, according to this communication model, starts with environmental factors that influence the speaker — the culture or society the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space, etc.  

Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.

What are the main elements of the Westley and Maclean communication model? 

This model consists of 9 crucial components: 

• Environment (X) ,
• Sensory experience (X¹) ,
• Source/Sender (A) ,
• The object of the orientation of the source (X²) ,
• Receiver (B) ,
• The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³) ,
• Feedback (F) ,
• Gatekeepers (C) , and 
• Opinion leaders .

The Westley and Maclean communication model diagram below shows how these components are organized in the communication process. 

The Westley and Maclean communication model example

Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident. 

This is the type of stimulus that would nudge you to call your friends and tell them about what you had seen, or call your boss to say you are going to be a bit late. 

So, the communication process in this example does not start with you, but with the road accident you have witnessed. 

Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication, therefore, allows us to pay attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our acts of communication.

Now that we have seen what the elements of communication in this model are, let’s look at all of them in greater detail.

9 Key elements of communication in the Westley and Maclean communication model

As mentioned above, this model shows that the communication process does not start from the sender of the message, but rather from the environment. 

So, we will start with this element.

Element #1: Environment (X)

According to the Westley and Maclean Model, the communication process starts when a stimulus from the environment motivates a person to create and send a message. 

Element #2: Sensory experience (X¹)

When the sender of the message experiences something in their environment that nudges them to send the message, then that sensory experience becomes an element of communication.

In the example above, the sensory experience would be witnessing a road accident. 

Element #3: Source/Sender (A)

Only now does the sender come into play.

In the above-mentioned example, you are the sender, as well as a participant in the interpersonal communication situation . 

However, a sender can also be a newscaster sending a message to millions of viewers. In that case, we are talking about mass communication . 

Element #4: The object of the orientation of the source (X²)

The next element of communication in this model is the object of the orientation of the source. 

Namely, the object of the orientation of the source is the sender’s beliefs or experiences . 

If we take the previously-mentioned road accident as an example, you (A) are concerned (X²) that you are going to be late for work because of the accident (X¹), and that is why you are calling your boss (B). 

Element #5: Receiver (B)

The receiver is the person who receives the message from the sender. 

In mass communication, a receiver is a person who watches TV, reads a newspaper, etc.

When speaking about interpersonal communication, a receiver is a person who listens to the message . 

In the example of a road accident, mentioned above, the receivers of the message are your friends and your boss. 

Element #6: The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³)

The object of orientation of the receiver is the receiver’s beliefs or experiences , which influence how the message is received. 

For example, your friend (B) watching the news is worried about your safety (X³) after receiving the message. 

Element #7: Feedback (F)

Feedback is crucial for this model because it makes this model circular, rather than linear. 

As a matter of fact, feedback influences how messages are sent . 

That means that a receiver and a gatekeeper are sending messages back to the sender. 

After they have received the feedback, the sender modifies the message and sends it back. 

Let’s go back to our example (about the road accident). 

So, you have witnessed the accident and feel the urge to call your best friend. 

You: “There was a terrible accident downtown!”

Your friend: “My goodness! Are you hurt?”

You: “No, no, I just witnessed it. I wasn’t involved! Don’t worry!”

In this example, after the feedback from your worried friend, you modify your message and send it back to them. 

Element #8: Gatekeepers (C)

This element usually occurs in mass communication, rather than in interpersonal communication. 

Gatekeepers are editors of the messages senders are trying to communicate to receivers. 

For example, these are newspaper editors who edit the message before it reaches the readers. 

Element #9: Opinion leaders

Again, this element of communication refers to mass communication situations. 

Namely, opinion leaders have an immense influence as an environmental factor (X) on the sender of the message (A). 

These are political leaders, celebrities, or social media influencers. 

Now that we are familiar with interactive models, all we have left to analyze are the transactional communication models. 

Transactional communication models

Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models, which first introduce a new term for senders and receivers — communicators. 

What is a transactional communication model? 

Transactional communication models view communication as a transaction , meaning that it is a cooperative process in which communicators co-create the process of communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness. 

In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process .

Aside from that, transactional models show that we do not just exchange information during our interactions, but create relationships, form cross-cultural bonds, and shape our opinions. 

In other words, communication helps us establish our realities .

These models also introduced the roles of: 

• Social, 
• Relational, and 
• Cultural contexts.

Moreover, these models acknowledge that there are barriers to effective communication — noise .

What are the main elements of transactional communication models? 

If we take a look at the transactional communication model diagram below, we can identify the key components of this communication model:

• Decoding ,  
• Communicators ,
• The message ,
• The channel , and  
• Noise .  

We have already mentioned the most prominent transactional models of communication, and now it is time to thoroughly analyze them.

7. Barnlund’s transactional model of communication

Barnlund’s transactional communication model explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback communication.

What is Barnlund’s transactional communication model? 

Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes that communication is a circular process and a multi-layered feedback system between the sender and the receiver, both of whom can affect the message being sent. 

The sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important. Feedback from the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both communicators provide feedback. 

At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the communication’s effect and effectiveness. 

What are the main elements of Barnlund’s communication model? 

Barnlund’s transactional communication model diagram below illustrates the following main components of this communication model:

• The message (including the cues, environment, and noise), and
• The channel .

This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages. 

So, Barnlund differentiates between:

• Public cues (environmental cues),
• Private cues (person’s personal thoughts and background), and
• Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal). 

All these cues, as well as the environment and noise, are part of the message. Each communicator’s reaction depends on their background, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. 

Barnlund’s transactional communication model example

Examples of Barnlund’s Model of communication include:

• Face-to-face interactions, 
• Chat sessions , 
• Telephone conversations, 
• Meetings , etc. 

Let’s illustrate this model with an example from a business messaging app Pumble . 

Why was there a misunderstanding in this conversation even though everything seemed fine at first glance? 

This misunderstanding has arisen due to cultural cues. 

Namely, Catherine had thought that Irene wanted a day off on July 4th. 

However, Irene comes from Canada and celebrates Independence Day on July 1st. 

On that day, she does not show up at work to Catherine’s bewilderment, because she has expected Irene to take a day off on July 4th, on US Independence Day. 

So, due to cultural cues, there was a misunderstanding between them. 

Still, this misunderstanding could have easily been avoided, had they cleared up the dates by providing each other with feedback. 

8. Dance’s Helical model of communication 

According to Dance’s Helical model of communication, with every cycle of communication, we expand our circle. 

