essay of the war of 1812

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War of 1812

By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 24, 2023 | Original: October 27, 2009

In the War of 1812, the United States took on the greatest naval power in the world, Great Britain, in a conflict that would have an immense impact on the young country’s future. Causes of the war included British attempts to restrict U.S. trade, the Royal Navy’s impressment of American seamen and America’s desire to expand its territory. 

The United States suffered many costly defeats at the hands of British, Canadian and Native American troops over the course of the War of 1812, including the capture and burning of the nation’s capital, Washington, D.C., in August 1814. Nonetheless, American troops were able to repulse British invasions in New York, Baltimore and New Orleans, boosting national confidence and fostering a new spirit of patriotism. The ratification of the Treaty of Ghent on February 17, 1815, ended the war but left many of the most contentious questions unresolved. Nonetheless, many in the United States celebrated the War of 1812 as a “second war of independence,” beginning an era of partisan agreement and national pride.

Causes of the War of 1812

At the outset of the 19th century, Great Britain was locked in a long and bitter conflict with Napoleon Bonaparte’s France. In an attempt to cut off supplies from reaching the enemy, both sides attempted to block the United States from trading with the other. In 1807, Britain passed the Orders in Council, which required neutral countries to obtain a license from its authorities before trading with France or French colonies. The Royal Navy also outraged Americans by its practice of impressment, or removing seamen from U.S. merchant vessels and forcing them to serve on behalf of the British.

In 1809, the U.S. Congress repealed Thomas Jefferson ’s unpopular Embargo Act, which by restricting trade had hurt Americans more than either Britain or France. Its replacement, the Non-Intercourse Act, specifically prohibited trade with Britain and France. It also proved ineffective, and in turn was replaced with a May 1810 bill stating that if either power dropped trade restrictions against the United States, Congress would in turn resume non-intercourse with the opposing power.

After Napoleon hinted he would stop restrictions, President James Madison blocked all trade with Britain that November. Meanwhile, new members of Congress elected that year—led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun—had begun to agitate for war, based on their indignation over British violations of maritime rights as well as Britain’s encouragement of Native American hostility against American westward expansion .

Did you know? The War of 1812 produced a new generation of great American generals, including Andrew Jackson, Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott, and helped propel no fewer than four men to the presidency: Jackson, John Quincy Adams, James Monroe and William Henry Harrison.

The War of 1812 Breaks Out

In the fall of 1811, Indiana’s territorial governor William Henry Harrison led U.S. troops to victory in the Battle of Tippecanoe . The defeat convinced many Indians in the Northwest Territory (including the celebrated Shawnee chief Tecumseh ) that they needed British support to prevent American settlers from pushing them further out of their lands. 

Meanwhile, by late 1811 the so-called “War Hawks” in Congress were putting more and more pressure on Madison, and on June 18, 1812, the president signed a declaration of war against Britain. Though Congress ultimately voted for war, both House and Senate were bitterly divided on the issue. Most Western and Southern congressmen supported war, while Federalists (especially New Englanders who relied heavily on trade with Britain) accused war advocates of using the excuse of maritime rights to promote their expansionist agenda.

In order to strike at Great Britain, U.S. forces almost immediately attacked Canada, which was then a British colony. American officials were overly optimistic about the invasion’s success, especially given how underprepared U.S. troops were at the time. On the other side, they faced a well-managed defense coordinated by Sir Isaac Brock, the British soldier and administrator in charge in Upper Canada (modern Ontario). 

On August 16, 1812, the United States suffered a humiliating defeat after Brock and Tecumseh’s forces chased those led by Michigan William Hull across the Canadian border, scaring Hull into surrendering Detroit without any shots fired.

War of 1812: Mixed Results for American Forces

Things looked better for the United States in the West, as Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry’s brilliant success in the Battle of Lake Erie in September 1813 placed the Northwest Territory firmly under American control. Harrison was subsequently able to retake Detroit with a victory in the Battle of Thames (in which Tecumseh was killed). Meanwhile, the U.S. navy had been able to score several victories over the Royal Navy in the early months of the war. With the defeat of Napoleon’s armies in April 1814, however, Britain was able to turn its full attention to the war effort in North America. 

As large numbers of troops arrived, British forces raided the Chesapeake Bay and moved in on the U.S. capital, capturing Washington, D.C ., on August 24, 1814, and burning government buildings including the Capitol and the White House .

Inspiration for 'The Star Spangled Banner'

On September 11, 1814, at the Battle of Plattsburgh on Lake Champlain in New York, the American navy soundly defeated the British fleet. And on September 13, 1814, Baltimore’s Fort McHenry withstood 25 hours of bombardment by the British Navy. 

The following morning, the fort’s soldiers hoisted an enormous American flag, a sight that inspired Francis Scott Key to write a poem that would later be set to music and become known as  “ The Star-Spangled Banner .” (Set to the tune of an old English drinking song, it would later be adopted as the U.S. national anthem.) British forces subsequently left the Chesapeake Bay and began gathering their efforts for a campaign against New Orleans .

End of the War of 1812 and Its Impact

By that time, peace talks had already begun at Ghent (modern Belgium), and Britain moved for an armistice after the failure of the assault on Baltimore. In the negotiations that followed, the United States gave up its demands to end impressment, while Britain promised to leave Canada’s borders unchanged and abandon efforts to create an Indian state in the Northwest. On December 24, 1814, commissioners signed the Treaty of Ghent , which would be ratified the following February. 

