hypothesis on waste disposal

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Testing the Role of Waste Management and Environmental Quality on Health Indicators Using Structural Equation Modeling in Pakistan

Associated data.

Data published in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to the policy of the research project.

Improper management of municipal waste has become a growing concern globally due to its impact on the environment, health, and overall living conditions of households in cities. Waste production has increased because households do not adopt waste management practices that ensure sustainability. Previous studies on household waste management often considered socio-economic aspects and overlooked the environmental and behavioral factors influencing the disposal practices and health status. This study adopted four constructs, defensive attitude, environmental knowledge, environmental quality, and waste disposal, by employing a structural equation modeling approach to explore research objectives. Data from 849 households of the Islamabad-Rawalpindi metropolitan was collected by using a multi-stage sampling technique. The structural model results showed that the two constructs, environmental knowledge and defensive behavior, positively affect household health status. The most significant health-related considerations are waste disposal and environmental quality, both of which negatively impact health status and do not support our hypothesis. The results provide valuable perspectives to enable households to engage actively in waste management activities. The findings indicate that understanding the intentions of household health status drivers can assist policymakers and agencies in promoting an efficient and successful community programmes related to sustainable solid waste management by allowing them to foster how the desired behavior can be achieved.

1. Introduction

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is an important economic and environmental issue around the globe. MSW management is already a critical concern for municipal authorities, especially in emerging economies, due to the exponential increase in waste generation parallel with population growth, increasing living standards, urbanization, and rapid development [ 1 , 2 ]. In parallel, MSW management authorities lack infrastructure and the capacity to safely collect and dispose of waste to meet the growing demand. Rural-to-urban migration in emerging economies has resulted in unplanned urban settlements, which put tremendous pressure on municipality authorities. As a result, coping with household solid waste has become a big stumbling block for urban growth. Nevertheless, there is a gap between the demand and supply of these services in terms of quality and efficiency [ 3 , 4 ].

The MSW problem has become an important challenge to sustainable development in developing countries [ 5 ]. The lack of resources coupled with municipalities’ weak institutional capacity to comply with existing solid waste management structure, insufficient facilities for collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, limited technical competence and low level of public knowledge have made solid waste management difficult for local authorities [ 3 , 6 ]. Improper waste management leads to waste spreading along the roadsides, drainage, and haphazard dumping, all of which pose a serious risk to the environment and health [ 7 ] and urban flooding and waterlogging [ 8 ].

Open dumping and waste burning have been related to major public health hazards and contamination sources, resulting in the release of harmful dioxins and other toxic substances. At very low doses, these compounds cause a surprising range of harmful effects in humans. Adaptation of defensive behavior is a cognitive process of individuals, including people’s value and belief systems, attitudes and perceptions, personalities, motivations, aspirations, and community, to reduce the negative effects of excessive waste disposal. These cognitive factors drive household decisions about the hazardous impact of waste on human health and the environment and the essence of their reaction to negative impacts have prompted environmental psychologists to pay more attention to psychological aspects of climate change adaptation [ 9 , 10 ].

Pakistan’s population has been rising at a rate of 2.4% per year since 1998, reaching a peak of 207.7 million in 2017, which corresponds to the sixth most populous country. Islamabad is the capital and tenth-largest city with a 1.019 million population and Rawalpindi is the 4th largest city with 2.09 million inhabitants [ 11 ]. The average waste generation rate varies from 1.896 kg/house/day to 4.29 kg/house/day. Although the waste collection system is inadequate, the average waste collection rate in Pakistan’s public sector is 50% [ 12 ]. Open dumping is the most common practice, and dumping sites are often set on fire to reduce the amount of waste that accumulates, which has adverse effects on health and the environment. Public health and societal life are affected by health hazards, pest proliferation, and the spread of diseases. Municipalities fail to manage solid waste due to financial constraints and the careless behavior of the inhabitants. Solid waste has negative impacts on the environment, including air, soil, water contamination, climate change, and devastating effects on the flora and fauna [ 13 , 14 ].

