gender reassignment surgery and insurance

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Transgender health care

A transgender person’s assigned sex at birth doesn’t match their gender identity, expression, or behavior.

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Does Insurance Cover Gender-Affirming Care?

How much does gender-affirming surgery cost, how much does gender-affirming medication cost, other ways to pay for gender-affirming care and surgery, tips for financing gender-affirming care and surgery, bottom line.

• Health Insurance

In many cases, health insurance in the U.S. covers gender-affirming care. However, whether or not your insurance plan covers a specific gender-affirming treatment depends on your state, employer, and the plan’s benefits.

Key Takeaways

• Health insurance generally covers gender-affirming care.
• Not all plans cover all procedures, or the process can be murky and require preauthorization and appeals.
• Gender-affirming care can cost tens of thousands of dollars.

Major insurance companies recognize transgender-related care as being medically necessary and have put policies in place outlining coverage criteria. However, at least 20 states have passed legislation limiting coverage of gender-affirming care for people up to age 18. And some transgender people may still be denied coverage of hormone treatments or transition-related surgery by an insurer.

An estimated 1.6 million Americans at least 13 years old identify as transgender, according to a June 2022 estimate.

Health insurers generally cover an array of medically necessary services that affirm gender or treat gender dysphoria, according to the American Medical Association. Gender dysphoria is a condition that occurs when someone feels a conflict between the sex they were assigned at birth and the gender they now identify with.

Gender-affirming care is the phrase used by most medical groups for dysphoria treatment. This care includes hormones, surgery, or counseling. The care aligns a person’s gender identity with gender expression in appearance, anatomy, and voice.

In 2010, the federal Affordable Care Act banned health insurance discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. Before the law’s passage, medically necessary gender-affirming surgeries and hormones often weren’t covered by insurers.

A 2022 rule from the Biden Administration noted that “categorical coverage exclusions or limitations for all health services related to gender transition are discriminatory” and that a covered entity can’t deny or limit coverage or claims, or charge more in cost-sharing related to gender transition.

However, insurance is regulated at the federal and state level based on whether it is an ACA, public, or employer plan, so the rule doesn’t apply evenly to all insurers. Coverage and requirements vary based on state, employer, plan type, and more.

Investopedia / Candra Huff

Determining What Your Plan Covers

Plan members can generally find out what’s available in their member booklet. This should have been given to you when you got the policy or, if it’s an employee plan, when you joined the company. It may be called a certificate of coverage, a benefit plan, a summary plan description, a certificate of insurance, or something similar.

This document should describe the insurer’s clinical evidence criteria to qualify for gender dysphoria treatment claim coverage. Requirements might include:  

• One or two letters from a therapist containing specific information
• Being on hormones for a year
• Being at least 18 years old to have surgery.

Some plans may still list exclusions for certain procedures. Even if an exclusion exists in the documentation, the next step is to apply for pre-authorization or pre-approval. This earns a plan’s approval in advance for claims and may even be successful if an exclusion is evident—as it allows an appeal.

"Many [patients] call their insurance carrier and are told services will not be covered, and on that basis never attempt to file a claim,” says an article on the San Francisco-based UCSF Gender Affirming Health Program’s website. “Transgender individuals and their health providers should be aware that unless a denial is in writing, it is not a denial and cannot be appealed.

Typically, documentation submitted to the health plan shows why the treatment is medically necessary or explains the legal problems with an exclusion. Not getting preauthorization can lead to a claim denial, even if a procedure is covered. For example, many plans routinely require preauthorization for all surgeries of any kind for anyone.

If denied a preauthorization request or a claim, an attorney, health care advocate, or your human resources department may be able to help with filing an appeal. Appeals should include individualized, extensive documentation of a service’s medical necessity and appropriateness, and a comprehensive overview of the transition process of gender transition.

Here, we list four types of health insurance and how they might cover gender-affirming care.

Employer-Provided Insurance

Altogether, 24 states and the District of Columbia prohibit transgender exclusions in private health insurance coverage, according to the nonprofit LGBTQ+ advocacy organization Movement Advance Project, leaving 26 states without such protections.

However, health coverage benefits that a private employer provides can vary based on whether the employer fully funds the plan. If funded by the employer, the plan is governed by the federal law ERISA, the Employee Retirement Income Security Act , which overrides any state nondiscrimination law. The employer decides what health care is or is not covered.

Employer-based plans are governed in the state where the plan was issued, not where you live.

Up to 91% of businesses on the 2022 Human Rights Campaign’s Corporate Equality Index-rated businesses offer at least one transgender-inclusive plan option, up from 0 in 2002.

Affordable Care Act Plan Coverage

Individuals can buy their own health insurance policies, often with the help of federal subsidies, through the Healthcare.gov marketplace. Most insurers are getting rid of transgender-specific exclusions, which ACA regulation explicitly banned.

Still, policies vary by state and in what they cover. Health insurance policies may feature exclusions for items such as “services related to sex change” or “sex reassignment surgery” to deny coverage.

Around 6% of Silver Marketplace plans specifically exclude coverage for exclusions for treatment of gender dysphoria, according to a survey by Out2Enroll, an organization connecting the LGBT+ community with health care coverage.

Check a policy’s terms of coverage for a full explanation of which procedures and services are covered or excluded. You can also use a state-based Trans Insurance Guide from Out2Enroll to find a plan with the coverage you want.

Medicare and Medicaid Coverage

Nearly 10,000 transgender Americans 65 and older are enrolled in Medicare or Medicare Advantage. Under these plans, medically necessary care—including some gender-affirming procedures—is covered. Coverage by Medicare Advantage plans may vary, so try to get preauthorization before accessing transition-related services, suggests the National Center for Transgender Equality.

On a state-by-state basis, Medicaid coverage is uneven for lower-income people seeking gender-affirming care. Medicaid programs cover transgender-related care in 26 states and the District of Columbia. Meanwhile, programs in nine states bar coverage of transgender-related care for people of all ages, and programs in two states prohibit coverage of transgender-related care for minors.

Military and Veteran Coverage  

Active military members can access gender-affirming hormonal treatment and therapy for gender dysphoria. Tricare, the health benefits provider for military members, does not usually cover gender-affirming surgeries. However, a waiver may be requested and granted in some cases for medically necessary gender-affirming surgery.  

The Veterans Health Administration offers gender-affirming health care, including hormones and prosthetics, mental health care, and other health care. Coverage for gender-affirming surgery has traditionally been denied but is currently undergoing a review.

For just one person, the cost of gender-affirming care might range from $25,000 to $75,000, according to estimates from the HRC Foundation.

Gender-affirming surgeries may include top surgery (breast removal or augmentation), bottom surgery, vocal surgery, and face and body surgeries such as browlifts, jawline contouring, Adam’s apple removal, and forehead reduction.

Bottom surgery may include:

• Phalloplasty : Creation of penis 
• Metoidioplasty : Phallus created from existing genital region tissue. 
• Hysterectomy : Uterus and cervix removal  
• Nullification surgery : Creating a gender-neutral look in the groin
• Oophorectomy : Removal of one or both ovaries
• Vaginoplasty and vulvoplasty : Creation of vagina and vulva 
• Orchiectomy : Testicle removal 

Research published in 2022 by The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics detailed the costs of gender-affirming surgery from 1993 to 2019. The chart below shows the average costs of five of the most common gender-affirming procedures within a commercially insured population over the span of those years.

However, not all transgender people desire surgery. According to 2019 statistics, only 28% of transgender women get any type of surgery, and only 5%–13% receive genital surgery. Surgery is more common among transgender men, with 42%–54% getting some type of surgery; up to 50% get genital surgery.  

Gender-affirming medication is far more common. Up to 65% of transgender people received gender-affirming hormone therapy in 2019, up from 17% in 2011, according to The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. The study notes the costs of gender-affirming medication from 1993 to 2019.  

Another 2022 study from Vanderbilt University found that masculinizing hormones run $29.76 to $463.54 per fill while feminizing hormones cost $12.95 to $180.98. Much of the cost depends on the delivery method, such as injection or gel. The authors note that “the most cost-effective hormone therapies were oral estrogen and injectable testosterone esters.”

One 2020 survey found that among insured respondents taking gender-affirming hormones, almost 21% reported that their claims were denied. This group (and those uninsured) were more likely to take non-prescription hormones from unlicensed sources, which may not be monitored for quality and potentially lead to health risks.

Other costs are involved as well. For example, at Planned Parenthood of South, East, and North Florida, gender-affirming hormone treatment costs between $95 to $105. Lab monitoring may need to be run to ensure health while taking hormones, which can average $26 to $142 per visit.

Aside from health insurance, how can you pay for gender-affirming care or surgery? Here are 10 options.

Payment Plans 

Some healthcare providers offer payment plans directly or through lenders that let you pay off medical bills over time.

You might take out a personal loan or even a type of personal loan called a medical loan to cover expenses related to gender-affirming care or surgery. A medical loan is just a personal loan used to pay for medical expenses.

Credit Cards 

Credit cards may be another avenue for covering the costs of gender-affirming care or surgery, although these tend to have higher interest rates. You may see promotional materials for the CareCredit credit card in your provider’s office, but other credit cards can pay for the same healthcare costs, often with a better interest rate and without the dangerous deferred interest feature that CareCredit cards have. You’re better off with a regular credit card that has a promotional 0% purchase rate offer.

Even with health insurance, hormone therapy may be less expensive if you comparison shop and use pharmacy programs, such as GoodRx.

Surgery Grants

Several organizations offer grants for people seeking gender-affirming care or surgery, such as the Darcy Jeda Crobitt Foundation and the Jim Collins Foundation.

Health Accounts 

If you have a flexible spending account (FSA) or Health Savings Account (HSA) , consider allocating some account money for gendering-affirming care or surgery.

Health Reimbursement Agreement 

A health reimbursement agreement (HRA) is an employer-funded group health plan that reimburses employees for qualified medical expenses, which might include gender-affirming care or surgery.

Home Equity Line of Credit (HELOC) 

You could take out a home equity line of credit to cover the costs of gender-affirming care or surgery. With this type of loan, you typically can borrow up to a specific percentage of your home equity. Interest rates on HELOCs are generally lower than those on a personal loan, because your home serves as collateral. Just realize that if you can’t repay the loan, your could lose your home. 

Friends-and-Family Loans 

If you’ve got supportive friends or relatives, they might be willing to chip in money to pay for your gender-affirming care or surgery. Just make sure you have a written agreement and repayment plan.

Crowdfunding

You might consider setting up a crowdfunding campaign on a platform like GoFundMe to raise money from friends, relatives, colleagues or strangers.

When you’re financing gender-affirming care or surgery, follow these tips:

Shop Around 

A number of online tools such as Hospital Cost Compare and Healthcare Bluebook allow you to compare costs for the same procedures and treatments offered by different healthcare providers. This homework could save you a lot of money.

Explore Your Options 

Even if health insurance covers a procedure or treatment, you must cover some out-of-pocket costs. Therefore, consider looking into surgery grants, crowdfunding, friends-and-family loans or other methods to bridge the monetary gap.

Check the Interest Rate 

Be sure to investigate how much you’ll pay to borrow money if you go down that road. With the CareCredit card, for example, the APR may be higher than a regular credit card or a personal loan. 

Try Negotiating or a Payment Plan

You can negotiate with a healthcare provider to lower the costs of gender-affirming care or surgery. For instance, a healthcare provider might discount your services if you agree to pay off your medical bills quickly. If a healthcare provider isn’t willing to provide a discount, they might let you make interest-free payments as part of a payment plan.

Ask About Financial Assistance

Some nonprofit healthcare providers offer financial assistance programs that cover all or some of your medical expenses.

What Are the Different Types of Gender-Affirming Care?

Various types of gender-affirming care include puberty-blocking medication, hormone therapy, top surgery, bottom surgery, nullification surgery, laser hair removal, facial feminization surgery, speech therapy, and mental health services.

How Much Does Gender-affirming Care Cost in the U.S?

The cost of gendering-affirming care varies widely, depending on the type of procedure or treatment involved. For one person, gender-affirming care might cost anywhere from $25,000 to $75,000, according to estimates from the Human Rights Campaign Foundation. Health insurance may or may not cover these costs to varying degrees.

Does Insurance Cover Puberty Blockers?

According to one study, insurance companies cover puberty blockers 72% of the time. The estimated out-of-pocket cost for a 3-month supply ranges between $9,500 and $39,000.

The campaign for transgender rights in the U.S. has experienced victories and setbacks in recent years—in some cases affecting coverage of gender-affirming care. Even amid progress made, some people still encounter problems securing health insurance coverage for gender-affirming care or covering out-of-pocket costs. Getting coverage for care may require preauthorization, documentation of medical necessity, and an appeal. This may prompt use of alternative financing methods like crowdfunding, credit cards, loans, or grants.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. “ HHS Announces Prohibition on Sex Discrimination Includes Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity .”

The Williams Institute at UCLA. " How Many Adults and Youth Identify as Transgender in the United States? "

American Medical Association. “ Transgender Coverage Issue Brief .”

First Report Managed Care. “ Transgender Patients: Calculating the Actual Cost .”

UCSF. " Health Insurance Coverage Issues for Transgender People in the United States .”

Transgender Health Insurance. " Health Insurance - Understanding Your Plan ."

HRC. " Corporate Equality Index 2022. "

Society for Evidence-Based Gender Medicine. “ Sweden’s Karolinska Ends All Use of Puberty Blockers and Cross-Sex Hormones for Minors Outside of Clinical Studies .”

BlueCross BlueShield of Tennessee. “ BlueCross BlueShield of Tennessee Medical Policy Manual .” 

Movement Advancement Project. " Medicaid Coverage of Transgender-Related Health Care ."

HealthCare.gov. “ Transgender Health Care .”  

U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. "VHA LGBTQ+ Health Program. "

Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law. “ Medicaid Coverage for Gender-Affirming Care ,” Page 1.

National Center for Biotechnology Information. “ Health Insurance Coverage of Recommended Gender-Affirming Health Care Services for Transgender Youth: Shopping Online for Coverage Information .”

British Columbia Nurses’ Union. “ Position Statement: Gender-Affirming Care .”

Journal of General Internal Medicine. " Gender-Affirming Hormone Therapy Spending and Use in the USA, 2013–2019. "

Annals of Family Medicine. "Insurance Coverage and Use of Hormones Among Transgender Respondents to a National Survey ."

Aetna. “ Gender Affirming Surgery .”

Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care. " Gender Affirming Medical Care of Transgender Youth ."

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• How Being Nonbinary Affects Getting Life Insurance 12 of 18
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Aetna Agrees to Expand Coverage for Gender-Affirming Surgeries

One of the nation’s largest health insurers is agreeing to pay for breast augmentation for some trans women.

By Reed Abelson

Allison Escolastico, a 30-year-old transgender woman, has wanted breast augmentation surgery for a decade. By 2019, she finally thought her insurance company, Aetna, would pay for it, only to find that it considered the procedure cosmetic, not medically necessary, and refused to cover it.