On January 8, 1815, unaware that peace had been concluded, British forces mounted a major attack in the Battle of New Orleans , only to meet with defeat at the hands of future U.S. president Andrew Jackson ’s army. News of the battle boosted sagging U.S. morale and left Americans with the taste of victory, despite the fact that the country had achieved none of its pre-war objectives.

Impact of the War of 1812

Though the War of 1812 is remembered as a relatively minor conflict in the United States and Britain, it looms large for Canadians and for Native Americans, who see it as a decisive turning point in their losing struggle to govern themselves. In fact, the war had a far-reaching impact in the United States, as the Treaty of Ghent ended decades of bitter partisan infighting in government and ushered in the so-called “Era of Good Feelings.” 

The war also marked the demise of the Federalist Party , which had been accused of being unpatriotic for its antiwar stance, and reinforced a tradition of Anglophobia that had begun during the Revolutionary War. Perhaps most importantly, the war’s outcome boosted national self-confidence and encouraged the growing spirit of American expansionism that would shape the better part of the 19th century.

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Outcomes of the War of 1812

"American Progress" by John Gast, 1872

On the surface, it may seem that the War of 1812 was just pointless bloodshed spattered on the pages of human history. After all, according to the final Treaty of Ghent, all relations and borders were supposed to return to status quo ante bellum , or pre-war, status. Look beyond the legalism and into the practical effects of the war, however, and one will find significant attitudinal changes in the United States after the conflict, ushering in what most historians consider the “Era of Good Feelings” in the decade following the war.

The biggest American casualty of the war was the Federalist Party, the first political party that had arisen in the United States. A party of bankers and businessmen, the Federalists' steady opposition to the war doomed them in the eyes of the American public. Their vociferous opposition to the commencement of the war, and their subsequent contemplation of outright secession at the "Hartford Convention," angered many Americans, who viewed the Federalists as “un-patriotic.” The Federalists had principally represented men of means and wealth, with the bulk of their membership in the Northeast. With the end of the war the party all but ceased to exist, and many of its former members rallied to new party banners, namely Republican and Whig, where they formed the political base for centralization, protectionism, and, eventually, abolitionism, in the latter half of the 19th century. 

When the war ended, Americans seized on the various successes of the Army and Navy and celebrated the fact that the relatively young United States had gone toe to toe with the greatest military machine in the world, fighting them mostly to a draw. The huge victory scored by Andrew Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans , in addition to the multiple successes of America’s greatest frigate, the USS Constitution , proved to be reason enough to promote the American image at home and abroad.

Partisan rancor, which had reached a fever pitch during the immolation of the Federalists, waned considerably in the years following the war, prompting people to dub their times "the Era of Good Feelings." The party of Thomas Jefferson gained ascendancy, undoubtedly helped by the loss of the Federalists, and propounded a happy vision of a nation of free farmers. This peaceful domestic policy became married to an expansionist foreign policy.  The 1819 Adams-Onis Treaty led to the American purchase of Florida from Spain. In 1823, the Monroe Doctrine essentially told European powers that the Western Hemisphere was off limits to European expansion. It also helped put the United States on a course of internal expansion. By staying out of European affairs the United States expected, and demanded, the same treatment in kind. This could not have happened had the War of 1812 not ended the way it did.

The election of Andrew Jackson as the seventh President ushered in the age of the “common man.” Jackson was the de facto hero of the common man and his policies as president reflected that fact. The election of Jackson in 1828 is also notable because of the shift in American political demographics. Suffrage became more widespread, as property requirements to vote were dropped by the states, resulting in a huge surge in the number of eligible voters.

This shift was also perceptible in the arts and letters as American painters began to focus on American themes in their works. This is perhaps best represented by the work of Missouri painter George Caleb Bingham, who celebrated the common man on his canvas. Generals and politicians fell by the wayside as subject matter. Instead the new American was the fur trader, the horse trader, the “jolly” flat boatman who plied the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. Bingham’s singular work, "The County Election" celebrates American democracy in a way never before celebrated. With bottles and ballots in their hands, Bingham’s heroes are the everyday white men who made the machine of American politics turn.

In 1837, Ralph Waldo Emerson delivered his speech, “The American Scholar,” which was later published as an essay. Oliver Wendell Holmes believed that “The American Scholar” was the United States' intellectual Declaration of Independence. In his speech, Emerson urged Americans to look not to Europe for their models but to themselves and to American landscapes for inspiration. In 1841, Emerson published the essay "On Self-Reliance," which echoed the themes of “The American Scholar,” but had a lasting impact on the American creed of the worth of hard work and one’s own labor. Emerson’s pen and thinking were built on the evidence of American significance provided by the War of 1812.

While the self-reliant common man rose to a zenith, the same could not be said for the American Indian tribes of the frontier. With the end of the War of 1812, the Native Americans could no longer count on Great Britain to shield them from the flood of white settlers headed west. Settlers came in droves by the Erie Canal or through the Cumberland Gap. The next seventy-five years saw a rapid decline in the Native Americans' way of life, even for those tribes like the Cherokee or Choctaw that tried to adapt white ways of living. Manifest Destiny ruled the day.

In the years after the War of 1812, new states north and south entered the Union. At the same time, America’s economic engine was fueled by King Cotton. Alas, King Cotton could not have become the behemoth it did without the institution of race-based slavery. While many Americans could boast of great progress in the years after the War of 1812, most notably in the shaping of American politics, art, and military tradition, the issue of slavery continued to divide the nation and the true meaning of the United States could not be borne out until after the great bloodletting of the Civil War.