Therefore, each communication encounter is different from the previous one because communication never repeats itself. 

What is Dance’s Helical communication model? 

Dance’s Helical communication model views communication as a circular process that gets more and more complex as communication progresses. 

That is why it is represented by a helical spiral in the Dance’s Helical communication model diagram below. 

In their book Communication: Principles for a Lifetime , Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, and Diana K. Ivy state: 

“Interpersonal communication is irreversible. Like the spiral shown here, communication never loops back on itself. Once it begins, it expands infinitely as the communication partners contribute their thoughts and experiences to the exchange.” Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, Diana K. Ivy

According to this communication model, in the communication process, the feedback we get from the other party involved influences our next statement and we become more knowledgeable with every new cycle. 

Dance’s Helical communication model example 

Dance himself explained his model with the example of a person learning throughout their life. 

Namely, a person starts to communicate with their surroundings very early on, using rudimentary methods of communication. 

For instance, as babies, we cry to get our mothers’ attention. Later on, we learn to speak in words, and then in full sentences.

During the whole process, we build on what we know to improve our communication. 

Every communication act is, therefore, a chance for us to learn how to communicate more effectively in the future, and feedback helps us achieve more effective communication. 

In a way, our whole life is one communicational journey toward the top of Dance’s helix.

Wrapping up: Communication models help us solve our workplace communication problems 

Communication in real life might be too complex to be truly represented by communication models. 

However, models of communication can still help us examine the steps in the process of communication, so we can better understand how we communicate both in the workplace and outside of it.

Let’s sum up the key takeaways from this guide.

In this guide, we have covered the most important models of communication, divided into 3 categories:

• Linear models — Mainly used in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with customers, these models view communication as a one-way process.
• Interactive models — Used in internet-based and mediated communication, they refer to two-way communication with indirect feedback.
• Transactional models — The most complex models of communication, which best reflect the communication process.

Although none of these models represent our communication 100%, they can help us detect and solve potential problems and improve our communication skills.

References:

• Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J., & Ivy, D. K. (2022). Communication: Principles for a lifetime . Pearson Education Limited. 
• Berlo, David K. (1960). The Process of Communication . Harcourt School. 
• Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Models of communication . Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/communication/Models-of-communication
• Fiske, J. (2011). Introduction to communication studies . Routledge.
• Hartley, J. (2020). Communication, cultural and Media Studies: The key concepts . Routledge.
• Iyer, N., Veenstra, A. S., & Sapienza, Z. (2015, January 1). Reading Lasswell’s model of communication backward: Three scholarly misconceptions . Mass Communication and Society. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.academia.edu/13182400/Reading_Lasswells_Model_of_Communication_Backward_Three_Scholarly_Misconceptions
• Jones, R. G. (2018). Communication in the real world . Flat World Knowledge.
• Learning, L. (n.d.). Principles of public speaking . Principles of Public Speaking | Simple Book Production. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/publicspeakingprinciples/
• McQuail, D. (2012). McQuail’s mass communication theory . SAGE.
• McQuail, D., & Windahl, S. (2016). Communication models: For the study of Mass Communications . Routledge.
• MSG Management  Study  Guide . Communication Models – Aristotle, Berlos, Shannon and Weaver, Schramms. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.managementstudyguide.com/communication-models.htm
• Pierce, T., & Corey, A. M. (2009). The evolution of human communication: From theory to practice . EtrePress.
• Schramm, W. (1955). Information theory and mass … – journals.sagepub.com . SAGE Journals. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/107769905503200201 

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Part 3: Planning messages

3.2 Communication models

Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with whom a communication encounter starts and ends. It can sometimes be helpful to consider different communication models. Below are some questions to help guide you through this chapter.

Questions for reflection

• Why do models (of anything) matter in the real world?
• What value do communication models have?
• What communication models do you know about already?
• How can learning about communication models be helpful to you?

Models of communication simplify the process by providing a visual representation of the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex model still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication because they allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of communication, define communication, and apply communication concepts. When you become aware of how communication functions, you can think more deliberately through your communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future communication and learn from your previous communication. The three models of communication we will discuss are the transmission, interaction, and transaction models.

Although these models of communication differ, they contain some common elements. The first two models we will discuss, the transmission model and the interaction model, include the following parts: participants, messages, encoding, decoding, and channels. In communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed from sender to receiver. For example, when you say “Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a message of greeting that will be received by your friend.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and understand messages is the encoding and decoding process. Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication. As we will learn later, the level of conscious thought that goes into encoding messages varies. Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, they decode your communication and turn it back into thoughts in order to make meaning out of it. Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various options, or channels for communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel, or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If your roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you may need to get their attention by waving your hands before you can ask them about dinner.

Linear model of communication

The linear or transmission model of communication, as shown in Figure 2.2.1, describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process. We are left to presume that the receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does not. The scholars who designed this model extended on a linear model proposed by Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and spread of new communication technologies of the time such as telegraphy and radio, and you can probably see these technical influences within the model (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in order to be decoded. The radio announcer doesn’t really know if you receive their message or not, but if the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance that the message was successfully received.

Figure 2.2.1 The linear model of communication

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new ways, which eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication.

Interactive model of communication

The interactive or interaction model of communication, as shown in Figure 2.2.2, describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interactive model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process. Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may point to the sofa when your roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. Although this seems like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate between the roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.

The interactive model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the linear model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was received, the interactive model is more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in this model based on whether or not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.

Figure 2.2.2 The interactive model of communication

The interactive model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your communication. I have had job interviews over the phone, crowded around a table with eight interviewers, and sitting with few people around an extra large conference table. I’ve also been walked around an office to unexpectedly interview one-on-one, in succession, with multiple members of a search committee over a period of three hours. Whether it’s the size of the room or other environmental factors, it’s important to consider the role that physical context plays in our communication. Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect communication. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters.

Transaction model of communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating because communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, which is shown in Figure 2.2.3, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities.

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators. Unlike the interactive model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. This is an important addition to the model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.

Figure 2.2.3 The transaction model of communication

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.

Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more easily. Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We all have multiple cultural identities that influence our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence their communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in their communication. Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not limited to race or ethnicity.

Barnlund, D. C. (1970). A transactional model of communication in  K.K. Sereno and C.D. Mortenson (Eds.),  Foundations of communication theory (pp. 83-92). New York, NY: Harper and Row.

Ellis, R. and McClintock, A. (1990).  You take my meaning: Theory into practice in human communication . London: Edward Arnold.