“I knew from my case, it wasn’t cosmetic,” said Ms. Escolastico, who contacted a lawyer after she lost her appeal last year. “I knew I had to fight for this,” she said.

Ms. Escolastico’s surgery is now scheduled for February. Working with the Transgender Legal Defense and Education Fund, a nonprofit that advocates transgender rights , and Cohen Milstein Sellers and Toll, a large law firm that represents plaintiffs, she and a small group of trans women persuaded Aetna to cover the procedure if they can show it to be medically necessary.

To qualify, the women would need to demonstrate that they had persistent gender dysphoria, undergo a year of feminizing hormone therapy and have a referral from a mental health professional.

The shift by Aetna represents an important evolution in how health insurers view the medical needs of transgender individuals . While some insurers offer a broad range of surgeries for trans women if they are deemed medically necessary, others exclude breast augmentation and other treatments as merely cosmetic.

“This has the potential to be a transformative moment,” said Kalpana Kotagal, a partner at Cohen Milstein.

Insurers have typically covered genital reassignment surgery as medically necessary. But transgender women and others say breast augmentation is also a necessary treatment for individuals who receive a diagnosis of gender dysphoria. “There is no question from a medical perspective,” said Noah E. Lewis, the director of the Trans Health Project at the fund.

In addition, he said, it is illegal for a health insurer to deny coverage of medical care because of someone’s gender identity. “It’s a really simple matter of discrimination,” he said.

Aetna, which is owned by CVS Health, had been actively reviewing the need for breast augmentation surgery for trans women, said Dr. Jordan Pritzker, senior director of clinical solutions for the insurer. He said he had talked to numerous doctors who provide the surgery.

“Our decision to update our clinical policy bulletin is consistent with many changes we have made over the years to better serve the needs of the L.G.B.T.Q. community,” Dr. Pritzker said in a statement.

Aetna said it would also reimburse some trans women who were denied coverage but had the surgery. The company said it was actively reaching out to individuals who had sought authorization for their surgeries and were denied.

Cora Brna was denied coverage for breast augmentation surgery two years ago, when she tried to schedule it at the same time that she was undergoing genital reassignment, which was covered by Aetna. “I was devastated,” she said.

“I felt like a group of people were deciding whether I was or was not a woman,” said Mrs. Brna, 32, who works as a health care worker in Pittsburgh and was one of the women who petitioned Aetna. She went ahead with the genital surgery but had the procedure to augment her breasts only after it was covered by a different health plan.

Aetna’s new policy also comes at a time when the federal government is re-examining whether denying some types of care to transgender individuals is discriminatory. Under the Affordable Care Act, insurers cannot discriminate against individuals on the basis of gender identity, and most insurance companies provide coverage for people who require gender reassignment surgery. But the law never mandated a specific benefit or detailed exactly what services the insurers would cover, said Katie Keith, who teaches law at Georgetown University and closely follows this area of the law.

“It’s almost like a parity issue,” she said.

While the Trump administration sought to undo protections for transgender individuals with a rule last June , the issue is still being sorted out in the courts, said Ms. Keith, who also pointed to the recent Supreme Court decision that said gay and transgender workers are protected from workplace discrimination under civil rights law.

The new Biden administration has already issued an executive order saying it will enforce civil rights laws that protect people from discrimination on the basis of gender identity.

Major insurance companies are uneven in their coverage. Health Care Service Corp., which offers Blue Cross plans in five states, will pay for breast augmentation and other services for trans women if they are deemed medically necessary. The insurer said it developed these policies in accordance with guidelines established by the World Professional Association for Transgender Health, a nonprofit.

But other major insurers, including Anthem and UnitedHealthcare, continue to view the surgery as cosmetic, since they do not generally cover the procedures for women without the gender dysphoria diagnosis. They say they are not discriminating against trans women.

Anthem says its “medical policy is applied equitably across all members, regardless of gender or gender identity.”

And UnitedHealthcare said in a statement that its “coverage for gender dysphoria treatment is comprehensive and, depending on members’ benefit plans, current coverage may include physician office visits, mental health services, prescription drugs and surgery to address gender dysphoria.” It added that it uses “evidence-based medicine to make coverage policy decisions,” which are regularly updated.

But lawyers for the women involved in the Aetna agreement say they are looking closely at the policies of other insurers to see if they can make the same case that their refusal to offer coverage is discriminatory. “This is something that needs to be changed across the industry,” said Ms. Kotagal of Cohen Milstein.

Reed Abelson covers the business of health care, focusing on health insurance and how financial incentives affect the delivery of medical care. She has been a reporter for The Times since 1995. More about Reed Abelson

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Does Health Insurance Cover Transgender Health Care?

For transgender Americans, access to necessary health care can be fraught with challenges. Section 1557 of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) prohibits discrimination on a wide variety of grounds for any "health program or activity" that receives any sort of federal financial assistance.  

But the specifics of how that section is interpreted and enforced are left up to the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Office for Civil Rights (OCR). Not surprisingly, the Obama and Trump administrations took very different approaches to ACA Section 1557. But the Biden administration has reverted to the Obama-era rules.

In 2020, the Trump administration finalized new rules that rolled back the Obama administration's rules. This came just days before the Supreme Court ruled that employers could not discriminate against employees based on sexual orientation or gender identity. The Trump administration's rule was subsequently challenged in various court cases.

And in May 2021, the Biden administration issued a notice clarifying that the Office of Civil Rights would once again prohibit discrimination by health care entities based on sexual orientation or gender identity.

The Biden administration subsequently issued a proposed rule in 2022 to update the implementation of Section 1557 and strengthen nondiscrimination rules for health care. The proposed rule " restores and strengthens civil rights protections for patients and consumers in certain federally funded health programs and HHS programs after the 2020 version of the rule limited its scope and power to cover fewer programs and services. "

Section 1557 of the ACA

ACA Section 1557 has been in effect since 2010, but it's only a couple of paragraphs long and very general in nature. It prohibits discrimination in health care based on existing guidelines—the Civil Rights Act, Title IX, the Age Act, and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act—that were already very familiar to most Americans (i.e., age, disability, race, color, national origin, and sex).

Section 1557 of the ACA applies those same non-discrimination rules to health plans and activities that receive federal funding.

Section 1557 applies to any organization that provides healthcare services or health insurance (including organizations that have self-insured health plans for their employees) if they receive any sort of federal financial assistance for the health insurance or health activities.

That includes hospitals and other medical facilities, Medicaid , Medicare (with the exception of Medicare Part B ), student health plans, Children's Health Insurance Program, and private insurers that receive federal funding.

For private insurers, federal funding includes subsidies for their individual market enrollees who purchase coverage in the exchange (marketplace). In that case, all of the insurer's plans must be compliant with Section 1557, not just their individual exchange plans.

(Note that self-insured employer-sponsored plans are not subject to Section 1557 unless they receive some type of federal funding related to health care activities. The majority of people with employer-sponsored health coverage are enrolled in self-insured plans.)

To clarify the nondiscrimination requirements, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Office for Civil Rights (OCR) published a 362-page final rule for implementation of Section 1557 in May 2016.

At that point, HHS and OCR clarified that gender identity "may be male, female, neither, or a combination of male and female." The rule explicitly prohibited health plans and activities receiving federal funding from discrimination against individuals based on gender identity or sex stereotypes.

But the rule was subject to ongoing litigation, and the nondiscrimination protections for transgender people were vacated by a federal judge in late 2019.

And in 2020, the Trump administration finalized new rules which reversed much of the Obama administration's rule. The new rule was issued in June 2020, and took effect in August 2020. It eliminated the ban on discrimination based on gender identity, sexual orientation, and sex stereotyping, and reverted to a binary definition of sex as being either male or female.

Just a few days later, however, the Supreme Court ruled that it was illegal for a workplace to discriminate based on a person's gender identity or sexual orientation. The case hinged on the court's interpretation of what it means to discriminate on the basis of sex, which has long been prohibited under US law. The majority of the justices agreed that "it is impossible to discriminate against a person for being homosexual or transgender without discriminating against that individual based on sex."

The Biden administration announced in May 2020 that Section 1557's ban on sex discrimination by health care entities would once again include discrimination based on gender identity and sexual orientation.

And in 2022, the Biden administration published a new proposed rule for the implementation of Section 1557, rolling back the Trump-era rule changes and including a new focus on gender-affirming care (as opposed to just gender transition care).

Are Health Plans Required to Cover Gender Affirming Care?

Even before the Obama administration's rule was blocked by a judge and then rolled back by the Trump administration, it did not require health insurance policies to " cover any particular procedure or treatment for transition-related care ."

The rule also did not prevent a covered entity from " applying neutral standards that govern the circumstances in which it will offer coverage to all its enrollees in a nondiscriminatory manner ." In other words, medical and surgical procedures had to be offered in a non-discriminatory manner, but there was no specific requirement that insurers cover any specific transgender-related healthcare procedures, even when they're considered medically necessary.

Under the Obama administration's rule, OCR explained that if a covered entity performed or paid for a particular procedure for some of its members, it could not use gender identity or sex stereotyping to avoid providing that procedure to a transgender individual. So for example, if an insurer covers hysterectomies to prevent or treat cancer in cisgender women, it would have to use neutral, non-discriminatory criteria to determine whether it would cover hysterectomies to treat gender dysphoria.

And gender identity could not be used to deny medically necessary procedures, regardless of whether it affirmed the individual's gender. For example, a transgender man could not be denied treatment for ovarian cancer based on the fact that he identifies as a man.

But the issue remained complicated, and it's still complicated even with the Biden administration's proposed rule to strengthen Section 1557's nondiscrimination rules.

Under the 2016 rule, covered entities in every state were prohibited from using blanket exclusions to deny care for gender dysphoria and had to utilize non-discriminatory methods when determining whether a procedure will be covered. But that was vacated by a federal judge in 2019.

However, the new rules proposed in 2022 by the Biden administration " prohibit a covered entity from having or implementing a categorical coverage exclusion or limitation for all health services related to gender transition or other gender-affirming care. "

As of 2023, HealthCare.gov's page about transgender health care still states that " many health plans are still using exclusions such as “services related to sex change” or “sex reassignment surgery” to deny coverage to transgender people for certain health care services. Coverage varies by state. "

The page goes on to note that " transgender health insurance exclusions may be unlawful sex discrimination. The healthcare law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex, among other bases, in certain health programs and activities ."

The page advises that " if you believe a plan unlawfully discriminates, you can file complaints of discrimination with your state’s Department of Insurance, or report the issue to the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services by email to  [email protected] ." (note that this language existed on that page in 2020 as well.)

State Rules for Health Coverage of Gender Affirming Care

Prior to the 2016 guidance issued in the Section 1557 final rule, there were 17 states that specifically prevented state-regulated health insurers from including blanket exclusions for transgender-specific care and 10 states that prevented such blanket exclusions in their Medicaid programs. And as of 2023, the list of states that ban specific transgender exclusions in state-regulated private health plans has grown to 24, plus the District of Columbia.

Starting in 2023, Colorado became the first state to explicitly include gender-affirming care in its benchmark plan (used to define essential health benefits ), ensuring that all individual and small-group health plans in the state must provide that coverage.

While Section 1557 was initially a big step towards equality in health care for transgender Americans, it does not explicitly require coverage for sex reassignment surgery and related medical care. And the implementation of Section 1557 has been a convoluted process with various changes along the way. Most recently, the Biden administration has restored nondiscrimination protections based on gender identity.

Do Health Insurance Plans Cover Sex Reassignment?

It depends on the health insurance plan. This description from Aetna  and this one from Blue Cross Blue Shield of Tennessee are good examples of how private health insurers might cover some—but not all—aspects of the gender transition process, and how medical necessity is considered in the context of gender-affirming care.

Since 2014,  Medicare has covered medically necessary sex reassignment surgery , with coverage decisions made on a case-by-case basis depending on medical need. And the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) has announced in June 2021 that it has eliminated its long-standing ban on paying for sex reassignment surgery for America's veterans.

But Medicaid programs differ from one state to another, and there are pending lawsuits over some states' refusals to cover gender transition services for Medicaid enrollees.

Over the last several years, many health plans and self-insured employers have opted to expand their coverage in order to cover sex reassignment surgery and other gender-affirming care. But although health coverage for transgender-specific services has become more available, it is still far from universal.

This issue is likely to face protracted legal debate over the coming years, and coverage will likely continue to vary from one state to another and from one employer or private health plan to another.

Many health plans in the U.S. are subject to ACA Section 1557, which prohibits discrimination based on gender. But this section is implemented via HHS rules, which have changed over time: The Obama administration issued rules to protect people from gender-related discrimination in health care, the Trump administration relaxed those rules, and the Biden administration has proposed changes to strengthen them once again.

A Word from Verywell

If you're in need of gender-affirming medical care, you'll want to carefully consider the specifics of the health policy you have or any that you may be considering. If you think that you're experiencing discrimination based on your gender identity, you can file a complaint with the Office of Civil Rights . But you may find that a different health plan simply covers your needs more comprehensively.

US Department of Health and Human Services. Section 1557 of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act .

Keith, Katie. Health Affairs. HHS Will Enforce Section 1557 To Protect LGBTQ People From Discrimination . May 11, 2021.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. HHS Announces Proposed Rule to Strengthen Nondiscrimination in Health Care . July 25, 2022.

United States DoJ. Overview of Title IX of the education amendments of 1972 . Updated August, 2015.

DHS.  Nondiscrimination in health programs and activities . Effective July 18, 2016.

Keith, Katie. Health Affairs. Court Vacates Parts Of ACA Nondiscrimination Rule . October 16, 2019.

Department of Health and Human Services. Nondiscrimination in Health and Health Education Programs or Activities, Delegation of Authority . June 12, 2020.

SCOTUS Blog. R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission . Argued October 2019; Decision issued June 15, 2020.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. HHS Announces Prohibition on Sex Discrimination Includes Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity . May 10, 2021.

National Center for Transgender Equality. Know your rights: medicare .

HealthCare.gov. Transgender Health Care .

Health Affairs. LGBT protections in affordable care act section 1557 . June 2016.

LGBT Map. Health Care Laws and Policies .

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Biden-Harris Administration Greenlights Coverage of LGBTQ+ Care as an Essential Health Benefit in Colorado . October 12, 2021.

Military Times. VA to Offer Gender Surgery to Transgender Vets for the First Time . June 19, 2021.

Fleig, Shelby. Des Moines Register. ACLU of Iowa Renews Effort to Overturn Law Restricting Public Funds for Trans Iowans' Transition-Related Care . April 22, 2021.

By Louise Norris Norris is a licensed health insurance agent, book author, and freelance writer. She graduated magna cum laude from Colorado State University.

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slide toggle Demystifying and Navigating Your Options: Gender Reassignment Surgery

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Demystifying and Navigating Your Options: Gender Reassignment Surgery

Medically reviewed by Paul Gonzales on March 25, 2024.