Further Reading:

• 1812: War with America : Jon Latimer
• 1812: The War That Forged a Nation : Walter R. Borneman
• The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies : Alan Taylor
• The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict : Donald R. Hickey
• Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence : A.J. Langguth

Battle of New Orleans: The Last Battle of the War of 1812

Foreign Policy in the Early Republic

The Founding of New Orleans

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The War of 1812

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1910 painting by Edward Percy Moran of Battle of New Orleans.

Courtesy of Library of Congress

For two and a half years, Americans fought against the British, Canadian colonists, and native nations in a war that divided the United States so deeply that the nation almost broke apart. Watch the NEH-funded film THE WAR OF 1812 online, supplemented by bonus video material, classroom lesson plans, essays on aspects of the conflict, and a guide to historic battle sites. 

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The War of 1812 (Plain-Language Summary)

Article by The Canadian Encyclopedia

Updated by Fred Glover

Published Online January 17, 2020

Last Edited January 17, 2020

The War of 1812 was fought between Britain and the United States between 1812 and 1814. The war ended in a stalemate but had many lasting effects in Canada. It guaranteed Canada’s independence from the United States. It also gave Canadians their first experience working together as a community and helped develop a sense of nationhood.

(This article is a plain-language summary of the War of 1812. If you are interested in reading about this topic in more depth, please see our full-length entry War of 1812 .)

The War of 1812 was fought between Britain and the United States between 1812 and 1814. The main cause of the War of 1812 was Britain’s actions during the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815). First, the British set up a naval blockade to stop supplies from getting to France. This made the Americans angry because they wanted to trade with France. They became even more angry when the British navy began to board American ships. Britain did this because it thought the Americans were continuing to trade with France. They were also looking for deserters from the British navy. A deserter is someone who leaves the military without permission.

In 1807, tension between the Americans and the British rose when a British ship fired on an American ship in the Chesapeake Bay. This event is known as the “ Chesapeake Affair .” In May 1811, tensions rose even more when officers on a British ship “impressed” (forced) an American sailor to join the British navy.

British relations with First Nations people was another source of American anger. Britain traded with First Nations people living in American territory. Furthermore, Britain established a good relationship with Tecumseh , the Chief of the Shawnee. During the first decade of the 19th century, Tecumseh united many different First Nations to fight against the US. In 1811, Tecumseh’s forces and the United States went to war. This war is called “Tecumseh’s War.” It lasted from 1811 until 1813.

Around this time, “War Hawks” in the American congress were becoming more popular. The “War Hawks” wanted the United States to go to war with Britain. In 1812, they got what they wanted. On 18 June 1812, President Madison declared war on Britain.

The war lasted for two years. The British side was composed of soldiers from Britain, militiamen from Canada, Métis , First Nations warriors, and a group known as the “ Coloured Corps .” Many men in the Coloured Corps had been slaves. Some of the more important battles of the War of 1812 were fought at Fort Detroit, York (now Toronto ), Fort George (at the mouth of the Niagara River ), Moraviantown (the Chatham-Kent region in Ontario), and Queenston ( Niagara-on-the-Lake ). Thousands were killed and/or wounded.

The war resulted in a stalemate (meaning no side clearly won). The War of 1812 had many lasting consequences. It guaranteed Canada’s independence from the United States. It also gave the population of British North America (Canada) its first sense of acting as a community. This would help develop a sense of nationhood. Finally, after the war, the United States expanded westward into First Nations territory. As a result, the War of 1812 was disastrous for First Nations peoples.

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War of 1812

By Matthew Pinsker

On February 5, 2019

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“Madison accepted war in 1812 in the confidence that it would be relatively short, inexpensive, and bloodless –more talk than fight– and that the United States could achieve its objectives without great difficulty.  In fact, the War of 1812 lasted two and a half years and cost more than two thousand American lives and $158 billion.  For Britain, the war was a military and diplomatic sideshow to the main performance in Europe; for the United States, it became a struggle for survival.” –George Herring, From Colony to Superpower , p. 127

War of 1812 overview map (Courtesy of World Book)

Discussion Questions

• How did Jefferson’s attempts to embargo Britain during his second term undermine his presidency and cloud his foreign policy legacy?
• The War of 1812 is a misnomer in several ways.  Not only was it a nearly three-year conflict, but also the war involved far more than just the US and British.  What was the role of various Indian nations in this pivotal conflict?  How did the outcome of the war reshape US-Native American relations after 1815?

Additional Resources

• War of 1812 documents (Avalon Project)
• Chapter on Early Republic  (American Yawp, online textbook)
• War of 1812:  Perspectives (PBS)
• Star Spangled Banner (CNN / annotated lyrics)

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The War of 1812 for Americans Essay

Introduction.

The War of 1812 was instigated by the agitation of the Americans due to the dissatisfaction with the British government. One cannot say precisely that any of these sides succeeded in the end, but great domestic gains were vivid throughout the whole country.

The purpose of this essay is to highlight how the events during the War helped to move the American economy in new directions after peace had been restored. Changes spurred by the war ranged from economic changes to large investments, building a stable defense force (Berkin et al 200-250).

Permanent army

The period of War was a hard time for America and Americans since at that time it lacked a strong army and navy. The all-volunteer army was not good enough; what is more, the soldiers had to make their own weapons, in other words, the weapons were handmade. When the War ended up, lack of weapon was the main reason for the government to set up a permanent standing army which was armed to its full; soldiers had their own uniforms, and they were provided with other necessities essential for the military.