Schramm, W. (1997).  The beginnings of communication study in America . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Shannon, C. and Weaver, W. (1949).  The mathematical theory of communication . Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Attribution

This chapter contains material taken from Chapter 1.2 “The communication process” in  Communication in the real world: An introduction to communication studies  and is used under a  CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 International  license.

Introduction to Professional Communications Copyright © 2018 by Melissa Ashman is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Essays About Communication: Top 5 Examples and Prompts

Are you writing essays about communication? Check out our top essay examples and writing prompts to help you get started.

Communication is power and is critical to building a well-connected society. Communicating well is vital in working with people and shedding light on problems and solutions. Practical communication skills can help build relationships. 

If you’re writing an essay on communication and are having a hard time choosing a topic to focus on, here is our round-up of the best essay examples to get you started:  

1. The Benefits of Communication and Teamwork by Karenina Loayza

2. it’s time to tune in: why listening is the real key to communication by kate murphy, 3. a love language spoken with hands by ross showalter, 4. the role of body language in communication by ashley tulio, 5. the power of storytelling in marketing by dylan jacob, 1. how-to develop communication skills, 2. how-to write an inspiring speech, 3. should all leaders be good communicators, 4. theories of mass communication, 5. how are schools developing children’s communication skills, 6. communicating face-to-face vs. online , 7. marketing communications: what are they, 8. is communicating on social media effective, 9. is it possible to communicate effectively on virtual workplace platforms, 10. how-to communicate in the workplace.

“In one task, we were blindfolded and had to describe a set of irregular pieces. With varying degrees of English and different experiences of the world, it was like explaining an elephant to an alien.” 

Loayza narrates an exercise in class where they have to describe surrounding objects as accurately as possible to keep others from stumbling on them. The writer said the exercise demonstrated effectively the need for good communication skills for teams to succeed.

“Schools and universities have courses in debate, rhetoric and elocution, but rarely classes that teach listening. You can get a doctorate in speech communication and join Toastmasters International to perfect your speaking skills, but who strives for excellence in listening?”

Murphy muses on a world that glorifies the speakers but leaves no room for the listeners like her. She points out how social media has created a generation that prefers interacting behind the screen and filtering out opinions that do not resonate with theirs. Instead, Murphy emphasizes listening as a foundation for better human relations and offers solutions for how others can develop their listening for successful communication. 

“Will showed me that not everyone makes promises they don’t intend to fulfil. I don’t have to invest in someone who promises an action they’ll never do. Relationships only move forward once the work of communication begins.”

Showalter, a deaf man, laments how non-deaf ex-lovers have promised to learn sign language to better communicate with him – only to see these promises broken. Then, one morning, a remarkable man in his life sends a video message reviving hopes for Showalter and redefines his standard in relationships for the better. 

“Non-verbal communication can affect our words as it can reiterate our message, contradict our words, reinforce our statement, substitute the meaning of what we are trying to say, and complement what we are trying to say. Body language is something that is usually natural and is often done instinctively rather than consciously.”

Tulio, a communications specialist, stresses the importance of using body language for expression. She provides tips on maximizing gestures and body movement to convey emotions in person and through videoconferencing. 

“In marketing, storytelling provides an avenue to connect to consumers unlike any other. Brands are empowered to share and sell their values and personality in a form that feels less like advertising and more like a concerted effort to strengthen relationships with customers.

The author cites the viewpoints of a business school professor who explains how storytelling can shape the world’s perception of a brand. Finally, the author outlines the vital elements that make an exciting story capable of connecting with an audience and effecting action among consumers.

10 Writing Prompts On essays about communication

To further expand your horizon on the subject, you can work around our list of prompts that are interesting and relevant to date:

You can narrow down this essay to target employees, students, aspiring leaders, or those who want to improve their conversation skills. First, list down recommendations such as expanding their vocabulary and listening. Then, explain how they can incorporate this into their daily routine. 

Writing a speech that strikes a chord requires extra work in developing empathy and understanding the audience. Next, you can focus on providing recommendations for your essay, such as putting in a personal touch and linking this story to the broader subject. Make sure you also offer simple writing tips such as using the active voice as much as possible, keeping sentences short, and keeping the tone conversational. 

Cite research studies that detail why effective communication is a critical skill that makes a leader. Then, write about the organizational pitfalls of poor communication. Later, leaders who can speak engagingly and listen attentively to their team members can address these pitfalls. 

Communication theory is the study of processes in sending and receiving information. Discuss the four main theories of mass communication: the Authoritarian Theory, the Libertarian Theory, the Soviet-Communist Theory, and the Social-Responsibility Theory. Explain each one. Explain how each remains relevant in understanding modern communication processes. 

Interview schools within your community and learn about their language curriculum and other efforts to empower children to communicate well. You can also interview child development experts. Find out the biggest challenges in helping children improve how they express their thoughts and ideas. Then, find out what schools and parents are doing to address them. 

While you’d hear many people expressing a preference for face-to-face meetings, there are undoubtedly benefits to online meetings, which some usually dismiss. Weigh in on the pros and cons of in-person and online meetings, especially in the current scenario of an ongoing pandemic. 

What are the new marketing channels marketers are leveraging to reach their audience? Several surveys and studies show where most marketing campaigns allocate their budgets. One example is video content. 

An interesting angle would also involve looking at epic brand fails. Cite two or more cases, find a communication mishap common between them and provide what lessons can today’s brands learn from these epic fails. 

From interacting with loved ones and finding someone to date and love, social media has dramatically changed our ways of communication. It might be great to interview the elders who have experienced communicating through snail mail. Dive into their nostalgia and discover how they compare the experience of letter writing against instant chatting through mobile apps. 

Several apps today aim to transform workplaces to be more connected for interaction and communication. First, list down the top apps most used in the corporate world and discuss why these communication forms are preferred over email. Then, delve into the drawbacks and aspects of the apps that need improvements according to what business users say. 

Recent studies show that employees quit their jobs when they feel unable to talk about their needs in the workplace. Research the communication culture in the top companies in a specific field. How are they engaging with their employees? How are they driving conversations toward critical concerns?

TIP: You don’t have to write an extended essay. Here is a guide to writing a concise and organized five-paragraph essay.

For more help with writing, check out our best essay writing tips for a stress-free writing process. 