The contribution of this study covers three aspects. First, to the authors’ knowledge, there was no inclusive research in Pakistan on household environmental and defensive behaviors in relation to waste disposal and studies that have generally investigated household’s defensive behaviors have been limited in Pakistan [ 15 ], although there has been some work on the environmental quality and adaptation for the poor sewage system in Pakistan [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Second, the study is of great worth in monitoring, controlling and humanizing local peoples’ waste management behavior. Specifically, the current study analyzes the impact of different socio-psychological variables (environmental quality, environmental knowledge, and defensive behavior) on health status that has received little attention. Accordingly, this study focused on the metropolitan area of Rawalpindi-Islamabad, Pakistan in order to gain a better understanding of the social economic and environmental factors that influence health. Third, our study also provides viable policy options for mitigating the health hazards of waste pollution and poor environmental quality within the Asian region since we share a common culture, so question is therefore also relevant to other countries in the Asian region.

2. Theoretical Model

Inter-relationships between constructs.

The need for environmental conservation in society has gradually increased. Human activities and anthropogenic impacts have a substantial adverse environmental effect [ 19 , 20 ]. In this regard households have different solid waste management preferences. In general, individuals make their choices based on the assumptions of rationality and self-interest.

Several studies have examined the role of key socio-economic and demographic variables such as age [ 21 ], income, educational attainment [ 22 ] and health status. Waste is the product of human and economic activity, and it is determined by person, ecosystem, and community behavior. Solid waste is a significant environmental problem that jeopardizes long-term environmental sustainability [ 23 ]. Therefore, the following hypotheses are put forth based on theoretical framework (see Figure 1 ):

Structural model of the hypotheses

Waste disposal is positively and significantly associated with health status.

The researchers have made significant efforts to relate improper solid waste management to health issues such as respiratory disorders, vector disease, aesthetic damage, drain blockage, water and soil contamination [ 2 , 24 ]. Environmental deterioration through waste pollution, air and water quality contribute significantly to the proliferation of diseases [ 25 , 26 ]. The consumption and waste disposal habits of households have a direct effect on the environment [ 27 , 28 , 29 ].

Environmental quality is positively and significantly associated with health status.

The social and consumption behavior of households are imperative factors that contribute to waste generation and disposal. The social and consumption behavior of households depends on environmental knowledge. As a result, environmental awareness leads to defensive behavior, which is needed to avoid the harmful effects of solid waste [ 30 , 31 ]. As a result, households are encouraged to participate in hygiene waste management programs to reduce the negative impact on public health and the environment. Therefore, health and environment should be understood as two essential inseparable development aspects that cannot be sustained as though they operate in a vacuum [ 32 , 33 ].

Defensive behavior is positively and significantly associated with health status.

Household defensive behavior is motivated by awareness of potentially harmful effects, as well as time and resources. Previous research [ 34 , 35 , 36 ] looked at several incidents in various parts of the world. According to these reports, households that have been exposed to certain catastrophe circumstances are more risk-averse. Individuals who are aware of then issue are more likely to respond and engage in risk-reduction practices. Based on the above literature, we develop the following hypotheses.

Environmental knowledge is positively and significantly associated with health status.

3. Research Methods

3.1. data collection.

To achieve the study’s objectives, data on household waste management practices environmental quality, environmental knowledge, defensive behavior and health status were gathered from 849 respondents. For selecting the sample size and study area, several factors have been taken into consideration such as the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of selected households for survey. A “multi-stage systematic technique” was used to choose the study area and household sample size.

So far, Pakistan does not have an institutional review board or national ethical guidelines for social science studies. Therefore, the study adhered to existing research ethics principles such as obtaining verbal consent to participate in research, safeguarding personal data, informal privacy, and allowing participants to withdraw their consent if they so wished at any point. In addition, no personal information was used in this analysis. Participants, who provided information related to solid waste generation and related information, were used in this research.

A questionnaire has been finalized after conducting pre-testing in the field. Pre-testing helped us to construct a better contextualize and revised questionnaire. A five-point Likert scale 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutrality; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree, was used to evaluate each question in the questionnaire. We have designed six questions to measure households’ waste disposal behavior, five questions for environmental quality, six questions on environmental knowledge, six questions on defensive behavior. Finally, we have designed four questions related to household health. Precise questions are shown in Table 1 . Primarily data was input into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software (IBM, Armank, NY, USA) to generate descriptive statistics and their frequency and correlation test. Finally, we conducted a structural equation analysis through Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS 20). Social-economic information of respondents is given in Appendix A (see Table A1 ).

Statements and scales used for the four constructs.