President Madison wanted to ensure that there was tight security by increasing the naval forces and erecting fortifications all around America. In the long run, this army matured to be one of the strongest armies in the world. What is more, stable security provided a suitable environment for the economic growth (Berkin et al 200-300).

Establishment of the National Bank.

The lack of existence of the Central Bank in the country was a big problem for the U.S. government as it had no possibility to borrow money or transfer currency across the country.

After the War in 1816, the Bank of the United States (B.U.S) was chartered by the congress. It was used as a depository of government funds; the bank was to handle the government’s banking business for free. The bank had a larger financial standing than the previous Hamilton’s bank used by the government earlier (Conlin 250-300).

Good Infrastructure

The War called for the need of provision of good and regular transport and goods which led to a rapid and huge construction of roads and canals across the country. The war urged the construction of the Erie Canal project, which was built to promote business by cutting the cost of manufactured shipping goods.

President Monroe supported the idea initiated by James Madison to construct a national transportation system, for example, the Cumberland road was constructed to unite the nation. Its construction resulted into more branches being created to make the transportation system within the country easier. Railway transport system was also embraced by the America government after the war had been over (Berkin et al 20-80).

Set up of Factories and Manufacturing Economy.

The British naval supremacy limited the delivery of foreign goods for them to reach America, which induced manufacturing, making it more dependent on its own goods. Factories and industries that were created and built at that time became the source of revenue and employment for the citizens.

Jefferson created an incentive for production of factories and manufacturing products, as well as increase in production of agricultural products which was in a bid to counter the cheap manufactured goods from Europe. The British blocked the American cost breaking the entry of cotton products that led to the establishment of a cotton manufacturing industry (Nash 600-730).

New Foreign Policy

The war changed American foreign policy. Jefferson was a non-interventionist as his predecessors Washington and Adams. When the war ended, President Monroe launched the Monroe doctrine. Its principle consisted in recognizing the newly sovereign Latin countries that broke away from Spain; the doctrine designed a European free western hemisphere.

Protective Tariff

During Jefferson’s period of presidency, the capital investment was concentrated on manufacturing but not commerce; when the war ended, cheap goods from foreign countries started to flood the market, and the American manufacturing needed protection. The foreign goods were quiet attractive to the citizens considering their cheap price being damage to the new upcoming industry.

To protect the American interests and to make sure the local industry was secure, a tariff was introduced to tax foreign imports making the American products cheaper. The 1816 the tariff importance consisted in protecting the American products rather than collecting revenue.

Agricultural Expansion

The war had created a shortage of farm products as many farmers were converted to militia. As a result of this, there was a massive and wild speculation in farmland that resulted into growth of processing industries and stable food supply for the country, hence, providing food security in the country. The United States also became a major exporter of agricultural products to other parts of the world.

The War resulted in the destruction of cities and their infrastructure. When the War came to its end, the deplorable state of these areas demanded a quality development strategy. For instance, there was massive renovation after the burning of the Washington in 1814; the city became more prosperous and powerful than it had been before.

The new Washington architecture was new with more artistic designs that later have become major tourist attractions. Such sites included statues of heroes and heroines of war, and other important monuments connected with the history of the country (Berlin et al 370-450).

The Louisiana Purchase.

This was the acquisition of French territory which had always been the America’s interest. It was acquired partially by cash and partially by cancellation of the country’s debts. The new land expanded American territory providing more space for its economic growth. Alternatively, it was a step forward in creating the European free western hemisphere.

It was also a step forward in protecting American trade in the region, and opening up free route through the Mississippi River. After the purchase, the American territory almost doubled, increasing its population and the workforce to enhance the economic and industrial growth (Nash 800-900).

National University

The War also led to technological, economic and political growth. This called for the competition among the elite community to counter the Europeans. As s result, there were huge developments in the education sector with many schools and universities being opened up all over the country. Consequently, the United States gained a highly skilled labor force that could work in its fast growing industries.

The War of 1812 played a significant role in the American economy. Changes made and development strategies initiated at that period resulted into huge developments, which elevated America to become a super power with one of the biggest economies in the world after the war. Post fighting development would advance the country in its rapid development that contributed to a more independent American society and culture.

Works Cited

Berkin et. al. Making America:A History of the United States since 1865 . Carifornia: Wadsworth Publishing, 2005. Print.

Conlin Joseph. The american past:a survey of american history. California: Wadsworth Publishing, 1865. Print.

Nash B. Gary. The American People. Harlow: Longman, 2000. Print.

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IvyPanda. (2019, May 7). The War of 1812 for Americans. https://ivypanda.com/essays/war-of-1812/

"The War of 1812 for Americans." IvyPanda , 7 May 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/war-of-1812/.

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IvyPanda . 2019. "The War of 1812 for Americans." May 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/war-of-1812/.

1. IvyPanda . "The War of 1812 for Americans." May 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/war-of-1812/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The War of 1812 for Americans." May 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/war-of-1812/.

• Causes of the 1812 War
• The War of 1812 Impacts on the United States
• The War of 1812
• The War of 1812 in the American History
• French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the War of 1812
• Militia Casualties of the War of 1812
• Tecumseh: Indian Participation in the War of 1812
• The War of 1812 as a Critical Historic Moment in the US and the UK
• "1812: The War that Forged a Nation" the Book by W.R. Borneman
• Britain and the United States War of 1912
• The Effects of the Second World War on US
• Robber Barons and Their Role in the American Economy
• Judith Stein’s Pivotal Decade: How the United States Traded Factories for Finance in the Seventies
• Alexis de Tocqueville: Three Races in the U.S.
• The Cold War and Its Influence on the American Society

“The War of 1812”

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Causes of The War of 1812

• Course of the War

Effects of The War of 1812

War of 1812 conclusion.