Previously, the term gender reassignment surgery (GRS) referred to genital reconstruction bottom surgeries like vaginoplasty, vulvoplasty, phalloplasty, or metoidioplasty. Individuals who look up this term on a search engine do so looking for information on gender-affirming procedures generally for transgender, non-binary and gender non-conforming people. This detailed guide breaks down everything you need to know about these procedures, their costs, their eligibility requirements, the potential benefits and risks and more. If you are interested in undergoing any gender-affirming or “gender reassignment” surgery, you can schedule a free, virtual consultation with one of our surgeons.

At the Gender Confirmation Center (GCC), we generally avoid using terminology like GRS in a clinical setting out of the recognition that for the vast majority of our patients, surgeries do not “reassign” anyone’s gender. Rather, surgery can help individuals experience greater alignment with their bodies and greater gender euphoria as a result.

Types of Gender “Reassignment” Surgeries: “Female to Male (FTM)”

Female to Male (FTM) is outdated terminology that the GCC does not use in our clinical practice. This abbreviation leaves out the experiences of many trans masculine and non-binary patients who do not identify with being labeled as a “woman becoming a man.” 

In the past, “FTM gender confirmation surgery” was used to describe surgical procedures that reverse the effects of an initial estrogenic puberty or procedures that reconstruct a patient’s genitals. We still receive various inquiries about which “FTM” procedures we offer, so below you can find a list of surgeries that have typically been placed under this label. 

Please note that patients can seek out any of these procedures regardless of their gender identity. The goal of our practice is not to make our patients “into men,” but to help them feel more comfortable, affirmed, and/or aligned with their bodies.

Chest Surgery or Top Surgery

“FTM” top surgery is an antiquated term that refers to gender-affirming chest reconstruction and/or breast reduction. Practices who use this acronym sometimes have limited experience meeting the unique needs of non-binary patients seeking top surgery . Patients who would like to remove their chest tissue to have a flatter chest can choose from a variety of incision options to reach their desired results around chest tightness, contour and/or scar shape. 

Not all patients who pursue top surgery want flat chests. Whether you would like to opt for a breast reduction or a chest reconstruction with some volume left behind, the button buttonhole incision is the most commonly pursued type.

Top surgery patients who would like to maintain an erotic or a high level of sensation in their nipples can ask their surgeon about nerve-preservation techniques . Inversely, many patients who get top surgery choose to have their nipples removed .

Genital Reconstruction or Bottom Surgery

While the following bottom surgery procedures are traditionally put under the “FTM” category, we recognize that not all patients who pursue these procedures identify as men nor are they looking to “masculinize” their genitals.

Two procedures can be used to reconstruct a penis or “neophallus”: metoidioplasty and phalloplasty. Metoidioplasty or “meta” releases the ligaments around the erectile tissue (called a clitoris or penis) to extend it to about 2-4 inches in length. A phalloplasty uses a donor flap (usually from the forearm or thigh) to construct a penis of 4 inches in length or more (depending on availability of tissue). Both procedures can be specialized to allow a patient to maintain erotic sensation in their genitals (nerve preservation) and/or urinate standing up (urethroplasty).

Associated procedures include the removal of the uterus (hysterectomy), the removal of the vaginal canal (vaginectomy), the construction of a scrotum (scrotoplasty), the insertion of penile/testicular implants, and more.

Body Masculinization Surgery (BMS)

Body Masculinization Surgery (BMS) refers to a series of body contouring procedures. Most often, BMS involves liposuction of one or more of the following areas: abdomen, flanks, hips, thighs, buttocks, or arms. BMS can also involve removing unwanted, excess skin from fat loss or liposuction. Occasionally, some patients may opt for silicone pectoral implants alongside or after their top surgery results.

Facial Masculinization Surgery (FMS)

Facial Masculinization Surgery (FMS) refers to a series of procedures that patients can choose from to give their face a more angular, conventionally masculine appearance. In the bottom third of the face, the chin, jaw, or laryngeal prominence (aka Adam’s apple) can be augmented or increased in size. In the middle third of the face, the appearance of the nose and/or cheeks can be altered. In the top third of the face, the hairline’s position can be changed and the forehead can be augmented.

Types of Gender “Reassignment” Surgeries: “Male to Female (MTF)”

Male to Female (MTF) is outdated terminology that we do not use in our clinical practice. This abbreviation leaves out the experiences of many trans feminine and non-binary patients who do not identify with being labeled as a “man becoming a woman.”

In the past, “MTF gender confirmation surgery” was used to describe surgical procedures that reverse the effects of an initial androgenic (testosterone-dominant) puberty and/or reconstruct a patient’s genitals. As a practice, we still get asked by prospective patients about the “MTF” procedures we offer, which is why we have compiled a guide of surgeries that have typically been placed under this category.

Please note that patients can seek out any of these procedures regardless of their gender identity. The goal of our practice is not to make our patients turn “into women,” but to help them feel greater gender congruence with their bodies.

Breast Augmentation or “MTF” Top Surgery

Typically, for trans feminine and non-binary patients who prefer to have more volume on their chest, breast augmentation with saline or silicone implants allows for greater success in their desired outcomes. Fat grafting procedures limit the amount of volume transferred to the chest based on available body fat that can be safely removed.

Genital Reconstruction or Bottom Surgeries

The most common surgeries that are placed under this category are vaginoplasty and vulvoplasty (also called zero-depth vaginoplasty) procedures. The most common vaginoplasty uses a penile-inversion technique to reconstruct a vaginal canal. However, a penile-preserving vaginoplasty is also another option for patients. Lifelong dilation after this procedure is necessary to maintain the depth of the canal so that it can be used for penetrative sex. Labiaplasty revisions are sometimes sought out by patients wishing to adjust the size, shape and symmetry of their labia and/or clitoral hood.

Before a vaginoplasty, patients may opt to remove the testicles ( orchiectomy ). Patients of varying gender identities undergo orchiectomies for many reasons, such as chronic pain or to simplify their hormone therapy.  For patients who plan to have a vaginoplasty in the future, it’s best to consider the timing of an orchiectomy procedure since scrotal tissue can be used to construct the labia.

Facial Feminization Surgery (FFS)

FFS refers to a series of procedures that a patient can choose from to give their face a softer, more conventionally feminine appearance. In the bottom third of the face, the laryngeal prominence (or Adam’s apple), chin, or jaw can be reduced in size. In the middle third of the face, the appearance of the nose and/or cheeks can be altered. In the top third of the face, the hairline’s position can be changed and the forehead can be reduced.

Body Feminization Surgery (BFS)

BFS encompasses a series of body contouring procedures. Most often, BFS involves removal of fat through liposuction of one or more of the following areas: the thighs, the abdomen/waist, or the arms. The fat removed from these areas of the body can be transferred to the buttocks and/or hip areas and is commonly referred to as a Brazilian butt lift (BBL). BFS can also involve removing unwanted excess skin from fat loss or liposuction, a procedure often referred to as a tummy tuck or abdominoplasty.

Evaluating Candidacy for Gender Affirmation Surgery

Strict guidelines evaluate patient readiness for life-altering GRS procedures.

Informed consent

The GCC follows an informed consent model for surgery because it gives patients autonomy over their health. Under this model, adults can consent to procedures if they have received adequate education about their risks, advantages, and potential effects on their health given their unique medical history. Historically, TGD people have had a difficult time accessing quality gender-affirming health care in part because of gatekeeping and discrimination based on requirements set by insurance companies. For example, letters from medical and mental health providers are a part of these requirements. We recognize that therapists and other healthcare providers are invaluable sources of support for patients undergoing a medical gender transition. 

Health factors

We recommend our patients get medical clearance from their primary care provider (PCP) before surgery. If you have medical conditions that may affect your surgery, we can work with your PCP or specialist to ensure a safe recovery. Patients should inform their surgeons of any cardiovascular or respiratory issues, history of anorexia, diabetes, or use of immunosuppressant medications.

Different surgeons may consider a patient’s Body Mass Index (BMI) as part of their eligibility for surgery. You can read more about our requirements and recommendations around BMI here .

We require all our patients to stop smoking or consuming any form of nicotine for at least 3 weeks before and 3 weeks after surgery, as this can lead to significant problems with delayed wound healing. Please do not drink alcohol for at least 1 week before and 1 week after surgery or until prescription pain medications are discontinued.

Insurance requirements

Patients who wish to have their insurance cover their gender affirming surgery need to fulfill certain requirements. You will need to get a letter of support from a mental health professional to confirm that the procedure is medically necessary. If the surgeon is outside of your insurance’s in-network providers, you will need to get a referral letter from your primary care provider (PCP). Additionally, some insurance companies may require that a patient undergo gender-affirming hormone therapy to cover surgery.

Hormone Therapy Considerations

At GCC, we do not require our patients to undergo hormone therapy to access medically necessary, gender-affirming surgeries. That said, undergoing hormones before surgery can help some patients improve the appearance of post-op results.

• Facial surgery: It may take up to 1.5 years on hormone therapy before soft tissue changes can appear on the face so patients should consider waiting to undergo facial surgery until these changes have settled.
• Bottom surgery: Maximal bottom growth may take up to 2 years for patients on a standard dose of testosterone so patients should consider undergoing metoidioplasty until maximal growth is achieved for optimal outcomes.
• Breast augmentation: Maximal breast growth may take up to 1.5 to 2 years for patients on a standard dose of estrogen so patients should consider undergoing breast augmentation until maximal growth is achieved.
• Body contouring: It may take up to 1.5 years on hormone therapy before the fat redistribution process settles so patients should consider waiting until then before undergoing liposuction or fat grafting procedures.

When it comes to age and eligibility for surgery, we are typically asked about 2 populations: adolescents and seniors. The World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) has outlined in their Standards of Care (SOC), Version 8 , the need for the involvement of caregivers/parents and mental health professionals in the informed consent process for adolescents. If these protocols are followed, the only type of gender-affirming surgery that an adolescent can undergo is top surgery.

As long they are in good health and cleared for surgery, senior patients are eligible for surgery regardless of their age and can achieve good aesthetic outcomes. It’s important to consider what accommodations are necessary to support post-op recovery. You can read more about our eligibility standards here .

Weighing GRS Benefits Against Complications

The decision to undergo “gender reassignment surgery” is a highly personal one. Understanding both the pros and cons provides critical insight.

How GRS Can Transform Lives

The WPATH’s SOC 8 reviews the medical research literature around the long-term effects of gender-affirming surgery on trans and non-binary patients. Gender-affirming procedures report greater satisfaction and lower regret rates compared to similar cosmetic and reconstructive procedures performed in cisgender patients.

• Improved mental health
• Improved body-image, etc.
• Enhanced quality of life

Rates of anxiety, depression, and suicide risk all tend to decrease substantially following surgery for those who need it, which is why these procedures are considered medically necessary for many patients.

Risk Factors and Long-Term Effects

All surgeries carry risks of complications. Generally speaking, patients who optimize their health prior to surgery (e.g., do not smoke tobacco) and manage any pre-existing medical conditions can greatly reduce their risk for complications. Undergoing surgery with a board-certified surgeon who has hospital access privileges can help ensure the integrity of your surgical process. If you have specific questions about surgical complications and how to prevent them, you can consult our content library on this question.

Navigating Emotions

Surgery not only takes a physical, but also an emotional toll on the body. Experiencing pain, inflammation, discomfort and limitations on physical activity occasionally mat result in temporary postoperative depression. Likewise, having to wait weeks or months to have a sense of what your final results from surgery will look like can give some patients temporary feelings of regret during recovery. For this reason, we highly encourage patients to tap into their support networks of friends, (chosen) family and/or mental health professionals during this time. To learn more about the emotional recovery process, click here .

Conclusion: Is Gender Reassignment Surgery the Right Choice?

While gender-affirming surgery has been proven to be positively life-changing for many trans and non-binary individuals. Whether you seek surgery or not, we remain dedicated to your health, empowerment, and right to be your authentic self.

More Articles

Understanding the cost of double incision top surgery: a comprehensive guide, gatekeeping vs. empowerment: accessing gender affirming care, treating gender dysphoria in adolescents, sign up for instructions to get a virtual consultation.

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• Feminizing surgery

Feminizing surgery, also called gender-affirming surgery or gender-confirmation surgery, involves procedures that help better align the body with a person's gender identity. Feminizing surgery includes several options, such as top surgery to increase the size of the breasts. That procedure also is called breast augmentation. Bottom surgery can involve removal of the testicles, or removal of the testicles and penis and the creation of a vagina, labia and clitoris. Facial procedures or body-contouring procedures can be used as well.

Not everybody chooses to have feminizing surgery. These surgeries can be expensive, carry risks and complications, and involve follow-up medical care and procedures. Certain surgeries change fertility and sexual sensations. They also may change how you feel about your body.

Your health care team can talk with you about your options and help you weigh the risks and benefits.

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Why it's done

Many people seek feminizing surgery as a step in the process of treating discomfort or distress because their gender identity differs from their sex assigned at birth. The medical term for this is gender dysphoria.

For some people, having feminizing surgery feels like a natural step. It's important to their sense of self. Others choose not to have surgery. All people relate to their bodies differently and should make individual choices that best suit their needs.

Feminizing surgery may include:

• Removal of the testicles alone. This is called orchiectomy.
• Removal of the penis, called penectomy.
• Removal of the testicles.
• Creation of a vagina, called vaginoplasty.
• Creation of a clitoris, called clitoroplasty.
• Creation of labia, called labioplasty.
• Breast surgery. Surgery to increase breast size is called top surgery or breast augmentation. It can be done through implants, the placement of tissue expanders under breast tissue, or the transplantation of fat from other parts of the body into the breast.
• Plastic surgery on the face. This is called facial feminization surgery. It involves plastic surgery techniques in which the jaw, chin, cheeks, forehead, nose, and areas surrounding the eyes, ears or lips are changed to create a more feminine appearance.
• Tummy tuck, called abdominoplasty.
• Buttock lift, called gluteal augmentation.
• Liposuction, a surgical procedure that uses a suction technique to remove fat from specific areas of the body.
• Voice feminizing therapy and surgery. These are techniques used to raise voice pitch.
• Tracheal shave. This surgery reduces the thyroid cartilage, also called the Adam's apple.
• Scalp hair transplant. This procedure removes hair follicles from the back and side of the head and transplants them to balding areas.
• Hair removal. A laser can be used to remove unwanted hair. Another option is electrolysis, a procedure that involves inserting a tiny needle into each hair follicle. The needle emits a pulse of electric current that damages and eventually destroys the follicle.

Your health care provider might advise against these surgeries if you have:

• Significant medical conditions that haven't been addressed.
• Behavioral health conditions that haven't been addressed.
• Any condition that limits your ability to give your informed consent.