Yna Lim is a communications specialist currently focused on policy advocacy. In her eight years of writing, she has been exposed to a variety of topics, including cryptocurrency, web hosting, agriculture, marketing, intellectual property, data privacy and international trade. A former journalist in one of the top business papers in the Philippines, Yna is currently pursuing her master's degree in economics and business.

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Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication – Pros & Cons

The Osgood-Schramm model of communication is defined as a circular and interactive model that shows that messages go in two directions.

The model has four key principles:

(1) Communication is circular not linear; (2) Communication is usually equal and reciprocal; (3) Messages require interpretation; (4) there are three steps for communicating: encoding, decoding and interpreting.

Introduction

The Osgood-Schramm model of communication is a communication theory, often used in mass communication studies .

The theory explains how we communicate with one another, mainly though speech, writing and discourse. It emphasizes four key principles:

• That communication is circular, not linear. The listener can both receive and send messages (in most instances).
• That communication is usually equal and reciprocal
• That there is a lot of interpretation involved when receiving a message
• That all communication requires three steps: encoding, decoding and interpreting a message.

Related Models of Communication:

• The Westley and Maclean Model
• The Lasswell Model
• The Shannon and Weaver Model
• Dance’s Helical Model

How does the Circular Model Work?

Principle 1: Circular Communication

The image above shows how the Osgood-Schramm model works. It involves circular communication between two people.

Each person is both a sender and a receiver. They are therefore able to communicate to one another, rather than only in one direction.

This circular feature of the model is very different from other liner models of the time like the Shannon-Weaver model or Lasswell’s model of communication .

When critiquing linear or ‘transmission’ models such as the Shannon-Weaver model, Schramm argued:

“In fact it is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are really switchboard centers handling and re-routing the great endless current of information.” (Schramm, 1955)

Principle 2: Communication involves Interpretation

Schramm was insistent that communication is not simply the passing of a packet of information from a sender to a receiver. Instead, he saw that messages must be interpreted in order for them to be understood.

In the process of interpretation, however, a lot of meaning can be lost. We call the lost or misinterpretation of information “semantic noise” caused by “semantic barriers”. Semantic barriers are specifically the values, beliefs and background knowledge that impact how someone sends and how someone receives messages.

As two-way communication keeps on going in its circular pattern, the semantic noise is ideally reduced because the two communicators can come to shared meaning and give one another further clarification on what they actually mean.

Note: Some people call semantic noise a weakness of this model. However, this model simply shows that semantic noise is possible – so it’s not a weakness. If anything, it’s good that the authors have shown us what it is and how it works.

Principle 3: Communication requires Encoding, Decoding and Interpreting

You can see in the image above that each actor in the communication sequence has three roles: encoding, decoding and interpreting.

Here’s how each step works:

• Encoding : When we want to send a message, we need to think about how to craft it to get our message across clearly. We need to think of the right words to say and in what order we should send our messages to communicate our ideas to the message receiver.
• Decoding: When we receive a message, we need to decode it. A message may be packaged as text, image, advertisement, speech, etc. When receiving a message, we need to use our reading skills , listening skills, etc. to decode the message so it makes sense to us. Sometimes someone may ‘mishear’ or ‘misread’ a message (perhaps if it were mumbled or written by someone who is not a native speaker), which will interfere with their interpretation.
• Interpreting: Now that we understand the medium of communication, we can go about interpreting the message. What does it mean to you? One person may interpret the message in a totally different way to someone else. Or, they may not understand it the same way as the encoder, meaning they have ‘misinterpreted’ the text.

Once someone has decoded and interpreted a message, they can then go about encoding their own message to send back to the original sender. They would in turn go about decoding and interpreting. The cycle continues!

Principle 4: Equal and Reciprocal Communication

Because both members of the communication have the capacity to encode, decode and interpret, this model views the two members of the conversation as equal participants.

This model therefore works very well to understand a face-to-face conversation or text message exchange, for example, where both members of the conversation will have a back-and-forth discussion.

This equal communication model is very different to many others, which see communication as a one-way street where people take the role of either ‘sender’ or ‘receiver’. By contrast, Schramm’s model sees the participants as both sender and receiver of messages.

>>>RELATED ARTICLE: THE IMPORTANCE OF MANAGERS IN THE 21st CENTURY

What are the Pros and Cons of the Osgood-Schramm Model?

Benefits / strengths in the osgood-schramm model.

• Shows how feedback can work: This model works well for explaining cyclical feedback. Other models see communication as being a one-way street, which fail to account for feedback and dialogue. In this model, the speaker can get feedback about their language, jokes, choice of words, etc. so they can try to communicate more and more clearly as the cycle continues.
• Recognizes that communication is complex: By accounting for encoding, decoding and interpretation, this model shows how sometimes we can mishear and misinterpret information.
• Sees us as active communicators: While other models see people receiving information as passive recipients, this one shows how we’re active in interpreting information we receive.

Disadvantages / Weaknesses in the Osgood-Schramm Model

• Doesn’t recognize that communication can be unequal: There are many circumstance where communication may involve one authority figure talking and one (or many) listeners trying to interpret the message. In such instances, communication is much less equal than in Schramm’s model. Therefore, this model doesn’t tend to work in situations where power balances exist. In fact, this model does a poor job overall of understanding how power functions in communication.
• Doesn’t work for mass communication: This is another time communication is unequal. One person communicating to many looks very different to the circular one-to-one model proposed in the Osgood-Schramm approach (for a more appropriate approach for mass media, try the Westley-Mclean model or Lasswell’s model of Communication ).

When was this Circular Model Developed?

Wilbur Schramm developed the model in 1954 – quite some time ago! He built the model as a response to (and indeed as a rejection of) Shannon and Weaver’s one-way transmissionist model.

Great Quotes for your Essay

Okay, I know what my readers want. You want someone to explain concepts to you clearly. Then you want quotes and academic citations that you can use in your own essay! Well, you’ve got it.

• “The Osgood-Schramm model reminds us that the communication of information is never a simple one-dimensional process whereby the message is encoded, transmitted and decoded as intended.” (McCabe, 2009, p. 27)
• This model “…showed that the receiver as well as the sender is engaged in a continuous and active act of communication.” (Theaker, 2004, p. 22)
• “The emergence of this approach meant a clear break with the traditional linear / one-way picture of communication.” (Mcquail & Windhall, 2015, p. 20)
• “The model is especially useful in describing interpersonal communication but is less suitable for cases without, or with little, feedback.” (Mcquail & Windhall, 2015, p. 20)
• “The circular nature of the model shows that individuals change roles as they decode the message and by the process of interpretation then recode the message to pass on to another individual.” (McCabe, 2009, p. 27)
• “A possible point of criticism of this model would lie in the argument that the model conveys a feeling of equality in communication. Very often communication is, on the contrary, fairly unbalanced as far as communication resources, power, and time given to communicate are concerned.” (Mcquail & Windhall, 2015, p. 20)

Tip: You can use the Google Books Previews function to view each of these authors’ explanations of the model. E.g. view Mcquail and Windhall’s book preview here .