United States and Great Britain engaged in war in 1812, hence named “The War of 1812”. This war lasted for three years, that is, from 1812 to 1815.

It resulted from the cropping anger of the Americans over trade issues, impressments of American sailors, and British aid of the Indian attacks on the front line against the Native Americans (Roosevelt, 113). Although some of the Americans thought of 1812 War as a second war of independence, during this war, neither the British nor the Americans gained any decisive advantage.

The 1812 War took place during the reign of President Madison; he had declared war against the British after collision of the Americans with the British. The conflict between the Americans and the British had resulted from the British support of the Indians, Americans’ enemies.

The Indians had inputted much effort in doing away with the American administration, for instance, they fought the American troops leading to the reduction of the Americans power. In addition, the Indians offered protection to the British that resided in North America, this close association between the British and the Indians catalyzed American anger hence the outbreak of 1812 War.

Course of War

1812 War had its spark from a group of young politicians in the House of Representatives in America known as war hawks led by Henry Clay and John Calhoun.

The war hawks had diverse reasons as to why they demanded for the declaration of war against the British, and some of the reasons included the British violation of international laws that opposed disruption of marketing practices, the disrespect showed by the British, and the kidnapping act of the British.

For instance, the British violated international laws opposing disruption of marketing places by seizing American ships that transported goods for trade. The Americans considered the act of seizing American ships at their territory by the British as a show of disrespect. They therefore considered war as a solution, hence the War of 1812.

The British act of kidnapping innocent American sailors was also one of the causes of the 1812 War, the British captured and enslaved American sailors hence contributing to the rise of war hawks’ anger. The Chesapeake Affair of 1807 was also a contributing factor to the war of 1812, in 1807; the British soldiers managed to get aboard of American ship and killed innocent Americans that they caught, an act that left Americans burning with anger.

The neutrality act of Americans also contributed to the outbreak of the 1812 war, the Americans had the habit of carrying out their trading activity without showing interest or concern of the war that was taking place between the French and the British. The neutrality act portrayed by the Americans made the British take advantage of them.

The Americans started mistreating them by seizing their ships and capturing innocent American sailors (Hannay, 107).The succession of the British in the 1805 war against the French worsened the relationship between the British and the Americans, it led to the declination of the American participation in the trading activities across the seas.

Although the treaty of Ghent signed in December 1814 did not touch on any issues concerning the causes of the 1812 War, it contributed immensely towards the end of the 1812 War. The American and the British representatives had met at Ghent in Belgium with the intention of signing a peaceful treaty. According to the signed treaty, all conquered states were to be returned.

The treaty also paved way for the planning of commissions that solved boundary issues that existed between America and Canada. Via the signed treaty, the Americans were also able to restore their war lands and ships that had been captured by the British (Cullum, 133). In addition, the treaty contributed to the British promising to return the slaves it had captured.

Success of 1812 is based on the efforts of Andrew Jackson, in 1815, Andrew Jackson together with his poorly trained troops managed to win the Battle of New Orleans. The war had taken place between British and the Americans who had not gotten the news of the signed treaty.

Andrew Jackson with his outnumbered American army had managed to defeat the well trained and equipped British soldiers in the war that lasted for three years (Auchinleck, 89). The Battle of New Orleans had depicted the nationalism of the American volunteers, hence signifying the importance of Andrew Jackson.

In conclusion, the 1812 War was as a result of conflicts between the British and the Americans, it had resulted from the British overlooking the American neutrality. The 1812 war lasted for three years. In addition to the war contributing the drop of the American trading activity, it also led to the loss of many lives.

The British together with the Indians fought the Americans leading to the reduction of American powers. However, the efforts of the war hawks together with Andrew Jackson’ effort contributed immensely to the success of the American troops against the British.

Works cited

Auchinleck, Gilbert. A History of the War Between Great Britain and the United States of America: During the Years 1812, 1813, and 1814 . New York: Maclear & Company, 1855. Print.

Cullum, George. Campaigns of the War of 1812-15, Against Great Britain – Sketched and Criticised – With Brief Biographies of the American Engineers. New York: Symonds Press, 2010. Print.

Hannay, James. History of the War of 1812 Between Great Britain and the United States of America. New York: HardPress, 2012. Print.

Roosevelt, Theodore. The Naval War of 1812 . New York: Echo Library, 2007. Print.

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The Origins of The War of 1812

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War of 1812

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The War of 1812: America’s Second Fight for Independence

The War of 1812 is a war often overlooked and somewhat forgotten by most Americans. It is none the less an important part of American history and was sometimes referred to at the time as the second war for independence. The war was from June 1812 to February of 1815 and was fought with Great Britain. By and large it would be a fight for freedom of navigation of the seas.

This would be the first time the fledgling nation of the United States would declare war on any nation. There were three main causes leading to this decision. The restriction of US international trade by Britain, the British practice of impressment, and British encouragement of Indian uprisings and hostility against America`s westward expansion. Britain had been at war with Napoleonic France since 1793. During this time in an attempt to keep supplies from reaching France, Britain placed trade restrictions on any ships heading for French ports. France would also impose similar restrictions placing the Unites States in an awkward position. In response to this Thomas Jefferson signed a poorly thought out embargo act in1807 which closed America’s ports to international trade. It had very little effect on Europe but plunged America into a depression. Another factor leading to war was the British practice of impressment whereby the British would stop American ships and force their crews into the service of the Royal Navy.