Like any other type of major surgery, many types of feminizing surgery pose a risk of bleeding, infection and a reaction to anesthesia. Other complications might include:

• Delayed wound healing
• Fluid buildup beneath the skin, called seroma
• Bruising, also called hematoma
• Changes in skin sensation such as pain that doesn't go away, tingling, reduced sensation or numbness
• Damaged or dead body tissue — a condition known as tissue necrosis — such as in the vagina or labia
• A blood clot in a deep vein, called deep vein thrombosis, or a blood clot in the lung, called pulmonary embolism
• Development of an irregular connection between two body parts, called a fistula, such as between the bladder or bowel into the vagina
• Urinary problems, such as incontinence
• Pelvic floor problems
• Permanent scarring
• Loss of sexual pleasure or function
• Worsening of a behavioral health problem

Certain types of feminizing surgery may limit or end fertility. If you want to have biological children and you're having surgery that involves your reproductive organs, talk to your health care provider before surgery. You may be able to freeze sperm with a technique called sperm cryopreservation.

How you prepare

Before surgery, you meet with your surgeon. Work with a surgeon who is board certified and experienced in the procedures you want. Your surgeon talks with you about your options and the potential results. The surgeon also may provide information on details such as the type of anesthesia that will be used during surgery and the kind of follow-up care that you may need.

Follow your health care team's directions on preparing for your procedures. This may include guidelines on eating and drinking. You may need to make changes in the medicine you take and stop using nicotine, including vaping, smoking and chewing tobacco.

Because feminizing surgery might cause physical changes that cannot be reversed, you must give informed consent after thoroughly discussing:

• Risks and benefits
• Alternatives to surgery
• Expectations and goals
• Social and legal implications
• Potential complications
• Impact on sexual function and fertility

Evaluation for surgery

Before surgery, a health care provider evaluates your health to address any medical conditions that might prevent you from having surgery or that could affect the procedure. This evaluation may be done by a provider with expertise in transgender medicine. The evaluation might include:

• A review of your personal and family medical history
• A physical exam
• A review of your vaccinations
• Screening tests for some conditions and diseases
• Identification and management, if needed, of tobacco use, drug use, alcohol use disorder, HIV or other sexually transmitted infections
• Discussion about birth control, fertility and sexual function

You also may have a behavioral health evaluation by a health care provider with expertise in transgender health. That evaluation might assess:

• Gender identity
• Gender dysphoria
• Mental health concerns
• Sexual health concerns
• The impact of gender identity at work, at school, at home and in social settings
• The role of social transitioning and hormone therapy before surgery
• Risky behaviors, such as substance use or use of unapproved hormone therapy or supplements
• Support from family, friends and caregivers
• Your goals and expectations of treatment
• Care planning and follow-up after surgery

Other considerations

Health insurance coverage for feminizing surgery varies widely. Before you have surgery, check with your insurance provider to see what will be covered.

Before surgery, you might consider talking to others who have had feminizing surgery. If you don't know someone, ask your health care provider about support groups in your area or online resources you can trust. People who have gone through the process may be able to help you set your expectations and offer a point of comparison for your own goals of the surgery.

What you can expect

Facial feminization surgery.

Facial feminization surgery may involve a range of procedures to change facial features, including:

• Moving the hairline to create a smaller forehead
• Enlarging the lips and cheekbones with implants
• Reshaping the jaw and chin
• Undergoing skin-tightening surgery after bone reduction

These surgeries are typically done on an outpatient basis, requiring no hospital stay. Recovery time for most of them is several weeks. Recovering from jaw procedures takes longer.

Tracheal shave

A tracheal shave minimizes the thyroid cartilage, also called the Adam's apple. During this procedure, a small cut is made under the chin, in the shadow of the neck or in a skin fold to conceal the scar. The surgeon then reduces and reshapes the cartilage. This is typically an outpatient procedure, requiring no hospital stay.

Top surgery

• Breast augmentation incisions

As part of top surgery, the surgeon makes cuts around the areola, near the armpit or in the crease under the breast.

• Placement of breast implants or tissue expanders

During top surgery, the surgeon places the implants under the breast tissue. If feminizing hormones haven't made the breasts large enough, an initial surgery might be needed to have devices called tissue expanders placed in front of the chest muscles.

Hormone therapy with estrogen stimulates breast growth, but many people aren't satisfied with that growth alone. Top surgery is a surgical procedure to increase breast size that may involve implants, fat grafting or both.

During this surgery, a surgeon makes cuts around the areola, near the armpit or in the crease under the breast. Next, silicone or saline implants are placed under the breast tissue. Another option is to transplant fat, muscles or tissue from other parts of the body into the breasts.

If feminizing hormones haven't made the breasts large enough for top surgery, an initial surgery may be needed to place devices called tissue expanders in front of the chest muscles. After that surgery, visits to a health care provider are needed every few weeks to have a small amount of saline injected into the tissue expanders. This slowly stretches the chest skin and other tissues to make room for the implants. When the skin has been stretched enough, another surgery is done to remove the expanders and place the implants.

Genital surgery

• Anatomy before and after penile inversion

During penile inversion, the surgeon makes a cut in the area between the rectum and the urethra and prostate. This forms a tunnel that becomes the new vagina. The surgeon lines the inside of the tunnel with skin from the scrotum, the penis or both. If there's not enough penile or scrotal skin, the surgeon might take skin from another area of the body and use it for the new vagina as well.

• Anatomy before and after bowel flap procedure

A bowel flap procedure might be done if there's not enough tissue or skin in the penis or scrotum. The surgeon moves a segment of the colon or small bowel to form a new vagina. That segment is called a bowel flap or conduit. The surgeon reconnects the remaining parts of the colon.

Orchiectomy

Orchiectomy is a surgery to remove the testicles. Because testicles produce sperm and the hormone testosterone, an orchiectomy might eliminate the need to use testosterone blockers. It also may lower the amount of estrogen needed to achieve and maintain the appearance you want.

This type of surgery is typically done on an outpatient basis. A local anesthetic may be used, so only the testicular area is numbed. Or the surgery may be done using general anesthesia. This means you are in a sleep-like state during the procedure.

To remove the testicles, a surgeon makes a cut in the scrotum and removes the testicles through the opening. Orchiectomy is typically done as part of the surgery for vaginoplasty. But some people prefer to have it done alone without other genital surgery.

Vaginoplasty

Vaginoplasty is the surgical creation of a vagina. During vaginoplasty, skin from the shaft of the penis and the scrotum is used to create a vaginal canal. This surgical approach is called penile inversion. In some techniques, the skin also is used to create the labia. That procedure is called labiaplasty. To surgically create a clitoris, the tip of the penis and the nerves that supply it are used. This procedure is called a clitoroplasty. In some cases, skin can be taken from another area of the body or tissue from the colon may be used to create the vagina. This approach is called a bowel flap procedure. During vaginoplasty, the testicles are removed if that has not been done previously.

Some surgeons use a technique that requires laser hair removal in the area of the penis and scrotum to provide hair-free tissue for the procedure. That process can take several months. Other techniques don't require hair removal prior to surgery because the hair follicles are destroyed during the procedure.

After vaginoplasty, a tube called a catheter is placed in the urethra to collect urine for several days. You need to be closely watched for about a week after surgery. Recovery can take up to two months. Your health care provider gives you instructions about when you may begin sexual activity with your new vagina.

After surgery, you're given a set of vaginal dilators of increasing sizes. You insert the dilators in your vagina to maintain, lengthen and stretch it. Follow your health care provider's directions on how often to use the dilators. To keep the vagina open, dilation needs to continue long term.

Because the prostate gland isn't removed during surgery, you need to follow age-appropriate recommendations for prostate cancer screening. Following surgery, it is possible to develop urinary symptoms from enlargement of the prostate.

Dilation after gender-affirming surgery

This material is for your education and information only. This content does not replace medical advice, diagnosis and treatment. If you have questions about a medical condition, always talk with your health care provider.

Narrator: Vaginal dilation is important to your recovery and ongoing care. You have to dilate to maintain the size and shape of your vaginal canal and to keep it open.

Jessi: I think for many trans women, including myself, but especially myself, I looked forward to one day having surgery for a long time. So that meant looking up on the internet what the routines would be, what the surgery entailed. So I knew going into it that dilation was going to be a very big part of my routine post-op, but just going forward, permanently.

Narrator: Vaginal dilation is part of your self-care. You will need to do vaginal dilation for the rest of your life.

Alissa (nurse): If you do not do dilation, your vagina may shrink or close. If that happens, these changes might not be able to be reversed.

Narrator: For the first year after surgery, you will dilate many times a day. After the first year, you may only need to dilate once a week. Most people dilate for the rest of their life.

Jessi: The dilation became easier mostly because I healed the scars, the stitches held up a little bit better, and I knew how to do it better. Each transgender woman's vagina is going to be a little bit different based on anatomy, and I grew to learn mine. I understand, you know, what position I needed to put the dilator in, how much force I needed to use, and once I learned how far I needed to put it in and I didn't force it and I didn't worry so much on oh, did I put it in too far, am I not putting it in far enough, and I have all these worries and then I stress out and then my body tenses up. Once I stopped having those thoughts, I relaxed more and it was a lot easier.

Narrator: You will have dilators of different sizes. Your health care provider will determine which sizes are best for you. Dilation will most likely be painful at first. It's important to dilate even if you have pain.

Alissa (nurse): Learning how to relax the muscles and breathe as you dilate will help. If you wish, you can take the pain medication recommended by your health care team before you dilate.

Narrator: Dilation requires time and privacy. Plan ahead so you have a private area at home or at work. Be sure to have your dilators, a mirror, water-based lubricant and towels available. Wash your hands and the dilators with warm soapy water, rinse well and dry on a clean towel. Use a water-based lubricant to moisten the rounded end of the dilators. Water-based lubricants are available over-the-counter. Do not use oil-based lubricants, such as petroleum jelly or baby oil. These can irritate the vagina. Find a comfortable position in bed or elsewhere. Use pillows to support your back and thighs as you lean back to a 45-degree angle. Start your dilation session with the smallest dilator. Hold a mirror in one hand. Use the other hand to find the opening of your vagina. Separate the skin. Relax through your hips, abdomen and pelvic floor. Take slow, deep breaths. Position the rounded end of the dilator with the lubricant at the opening to your vaginal canal. The rounded end should point toward your back. Insert the dilator. Go slowly and gently. Think of its path as a gentle curving swoop. The dilator doesn't go straight in. It follows the natural curve of the vaginal canal. Keep gentle down and inward pressure on the dilator as you insert it. Stop when the dilator's rounded end reaches the end of your vaginal canal. The dilators have dots or markers that measure depth. Hold the dilator in place in your vaginal canal. Use gentle but constant inward pressure for the correct amount of time at the right depth for you. If you're feeling pain, breathe and relax the muscles. When time is up, slowly remove the dilator, then repeat with the other dilators you need to use. Wash the dilators and your hands. If you have increased discharge following dilation, you may want to wear a pad to protect your clothing.

Jessi: I mean, it's such a strange, unfamiliar feeling to dilate and to have a dilator, you know to insert a dilator into your own vagina. Because it's not a pleasurable experience, and it's quite painful at first when you start to dilate. It feels much like a foreign body entering and it doesn't feel familiar and your body kind of wants to get it out of there. It's really tough at the beginning, but if you can get through the first month, couple months, it's going to be a lot easier and it's not going to be so much of an emotional and uncomfortable experience.

Narrator: You need to stay on schedule even when traveling. Bring your dilators with you. If your schedule at work creates challenges, ask your health care team if some of your dilation sessions can be done overnight.

Alissa (nurse): You can't skip days now and do more dilation later. You must do dilation on schedule to keep vaginal depth and width. It is important to dilate even if you have pain. Dilation should cause less pain over time.

Jessi: I hear that from a lot of other women that it's an overwhelming experience. There's lots of emotions that are coming through all at once. But at the end of the day for me, it was a very happy experience. I was glad to have the opportunity because that meant that while I have a vagina now, at the end of the day I had a vagina. Yes, it hurts, and it's not pleasant to dilate, but I have the vagina and it's worth it. It's a long process and it's not going to be easy. But you can do it.

Narrator: If you feel dilation may not be working or you have any questions about dilation, please talk with a member of your health care team.

Research has found that that gender-affirming surgery can have a positive impact on well-being and sexual function. It's important to follow your health care provider's advice for long-term care and follow-up after surgery. Continued care after surgery is associated with good outcomes for long-term health.

Before you have surgery, talk to members of your health care team about what to expect after surgery and the ongoing care you may need.

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Feminizing surgery care at Mayo Clinic

• Tangpricha V, et al. Transgender women: Evaluation and management. https://www.uptodate.com/ contents/search. Accessed Aug. 16, 2022.
• Erickson-Schroth L, ed. Surgical transition. In: Trans Bodies, Trans Selves: A Resource by and for Transgender Communities. 2nd ed. Kindle edition. Oxford University Press; 2022. Accessed Aug. 17, 2022.
• Coleman E, et al. Standards of care for the health of transgender and gender diverse people, version 8. International Journal of Transgender Health. 2022; doi:10.1080/26895269.2022.2100644.
• AskMayoExpert. Gender-affirming procedures (adult). Mayo Clinic; 2022.
• Nahabedian, M. Implant-based breast reconstruction and augmentation. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Aug. 17, 2022.
• Erickson-Schroth L, ed. Medical transition. In: Trans Bodies, Trans Selves: A Resource by and for Transgender Communities. 2nd ed. Kindle edition. Oxford University Press; 2022. Accessed Aug. 17, 2022.
• Ferrando C, et al. Gender-affirming surgery: Male to female. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Aug. 17, 2022.
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Gender Affirming Surgery

• Clinical Policy Bulletins
• Medical Clinical Policy Bulletins

Number: 0615

Table Of Contents

The International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (DSM-5-TR) are the diagnostic classifications and criteria manuals used in the United States.  Notwithstanding, the World Professional Association of Transgender Health Standard of Care 8th edition (WPATH SOC8) states: “While Gender Dysphoria (GD) is still considered a mental health condition in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (DSM-5-TR) of the American Psychiatric Association. Gender incongruence is no longer seen as pathological or a mental disorder in the world health community. Gender Incongruence is recognized as a condition in the International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th Version of the World Health Organization (ICD-11). Because of historical and current stigma, TGD people can experience distress or dysphoria that may be addressed with various gender-affirming treatment options. While nomenclature is subject to change and new terminology and classifications may be adopted by various health organizations or administrative bodies, the medical necessity of treatment and care is clearly recognized for the many people who experience dissonance between their sex assigned at birth and their gender identity.”

Gender dysphoria refers to discomfort or distress that is caused by a discrepancy between an individual’s gender identity and the gender assigned at birth (and the associated gender role and/or primary and secondary sex characteristics). A diagnosis of gender dysphoria requires a marked difference between the individual’s expressed/experienced gender and the gender others would assign him or her, and it must continue for at least six months. This condition may cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning.  

Gender affirming surgery is performed to change primary and/or secondary sex characteristics. For transfeminine (assigned male at birth) gender transition, surgical procedures may include genital reconstruction (vaginoplasty, penectomy, orchidectomy, clitoroplasty), breast augmentation (implants, lipofilling), and cosmetic surgery (facial reshaping, rhinoplasty, abdominoplasty, thyroid chondroplasty (laryngeal shaving), voice modification surgery (vocal cord shortening), hair transplants) (Day, 2002). For transmasculine (assigned female at birth) gender transition, surgical procedures may include mastectomy, genital reconstruction (phalloplasty, genitoplasty, hysterectomy, bilateral oophorectomy), mastectomy, and cosmetic procedures to enhance male features such as pectoral implants and chest wall recontouring (Day, 2002).