3.2. Measurement Model (MM)

In this analysis, the structural equation modeling (SEM) method is used to evaluate the data using latent constructs in this study. To test our model, we used the Anderson and Gerbing’s [ 35 ] two-step approach. The first step was to establish a satisfactory measurement model (MM) using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The MM included latent constructs for environmental awareness, environmental quality, waste disposal, safety, and health status. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to determine the reliability of constructs. In additional, convergent and discriminant validity is used to evaluate construct validity. The magnitude, direction, and statistical significance of each latent construct’s standardized factor loadings were checked for convergent validity. Additionally, using the average variance extracted (AVE) and the building reliability, convergent validity was investigated. A MM is valid when a minimum AVE level is higher than 0.5, and when the minimum value of CR is higher than 0.7 [ 36 ].

Maximum likelihood estimation in structural equation modeling assumes multivariate normality. We looked at the univariate distributions for each component because assessing all aspects of multivariate normality is difficult. This method can be used to determine multivariate normality [ 37 ]. Multivariate collinearity was calculated by running multiple regressions, each with a different item as the dependent variable and the rest of the items as the independent variables, and then analyzing the tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) for each regression [ 37 ]. We measured each statement’s communality extraction to check the reliability and validity of each construct scores above 0.5., which showed that each factor is independent [ 37 , 38 ].

After we attained a rational measurement model, the structure model was calculated to test the health status hypotheses. Structural modeling is used to predict relationships between households’ cognitions constructs (environmental knowledge, environmental quality, waste disposal, defensive behavior) and their health status. The SM is shown in Figure 2 .

Structural equations modeling and path coefficients between variables.

The first step is to test the reliability test of survey data. There are two generic measures for reliability: Cronbach’s α and composite reliability [ 39 ]. The Cronbach’s α value is used to check the reliability of the data. Data is consistent when Cronbach’s α lies between 0.60 and 0.70; the data set used in analysis is highly reliable when the value is between 0.70 and 0.80 and cut off scores for composite reliability is between 0.6 and 0.7 [ 40 ]. SPSS 23.0 was used to check the internal reliability of five constructs (environmental knowledge, environmental quality, waste disposal, defensive behavior and health status). The results of Cronbach’s α values for five latent variables; waste disposal, defensive behavior environmental knowledge, environmental quality, and health status is 0.92, 0.92, 0.89, 0.93, and 0.85 respectively revealed good internal consistency.

A confirmatory factor analysis was applied to check the properties of the measurement scale [ 41 ]. The conventional rules of thumb [ 37 ] are followed for goodness-of-fit indices of the confirmatory factor analysis. Reliability tests try to find the stability and consistency of measuring instruments. Confirmatory factor analysis shows goodness-of-fit and specific indices for the empirical data such as chi-square standardized by degrees of freedom (λ/df) is shown in Table 2 . It should be less than five [ 42 ], in our study it is 3.71. The NFI, and CFI should exceed 0.9 and RMSEA should be less than 0.10 [ 43 ]. Here, goodness of fits was as follows; NFI = 0.931, CFI = 0.948, and RMSEA = 0.057. Thus, results showed that the model could be accepted for empirical analysis with good convergent indices and goodness of fit [ 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ]. Results of correlation test are given in Appendix A (please see Table A2 ).

Reliability and validity test.

χ 2 test statistics/df; CFI (comparative fit index); NFI (normed fit index); RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation).

5. Discussion

Results show that SEM is an appropriate methodology for explaining the behavior of the metropolitan Islamabad-Rawalpindi area towards waste management. The configuration of the MM and SM was appropriate. In four-specified MM, the latent constructs waste disposal, environmental quality, environmental knowledge, defensive behavior was reliably described by the measurable items. All the standard coefficients of estimated SEM revealed that path analysis ( Figure 2 ) specified the relationships’ strength among all variables. Standard coefficients depict that all the observed indicators have values around 0.5 and are strongly related to their associated constructs [ 38 ]. Regarding direct and indirect effects, subsequent explanations are made.

The SM results showed that two constructs—environmental knowledge and defensive behavior—positively affect the household health status. Environmental knowledge positively influences the health status (0.30) and defensive behavior (0.01) of households at 0.5 [ 37 ]. Low-carbon consumption and environmental behavior is linked with environmental knowledge [ 45 , 46 ]. Individuals with a dearth of knowledge are more likely to harm the environment. Household’s defensive behavior has a direct positive effect on health status (0.14) and our hypothesis is confirmed. Hence, the findings show that households who are well aware of health and environmental risks are more involved in defensive practices.