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They did this because the Royal Navy had grown, and they could not man all their ships with volunteer sailors alone. They would even stop ships in American territorial waters to impress sailors. This practice rightly outraged the United States. The last major cause of the war was the British involvement in support of the Indians fight against westward expansion. As Part of the Treaty of Paris of 1783 the British had given the Northwest Territory of America to the United States. The British however saw the Indians as an important ally to them. They created a buffer between British Canada and The United States. The area was also good for the Canadian fur trade. Because of this the British decided to supply the Indians with arms and encourage raids. In the two years before the war, 1810 and 1811, the Indian raids became frequent and unbearable and Americans demanded the government do something. This created even more tension between Britain and the United States. In 1808 James Madison was elected as the fourth president of the United States. He informed Congress that they needed to prepare for war with Britain. In 1810 several new Congressmen were elected Henry Clay and John Calhoun among them. Known as “War Hawks” they were part of a rising tide that wanted war with Britain. Facing ever increasing pressure, President Madison would finally sign a declaration of war with Britain on June 18, 1812.

Oddly enough the trade restrictions that were one of the main causes of the war were in the process of being repealed by Britain at the time war was declared. Britain would initially wait to see what would happen when this news reached America. Fighting began despite the repeal and the United States battle strategy would initially consist of an invasion of British Canada. The thought was If they could capture large amounts of territory it could be used as a valuable bargaining chip in bringing Britain into negotiations. This invasion however would not go well for America as they would not gain any territory in Canada but would suffer several defeats instead. The American army was defeated at the battle of Queenston Heights, Detroit was captured by Canadians, and a drive to capture Quebec was repelled. The American Navy would fare much better however with some early victories over the Royal Navy such as the destruction of HMS Guerriere by USS Constitution on August 19, 1812 which was a boost to American morale. The war overall did not go well for America, initially Britain had taken a more defensive posture but with the defeat of Napoleon in 1814 Britain was able to give all its attention to the war with America. British forces would invade the Chesapeake Bay area and captured Washington, D.C. on august 24, 1814. They burned many buildings in the capitol including the White house.

America would win a significant victory at the Battle of Baltimore, September 1814, where a combined British sea/land invasion was repelled. As part of this battle Fort McHenry withstood massive bombardment by the British Navy. The next day the fort raised a huge American flag which inspired a lawyer, Francis Scott Key, to write “The Star-Spangled Banner” which would eventually become the national anthem. The British commander was killed, and Britain suffered heavy losses and would withdraw to regroup for an attack on New Orleans. The Battle for New Orleans would be fought on January 8, 1815 and was an overwhelming defeat for the British at the hands of General Andrew Jackson. The battle was unnecessary however as the Treaty of Ghent had been signed on December 24, 1814 ending the war officially. Word of the wars end had not reached either side until after the battle. The treaty returned things to pretty much the way they were before the war between Britain and the United States. What America did gain from the war was an increased sense of national pride and confidence. They had also gained major victories over the Indian population who had suffered several crushing defeats. Now without British support the Indians were doomed to defeat and the door of American westward expansion was wide open.

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The independence of United States was established and recognized by the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Even though the US was now free from the British Empire, there was some source of contention for obvious reasons. As expected the US, just like Britain desired expansion and the acquisition of land expansion. Free trade was also desired by the US with France, who had been warring with Britain. The United States needed to establish trade and also continued trading with Britain, however there were numerous problems. The British Empire was willing to trade with the U.S., but it was only if it was in their best interest. Of course Britain was not pleased with the United States attempts to establish and maintain trade with France and this became primarily problematic during the French and Indian War. 1 During this time Britain moved to block the trade of France in order to weaken their government. Through their attempts, Britain began seizing American naval ships involved in trade, which further hindered the relationship causing additional strain. The navy was reporting that British ships were hindering in their trade attempts with other areas, by hovering and having a bully like mentality on the seas. This was possible because Britain had the manpower to do so and could position themselves in harbors and at possible trade points. [1] This type of behavior made it increasingly obvious that the British Empire was working toward their good and interactions were not always conducive for America’s best interest. The Embargo of 1807 was enacted by President Jefferson in attempts to avoid war. The Embargo was aimed at reducing the amount of conflict on the open seas regarding free trade.

While it was meant to cease difficulties, it actually led to financial problems that quickly became an unpopular hit to the economy.

The already difficult economy fell in 1808, which ended thousands of sailor’s jobs, hurt shipping employment and even increased criminal smuggling activity. [2] This not only displaced many and left ships sitting idle, it also hurt moral and caused the public to further blame the British Empire. Now in a slumped economy, jobless and already scorned this made the situation even more difficult. This coupled with the continued seizing of naval ships and attempting to sabotage the military, created tension that could no longer be ignored. One of the final acts was the sabotage of the USS Chesapeake in 1807, where several of the seamen were impressed. [3] There was much causality during this attack and the US. Sailors were forced to succumb to the British, once again.

Military Strength & Economy Of The Time

Because the United States had separated in 1783, the military was not considered a super power at that point. While the time between 1783 and 1812 there was a formation of the services, it was the War Of 1812 that truly began the importance of and training of military forces. The mere factor of geographical distance and mass sea made it difficult to prepare for needed training and equipment. To this time in history there was very little standardized formation, training or even military equipment which posed difficulty. The fact that the British Empire had sieged numerous ships and sailors also created a disadvantage. 3 This was especially true because the British military had a greater supply of equipment and funds; however their struggle for manpower was the primary reason for impressing U.S. sailors. To assist the military engaged in espionage and even used codes written in invisible inks for communication attempts. The codes were easy to break and without a complex source of communication it hindered messages, and slowed the delivery messages.