The criterion noted above for some types of genital surgeries is based on expert clinical consensus that this experience provides ample opportunity for patients to experience and socially adjust in their desired gender role, before undergoing irreversible surgery (Coleman, et al., 2022). 

It is recommended that transfeminine persons undergo feminizing hormone therapy (minimum 6 months) prior to breast augmentation surgery. The purpose is to maximize breast growth in order to obtain better surgical (aesthetic) results.

In addition to hormone therapy and gender affirming surgery, psychological adjustments are necessary in affirming sex. Treatment should focus on psychological adjustment, with hormone therapy and gender affirming surgery being viewed as confirmatory procedures dependent on adequate psychological adjustment. Mental health care may need to be continued after gender affirming surgery. The overall success of treatment depends partly on the technical success of the surgery, but more crucially on the psychological adjustment of the trans identified person and the support from family, friends, employers and the medical profession.

Nakatsuka (2012) noted that the third versions of the guideline for treatment of people with gender dysphoria (GD) of the Japanese Society of Psychiatry and Neurology recommends that feminizing/masculinizing hormone therapy and genital surgery should not be carried out until 18 years old and 20 years old, respectively.  On the other hand, the sixth (2001) and the seventh (2011) versions of the standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender non-conforming people of World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) recommend that transgender adolescents (Tanner stage 2, [mainly 12 to 13 years of age]) are treated by the endocrinologists to suppress puberty with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists until age 16 years old, after which gender-affirming hormones may be given.  A questionnaire on 181 people with GID diagnosed in the Okayama University Hospital (Japan) showed that female to male (FTM) trans identified individuals hoped to begin masculinizing hormone therapy at age of 15.6 +/- 4.0 (mean +/- S.D.) whereas male to female (MTF) trans identified individuals hoped to begin feminizing hormone therapy as early as age 12.5 +/- 4.0, before presenting secondary sex characters.  After confirmation of strong and persistent trans gender identification, adolescents with GD should be treated with gender-affirming hormone or puberty-delaying hormone to prevent developing undesired sex characters.  These treatments may prevent transgender adolescents from attempting suicide, suffering from depression, and refusing to attend school. 

Spack (2013) stated that GD is poorly understood from both mechanistic and clinical standpoints.  Awareness of the condition appears to be increasing, probably because of greater societal acceptance and available hormonal treatment.  Therapeutic options include hormone and surgical treatments but may be limited by insurance coverage because costs are high.  For patients seeking MTF affirmation, hormone treatment includes estrogens, finasteride, spironolactone, and GnRH analogs.  Surgical options include feminizing genital and facial surgery, breast augmentation, and various fat transplantations.  For patients seeking a FTM gender affirmation, medical therapy includes testosterone and GnRH analogs and surgical therapy includes mammoplasty and phalloplasty.  Medical therapy for both FTM and MTF can be started in early puberty, although long-term effects are not known.  All patients considering treatment need counseling and medical monitoring.

Leinung and colleagues (2013) noted that the Endocrine Society's recently published clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of transgender persons acknowledged the need for further information on transgender health.  These investigators reported the experience of one provider with the endocrine treatment of transgender persons over the past 2 decades. Data on demographics, clinical response to treatment, and psychosocial status were collected on all transgender persons receiving gender-affirming hormone therapy since 1991 at the endocrinology clinic at Albany Medical Center, a tertiary care referral center serving upstate New York.  Through 2009, a total 192 MTF and 50 FTM transgender persons were seen.  These patients had a high prevalence of mental health and psychiatric problems (over 50 %), with low rates of employment and high levels of disability.  Mental health and psychiatric problems were inversely correlated with age at presentation.  The prevalence of gender affirming surgery was low (31 % for MTF).  The number of persons seeking treatment has increased substantially in recent years.  Gender-affirming hormone therapy achieves very good results in FTM persons and is most successful in MTF persons when initiated at younger ages.  The authors concluded that transgender persons seeking hormonal therapy are being seen with increasing frequency.  The dysphoria present in many transgender persons is associated with significant mood disorders that interfere with successful careers.  They stated that starting therapy at an earlier age may lessen the negative impact on mental health and lead to improved social outcomes.

Meyer-Bahlburg (2013) summarized for the practicing endocrinologist the current literature on the psychobiology of the development of gender identity and its variants in individuals with disorders of sex development or with transgenderism.  Gender reassignment remains the treatment of choice for strong and persistent gender dysphoria in both categories, but more research is needed on the short-term and long-term effects of puberty-suppressing medications and cross-sex hormones on brain and behavior.

Note on Breast Reduction/Mastectomy and Nipple Reconstruction

The CPT codes for mastectomy (CPT codes 19303) are for breast cancer, and are not appropriate to bill for reduction mammaplasty for female to male (transmasculine) gender affirmation surgery. CPT 2020 states that “Mastectomy procedures (with the exception of gynecomastia [19300]) are performed either for treatment or prevention of breast cancer.” CPT 2020 also states that "Code 19303 describes total removal of ipsilateral breast tissue with or without removal of skin and/or nipples (eg, nipple-sparing), for treatment or prevention of breast cancer.” There are important differences between a mastectomy for breast cancer and a mastectomy for gender reassignment. The former requires careful attention to removal of all breast tissue to reduce the risk of cancer. By contrast, careful removal of all breast tissue is not essential in mastectomy for gender reassignment. In mastectomy for gender reassignment, the nipple areola complex typically can be preserved. 

Some have tried to justify routinely billing CPT code 19350 for nipple reconstruction at the time of mastectomy for gender reassignment based upon the frequent need to reduce the size of the areola to give it a male appearance. However, the nipple reconstruction as defined by CPT code 19350 describes a much more involved procedure than areola reduction. The typical patient vignette for CPT code 19350, according to the AMA, is as follows: “The patient is measured in the standing position to ensure even balanced position for a location of the nipple and areola graft on the right breast.  Under local anesthesia, a Skate flap is elevated at the site selected for the nipple reconstruction and constructed.  A full-thickness skin graft is taken from the right groin to reconstruct the areola.  The right groin donor site is closed primarily in layers.”  

The AMA vignette for CPT code 19318 (reduction mammaplasty) clarifies that this CPT code includes the work that is necessary to reposition and reshape the nipple to create an aesthetically pleasing result, as is necessary in female to male breast reduction. "The physician reduces the size of the breast, removing wedges of skin and breast tissue from a female patient. The physician makes a circular skin incision above the nipple, in the position to which the nipple will be elevated. Another skin incision is made around the circumference of the nipple. Two incisions are made from the circular cut above the nipple to the fold beneath the breast, one on either side of the nipple, creating a keyhole shaped skin and breast incision. Wedges of skin and breast tissue are removed until the desired size is achieved. Bleeding vessels may be ligated or cauterized. The physician elevates the nipple and its pedicle of subcutaneous tissue to its new position and sutures the nipple pedicle with layered closure. The remaining incision is repaired with layered closure" (EncoderPro, 2019). CPT code 19350 does not describe the work that that is being done, because that code describes the actual construction of a new nipple.  Code 19350 is a CCI “incidental to” edit to code 19318, and, accordingly, the services of code 19350 are included in code 19318. Similarly, graft codes, such as code 15200 (full thickness skin graft) and 15877 (liposuction), are CCI “incidental to” edits to code 19318, and, accordingly, the services of graft codes, such as 15200, and liposuction codes, such as 15877, are included in code 19318. 

Vulvoplasty Versus Vaginoplasty as Gender-Affirming Genital Surgery for Transgender Women

Jiang and colleagues (2018) noted that gender-affirming vaginoplasty aims to create the external female genitalia (vulva) as well as the internal vaginal canal; however, not all patients desire nor can safely undergo vaginal canal creation.  These investigators described the factors influencing patient choice or surgeon recommendation of vulvoplasty (creation of the external appearance of female genitalia without creation of a neovaginal canal) and evaluated the patient's satisfaction with this choice.  Gender-affirming genital surgery consults were reviewed from March 2015 until December 2017, and patients scheduled for or who had completed vulvoplasty were interviewed by telephone.  These investigators reported demographic data and the reasons for choosing vulvoplasty as gender-affirming surgery for patients who either completed or were scheduled for surgery, in addition to patient reports of satisfaction with choice of surgery, satisfaction with the surgery itself, and sexual activity after surgery.  A total of 486 patients were seen in consultation for trans-feminine gender-affirming genital surgery: 396 requested vaginoplasty and 39 patients requested vulvoplasty; 30 Patients either completed or are scheduled for vulvoplasty.  Vulvoplasty patients were older and had higher body mass index (BMI) than those seeking vaginoplasty.  The majority (63 %) of the patients seeking vulvoplasty chose this surgery despite no contraindications to vaginoplasty.  The remaining patients had risk factors leading the surgeon to recommend vulvoplasty.  Of those who completed surgery, 93 % were satisfied with the surgery and their decision for vulvoplasty.  The authors concluded that this was the first study of factors impacting a patient's choice of or a surgeon's recommendation for vulvoplasty over vaginoplasty as gender-affirming genital surgery; it also was the first reported series of patients undergoing vulvoplasty only. 

Drawbacks of this study included its retrospective nature, non-validated questions, short-term follow-up, and selection bias in how vulvoplasty was offered.  Vulvoplasty is a form of gender-affirming feminizing surgery that does not involve creation of a neovagina, and it is associated with high satisfaction and low decision regret.

Autologous Fibroblast-Seeded Amnion for Reconstruction of Neo-vagina in Transfeminine Reassignment Surgery

Seyed-Forootan and colleagues (2018) stated that plastic surgeons have used several methods for the construction of neo-vaginas, including the utilization of penile skin, free skin grafts, small bowel or recto-sigmoid grafts, an amnion graft, and cultured cells.  These researchers compared the results of amnion grafts with amnion seeded with autograft fibroblasts.  Over 8 years, these investigators compared the results of 24 male-to-female transsexual patients retrospectively based on their complications and levels of satisfaction; 16 patients in group A received amnion grafts with fibroblasts, and the patients in group B received only amnion grafts without any additional cellular lining.  The depths, sizes, secretions, and sensations of the vaginas were evaluated.  The patients were monitored for any complications, including over-secretion, stenosis, stricture, fistula formation, infection, and bleeding.  The mean age of group A was 28 ± 4 years and group B was 32 ± 3 years.  Patients were followed-up from 30 months to 8 years (mean of 36 ± 4) after surgery.  The depth of the vaginas for group A was 14 to 16 and 13 to 16 cm for group B.  There was no stenosis in neither group.  The diameter of the vaginal opening was 34 to 38 mm in group A and 33 to 38 cm in group B.  These researchers only had 2 cases of stricture in the neo-vagina in group B, but no stricture was recorded for group A.  All of the patients had good and acceptable sensation in the neo-vagina; 75 % of patients had sexual experience and of those, 93.7 % in group A and 87.5%  in group B expressed satisfaction.  The authors concluded that the creation of a neo-vaginal canal and its lining with allograft amnion and seeded autologous fibroblasts is an effective method for imitating a normal vagina.  The size of neo-vagina, secretion, sensation, and orgasm was good and proper.  More than 93.7 % of patients had satisfaction with sexual intercourse.  They stated that amnion seeded with fibroblasts extracted from the patient's own cells will result in a vagina with the proper size and moisture that can eliminate the need for long-term dilatation.  The constructed vagina has a 2-layer structure and is much more resistant to trauma and laceration.  No cases of stenosis or stricture were recorded.  Level of Evidence = IV.  These preliminary findings need to be validated by well-designed studies.

Pitch-Raising Surgery in Transfeminine Persons

Van Damme and colleagues (2017) reviewed the evidence of the effectiveness of pitch-raising surgery performed in male-to-female transsexuals.  These investigators carried out a search for studies in PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, EBSCOhost, Google Scholar, and the references in retrieved manuscripts, using as keywords "transsexual" or "transgender" combined with terms related to voice surgery.  They included 8 studies using cricothyroid approximation, 6 studies using anterior glottal web formation, and 6 studies using other surgery types or a combination of surgical techniques, leading to 20 studies in total.  Objectively, a substantial rise in post-operative fundamental frequency was identified.  Perceptually, mainly laryngeal web formation appeared risky for decreasing voice quality.  The majority of patients appeared satisfied with the outcome.  However, none of the studies used a control group and randomization process.  The authors concluded that future research needs to investigate long-term effects of pitch-raising surgery using a stronger study design. 

Azul and associates (2017) evaluated the currently available discursive and empirical data relating to those aspects of trans-masculine people's vocal situations that are not primarily gender-related, and identified restrictions to voice function that have been observed in this population, and made suggestions for future voice research and clinical practice.  These researchers conducted a comprehensive review of the voice literature.  Publications were identified by searching 6 electronic databases and bibliographies of relevant articles.  A total of 22 publications met inclusion criteria.  Discourses and empirical data were analyzed for factors and practices that impact on voice function and for indications of voice function-related problems in trans-masculine people.  The quality of the evidence was appraised.  The extent and quality of studies investigating trans-masculine people's voice function was found to be limited.  There was mixed evidence to suggest that trans-masculine people might experience restrictions to a range of domains of voice function, including vocal power, vocal control/stability, glottal function, pitch range/variability, vocal endurance, and voice quality.  The authors concluded that more research into the different factors and practices affecting trans-masculine people's voice function that took account of a range of parameters of voice function and considered participants' self-evaluations is needed to establish how functional voice production can be best supported in this population.

Facial Feminization Surgery

Raffaini and colleagues (2016) stated that gender dysphoria refers to the discomfort and distress that arise from a discrepancy between a person's gender identity and sex assigned at birth.  The treatment plan for gender dysphoria varies and can include psychotherapy, hormone treatment, and gender affirmation surgery, which is, in part, an irreversible change of sexual identity.  Procedures for transformation to the female sex include facial feminization surgery, vaginoplasty, clitoroplasty, and breast augmentation.  Facial feminization surgery can include forehead re-modeling, rhinoplasty, mentoplasty, thyroid chondroplasty, and voice alteration procedures.  These investigators reported patient satisfaction following facial feminization surgery, including outcome measurements after forehead slippage and chin re-modeling.  A total of 33 patients between 19 and 40 years of age were referred for facial feminization surgery between January of 2003 and December of 2013, for a total of 180 procedures.  Surgical outcome was analyzed both subjectively through questionnaires administered to patients and objectively by serial photographs.  Most facial feminization surgery procedures could be safely completed in 6 months, barring complications.  All patients showed excellent cosmetic results and were satisfied with their procedures.  Both frontal and profile views achieved a loss of masculine features.  The authors concluded that patient satisfaction following facial feminization surgery was high; they stated that the reduction of gender dysphoria had psychological and social benefits and significantly affected patient outcome.  The level of evidence of this study was IV.