The standardized coefficient of environmental quality on defensive behavior and household health status is statistically significant and has a negative impact. Environmental quality has a direct impact on health status [ 46 ] and an indirect impact on the defensive practices of households. This implies that the households who are putting efforts to adopt a green environment are less intent on adopting defensive behavior and vice versa. The most important factor related to health risk is waste disposal, which negatively affected health status and does not support our hypothesis. The findings indicate that inadequate waste management has serious effects on household health and results are consistent with the existing literature [ 14 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Moreover, waste disposal has a positive indirect impact on household defensive behavior, indicating an increase in improper waste disposal, leading to improved household defensive practices.

Estimated results are shown in Table 3 . The standardized path coefficients of the households’ environmental knowledge and defensive behavior are 0.202 ( p < 0.01) and 0.094 ( p < 0.01) respectively. The impact of environmental knowledge and defensive practices on health is statistically significant at 1% confidence level. Results shows that direct effects of environmental knowledge and defensive practices on health are supported to our hypothesis. Our results are consistent with existing studies. Moreover, the environmental knowledge has largest effect (0.202) on household’s health status accompanied by defensive behavior.

Results of the structural model (SM).

Note: ***, **, significant at, 1%, and 5%.

While the impact of environmental quality is statistically significant −0.049 ( p < 0.01), results shows that environmental quality has detrimental effects on household health status. The standardized path coefficients of waste disposal is statistically significant −0.273 ( p < 0.01). Water, air, food and rats dwelling pollution through flies’ sources of several diseases in humans as plague, salmonellosis, trichinosis, endemic typhus dysentery, diarrhea and amoebic dysentery [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ].

6. Conclusions and Policy Implications

We estimated an SM to test the hypotheses after we obtained a valid MM. Table 3 presents the results for the SM. The regression coefficient of waste disposal and environmental quality on health was negative and significant, suggesting the rejection of hypotheses H1, and H2. Waste disposal has a positive indirect effect on the defensive behavior of households, suggesting that a rise in excessive waste disposal leads to shift in defensive behavior, and environmental quality has a direct effect on health and an indirect impact on household standard precautions. The positive and significant regression coefficient of defensive behavior and environmental knowledge on health supports hypotheses H3 and H4.

The results of this study offer useful perspectives for policymakers. In the present case study, this could be related to the government’s solid waste management strategy. Government agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) could participate to encourage households to segregate of waste at first source and propagate the benefits of a healthy environment. While environmental knowledge is an important factor regarding waste segregation and disposal it is recommended that government agencies and other associations tackle solid waste management by providing detailed information regarding different scenarios of waste disposal and segregation, and different households recycling forecasts at local and national levels. They should also provide details about the dangerous effects of illegal solid waste disposal on safety and the environment. In other words, the focus should be on shaping a proper system for collecting and disposing of waste. Accuracy and timelines of information are therefore important.

Acknowledgments

We are humbly grateful to Muhammad Haseeb Raza for his assistance in conceptual framework, data analysis of this research and for their comments on an earlier versions of the manuscript.

The data distribution of households for each socio-economic and demographic characteristic are presented in Table A1 . Demographic statements that were incorporated in the survey included gender, age, education and income. A majority of (64.8%) of respondents in the sample are males and 35.2% are females. A substantial portion (37%) of households belongs to the early middle age group (21–30). The education level of households was low as follows: 23.9% of households were illiterate, 6.7% of households attended secondary school, 25.7% went to high school and just 21.7% of households had entered university. Regarding income, 21% of households claimed their monthly family income was less than 30.000 thousand rupees and 24% of respondents reported to being in the high income group.

Social-economic information of respondents.

Source: [ 14 ].

Correlations of the constructs.

Note: *, **, significant at 1% and 5% and squared correlations in parentheses.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.A.; Data curation, T.A.; Formal analysis, T.A.; Methodology, T.A.; Project administration, F.J.; Resources, F.J.; Supervision, F.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research does not receive any funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

So far, Pakistan does not have an institutional review board or national ethical guidelines for Economics studies. The study therefore adhered to existing research ethics principles such as obtaining verbal consent to participate in research, retaining personal informal privacy, and allowing participants to withdraw their consent if they so wished at any point. In addition, no personal information was used in this analysis.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 05 January 2022

Household solid waste management practices and perceptions among residents in the East Coast of Malaysia

• Widad Fadhullah   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4652-0661 1 , 2 ,
• Nor Iffah Najwa Imran 1 ,
• Sharifah Norkhadijah Syed Ismail 3 ,
• Mohd Hafiidz Jaafar 2 &
• Hasmah Abdullah 1 , 4  

BMC Public Health volume  22 , Article number:  1 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Poor waste disposal practices hamper the progress towards an integrated solid waste management in households. Knowledge of current practices and perception of household solid waste management is necessary for accurate decision making in the move towards a more sustainable approach. This study investigates the household waste practices and perceptions about waste management in Panji, one of the sub-districts in Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia.