In light of this situation, many of the U.S. Generals would use men on horseback to deliver messages, and even Indian scouts to assist in military networking. The intelligence to engage Indian scouts assisted in knowledge and even gave an advantage because of the Indian’s knowledge of the land, language and in many cases the habits of the enemy. In many cases the Indian’s were used in warfare by prompting conflict between rival tribes, in attempts to create pressure on the opposition, but weakening aid and support to the British. This form of intelligence did improve the military’s understanding of needs and shortcomings.

The War Hawks Encouraged War

A group of young males, known as the War Hawks, were elected to Congress in 1810. The War Hawks were led by Henry Clay and John Calhoun, governmental officials that had a large impact on Congress during this time. Clay was the Speaker of the House of Representatives, which lent itself to some power within decision making about the progression of expansion and war. Most of the War Hawks were made up of young males that primarily came from Western and Southern states, who were primarily dominated by theories of land expansion. [4] This fostered desire to war with Great Britain. Some theorize that because the War Hawks were interested in taking additional Indian Territory, this was the primary reason for the desire to go to war. The underlying theme is assumed to be the perception that Great Britain was supporting many of the Indian tribes which of course fueled the already heated relationship. Even though the Federalists were opposed to war with the British Empire, the public support, influence of the War Hawks and determined President would soon declare a state of war.  

Major Battles Of The War Of 1812

In August of 1812, the mentality was to avenge the loss that had transpired from the British taking US ships and men. Ships would sail in hopes of avenging their previous losses. On the 2 nd of August the U.S. ship, “Constitution”, led by Captain Isaac Hull, yielded fire by the British ship “Guerriere” off coast of Nova Scotia. [5] The U.S. crew was able to take over the Guerriere which would later surrender to the U.S. Constitution. While this success may not have seemed like a large victory, it actually increased morale and sent a message to the British Empire that the blockade was over, and showed improved ship to ship battle. The realization and assistance of morale was shown in the British forbade their ships from engaging in single ship battles, due to the losses such as Guerriere. The importance of this battle was the marked birth of American naval power.

Land expansion was a major factor before and during the War of 1812. The Battle of Horseshoe Bend took place on March 27, 1814 and was in direct result of the Red Stick Indians becoming increasingly frustrated with white settlers moving onto their land. General Andrew Jackson led the battle at the Tallapoosa River. The battle took place in what would be present day Alabama area. The battle was a devastating blow to the Indians, which resulted in 1000 dead and a loss of less than 50 from the troops of General Jackson. 5 This series of raids and fighting led to battles that eventually led to the Indians giving up rights to millions of acres and move further West. This was a tremendous victory as the lands were vast and allowed great economic growth due to cotton, which was a large portion of the economy at this time in history. Because of this battle, General Jackson was considered a hero and would later become the President of the United States. After his election, the Trail of Tears was established because of President Jacksons Removal Bill of the Indians, pushing them into Oklahoma.

The Battle of New Orleans would prove to be the final battle that would stop the fighting of the War of 1812. 6 Again General Jackson led the battle which defeated the British Army while they were attempting to seize New Orleans. The Louisiana Purchase had secured new Orleans and also other territory and had become the property of the United States, which they had right to defend against the British Army. During this time there were several battles that led to the most significant land victory. [6] When the British aimed their attack, the Americans were ready, having artillery in place. About 1200 British soldiers were wounded and the Americans lost only a handful, which was a great victory against the British. Not only did they hold the enemy off of their own territory, they also were able to defeat the Army, which led to the Treaty of Ghent. This Treaty was signed in Ghent, Belgium and the place where both the British and

Americans agreed to stop fighting, and agreed to put the past behind them and move forward. This would cease the fighting and lead the United States to have a more present authority amongst the world powers of the time.

President Madison & The War

James Madison was elected United States President in the election of 1808. The problems between America and Britain were in full swing by this time. President Jefferson had enacted

The Non-Intercourse Act, which was on the verge of expiration, which could lead to an increased difficulty on the high seas. This act was placed back into law, which further restricted trade with Britain. Again this was a fueling fact that increased the tensions and moved a step closer to the War of 1812. President Madison was also working toward land expansion and moving America’s boundaries in Spanish Florida. 6 The expansion attempts and theory created popularity for President Madison, as far as his foreign policy. During this time President Madison pushed for the expansion of the military and seemed to be preparing for war, even at the earliest stages. Even though the United States was ill prepared for a war against Britain, President Madison declared war. Incredibly, the United States was able to fight British force and build their reputation as a stronger force. President Madison was credited with the victories on both land and sea.

Battle Losses Of The War Of 1812

While there was American loss throughout the War of 1812, it paled in comparison to the battle of Lundy’s Lane. This battle was fought on July 25, 1814 and was considered the bloodiest battle. The battle took place on Canadian soil and consisted of several attacks, where the American General Gaines and the British General Drummond exchanged mass attacks. There were 850 casualties on both sides. [7] This happened because British soldiers were occupying positions along the Niagara River. During the 12 hours of hand to hand combat, General Gaines charged the enemy line, which led to heavy casualties. This final act and maneuver of Gaines led to the withdrawal of troops by the United States. The casualties and loss were a large setback for the military, however they would continue on to eventually regain their footing.