Morrison and associates (2018) noted that facial feminization surgery encompasses a broad range of cranio-maxillofacial surgical procedures designed to change masculine facial features into feminine features.  The surgical principles of facial feminization surgery could be applied to male-to-female transsexuals and anyone desiring feminization of the face.  Although the prevalence of these procedures is difficult to quantify, because of the rising prevalence of transgenderism (approximately 1 in 14,000 men) along with improved insurance coverage for gender-confirming surgery, surgeons versed in techniques, outcomes, and challenges of facial feminization surgery are needed.  These researchers appraised the current facial feminization surgery literature.  They carried out a comprehensive literature search of the Medline, PubMed, and Embase databases was conducted for studies published through October 2014 with multiple search terms related to facial feminization.  Data on techniques, outcomes, complications, and patient satisfaction were collected.  A total of 15 articles were selected and reviewed from the 24 identified, all of which were either retrospective or case series/reports.  Articles covered a variety of facial feminization procedures.  A total of 1,121 patients underwent facial feminization surgery, with 7 complications reported, although many articles did not explicitly comment on complications.  Satisfaction was high, although most studies did not use validated or quantified approaches to address satisfaction.  The authors concluded that facial feminization surgery appeared to be safe and satisfactory for patients.  These researchers stated that further studies are needed to better compare different techniques to more robustly establish best practices; prospective studies and patient-reported outcomes are needed to establish quality-of-life (QOL) outcomes for patients.  

In a systematic review, Gorbea et al (2021) provided a portrait of gender affirmation surgery (GAS) insurance coverage across the U.S., with attention to procedures of the head and neck.  State policies on transgender care for Medicaid insurance providers were collected for all 50 states.  Each state's policy on GAS and facial gender affirmation surgery (FGAS) was examined.  The largest medical insurance companies in the U.S. were identified using the National Association of Insurance Commissioners Market Share report.  Policies of the top 49 primary commercial medical insurance companies were examined.  Medicaid policy reviews found that 18 states offer some level of gender-affirming coverage for their patients, but only 3 include FGAS (17 %); 13 states prohibit Medicaid coverage of all transgender surgery, and 19 states have no published gender-affirming medical care coverage policy; 92 % of commercial medical insurance providers had a published policy on GAS coverage.  Genital reconstruction was described as a medically necessary aspect of transgender care in 100 % of the commercial policies reviewed; 93 % discussed coverage of FGAS, but 51 % considered these procedures cosmetic.  Thyroid chondroplasty (20 %) was the most commonly covered FGAS procedure.  Mandibular and frontal bone contouring, rhinoplasty, blepharoplasty, and facial rhytidectomy were each covered by 13 % of the medical policies reviewed.  The authors concluded that while certain surgical aspects of gender-affirming medical care are nearly ubiquitously covered by commercial insurance providers, FGAS is considered cosmetic by most Medicaid and commercial insurance providers.  Level of Evidence = V.

Hohman and Teixeira (2022) stated that with respect to gender affirmation procedures for the face, the majority of interventions will occur in patients transitioning from male to female, i.e., transgender women.  While there are slightly more transgender women than transgender men in the population (33 % transgender women, 29 % transgender men, 35 % non-binary, 3 % cross-dressers, according to the USTS), the reason that more females require surgery than males is that testosterone therapy typically produces enough changes in secondary sex characteristics of the face (growth of facial hair, thickening of the skin, increase in frontal bossing, lowering of the voice, etc.) that surgery is not necessary . In some cases, placement of implants or fat transfer can increase volume in the lower 1/3 of the face and contribute to masculinization.  Still, the primary area of focus for facial feminization is generally the upper 1/3.  Feminization of the upper 1/3 of the face often requires several techniques to be applied in combination: The advancement of the hairline, hair transplantation, brow-lifting, and reduction of frontal bossing or "frontal cranioplasty".  While the advancement of a scalp flap, hair transplant, and pretrichial brow-lifting are commonly employed cosmetic surgery interventions, frontal cranioplasty bears special consideration.  Several methods of reducing the brow's prominence are often described as type 1, 2, and 3 frontal cranioplasties.  Type 1 cranioplasty reduces the supra-orbital ridge's protrusion, usually using a drill, including decreasing the thickness of the anterior table of the frontal sinus.  This technique is the simplest, but it is only effective in patients with either a very thick anterior frontal sinus table or an absent pneumatized frontal sinus.  Type 2 cranioplasty involves augmentation of the forehead's convexity using bone cement or methyl methacrylate in addition to a reduction of the supra-orbital ridge with a drill.  Type 3 cranioplasty is advocated by many prominent facial feminization surgeons and consists of removal of the anterior table of the frontal sinus, thinning of the bone flap, and replacement of that bone onto the frontal sinus but in a more recessed position, in addition to a reduction of the remainder of the supra-orbital ridge.  An alternative to removal and recession of the frontal sinus's anterior table is to thin the bone with a drill and then fracture it in a controlled fashion to produce the desired contour, which is also performed routinely by some authors.

Forehead Feminization Cranioplasty

Eggerstedt and colleagues (2020) stated that forehead feminization cranioplasty (FFC) is an important component of gender-affirming surgery and has become increasingly popular in recent years.  However, there is little objective evidence for the procedure's safety and clinical impact via patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs).  In a systematic review, these researchers determined what complications are observed following FFC, the relative frequency of complications by surgical technique, and what impact the procedure has on patient's QOL.  They carried out database searches in PubMed/Medline, Scopus, CINAHL, Cochrane CENTRAL, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and PsycINFO.  The search terms included variations of forehead setback/FFC.  Both controlled vocabularies (i.e., MeSH and CINAHL's Suggested Subject Terms) and keywords in the title or abstract fields were searched.  Two independent reviewers screened the titles and abstracts of all articles; and 2 independent surgeon reviewers examined the full text of all included articles, and relevant data points were extracted.  Main outcomes and measures included complications and complication rate observed following FFC.  Additional outcome measures were the approach used, concurrent procedures carried out, and the use and findings of a PROM.  A total of 10 articles describing FFC were included, entailing 673 patients.  The overall pooled complication rate was 1.3 %; PROMs were used in 50 % of studies, with no standardization among studies.  The authors concluded that complications following FFC were rare and infrequently required reoperation.  Moreover, these researchers stated that further studies into standardized and validated PROMs in facial feminization patients are needed.  Level of Evidence = III.

Hand Feminization and Masculinization

Lee and colleagues (2021) noted that anatomical characteristics that are incongruent with an individual's gender identity can cause significant gender dysphoria.  Hands exhibit prominent dimorphic sexual features, but despite their visibility, there are limited studies examining gender affirming procedures for the hands.  These researchers examined the anatomical features that define feminine and masculine hands, the surgical and non-surgical approaches for feminization and masculinization of the hand; and adapted established aesthetic hand techniques for gender affirming care.  They carried out a comprehensive database search of PubMed, Embase OVID and SCOPUS to identify articles on the characterization of feminine or masculine hands, hand treatments related to gender affirmation, and articles related to techniques for hand feminization and masculinization in the non-transgender population.  From 656 possibly relevant articles, 42 met the inclusion criteria for the current literature search.  There is currently no medical literature specifically examining the surgical or non-surgical options for hand gender affirmation.  The available techniques for gender affirming procedures discussed in this paper were appropriated from those more commonly used for hand rejuvenation.  The authors concluded that there is very little evidence addressing the options for transgender individuals seeking gender affirming procedures of the hand.  These researchers stated that although established procedures used for hand rejuvenation may be employed in gender affirming care, further study is needed to determine relative salience of various hand features to gender dysphoria in transgender patients of various identities, as well as development of novel techniques to meet these needs.  Level of Evidence = III.

Peritoneal Pull-Through Technique Vaginoplasty in Neovagina Construction in Gender-Affirming Surgery

Tay and Lo (2022) reviewed the application, effectiveness and outcomes of a novel surgical technique, peritoneal pull-through technique vaginoplasty, in gender-affirming surgery.  Specific outcome parameters included healing time, depth of cavity achieved,) alleviation of dysphoria, and morbidity of the surgery.  These researchers carried out a systematic review according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement and PROSPERO registration obtained before commencement.  A search was performed in OVID Medline, Embase, Willey Online Library and PubMed.  Specialty-related journals, grey literature and reference lists of relevant articles were manually searched.  From 476 potentially relevant articles, 12 articles were analyzed; and the publications were all level 4 or level 5 evidence.  Healing times were poorly reported or often not mentioned.  A total of 8 authors reported neovagina cavity depth of at least 13 cm and good patient satisfaction.  Alleviation of dysphoria was not discussed by any of the publications and only 6reported complications.  Average follow-up ranged from 6 weeks to 14.8 months.  The authors concluded that the use of peritoneal pull-through vaginoplasty in gender-affirming surgery is promising and novel; however, there is a paucity of data.  These investigators stated that further research and longer-term data are needed to examine the safety and effectiveness of this technique including stabilization of vaginal depth, later morbidity and complications.  Patients seeking this surgery overseas should be informed of the potential difficulties they may face.

Urethral Complications and Outcomes in Transgender Men

Hu et al (2022) noted that urologic problems, such as urethral fistulas and strictures, are among the most frequent complications following phalloplasty.  Although many studies have reported successful phalloplasty and urethral reconstruction with reliable outcomes in transgender men; so far, no method has become standardized.  These researchers examined the reports on urological complications and outcomes in transgender men with respect to various types of urethral reconstruction.  They carried out a comprehensive literature search of PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases for studies related to phalloplasty in transsexuals.  Data on various phallic urethral techniques, urethral complications, and outcomes were collected and analyzed using the random-effects model.  A total of 21 studies (1,566 patients) were included: 8 studies (1,061 patients) on "tube-in-tube", 9 studies (273 patients) on "prelaminated flap,  and 6 studies (221 patients) on "second flap".  Compared with the tube-in-tube technique, the pre-laminated flap was associated with a significantly higher urethral stricture/stenosis rate; however, there was no difference between the pre-laminated flap and the 2nd flap techniques.  For all phalloplasty patients, the pooled rate of urethral fistula or stenosis was 48.9 %, the rate of the ability to void while standing was 91.5 %, occurrence rate of tactile or erogenous sensation was 88 %, the prosthesis complication rate was 27.9 %, and patient-reported satisfactory outcome rate was 90.5 %.  The authors concluded that urethral reconstruction with a pre-laminated flap was associated with a significantly higher urethral stricture rate and increased need of revision surgery compared with that observed using a skin flap.  Overall, most patients were able to void while standing and were satisfied with the outcomes.

DSM 5 Criteria for Gender Dysphoria in Adults and Adolescents

A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and assigned gender, of at least 6 months duration, as manifested by two or more of the following:

• A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and primary and/or secondary sex characteristics (or, in young adolescents, the anticipated secondary sex characteristics)
• A strong desire to be rid of one’s primary and/or secondary sex characteristics because of a marked incongruence with one’s experienced/expressed gender (or, in young adolescents, a desire to prevent the development of the anticipated secondary sex characteristics)
• A strong desire for the primary and/or secondary sex characteristics of the other gender
• A strong desire to be of the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s assigned gender)
• A strong desire to be treated as the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s assigned gender)
• A strong conviction that one has the typical feelings and reactions of the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s assigned gender).

The condition is associated with clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

There is no minimum duration of relationship required with mental health professional.  It is the professional’s judgment as to the appropriate length of time before a referral letter can appropriately be written.  A common period of time is three months, but there is significant variation in both directions.

Evaluation of candidacy for gender affirmation surgery by a mental health professional is covered under the member’s medical benefit, unless the services of a mental health professional are necessary to evaluate and treat a mental health problem, in which case the mental health professional’s services are covered under the member’s behavioral health benefit. Please check benefit plan descriptions.

Characteristics of a Qualified Health Professionals (From SOC-8)

Qualifications of Mental Health Professional for assessing transgender and gender diverse adults for physical treatments (from WPATH SOC-8):

• Are licensed by their statutory body and hold, at a minimum, a master’s degree or equivalent training in a clinical field relevant to this role and granted by a nationally accredited statutory institution.
• Are able to identify co-existing mental health or other psychosocial concerns and distinguish these from gender dysphoria, incongruence, and diversity.
• Are able to assess capacity to consent for treatment.
• Have experience or be qualified to assess clinical aspects of gender dysphoria, incongruence, and diversity.
• Undergo continuing education in health care relating to gender dysphoria, incongruence, and diversity.
• Liaise with professionals from different disciplines within the field of transgender health for consultation and referral on behalf of gender diverse adults seeking gender-affirming treatment, if required.

Credentials of surgeons who perform gender-affirming surgical procedures (fromWPATH SOC-8):

• Training and documented supervision in gender-affirming procedures;
• Maintenance of an active practice in gender-affirming surgical procedures;
• Knowledge about gender diverse identities and expressions;
• Continuing education in the field of gender-affirmation surgery;
• Tracking of surgical outcomes.

Characteristics of health care professionals working with gender diverse adolescents:

• Are licensed by their statutory body and hold a postgraduate degree or its equivalent in a clinical field relevant to this role granted by a nationally accredited statutory institution.
• Receive theoretical and evidenced-based training and develop expertise in general child, adolescent, and family mental health across the developmental spectrum.
• Receive training and have expertise in gender identity development, gender diversity in children and adolescents, have the ability to assess capacity to assent/consent, and possess general knowledge of gender diversity across the life span.
• Receive training and develop expertise in autism spectrum disorders and other neurodevelopmental presentations or collaborate with a developmental disability expert when working with autistic/neurodivergent gender diverse adolescents.
• Continue engaging in professional development in all areas relevant to gender diverse children, adolescents, and families.