A stratified random sampling technique using a cross-sectional survey questionnaire was used to collect data. A total of 338 households were interviewed in the survey and data were analyzed using SPSS. Chi-square goodness of fit test was used to determine the relationships between categorical variables, whereas Chi-square bivariate correlation test was performed to observe the correlation between the perceptions of waste segregation with socio-demographic background of the respondents. The correlation between perception of respondents with the locality, house type and waste type were also conducted. Principal component analysis was used to identify grouping of variables and to establish which factors were interrelated in any given construct.

The results of the study revealed that 74.3 % of households disposed of food debris as waste and 18.3% disposed of plastic materials as waste. The study also showed that 50.3% of the households segregate their waste while 49.7% did not. About 95.9% of the respondents were aware that improper waste management leads to disease; such as diarrhea and malaria. There were associations between locality, age and house type with waste segregation practices among respondents (Chi-square test, p<0.05). Associations were also found between locality with the perception of improper waste management which lead to disease (Chi-square test, p<0.05). Principal Component Analysis showed that 17.94% of the variance has high positive loading (positive relationship) with age, marital status and, type of house.

This study highlights the importance to design waste separation programs that suit the needs of targeted population as a boost towards sustainable solid waste management practices.

Peer Review reports

Solid waste management (SWM) in the majority of developing countries including Malaysia is dominated by open dumping due to lower capital, operational and maintenance cost in comparison with another disposal method [ 47 ]. This non-sanitary and non-engineered approach are without appropriate liners, gas collection and leachate collection and treatment, thereby exposing the surrounding environment with multiple air, water and soil pollution issues [ 15 , 23 ]. The effects of the ineffective management of household solid waste on public health (Fig. 1 ) can be separated into physical, biological, non-communicable diseases, psychosocial and ergonomics health risks [ 6 , 51 , 77 ]. Contaminated soil, air and water provide breeding ground to biological vectors such as flies, rodents and insects pests. Many diseases are sequentially caused by these biological vectors, such as diarrhoea, dysentery, gastrointestinal problems, worm infection, food poisoning, dengue fever, cholera, leptospirosis and bacterial infection; irritation of the skin, nose and eyes; as well as respiratory symptoms [ 25 , 41 , 42 , 52 ]. Exposure to gases generated by landfill waste such as methane, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide can produce inflammation and bronchoconstriction and can affect the immune cell. Hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride released from the waste if deposited in the respiratory system, may cause cough, chest tightness and breathlessness [ 21 ].

Effect of ineffective household solid waste management on public health

Another category of health effects that can be closely related to household solid waste management is non-communicable diseases. Some studies estimated that the pollutions from the dumpsite might cause cancers (e.g. liver, pancreas, kidney, larynx) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma [ 8 , 31 , 51 ]. Other health effects under this category worth mentioning are birth defects, preterm babies, congenital disorders and Down’s syndrome [ 51 , 52 ]. Apart from physical and biological effects, inefficient household waste management can lead to psychosocial effects such as disturbing odour, unsightly waste, and thinking, cognitive and stress-related problems [ 6 , 51 , 52 , 74 , 77 ]. Ergonomics is the final category of related health effects that is worth mentioning specifically for the working community of household waste management (Fig. 1 ). The risk of ergonomic issues is related to body posture, repetitive movement and excessive force movement [ 6 ].

Majority of the solid waste generated in Malaysia composed of organic waste with high moisture content [ 43 ], hence, the handling and waste separation at source is the most critical step in waste management [ 62 ]. The increasing amount of waste generated annually is also intensified by lack of land for disposing waste, questioning the sustainability of the current municipal solid waste (MSW) practices of using landfills [ 46 ]. Nevertheless, the lack of success in public participation to manage the solid waste is primarily rooted by the NIMBY (not in my backyard) attitude and the public perception that solid waste is a local municipal problem is highly prevalent among Malaysians [ 3 ]. Thus, most of the existing waste segregation practices by waste-pickers are mostly done in the informal sector as means of livelihood for the poor and additional source of income. On the other hand, this practice causes serious health problems, aggravating the socio-economic situation [ 10 ].