Cite these Sources for your Essay

Remember that scholarly sources should be cited when writing an essay. Use the following APA style citations. If you need to change it to another style, get advice on our page on how to reference in an essay .

McCabe, S. (2009). Marketing Communications in Tourism and Hospitality: Concepts, Strategies and Cases. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Mcquail, D. & Windhall, S. (2015). Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications. London: Routledge.

Schramm, W. (1955). How communication works. In: Schramm, W. (Ed.). Process and Effects of Mass Communication. Illinois: University of Illinois Press.

Theaker, A. (2004). The Public Relations Handbook. (2nd Ed.) Oxfordshire: Routledge.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 5 Top Tips for Succeeding at University
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 50 Durable Goods Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 100 Consumer Goods Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 30 Globalization Pros and Cons

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The Communication Process Model Phases and Opportunities

The phases of the communication process model, channels of communication, barriers to communication, opportunities for the audience to respond to the message, advantages of the social communication process model.

There are seven established phases to the communication process. The first two are developing an idea and encoding it in a message. Encoding in this context means deciding on how best to translate the idea into words and deliver it to the audience. The next step is to select the channel of communication and use it to send the message to the receiver. Once it is received, the other party decodes the message and offers feedback where applicable.

To deliver a welcome message, verbal communication in person, a written e-mail, or a message on the college website seem to be the most advantageous approaches. In-person communication allows for a more personal greeting and establishes a stronger relationship with each individual. The main downside of their approach, however, is that it is far more time-consuming than the alternatives and requires scheduling. Sending an e-mail to new students can be less tedious and universal, with the ability to form a coherent and informative message. The flaw of e-mail is that it puts distance between the recipient and the sender, making the welcoming message seem less sincere. A welcome placed on the website can also be useful in quickly reaching a broad audience, with the risk that some students might not see it.

There are also a number of barriers to effective communication that need to be addressed. Lack of trust is the first and major one, as new students may not be receptible to messages from a person they do not have prior experience with. The difference in communication may also play a role, as young college students have their own approaches to an interaction that differ from the norms of older generations. Disinterest is another large barrier, preventing students from taking the message seriously. The last barrier that can be applied to this particular situation is one of the cultural differences. Students coming from another part of the world may have varied cultural traditions and views, distorting the original idea of my message.

The audience has an opportunity to respond both orally and non-verbally. The students can talk with me if the message is delivered in person, or reply to my e-mail. In case of a post on the website, the audience can voice their concerns in the comment section.

The social communication model is more effective in describing and breaking down the communication process than a regular model. The traditional approach does not take into account the need to encode and decode the message by both the sender and the receiver.

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Essay on Importance of Communication for Students and Children

500+ words essay on importance of communication:.

Communication is one of the important tools that aid us to connect with people. Either you are a student or a working professional, good communication is something that will connect you far ahead. Proper communication can help you to solve a number of issues and resolve problems. This is the reason that one must know how to communicate well. The skills of communication essential to be developed so that you are able to interact with people. And able to share your thoughts and reach out to them. All this needs the correct guidance and self-analysis as well.

Meaning of Communication

The word communication is basically a process of interaction with the people and their environment . Through such type of interactions, two or more individuals influence the ideas, beliefs, and attitudes of each other.

Such interactions happen through the exchange of information through words, gestures, signs, symbols, and expressions. In organizations, communication is an endless process of giving and receiving information and to build social relationships.

Importance of Communication

Communication is not merely essential but the need of the hour. It allows you to get the trust of the people and at the same time carry better opportunities before you. Some important points are as follows –

Help to Build Relationships 

No matter either you are studying or working, communication can aid you to build a relationship with the people. If you are studying you communicate with classmates and teachers to build a relationship with them. Likewise in offices and organizations too, you make relationships with the staff, your boss and other people around.

Improve the Working Environment 

There are a number of issues which can be handled through the right and effective communication. Even planning needs communication both written as well as verbal. Hence it is essential to be good in them so as to fill in the communication gap.

Foster strong team

Communication helps to build a strong team environment in the office and other places. Any work which requires to be done in a team. It is only possible if the head communicates everything well and in the right direction.

Find the right solutions

Through communication, anyone can find solutions to even serious problems. When we talk, we get ideas from people that aid us to solve the issues. This is where communication comes into play. Powerful communication is the strength of any organization and can help it in many ways.

Earns more respect

If your communication skills are admirable, people will love and give you respect. If there is any problem, you will be the first person to be contacted. Thus it will increase your importance. Hence you can say that communications skills can make a big change to your reputation in society.

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Don’t Go Overboard With Your Point

The conversation is about to express your thoughts. And to let the other person know what you feel. It is not mean to prove that your point is correct and the other person is wrong. Don’t Overboard other With Your Point.

Watch Your Words

Before you say something to Watch Your Words. At times, out of anger or anxiousness, we say somethings that we must not say. Whenever you are in a professional meeting or in some formal place, where there is a necessity of communicating about your product or work then it is advised to practice the same beforehand

Communication is the greatest importance. It is important to sharing out one’s thoughts and feelings to live a fuller and happier life. The more we communicate the less we suffer and the better we feel about everything around. However, it is all the more necessary to learn the art of effective communication to put across ones point well.