The Battle of Chateauguay River took place in October of 1813 and was considered one of the larger setbacks of the United States Military during the War of 1812. General Wade Hampton led a troop of 3000 Americans. [8] This attack was met with much resistance and a well-constructed defense by the enemy. In addition to being ill prepared for the mission, the geographical area lent itself to difficulty because of wooded areas that the American soldiers would have difficulty finding their way through. They would get lost in the area, which facilitated additional causalities. There were a number of American causalities that were attributed to the elaborate defense structure of the opponents and the difficult terrain. This loss for the Americans was not a great deal of bloodshed; and actually helped Canada establish their Nationalism, which was a source of wounded pride for the Americans.

Who Won The War Of 1812 & What Was Gained

The ending of the War of 1812 came with the Treaty of Ghent and agreeable cease fighting. While both the British and Americans suffered loss, they also both had some gains. There was no true “winner” in this war, because the Americans, like the British were able to retain their military structure. The Americans however did have significant changes as they were able to strength their military power and hold back the British. This was something that was relatively new and in the beginning of the war, the Americans were not formally established as a strong power. Through the battles, much was learned and they proved to themselves as well as the rest of the world that they were a force to be reckoned with when it came to national security and defense.

While there were no geographical changes or even new policies that were created, there were some differences that assisted the United States as a whole. The relationship and fear of the Indians was put to rest through the war, which assisted in expansion as well as reducing feelings of threat. Honor was developed and fostered through this war, because the United States was now seen as a super power that was to be respected and even feared. 8 Even though there were no clear cut winners of the war, it did establish the fact that America could hold their own and would not back away from confrontation. The factors that lead to the war had ceased and the British Empire was no longer taking over U.S. ships or capturing seaman, which was a positive. The Treaty of Ghent was signed, which noted that the United States existed and Britain agreed to officially give up all claims to the land south of Canada.

Feelings After The War

After the war and the Treaty of Ghent was signed there seemed to be a sense and surge of nationalism. This was the first time that America had been able to stand firmly against the British Empire, and actually be respected in their demands and expansion. This of course created a sense of pride and assisted in building morale as well as a feeling of security within independence. Following the War Of 1812 it became apparent that there was a shortage of farm products that had been caused because of the fighting and attention away from home. In order to rectify the shortages agricultural expansion was began, which drastically changed the economy. The growth not only was good for the overall American economy, but also added jobs for Americans. This was a positive and the added feelings of pride led to a sense of well-being and happiness. The term, “Era of Good Feeling” was commonly used to describe this time and the general attitude of the Americans after the war ended.

In conclusion, the War of 1812 was a necessary war that led to a number of positive events. While it is important to remember those that were lost and not discredit their service, it is essential to understand the worldwide impact of the war. The British were attempting to regain and show their power over America, by means of illegal acts. They continued to occupy areas along the Canadian border, which was a violation of the Treaty of Paris. Along with occupying unauthorized property they also were hindering the land expansion of America, as well as engaging in battle on the seas. Even though America was far from ready, the actions and bullying mentality could not be ignored. If it would have been ignored, the prosperity and strength of America could have likely been jeopardized. This war is where America gained her name of a world power and established a strong military stance. Without that taking place it could have changed the course of history, and allowed for others to continue inappropriate actions, which would have hurt America’s progress.

Bibliography

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Callo, Joseph. “1812 Victory at Sea.” Military History 27, no. 6 (March 2011): 36-41.

“Digital History.” Jeffersonian Republicanism . Digital History, May 2006. Web. 08 May 2012 <http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=19>.

Gilje, Paul A. “Free Trade and Sailors’ Rights”: The Rhetoric of the War of 1812.” Journal Of The Early Republic 30, no. 1 (Spring2010 2010): 1-23.

Hickman, Kennedy. “An Introduction To The War of 1812.” The Address Bar . Web <http://www.techuser.net/bookmarks/urlbar.html>.

Hooks, Jonathon. 2009. “1812: War with America.” Journal Of The Early Republic 29, no. 4: 732-734.

Hymel, Kevin M. 1999. “Winfield Scott’s long and illustrious career was tarnished by incessant political infighting.” Military History 16, no. 2: 70-72.

Poremba, David Lee. 2011. “1812: The Navy’s War.” Library Journal 136, no. 17: 91.

[1] Davis Lee Porembae. 2011. “1812: The Navy’s War.” Library Journal 136, no. 17: 91.

[2] “Digital History.” Jeffersonian Republicanism . Digital History, May 2006. Web. 08 May 2012. <http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=19>.

[3] Paul Gilje. A. “Free Trade and Sailors’ Rights”: The Rhetoric of the War of 1812.” Journal Of The Early Republic 30, no. 1 (Spring2010 2010): 1-23.

[4] Hooks, Jonathon. 2009. “1812: War with America.” Journal Of The Early Republic 29, no. 4: 732-734.

[5] Kennedy Hickman. “An Introduction To The War of 1812.” The Address Bar . Web. <http://www.techuser.net/bookmarks/urlbar.html>.

[6] Walter Borneman. (2004), 1812: The War that forged a nation , New York: HarperCollins,

[7] Kevin Hymel. 1999. “Winfield Scott’s long and illustrious career was tarnished by incessant political infighting.” Military History 16, no. 2: 70-72.

[8] Joseph Callo. “1812 Victory at Sea.” Military History 27, no. 6 (March 2011): 36-41.

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