In Kelantan, the common practice of waste disposal in rural and remote areas is by burying and burning of waste (Kamaruddin et al. 2016) while in urban or semi-urban areas, stationary waste storage containers are provided mainly at the sides of the main road. Kota Bharu Municipal Council (KBMC) is the local authority responsible in providing stationary waste storage container at collection site of waste within Kota Bharu district, collecting the solid waste approximately 3 times a week by compactor vehicles and transporting waste to the dumpsite located in Beris Lalang, Bachok [ 27 ]. However, the flaws of SWM in Kelantan lies primarily in inadequate bin and waste collection provided by local authorities, KBMC mainly constrained by financial issues (Rahim et al 2012). House to house waste collection is also hard to be implemented owing to narrow lanes and alleys which are mostly inaccessible [ 61 ] due to the development practice and geographical area in the state. Therefore, the locals’ resort to burying and burning their wastes within their house compound which has always been the practice since decades ago.

Household waste is one of the primary sources of MSW comprising of food wastes, paper, plastic, rags, metal and glasses from residential areas. Household waste is among the solid wastes managed by KBMC in Kota Bharu covering 15 sub-districts including Panji. Panji has the highest population compared to the other sub-district; therefore, assessment of household SWM among the residents is important to address their awareness and practices for planning an effective form of SWM. Some of the key factors influencing the effectiveness of SWM is by considering the size of the family, their income [ 67 ], level of education [ 19 ] and the location of household [ 1 ]. This factor is also supported by Shigeru [ 66 ] that the characteristics of households determine their recycling behavior and that sociodemographic conditions vary across municipalities. Socio-economic status and housing characteristics also affect the amount of municipal waste and how they manage it [ 20 ]. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the characteristics and needs of various households in designing a suitable waste management program.

Efficient SWM system is now a global concern which requires a sustainable SWM primarily in the developing countries. This study is another effort in gearing towards sustainable waste management practices in Malaysia which is also in line with the United Nation Sustainable Development Goals encompassing SDG3 Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 12 Responsible Consumption and Production. So far, limited studies were reported in the East Coast of Malaysia, particularly in Kelantan on waste management practices at the household level [ 61 ] which is highly required to improve the current practices including finding the prospect of whether proper at source-sorting in households is feasible to be implemented. This study provides a case study in Panji, Kota Bharu concerning the current household characteristics and awareness of managing household solid waste in Kelantan. The findings are crucial for the waste authorities in the process of designing and providing an effective and specific action plan in the area.

Figure 2 shows the percentage of households by garbage collection facilities and median monthly household income (MYR) for the districts in Kelantan. Kota Bharu is the district with the highest median monthly household gross income and percentage of garbage collection facilities. Apart from Lojing, which is located in the highlands, Bachok, Tumpat and Pasir Puteh are the districts with the lowest percentage of garbage collection facilities within 100m of the households. Meanwhile, Bachok (34.9%), Pasir Mas (36.6%), and Pasir Puteh (38%) households are without garbage collection facilities. The figure described the problem with household solid waste management in Kelantan. The major issues contributing to the problem are due to insufficient financial resources, lack of human labor, and transportation [ 61 ]. In one of the rural area in Kelantan, it was found that the solid waste management is considered inefficient due to a lack of knowledge in proper waste handling and the importance of segregating waste properly as proper waste handling start at home (Abas et al. 2020).

Percentage of households by garbage collection facilities and median monthly household income (MYR) for the districts in Kelantan

Household SWM is not a new issue, thus, published studies were found using survey and questionnaires and fieldwork studies. Waste characterization process was carried out by Kamaruddin et al. (2016) in 4 landfills in Kelantan. Nevertheless, they did not cover household waste knowledge, attitude and practices. Abdullah et al. [ 1 ] surveyed the household’s awareness on privatization of solid waste management and their satisfaction of the services offered but did not cover the health implications. Saat et al. [ 61 ] surveyed the practices and attitude on household waste management with a small sample size of less than 30 which limits its applicability to other region. Our study aimed to improve these previous studies by covering a wider sample size from the largest sub-district in Kelantan, Malaysia. The objective of this study is to assess the household SWM practices and perceptions among the residents of Panji vicinity in Kota Bharu district, Kelantan. Specifically, the objectives are to assess household SWM practices and perceptions in the Panji sub-district, to determine the association between socio-demographic characteristics or other factors and practices in SWM at the household level and to determine the association between socio-demographic characteristics or other factors and perceptions in SWM at household level.