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Berlo's Communication Model

1. Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model David K. Berlo, a communication theorist and consultant developed a model named S-M-C-R model of communication in 1960 in his book “The process of communication”. Berlo pointed out the importance of the psychological view in his communication model. The four parts of Berlo’s S-M-C-R model are S = Source, M = Message, C = Channel and R = Receiver. The model is as follows Source: The first element of Berlo’s communication model is the source. All communication must come form some sources. The source might be one person, a group of people of a company. Several things determine how a source will operate in the communication process such as- i. Communication skills like abilities to think, write, draw and speak. ii. Attitudes …show more content…

Receiver: Receiver is the final element in the communication process. The receiver is the audience of the message. 2. 6 students participated in the verbal communication activity. 1st student was called and given some information which had to be passed to the next student with the same information. One had to listen it properly and give the same information to next student without loosing its content. It continued till the information received to last student. The last student had to tell what information he received. 3. i. The original information was lost till the time it came to the last student. The message given to the first student and the message received by last student was not the same. As the original information was lost. When the last student was asked to tell what message he got and asked the first student to tell whether this was the message, it was told that it was not the same message. ii. By the time the message received to the last student the information was lost, as the message given to the first student and message received by the last student was not …show more content…

It is the perfect guide towards achieving effective communication. The process assures that sender’s message will be understood by the receiver. But the process is not simple as sometimes use of inappropriate medium, incorrect grammar, words that conflict with body language and technical jargon have a negative impact on the communication process. This can create a barrier between you and your client. In counselling setting many a times client misunderstands the therapist words and interpret it wrongly because of which counselling is ineffective. Both have to make sure that they understand each other. The activity we did can be related to counselling setting as we saw that the information given to the 1st student came out to be so different by the last student, this shows that how the words change the meaning, and listening and understanding is very important. Because the same happens in counselling setting as the therapist(sender) gives the message to the client(receiver) which is interpreted by the receiver that is client, can be understood or

Case Formulation And Counselling Skills For Children: A Case Study

A Case Study with Case Formulation and Counselling skills for Children Formulation is one of the core skills practiced by psychologists. The development and maintenance of the client's problems and needs are elicited through a framework drawn on from psychological research and practice. It integrates knowledge acquired through assessment using 'psychological, biological and systemic factors and procedures'. Formulation may involve many hypotheses by drawing on various theoretical models, and provides a foundation for the development of the appropriate psychological intervention (DCP 2010 cited in DCP 2011). Variations of the formulation technique have been applied to develop frameworks specifically for family therapy (Carr 1990).

Stanley Milgram Experiment Papers

Stanley Milgram wants to know how people would go in obeying an instruction. For his experiment he stand a procedure it is different from others. His experiment taken at human beings. 40 males aged between 20 and 50 were selected for the experiment, These 40 males were professionals who is unskilled. There is a teacher and learner in his experiment.

Ap Psychology Case Interview Paper

The client could not understand; yet he was feeling uncertain and this interpretation pinpoint the reason why by connecting his past to his future. 4. What do you think was effective about the therapist’s approach in this session? The session was more open and free formed.

Discuss The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Working Within Teams

Communication is the process of transferring of information. Viswanathan (2010) says communication can take many forms of verbal and non-verbal methods which may include speaking, writing, gestures, expressions, listening and body language to name a few. All of these things should be taken into consideration to ensure an effective means of sending and receiving information. How and what information is sent may not be received in the same manner intended.

500 English Sentences Case Essay

Then, main issue for Mr. Honda is that the place where he is currently working at which is the Nishi High has been assigned the duty of editing the text in textbook and resubmit it to the publisher. As a head of the English department, he wanted to make sure everything is fine without mistake. He asked Scott to do him this favour by helping the school to repair some errors in the textbook. However, Mr. Honda did not expect that there will be so many errors in the textbook.

Eight Step Ethical Decision-Making Model

Therefore, it is necessary to clear any ambiguity. Important information is to be retained and used while irrelevant ones may be discarded. Counselor would have to look at the situation and exercise wisdom before embarking on the process of consultation and touching on the nature of the

Disadvantages Of Narrative Therapy

Putting the client as the expert, understanding her story instead of attempting to judge it, in the therapist’s point of view. The therapist must in any point display with utmost care, interest, respectful curiosity, openness, empathy, and fascination. Once this collaborative relationship has been established, the counsellor and the client can move forward and work on how to improve the outcomes of the

Poor Communication In Health Care Essay

Communication is effected by a mixture of variables such as an “authority gradient”, style of communication and fatigue which impacts the way information is communicated between people. These factors can form a barrier called the “authority gradient” where individuals are classified on factors such as level of education, gender or job position which determines how much control they have over a situation.

Client Interview Reflection

Additionally, as a counselor, it is important to be genuine with whatever feedbacks one presents to the patient and what one believes regarding the situation of the client. Mrs. Perez believes the more authentic and genuine he is with her patients, the more help he will be able to offer the clients. As a counselor, it is important to have a fine and professional interaction with one 's client but boundaries must be maintained. Through this, a counselor is able to demonstrate their focus on helping the patients by showing the client that they understand their problems. It also through such engagements that counselor is able to use the non-judgmental attention that does not require words for illustration in helping the patient.

Self Evaluation In Counselling

At the beginning of the session, is appropriate to used more minimal encourager, but depending of client situation, paraphrasing also assists counsellor gaining accuracy in understanding. Paraphrasing in this session actually lesser, I just allow client to share without limit, it may lose precious moment to allow the client to “hear” their own thoughts and to focus on what he say and feel, which is very important to help client to gain

Reflective Essay On Counselling

Firstly, I need to identify the causes and formation of the difficulty situation of my client. I should not involve my own personal emotions when analysing the situation. Next, clarification of the situation is essential. The clients should figure out themselves on how to face the situation. An effective counsellor listen more than talks, and what they do say gives the client a sense of being heard and understood.

Carkhuff's Model Of Counselling

The counsellor creates a therapeutic environment with the client whereby the client will feel that they are able to trust the counsellor. The counsellor achieves this by being congruent, empathetic and providing positive regard to the client. The skills required in this stage includes the attending which is being attentive to the client to show that the counsellor is genuinely interested in the client. The counsellor must also be varied of non-verbal messages that

Reflective Reflection In Counselling

Over the past one and half month, the class of PDE 502 (Counselling and Career Education) has taught me some major lessons for life in dealing with the clients in response to their emotional needs. The role of a counsellor is not unlike that of a friend where by it is nurtured by being in each other’s company, talking over everyday issues and sharing feelings. However, what sets a counsellor apart is their experience and the ability to apply counselling theories and techniques to assist people in gaining awareness, insight and explore ways of solving their own issues.

Reflection Paper Of Active Listening

These skills are not only applicable in the counselling setting to form therapeutic relationship; they are also essential in daily life to convey information in a healthier way instead of finger pointing and blaming others, especially during conflict. To illustrate, the practice of “I” statements were especially useful in expressing my discomfort due to someone’s behaviour since it allowed me to convey my discomfort clearly while reducing the defensiveness of the person. Besides that, I used to have superficial relationship with others as I avoided touching on people’s inner feelings due to my fear of not providing any constructive feedback to resolve their issues. Nevertheless, this has taught me that conversations do not merely revolve around advice giving; by actively listening to others, that could also serve as the best form of support. After understanding this, I am more willing to listen to my friends’ feelings and provide emotional support which deepens our

Reflection About Lesson Plan

IX. Professional Reflection – added after lesson is taught Your reflection should include, but not be limited to, thoughtful answers to each of the following: 1.Were the instructional objectives met? How do I know the students learned what was intended? The instructional objectives of my reading lesson plan were met.