The above policy is based on the following references:

• Almazan AN, Boskey ER, Labow B, Ganor O. Insurance policy trends for breast surgery in cisgender women, cisgender men, and transgender men. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2019;144(2):334e-336e. 
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• Azul D, Nygren U, Södersten M, Neuschaefer-Rube C. Transmasculine people's voice function: A review of the currently available evidence. J Voice. 2017;31(2):261.e9-261.e23.
• Boczar D, Huayllani MT, Saleem HY, et al. Surgical techniques of phalloplasty in transgender patients: A systematic review. Ann Transl Med. 2021;9(7):607.
• Bowman C, Goldberg J. Care of the Patient Undergoing Sex Reassignment Surgery. Vancouver, BC: Vancouver Coastal Health, Transcend Transgender Support & Education Society, and the Canadian Rainbow Health Coalition; January 2006. 
• Buncamper ME, Honselaar JS, Bouman MB, et al. Aesthetic and functional outcomes of neovaginoplasty using penile skin in male-to-female transsexuals. J Sex Med. 2015;12(7):1626-1634.
• Byne W, Bradley SJ, Coleman E, et al.; American Psychiatric Association Task Force on Treatment of Gender Identity Disorder. Report of the American Psychiatric Association Task Force on Treatment of Gender Identity Disorder. Arch Sex Behav. 2012;41(4):759-796.
• Claes KEY, D'Arpa S, Monstrey SJ. Chest surgery for transgender and gender nonconforming individuals. Clin Plast Surg. 2018;45(3):369-380. 
• Colebunders B, Brondeel S, D'Arpa S, et al. An update on the surgical treatment for transgender patients. Sex Med Rev. 2017;5(1):103-109.
• Coleman E, Radix AE, Bouman WP, et al. Standards of Care for the Health of Transgender and Gender Diverse People, Version 8.  Int J Transgend. 2022; 23 sup1:S1-S259.
• Coleman E, Adler R, Bockting W, et al. Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Nonconforming People. Version 7. Minneapolis, MN: World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH); 2011.
• Coleman E, Bockting W, Botzer M, et al. Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender-Nonconforming People, Version 7. Int J Transgend. 2011;13:165-232.
• Day P. Trans-gender reassignment surgery. NZHTA Tech Brief Series. Christchurch, New Zealand: New Zealand Health Technology Assessment (NZHTA); 2002;1(1). 
• Djordjevic ML, Bizic MR, Duisin D, et al. Reversal surgery in regretful male-to-female transsexuals after sex reassignment surgery. J Sex Med. 2016;13(6):1000-1007.
• Eggerstedt M, Hong YS, Wakefield CJ, et al. Setbacks in forehead feminization cranioplasty: A systematic review of complications and patient-reported outcomes. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2020;44(3):743-749.
• Falcone M, Preto M, Timpano M, et al. The surgical outcomes of radial artery forearm free-flap phalloplasty in transgender men: Single-centre experience and systematic review of the current literature. Int J Impot Res. 2021;33(7):737-745.
• Gooren LJG, Tangpricha V. Treatment of transsexualism. UpToDate [serial online]. Waltham, MA: UpToDate; reviewed April 2014.
• Gorbea E, Gidumal S, Kozato A, et al. Insurance coverage of facial gender affirmation surgery: A review of Medicaid and commercial insurance. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2021;165(6):791-797.
• Guan X, Bardawil E, Liu J, Kho R. Transvaginal natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery as a rescue for total vaginal hysterectomy. J Minim Invasive Gynecol. 2018;25(7):1135-1136.
• Hembree et al. Endocrine Treatment of Transsexual Persons:  An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009; 94(9):3132-3154.
• Hohman MH, Teixeira J. Transgender surgery of the head and neck. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing; February 27, 2022.
• Horbach SE, Bouman MB, Smit JM, et al. Outcome of vaginoplasty in male-to-female transgenders: A systematic review of surgical techniques. J Sex Med. 2015;12(6):1499-1512.
• Hu C-H, Chang C-J, Wang S-W, Chang K-V. A systematic review and meta-analysis of urethral complications and outcomes in transgender men. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2022;75(1):10-24.
• Jiang D, Witten J, Berli J, Dugi D 3rd. Does depth matter? Factors affecting choice of vulvoplasty over vaginoplasty as gender-affirming genital surgery for transgender women. J Sex Med. 2018;15(6):902-906.
• Jolly D, Wu CA, Boskey ER, et al. Is clitoral release another term for metoidioplasty? A systematic review and meta-analysis of metoidioplasty surgical technique and outcomes. Sex Med. 2021;9(1):100294.
• Kaariainen M, Salonen K, Helminen M, Karhunen-Enckell U. Chest-wall contouring surgery in female-to-male transgender patients: A one-center retrospective analysis of applied surgical techniques and results. Scand J Surg. 2016;106 (1):74-79.
• Lawrence AA, Latty EM, Chivers ML, Bailey JM. Measurement of sexual arousal in postoperative male-to-female transsexuals using vaginal photoplethysmography. Arch Sex Behav. 2005;34(2):135-145.
• Lawrence AA. Factors associated with satisfaction or regret following male-to-female sex reassignment surgery. Arch Sex Behav. 2003;32(4):299-315.
• Lee J, Nolan IT, Swanson M, et al. A review of hand feminization and masculinization techniques in gender affirming therapy. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2021;45(2):589-601.
• Lee YL, Hsu TF, Jiang LY, et al. Transvaginal natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery for female-to-male transgender men. J Minim Invasive Gynecol. 2019;26(1):135-142.
• Leinung MC, Urizar MF, Patel N, Sood SC. Endocrine treatment of transsexual persons: Extensive personal experience. Endocr Pract. 2013;19(4):644-650.
• Meriggiola MC, Jannini EA, Lenzi A, et al. Endocrine treatment of transsexual persons: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline: Commentary from a European perspective. Eur J Endocrinol. 2010;162(5):831-833.
• Meyer-Bahlburg HF. Sex steroids and variants of gender identity. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2013;42(3):435-452.
• Miller TJ, Wilson SC, Massie JP, et al. Breast augmentation in male-to-female transgender patients: Technical considerations and outcomes. JPRAS Open. 2019;21:63-74. 
• Morrison SD, Vyas KS, Motakef S, et al. Facial feminization: Systematic review of the literature. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2016;137(6):1759-1770. 
• Nakatsuka M. [Adolescents with gender identity disorder: Reconsideration of the age limits for endocrine treatment and surgery]. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi. 2012;114(6):647-653.
• Ngaage LM, Knighton BJ, McGlone KL, et al. Health insurance coverage of gender-affirming top surgery in the United States. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2019;144(4):824-833. 
• Oles N, Darrach H, Landford W, et al. Gender affirming surgery: A comprehensive, systematic review of all peer-reviewed literature and methods of assessing patient-centered outcomes (Part 1: Breast/chest, face, and voice). Ann Surg. 2022;275(1):e52-e66.
• Oles N, Darrach H, Landford W, et al. Gender affirming surgery: A comprehensive, systematic review of all peer-reviewed literature and methods of assessing patient-centered outcomes (Part 2: Genital reconstruction). Ann Surg. 2022;275(1):e67-e74.
• Olson-Kennedy J, Warus J, Okonta V, et al. Chest reconstruction and chest dysphoria in transmasculine minors and young adults: Comparisons of nonsurgical and postsurgical cohorts. JAMA Pediatr. 2018;172(5):431-436.
• Patel H, Arruarana V, Yao L, et al. Effects of hormones and hormone therapy on breast tissue in transgender patients: A concise review. Endocrine. 2020;68(1):6-15.
• Raffaini M, Magri AS, Agostini T. Full facial feminization surgery: Patient satisfaction assessment based on 180 procedures involving 33 consecutive patients. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2016;137(2):438-448..
• Rafferty J; Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health; Committee on Adolescence; Section on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Health and Wellness. Ensuring comprehensive care and support for transgender and gender-diverse children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2018;142(4).
• Salgado CJ, Fein LA. Breast augmentation in transgender women and the lack of adherence amongst plastic surgeons to professional standards of care. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2015;68(10):1471-1472.
• Sarıkaya S, Ralph DJ. Mystery and realities of phalloplasty: A systematic review. Turk J Urol. 2017;43(3):229-236.
• Schechter LS. Gender confirmation surgery: An update for the primary care provider. Transgender Health. 2016;1.1:32-40.
• Seyed-Forootan K, Karimi H, Seyed-Forootan NS. Autologous fibroblast-seeded amnion for reconstruction of neo-vagina in male-to-female reassignment surgery. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2018;42(2):491-497.
• Smith YL, Cohen L, Cohen-Kettenis PT. Postoperative psychological functioning of adolescent transsexuals: A Rorschach study. Arch Sex Behav. 2002;31(3):255-261.
• Spack NP. Management of transgenderism. JAMA. 2013;309(5):478-484.
• Sutcliffe PA, Dixon S, Akehurst RL, et al. Evaluation of surgical procedures for sex reassignment: A systematic review. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2009;62(3):294-306; discussion 306-308.
• Tay YT, Lo CH. Use of peritoneum in neovagina construction in gender-affirming surgery: A systematic review. ANZ J Surg. 2022;92(3):373-378.
• Tonseth KA, Bjark T, Kratz G, et al. Sex reassignment surgery in transsexuals. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 2010;130(4):376-379.
• Tugnet N, Goddard JC, Vickery RM, et al.  Current management of male-to-female gender identity disorder in the UK. Postgrad Med J. 2007;83(984):638-642.
• UK National Health Service (NHS), Oxfordshire Primary Care Trust, South Central Priorities Committee. Treatments for gender dysphoria. Policy Statement 18c. Ref TV63. Oxford, UK: NHS; updated September 2009.
• Van Damme S, Cosyns M, Deman S, et al. The effectiveness of pitch-raising surgery in male-to-female transsexuals: A systematic review. J Voice. 2017;31(2):244.e1-244.e5.
• Wesp LM, Deutsch MB. Hormonal and surgical treatment options for transgender women and transfeminine spectrum persons. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2017;40(1):99-111. 

Policy History

Effective: 05/14/2002

Next Review: 07/11/2024

Review History

Definitions

Additional Information

Clinical Policy Bulletin Notes

State Information

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TLDEF's Trans Health Project

Gender affirmation surgery.

Policy: Gender Affirmation Surgery Policy Number: HUM-0518-020 Last Update: 2023-09-28

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Know Your Rights

Health care.

Read Our Covid-19 Guides

See these resources for more information about your rights during COVID-19:

• A Know Your Rights Guide for Transgender People Navigating COVID-19   (PDF)
• Una guía para que las personas transgénero navegando la COVID-19 conozcan sus derechos   (PDF)

Know Your Rights in Health Care

Federal and state laws - and, in many cases, the U.S. Constitution - prohibit discrimination in health care and insurance because you're transgender. That means that health plans aren’t allowed to exclude transition-related care, and health care providers are required to treat you with respect and according to your gender identity.

Updated October 2021 

What are my rights in insurance coverage?

Federal and state law prohibits most public and private health plans from discriminating against you because you are transgender. This means, with few exceptions, that it is illegal discrimination for your health insurance plan to refuse to cover medically necessary transition-related care.

Here are some examples of illegal discrimination in insurance:

• Health plans can’t have automatic or categorical exclusions of transition-related care . For example, a health plan that says that all care related to gender transition is excluded violates the law.
• Health plans can’t have a categorical exclusion of a specific transition-related procedure. Excluding from coverage specific medically necessary procedures that some transgender people need is discrimination. For example, a health plan should not categorically exclude all coverage for facial feminization surgery or impose arbitrary age limits that contradict medical standards of care.
• An insurance company can’t place limits on coverage for transition-related care if those limits are discriminatory . For example, an insurance company can’t automatically exclude a specific type of procedure if it covers that procedure for non-transgender people. For example, if a plan covers breast reconstruction for cancer treatment, or hormones to treat post-menopause symptoms, it cannot exclude these procedures to treat gender dysphoria.
• Refusing to enroll you in a plan, cancelling your coverage, or charging higher rates because of your transgender status : An insurance company can’t treat you differently, refuse to enroll you, or limit coverage for any services because you are transgender.
• Denying coverage for care typically associated with one gender : It’s illegal for an insurance company to deny you coverage for treatments typically associated with one gender based on the gender listed in the insurance company’s records or the sex you were assigned at birth. For example, if a transgender woman’s health care provider decides she needs a prostate exam, an insurance company can’t deny it because she is listed as female in her records. If her provider recommends gynecological care, coverage can’t be denied simply because she was identified as male at birth.

What should I do to get coverage for transition-related care?

Check out NCTE’s Health Coverage Guide for more information on getting the care that you need covered by your health plan.

If you do not yet have health insurance, you can visit our friends at Out2Enroll to understand your options.

Does private health insurance cover transition-related care?

It is illegal for most private insurance plans to deny coverage for medically necessary transition-related care. Your private insurance plan should provide coverage for the care that you need. However, many transgender people continue to face discriminatory denials. 

To understand how to get access to the care that you need under your private insurance plan, check out NCTE’s Health Coverage Guide .

Does Medicaid cover transition-related care?

It is illegal for Medicaid plans to deny coverage for medically necessary transition-related care. Your state Medicaid plan should provide coverage for the care that you need. However, many transgender people continue to face discriminatory denials. Some states have specific guidelines on the steps you have to take to access care. You can check if your state has specific guidelines here .

To understand how to get access to the care that you need under your Medicaid plan, check out NCTE’s Navigating Insurance page.

My plan has an exclusion for transition-related care. What should I do?

There are many reasons why your plan might still have an exclusion for transition-related care in general or for a specific procedure. This does not mean that your plan will not cover your care. Sometimes plan documents are out of date, or you can ask for an exception by showing that this care is medically necessary for you.

If you get insurance through work or school, you can advocate with your employer to have the exclusion removed.

NCTE’s Health Coverage Guide has more information on how to access care and remove exclusions.

Does Medicare cover transition-related care?

It is illegal for Medicare to deny coverage for medically necessary transition-related care.

For many years, Medicare did not cover transition-related surgery due to a decades-old policy that categorized such treatment as "experimental." That exclusion was eliminated in May 2014, and there is now no national exclusion for transition-related health care under Medicare. Some local Medicare contractors have specific policies spelling out their coverage for transition-related care, as do some private Medicare Advantage plans.

To learn more about your rights on Medicare, check out NCTE’s Medicare page.

Does the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) provide transition-related care?

The Veterans Health Administration (VHA) provides coverage for some transition-related care for eligible veterans. However, VHA still has an arbitrary and medically baseless exclusion for coverage of transition-related surgery.  On June 19th, The US Department of Veterans Affairs announced that they will begin the process to expand health care services available to transgender veterans to include gender confirmation surgery. Currently, the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) provides care for thousands of transgender veterans, including some transition-related medical care. We expect the rule will finalize in approximately two years.

For more information FAQs by VHA are found here.

For more information about VHA and transition-related care, check out NCTE’s VAH Veterans Health Care page.

Does TRICARE cover transition-related care?

TRICARE provides coverage for some transition-related care for family members and dependents of military personnel. However, TRICARE still has an exclusion for coverage of transition-related surgery.

What are my rights in receiving health care?

Which health providers are prohibited from discriminating against me?

Under the Affordable Care Act, it is illegal for most health providers and organizations to discriminate against you because you are transgender. The following are examples of places and programs that may be covered by the law:

• Physicians’ offices
• Community health clinics
• Drug rehabilitation programs
• Rape crisis centers
• Nursing homes and assisted living facilities
• Health clinics in schools and universities
• Medical residency programs
• Home health providers
• Veterans health centers
• Health services in prison or detention facilities

What types of discrimination by health care providers are prohibited by law?

Examples of discriminatory treatment prohibited by federal law include (but are not limited to):

• Refusing to admit or treat you because you are transgender
• Forcing you to have intrusive and unnecessary examinations because you are transgender
• Refusing to provide you services that they provide to other patients because you are transgender
• Refuse to treat you according to your gender identity, including by providing you access to restrooms consistent with your gender
• Refusing to respect your gender identity in making room assignments
• Harassing you or refusing to respond to harassment by staff or other patients
• Refusing to provide counseling, medical advocacy or referrals, or other support services because you are transgender
• Isolating you or depriving you of human contact in a residential treatment facility, or limiting your participation in social or recreational activities offered to others
• Requiring you to participate in “conversion therapy” for the purpose of changing your gender identity
• Attempting to harass, coerce, intimidate, or interfere with your ability to exercise your health care rights

What are my rights related to privacy of my health information?