This study was conducted in Panji, Kota Bharu district, Kelantan, Malaysia (Fig. 3 ), located at the east cost of Peninsular Malaysia and has the highest population among the 15 sub-districts of Kota Bharu, the capital state of Kelantan. A total of 338 respondents were recruited in this study. The population of interest in this study involved residents in Kota Bharu district and considered only residents who have attained 18 years old and above. Sample unit is residents living in Kota Bharu district of more than a year and aged more than 18 years. The target population comprised all the households in Kota Bharu District (491,237); however, it is impossible to conduct a study with such a large number within a limited time period and inadequate financial budget. Therefore, a multi- stage random sampling technique was used in selecting the appropriate sample in order to evaluate the objectives of this study and to ensure that households in the districts had the same possibility of being included in the study (Dlamini et al., 2017). Initially, one district of Kelantan state (Kota Bharu) was selected out of 10 total districts. In the second stage, one sub-district of Kota Bharu District (Panji) was selected out of 15 total sub-districts. Eventually, 338 households were randomly selected as sample size. Convenient sampling was also used to select respondents due to time constraint and response obtained from target population. The localities involved were Kampung Tapang, Kampung Chempaka, Kampung Belukar, Kampung Panji, Taman Sri Iman, Taman Desa Kujid and Taman Bendahara.

Location of the study area in Panji, Kota Bharu district, Kelantan, Malaysia (Source:ArcGis Software version 10.2; source of shape file: Department of Drainage and Irrigation, obtained with consent)

Data collection

A survey was conducted from January to May 2018. The questionnaire was translated from English to Malay language and the translation was done back to back and validated by experts in environmental science and public health field. A pilot test was conducted with a small sample size of ~30 to determine the suitability of the items in the questionnaire and the time taken by respondents to complete the questionnaires (Dlamini et al. 2017). Respondents were interviewed based on a questionnaire adopted and modified from Asante et al. [ 9 ]. The questionnaire involved two phases; the first one was to determine the socio-demographic of the respondents, including gender, age, types of housing, religion, educational level, occupation and the number of occupants in the household. Part two was an assessment to determine the status of household management of solid waste. The questionnaire included both open and closed questions (Dlamini et al. 2017). The closed questions were designed for ease of answering by the respondents with the aim of collecting the maximum appropriate responses, whereas the open questions are intended to encourage respondents to provide further elaboration on certain questions. The reliability of Cronbach’s alpha test of this questionnaire was found to be acceptable (α=0.71). Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Ethic Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM/JEPeM/17100560).

Data analysis

Data were analyzed using IBM Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 24.0. Descriptive analyses were used to report the frequency and percentage of socio-demographic patterns, method of household waste disposal and perceptions of household toward waste management. Chi-square goodness of fit test was used to determine the relationships between categorical variables, which allow us to test whether the observed proportions for a categorical variable differ from the hypothesized proportions [ 24 ]. The null hypothesis of the Chi-Square test is that no relationship exists on the categorical variables in the population; they are independent. Chi-square bivariate correlation test was performed to observe the correlation between the perceptions of waste segregation with socio-demographic background of the respondents [ 29 ]. The correlation between perception of respondents with the locality, house type and waste type were also conducted. Principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted to identify grouping of variables and to establish which factors were interrelated in any given construct, where a set of highly inter-correlated measured variables were grouped into distinct factors [ 24 ]. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkim (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity was performed to evaluate the data's suitability for exploratory factor analysis [ 69 ].