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Communication Process Model Expository Essay

Sender and receiver of the message in communication, misunderstandings in communication, channel of communication.

Communication can be referred to as the process by which messages get sent and received. I happened to experience two misunderstandings, one in college and another in the work place. In one of the misunderstandings, a secretary showed thumbs up sign to a colleague who had just acquired a job promotion from the assistant manager to the manager (Heath, 1983). The colleague was embarrassed as she thought that the worker was passing over an obscenity.

The secretary however explained the implication of the gesture to her colleague. She did this through stating the dangers of misunderstandings, followed by a brief but clear explanation of the same (Griffin, 1998). She however sounded sorry and empathetic about her feelings when she received the message (Hall, 1969), but remained confident that she knew that the sign had no ill meaning whatsoever (Morris, Collette, Marsh, & O’Shaughnessy, 1980).

In this conversation, the secretary took the position of the sender whereby she originated the message and sent it to her colleague, who was the receiver. The message in the conversation was a gesture of goodwill and congratulations for the new position attained after the promotion. The channel used in the conversation was light waves, which helped the receiver decode the message through interpretation.

The misunderstanding that occurred in this case was the idea that the receiver of the message thought that her colleague was being jealous and hence the insult. This was because the two ladies came from different cultural backgrounds and attached different meanings to given sign languages. This could be avoided by coming up with a common language in the work place.

Another case of misunderstanding that I experienced was in a school set up where students received advice from one of the teachers after rampant cases of drug abuse. The sender of the message in this case was the teacher who passed on the message to the recipients. The students on the other hand, were the recipients of the message.

The message put across by the teacher in this case was a piece of advice and counseling about the effects that drugs had on their health and life in general. The teacher began with a startling opening where he gave statistics of students who dropped out of school and lived reckless lives as a result of drug and substance abuse. (Heath, 1983). He also gave statistics of students and celebrities who had lost their lives to the same.

The channel for communication used in this case was sound and light waves where the students listened to what the teacher was saying and observed his actions. This helped them interpret the message more clearly and effectively. The misunderstanding came about when the teacher said that he admired the strength that the students had in looking for trouble.

The students misinterpreted the message put across by the teacher, by thinking that he was also a victim of drugs. This caused trouble in the school whereby the students undertook a demonstration that lead to firing of the teacher. To avoid such instances teachers and other administrators should enhance clarity in their speech.

Effective communication is of great importance. For this to be maintained, it is necessary for people to appreciate each other based on their cultural backgrounds (Rogers, & Steinhart, 1999). People should also make use of gestures and signs that do not contradict the meaning of their messages. Use of body language and gestures should be discouraged in the work place and other formal institutions. This helps in reducing cases of cultural discrimination and enhances harmony and unity.

Griffin, J. (1998). How to say it at work: Putting yourself across with power words, phrases, body language and communication secrets. Paramus, NJ: Prentice Hall Press.

Hall, E. T. (1969). Listening behaviors: Some cultural differences. Phi Delta Kappa, 50, 379–380.

Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Morris, D., Collette, P., Marsh, P., & O’Shaughnessy, M. (1980). Gestures, their origins and distributions . New York: Stein and Day.

Rogers, E. M., & Steinhart, T. M. (1999). Intercultural communication . Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

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Communication Models : The Information Transfer Model Essay

Four Communication Models The information flow process also known as the information transfer model refers to the information transmitted from one person to another (Eisenberg, Goodall Jr. & Trethewey, 2014). This a great way to communicate because managers can clearly give orders to workers. After the individual has receive the message he or she will decode the message. In occasion distractions such as noise can make the receiver find a different meaning to the message than what was originally intended by the sender. Once the message has been received, and the decoded the receiver can start doing what the sender has told them to do. However, if distractions were present during the decoding of the message, the receiver will not do what the sender expects him to do. Strategic control is a method used by the managers to influence and shape the environment (Eisenberg, Goodall Jr. & Trethewey, 2014). In this process delivering a clear understanding of the message is not the main goal. Instead, this approach seeks to find the correct method to transmit multiple goals during the same conversation. For instance, in a meeting the managers goal is to be understood, motivate improvement, and to preserve a positive working condition. This approach helps managers and supervisors plan how to express what they intent to say and also to communicate with multiple people at once. Even though, that this approach may not provide a clear understanding of the message it helps managers and

Community Memorial Medical Center ( Cmmc )

Strategic management is the process where leaders establish an organization’s long-term direction, set the specific performance objectives, develop strategies to achieve these objectives in the light of all external and internal changes, and undertake effective strategies to manage these changes and execute action plans.

Strategic Plan, Part Ii: Swott Analysis

Pearce, J. A. II, & Robinson, R. B. (2009). Strategic management: Formulation, implementation, and control (11th ed.). [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-text]. New York: McGraw-Hill. Retrieved August 20, 2011, fr

Communication Is A Very Intricate Part Of A Successful Strategic Plan

Communication is a very intricate part of a successful strategic plan. Collaboration with the board, executive leaders, management team all the way to front-line staff must be informed what the strategic plan is and how it relates to the mission and vision. The mission, vision, values, goals and objectives of the organization must be organizational-wide dissemination. In order to have an effective and efficient strategic plan one must first select a strategic leader to help decide what their mission and vision will be. “Strategic leadership involves creating a vision and strategy that helps the organization succeed at its mission in both the short and the long term” (Spath, Abraham, 2014).

Communication Theories : Comm 4910 Final Report

In 1980, S.F. Scudder proposed that all living beings existing on the planet communicate in some way, even plants. We need to communicate to survive. My paper discusses various communication theories that relate to things that I observed or experienced over the course of my internship.

Dear Sacramento Chinese Community Service Center,. I Have

2). Communication is a basic skill that humans use to relate to one another, express themselves and their emotions, and share past experiences and stories. Imagine trying to effectively communicate with a bad communicator, is it obvious that someone is not an effective communicator? There are two models of communication that are used, the linear model of communication and the transaction model of communication. When used effectively, individuals can communicate interpersonally in both face-to-face interactions and through mediated channels.