The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) requires most health care providers and health insurance plans to protect your privacy when it comes to certain information about your health or medical history. Information about your transgender status, including your diagnosis, medical history, sex assigned at birth, or anatomy, may be protected health information. Such information should not be disclosed to anyone—including family, friends, and other patients—without your consent. This information should also not be disclosed to medical staff unless there is a medically relevant reason to do so. If this information is shared for purposes of gossip or harassment, it is a violation of HIPAA.

What Can I Do If I Face Discrimination?

Seek preauthorization for care and appeal insurance denials

You shouldn’t be denied the care that you need just because you’re transgender. That's illegal.

To access transition-related care, we recommend applying for preauthorization before any procedures to understand whether your plan will cover it. You should also consider appealing insurance denials that you believe are discriminatory. We recommend you consult an attorney before filing any appeals.

Check our NCTE’s Health Coverage Guide for more information on how to get the care that you need covered.

Contact an attorney or legal organization

If you face discrimination from a health care provider or insurance company, it may be against the law. You can talk to a lawyer or a legal organization to see what your options are. A lawyer might also be able to help you resolve your problem without a lawsuit, for example by contacting your health care provider to make sure they understand their legal obligations or filing a complaint with a professional board.

While NCTE does not take clients or provide legal services or referrals, there are many other groups that may give you referrals or maintain lists of local attorneys. You can try your local legal aid or legal services organization, or national or regional organizations such as the National Center for Lesbian Rights, Lambda Legal, the Transgender Law Center, the ACLU, and others listed  on our   Additional Resources page  and in the  Trans Legal Services Network .

File discrimination complaints with state and federal agencies

Now transgender people are encouraged to report any discrimination they experience while seeking health care services. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has encouraged consumers who believed that a covered entity violated their civil rights may file a complaint.  If you face any of ther kind of discrimination or denial of care based on your gender, disability, age, race, or national origin, or if your health care privacy was violated, you can still file a complaint with the   U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office for Civil Rights .

Here are some other places you can file health care complaints:

• Private insurance: File a complaint with your state insurance department. You can find information about your state department here:  https://www.naic.org/state_web_map.htm .
• Hospitals: File a complaint with the Joint Commission, which accredits most hospitals. You can find more information or submit a complaint online at  http://www.jointcommission.org .
• Nursing home, board and care home, or assisted living facility: Contact your local long-term care ombudsman. You can locate an ombudsman here:  http://www.ltcombudsman.org/ombudsman .
• HIPPA violations: file a complaint with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS): https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/filing-a-complaint/index.html
• Federal Health Employee Benefits Program: File a complaint with the Office of Personnel Management ( [email protected] ) or the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ( https://www.eeoc.gov/federal/fed_employees/complaint_overview.cfm ).
• Veterans Health Administration: File a complaint with the Veterans Administration’s External Discrimination Complaints Program or contact a Patient Advocate at your VA Medical Center. Find out more here:  http://www.va.gov/orm/  and  http://www.va.gov/health/patientadvocate .
• Employee health plan: File a complaint with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ( https://www.eeoc.gov/federal/fed_employees/complaint_overview.cfm ).
• TRICARE (military health care): File a complaint with TRICARE ( http://tricare.mil/ContactUs/FileComplaint.aspx ).

Other state and local agencies: If you face discrimination, you may be able to file a complaint with your state’s human rights agency. You can find a list of state human rights agencies here:  http://www.justice.gov/crt/legalinfo/stateandlocal.php .

What Laws Protect Me?

Federal protections

• The Health Care Rights Law, as part of the Affordable Care Act (ACA)  prohibits sex discrimination, including anti-transgender discrimination, by most health providers and insurance companies, as well as discrimination based on race, national origin, age, and disability. Under the ACA, it is illegal for most insurance companies to have exclusions of transition-related care, and it is illegal for most health providers to discriminate against transgender people, like by turning someone away or refusing to treat them according to their gender identity. On May 5th, 2021, the Biden Administration and HHS announced that the Office for Civil Rights will interpret and enforce Section 1557 and Title IX’s prohibitions on discrimination based on sex to include: 
• Discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.
• Discrimination on the basis of gender identity.

Section 1557 prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability in covered health programs or activities.  The update was made in light of the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Bostock v. Clayton County and subsequent court decisions. Now transgender people are encouraged to report any discrimination they experience while seeking health care services. The HHS has encouraged consumers who believed that a covered entity violated their civil rights may file a complaint at: https://www.hhs.gov/ocr/complaints

• The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)  protects patients’ privacy when it comes to certain health information, including information related to a person’s transgender status and transition. It also gives patients the right to access, inspect, and copy their protected health information held by hospitals, clinics, and health plans.
• The Americans with Disabilities Act  prohibits discrimination in health care and other settings based on a disability, which may include a diagnosis of gender dyshoria.
• Medicare and Medicaid regulations  protect the right of hospital patients to choose their own visitors and medical decision-makers regardless of their legal relationship to the patient. This means that hospitals cannot discriminate against LGBT people or their families in visitation and in recognizing a patient’s designated decision-maker.
• The Joint Commission hospital accreditation standards  require hospitals to have internal policies prohibiting discrimination based on gender identity and sexual orientation.
• The Nursing Home Reform Act  establishes a set of nursing home residents’ rights that include the right to privacy, including in visits from friends or loved ones; the right to be free from abuse, mistreatment, and neglect; the right to choose your physician; the right to dignity and self-determination; and the right to file grievances without retaliation.

State and local nondiscrimination laws  prohibit health care discrimination against transgender people in many circumstances.

A large number of states also have explicit policies that prohibit anti-transgender discrimination in private insurance and Medicaid, like exclusions of transition-related care.

• California  private insurance ( PPO regulation ,  HMO general guidelines  and  HMO guidelines on surgery coverage ) and  Medicaid
• Colorado   private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Connecticut   private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Delaware   private insurance
• District of Columbia   private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Hawaii   private insurance and Medicaid
• Illinois  private insurance ( regulations and bulletin ) and Medicaid
• Maine  private insurance and  Medicaid
• Maryland   private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Massachusetts   private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Michigan   Medicaid
• Minnesota   private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Montana  private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Nevada  private insurance  and  Medicaid
• New Hampshire  private insurance  and  Medicaid
• New   Jersey  private insurance and Medicaid
• New Mexico  private insurance 
• New York  private insurance ( coverage ,  code mismatches ,  updated policy ) and Medicaid ( general Medicaid policy ,  criteria for authorization of procedures )
• Oregon  private insurance  and Medicaid ( general policy --refer to Guideline Note 127--and  facial feminization policy )
• Pennsylvania  private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Rhode   Island  private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Vermont  private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Virginia   private insurance
• Washington   State  private insurance  and  Medicaid
• Wisconsin   Medicaid
• Puerto Rico   private insurance

Remember: Just because your state isn’t listed here doesn’t mean you’re not protected. Check out NCTE’s Health Coverage Guide for more information about getting coverage for the care that you need. 

How Can I Help?

• Head to NCTE’s Health Action Center to see the latest on health care and how you can help fight for transgender people’s right to get the health care they need
• Share your story. If you are facing discriminatory treatment, consider  sharing your story  with NCTE so we can use it in advocacy efforts to advance public understanding and policy change for transgender people. If you successfully resolved a health care situation, we want to hear about that as well.

Additional Resources

Government agencies.

Department of Health and Human Services Office for Civil Rights: http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/office/index.html

Links to State and Local Human Rights Agencies: http://www.justice.gov/crt/legalinfo/stateandlocal.php

HealthCare.Gov: https://www.healthcare.gov/transgender-health-care/

Partner resources, best practices and standards of care

Creating Equal Access to Quality Health Care for Transgender Patients: Transgender-Affirming Hospital Policies, Lambda Legal, HRC, & New York Bar: http://www.lambdalegal.org/publications/fs_transgender-affirming-hospital-policies

Healthcare Equality Index, Human Rights Campaign http://www.hrc.org/campaigns/healthcare-equality-index

National Center for LGBT Health Education: http://www.lgbthealtheducation.org/

• National LGBT Health Education Center’s  guide to best practices for front-line health care staff
• National LGBT Health Education Center’s  guide to providing health care to non-binary people
• National LGBT Health Education Center’s  guide to making health care forms LGBT-inclusive

National Resource Center on LGBT Aging: http://www.lgbtagingcenter.org

RAD Remedy’s  guide to providing competent care for trans people

Transgender Law Center’s  guide to organizing community clinics

Clinical standards of care for transgender people

• WPATH Standards of Care
• Endocrine Society Clinical Guideline
• Center for Excellence for Transgender Health

Mental Health Resources

Trans LifeLine

National suicide prevention hotline

US: 877-565-8860Canada: 877-330-6366

https://www.translifeline.org/

National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI)

National network of mental health care providers, as well as a provider database

http://www.nami.org/Find­-Support/LGBTQ Help Line   800­-950-­6264

National Council for Behavioral Health

National network of community behavioral health centers, as well as a provider database

http://www.thenationalcouncil.org/

SAMHSA (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration)

A national database for local professionals and agencies that provide addiction recovery services and mental health care.

https://findtreatment.samhsa.gov/

800-662-HELP (4357)

Health provider resources

National Association of Free and Charitable Clinics (NAFC) Clinics around the United States that offer basic health care for those without insurance or experiencing homelessness. http://www.nafcclinics.org/

RAD Remedy Community­-sourced list of trans-­affirming healthcare providers https://www.radremedy.org/

Insurance resources

Resources to help transgender people select and enroll in insurance 

https://out2enroll.org

TransHealth Health and guidance for healthcare providers, as well as a list of trans­affirming health clinics in Canada, the United States, and England. http://www.trans-­health.com/

Transcend Legal Transcend Legal helps people get transgender-related health care covered under insurance. https://transcendlegal.org/

TransChance Health Helps transgender people navigate health care and insurance to receive respectful, high-quality care, and get transition-related care covered  

https://www.transchancehealth.org/

JustUs Health Leads the work to achieve health equity for diverse gender, sexual, and cultural communities in Minnesota, including the  Trans Aging Project  and a  Trans Health Insurance guide https://www.justushealth.mn

Transition-related financial support

Jim Collins Foundation Financial support for transition-related expenses for people without insurance or who have been excluded by insurance http://jimcollinsfoundation.org/apply/

Point of Pride Annual Transgender Surgery Fund Provides direct financial assistance to trans folks who cannot afford their gender-affirming surgery https://pointofpride.org/annual-transgender-surgery-fund/

Community Kinship Life Surgery Scholarship Provides the trans community with assistance while having a sense of community and kinship http://cklife.org/scholarship/

Transformative Freedom Fund (Colorado) Supports the authentic selves of transgender Coloradans by removing financial barriers to transition related healthcare https://transformativefreedomfund.org/

Kentucky Health Justice Network Trans Health Advocacy Works to help Trans Kentuckians access the healthcare they need, as well as reaffirm our autonomy and community http://www.kentuckyhealthjusticenetwork.org/trans-health.html

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Critics blast NY’s proposed ‘Equal Rights Amendment’ they say strips parents of their rights over kids’ transgender surgery

C ritics are raging against New York’s proposed “Equal Rights Amendment,” claiming the Nov. 5 ballot measure could curb the rights of parents when it comes to allowing minors to undergo gender reassignment surgery.

New York voters don’t yet know much about the particulars of the ERA, which could codify abortion rights in the state constitution — advanced by Gov. Kathy Hochul and Democrats who run the state legislature.

The broad language of the proposal — dubbed Proposition One — has sparked a fierce debate over what could happen if it gets passed, with opponents claiming it’ll lead to kids possibly being able to get serious medical procedures without their parents’ OK and allow transgender females to compete in women’s sports.

“Proposition One would strip the legal rights of parents with school age children to know about crucially important things happening with their kids, including controversial gender transformation procedures” the Coalition to Protect Kids said in a statement.

“Schools would be required to permit biological males to compete on girls’ sports teams if voters approve this amendment.”

The proposal asks voters whether they support or oppose adding language to the constitution that people cannot be denied rights based on their “ethnicity, national origin, age, and disability” or “sex, including sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, pregnancy, pregnancy outcomes, and reproductive healthcare and autonomy.”

Coalition to Protect Kids NY Executive Director Greg Garvey said the ERA should instead be called “The Parent Replacement Act,” because it “opens the floodgates” for the government wielding more authority over children than their parents on some of the most important decisions of their lives.

“Any decent lawyer will take one look at the Proposition One language and say, ‘you’ve got to be kidding me,’” said Garvey. 

“This ballot initiative is written so broadly and so poorly that it could cause irreparable harm to children and families,” he added.

“Governor Hochul and her woke Albany colleagues have a lot of explaining to do.”

The group’s website includes a video saying a school could help a 7-year-old girl “try life as a boy” and help her transition without her mother “ever knowing” under the amendment, adding, “Do you think that’s OK?”

The Coalition to Protect Kids also claims that laws that determine the legal age to purchase and/or consume alcohol or cannabis, elder abuse and statutory rape could all be weakened because they might arguably “‘discriminate’ based on age.”

The group New Yorkers for Equal Rights denied that the amendment strips parents of their rights.

“These claims simply aren’t true. This amendment is about making sure our fundamental rights and reproductive freedoms are protected and never at risk of becoming a political football,” said Sasha Ahuja, campaign director of New Yorkers for Equal Rights.

The pro-amendment group, in a statement Monday, also said, “If passed, the NY ERA would provide the most comprehensive list of protected categories of any state in the country — safeguarding New Yorkers’ rights, as well as serving as a model for other states.”

Members of the pro-ERA group include 1199SEIU United Healthcare Workers East, Planned Parenthood, North Star, New York Immigration Coalition, the Civil Liberties Union, NEW Pride Agenda, National Institute for Reproductive Health Action Fund, NAACP, Make the Road New York and New York State United Teachers.

New York already has among the strongest abortion laws in the country and long been a pro-choice, with critics questioning whether such a controversial issue belongs in the constitution.

“It’s an ‘anything goes’ amendment,” said state Conservative Party chairman Gerard Kassar, whose party will campaign against the ERA.

He also said Democrats are looking to “change the conversation” away from problems they own — such as the migrant crisis and crime.

A lawsuit has been filed in Livingston County Supreme Court claiming that the legislature approved the proposed amendment going to the voters before getting a legal opinion from state Attorney General Letitia James’ Office.

There’s also been a recent public backlash in New York against permitting trans females from competing in women’s sports, leading to a controversial ban in some sporting venues in Nassau County.

Even one of the world’s most famous transgender females — Caitlyn Jenner — the former 1976 Olympic decathlon champion as Bruce Jenner — is opposed.

Additional reporting by Vaughn Golden