Strategic Management Process Paper

The last step of the strategic management process is the maintaining of strategic control. This is commonly achieved by closely monitoring the progress and failures of current policies, budgets, and personnel arrangements. Once an action is deemed to be required, management uses what is known as a feedback loop to find the point of deterioration within the policy, or budget in order to make appropriate adjustments (Kinichi and Williams,

Interpersonal Communication: Social Exchange Theory

Another way interpersonal communication can be looked at uses the Shannon and Weaver model, which breaks up the process into five parts. The information source, transmitter (sender), receiver, destination, and noise, which is sometimes involved (Hill, 2007). Noise is anything that can get in the way of the clarity of a message. An example could be a crackle through the phone line, or an interruption from a third party. Noise can create complications within interpersonal communication, and make it harder for the message to be delivered clearly (Hill, 2007).

Strategic Planning For An Organization Essay

Strategic planning involves making decisions about the organization’s long-term goals and strategies and how the organization decides to implement their goals (Bateman, Snell, Konopaske, pg. 113). Strategies help organizations to have a clear perspective on how to go about accomplishing the goals they have in place. All organizations have a clear vision of what their mission and purpose as a company is, they know how to fulfill the mission, vision, and purpose and they know how to ensure that they accomplish all their goals. However, the route the organization takes to define these things determines how effective they will be.

Essay Strategic Leadership

Strategic leadership entails making decisions across different cultures, agencies, agendas, personalities, and desires. It requires the devising of plans that are feasible, desirable, and acceptable to one’s organization and partners whether joint, interagency, or multinational. Strategic leadership demands the ability to make sound, reasoned decisions specifically, consequential decisions with grave implications. Since the aim of strategy is to link ends, ways, and means, the aim of strategic leadership is to determine the ends, choose the best ways, and apply the most effective means. The strategy is the plan; strategic leadership is the thinking and decision making required to develop and effect the plan.

Essay on The Importance of Communication in an Organization

In addition, understanding different models of communication enable members inside and outside an organisation to depict different messages being provided by the employee or customer and develop their communication skills. The Shannon and Weaver model of communication was developed to show the effects of communication between two people (Kikoski, 1993). In the Shannon and Weaver model, a message is encoded (via a symbolic form) from a source (the sender) through a medium called a channel, and decoded (retranslated) by the receiver. However, the message can be interrupted by a process called noise and can result in discrepancy and sometimes negative feedback from the receiver (Bowman and Targowski, 1987). In response to the Shannon and Weaver model of communication, through the identification of any noise within the communication process, as a result of the manager level of attunement in communication skills, the encoded

Strategic Management Essay

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The strategic management process is sometimes improperly perceived as a unidirectional flow of objectives, strategies and decision parameters from management to the employees. In fact, the process should be highly interactive since it is designed to stimulate input from creative, skilled and knowledgeable people working at every level of the business.

Tesla Motor Case Essay

The strategic management is actually defined as the process in which an organization actually formats and also implements the plans which espouse the objectives and goals of that organization (Diana Wicks, 2011). The process of the strategic management is continuous and it changes with the evolution of the organizational goals and objectives.

Strategy For Lafarge Tarmac

There are three factors that can be affected by this strategic implementation which are, communication, decision making, and coordination among the different teams in the company. The employees behaviour is expected

The Model Of Intercultural Communication

One of many communication models can be seen in illustration three and explains the way, in which the encoding and decoding process from the sender and recipient

Essay on Strategic Management: Ikea Case Study

‘Strategic Management’ is a very complex term as many eminent researchers and scholars have had different views and conclusions on strategy. According to White (2004), “Strategic Management involves both systematically developing an idea together with its implications and testing the empirical validity & usefulness of that idea against the real world.” Thus strategy is not only about planning for future but also about confirming the validity of the hypothesis considered and implementing it successfully. Strategy formation may take various forms such as implicit, explicit or emergent. Implicit strategy is a strategy formed by intuitions of an individual. As per implicit strategists, strategic management is about reading the environment

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Interactive Communication Model - Essay Sample

The interactive model is also known as the convergence model and was developed to show the exchange of ideas and messages taking place in two ways. This a development of the linear model whereby there is feedback from the receiver of the message to the sender of the message. In this model, the source encodes the message and sends it to the receiver who decodes it to get the intended information. Subsequently, the receiver then acts as the source and encode another message as the feedback and they send it back to the sender. The concept of noise and a barrier to communication are present in this model. Such include language and network problems which affect the communication process.

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This model interested me as it is a development of the linear model and the complexity of decoding a message and encoding another to be a replay of the same. Furthermore, in every management and leadership, position communication is an important aspect to help in the growth of the organization or firm. Efficient communication with customers is a good strategic management tool in today's world, hence has led to my attention to this communication model. There is more complexity that comes with this model as one needs to rightly decode a message in order to give a proper and satisfactory feedback. Additionally, I find being interactive as a very crucial aspect of effective communication. The processes of message formation from either side are heavily influenced by parties' "field of experience" which is factored that can alter the communication pattern such as culture, psychology or even communication channels. These factors have a big influence on the interpretation of messages as well.

This model really helps in the understanding of the communication process that exists between two parties. Communication is reciprocal or two-way even though there are instances the feedback may be delayed. Sending and receiving messages is a complex process that involves encoding and decoding and there exist various barriers to this process and this model helps us to understand this complex process through reduction of complexity to simpler and more familiar terms. Thus, it includes context such that it explains a message having different meanings in different settings. This model also has helped in realizing new discoveries in relation to communication such as the development of the transaction model through the development of hypothetical ideas and relationships. There was an introduction of a new concept, the field of experience' in this model which are the orientations or attitudes that the instructors have. A weakness associated with this model is, even though it is less linear, it only accounts for bilateral communication between the parties and the complex multiple levels of communication with several sources are beyond this model.

The model is a simple one but goes a long way in simplifying the communication processes that involves sending a message and receiving feedback. The model is very useful for people seeking to understand the simple forms of communication between individuals. There is the introduction of the influence of aspects such as culture, setting and the situation in the communication process, specifically the meaning of a message which helps to understand communication more. Additionally, this model is really helpful as it incorporates the challenges that are experienced in a two-way communication, for instance language barriers and delay of feedback. The model does not tackle more complex aspects of the communication process; hence its use is very limited. All the same, I feel this model was a major improvement of the previous linear communication models.

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