Socio-demographic Characteristics and Respondents Background in Panji sub-district

We first report descriptive statistics for all variables before discussing results from correlation analysis of socio-demographic factors and respondent’s background with household solid waste management (SWM) practices and perceptions. We then present the Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Table 1 represents the socio-demographic background and characteristics of the respondents in this study. Most of the respondents are from Kg. Belukar (N=125, 37%), followed by Kg. Panji (N=61, 18%), the rest are from Kg. Tapang (N=33), Kg. Chempaka, Taman Desa Kujid, Taman Sri Iman (N=30, respectively) and from Taman Bendahara (N=29). Majority of the respondents are female (N=182, 53.8%) and age between 35 to 49 years old (N=91, 26.9%). Most of the respondents have completed secondary education (N=194, 57.4%) and 31.1% have completed their degree or diploma (N=105). Majority of the respondents are married (75.7%), Muslim (97%) and earned between MYR 1000 to 2000 per month. About 32% of the respondents are self-employed and lived in a bungalow house type (30.5%). Most of the household consist of 4 to 6 occupants (53.6%). Majority of them cook at home (91.4%) on daily basis (68.6%). The Chi-square test shows that there is a significant difference among all categorical variables except for gender (χ 2 = 2.000, p = 0.157).

Proportion of Household Solid Waste Disposed by respondents in Panji Sub-District

Figure 4 represents the type of waste disposed of by respondents in the study. More than half (74.38%) of the waste disposed by household is food debris, followed by plastic waste (19.01%) and bottles (5.79%) while the rest accounts for 0.83%.

Types of waste disposed by household in Panji district

Household SWM practices and perceptions among respondents in Panji sub-district

Table 2 shows the household waste management practices and perceptions among respondents in Panji district. In terms of the household SWM practices, about 170 of the respondents (50.3%) segregate their waste at home while the remaining 168 respondents (49.7%) did not practice waste segregation at home. There is no significant difference between those who segregate waste at home and those who don’t (χ 2 =0.12, p=0.91). As shown in Fig. 1 and Table 2 , the major type of waste disposed by respondents are food (N=251, 74.3%). A significant difference was found among the different type of waste disposed (χ 2 =656.56, p<0.001). Out of the 338 respondents interviewed, 75.4% of the respondent themselves normally carries their household waste to the allocated bin or waste collection point provided by the local authority. Majority of the respondents (323 respondents) agree that the waste disposal site provided by the local authorities were appropriate (95.6%) relative to 15 respondents who disagree (4.4%). A significant difference was found between those who responded that appropriate waste disposal site was provided and those who do not (χ2=280.66, p<0.001).

Most of them also have the perception that proper waste management is important (99.7%). More than half (62.4%) of the respondent agrees that it is their responsibility to clean the waste in their residential area while 24.3% suggested that it is the responsibility of the district council. Another 3.3% suggested it is the responsibility of the community members followed by private waste operators (1.5%). The majority (95.9%) of the respondents suggested poor waste management can contribute to disease occurrence, whereas 2.7% suggested it does not cause diseases and another 1.5% were unsure if it causes any diseases.

In terms of the household SWM perceptions, 40.8% of the respondents have responded that other diseases than diarrhea, malaria and typhoid are related to improper waste management. This is followed by diarrhea (30.5%) and malaria (21.9%). Majority of the participants responded that they have awareness on proper waste management (92.9%) and 81.4% responded that cleanliness is the main factor which motivates them to dispose the waste properly. The chi-square test shows that all variables under respondents’ perception differ significantly from the hypothesized values (Table 2 ).

Relationship between socio-demographic characteristics, respondent’s background and household SWM practices (waste segregation practices)

Chi square analysis was performed to find out what factors contribute to waste segregation practices among the respondents (Table 3 ). Results indicate that waste segregation practice was correlated with the locality (χ 2 = 43.35, p<0.001). For instance, out of 29 respondents in Taman Bendahara, all of them segregate their waste (100%). This trend was also observed for Taman Desa Kujid where most of the respondents segregate their waste (22 out of 30, 73.3%). In contrast, most of respondents from the village, did not segregate their waste. For example, out of 125 total number of respondents in Kg Belukar, 53 of them segregates their waste (42.4%) while 72 of them did not (57.6%).

A significant correlation was found between waste segregation practice and age (χ 2 =11.62, p<0.001). Based on the age range of the total number of respondents, respondents at the age of 50-65 years old are those who segregated more than the rest (N=43) and those at the age of 35-49 are those who did not segregate their waste the most (N=52 in Table 3 ). The type of house was significantly correlated with waste segregation practice (χ 2 =12.73, p=0.03). The respondents who live in bungalow houses are those who segregate the most (N=58). Those who live in semi-detached houses also have more respondents (N=24) segregating their waste than those who did not (N=13). Meanwhile those who live in other type of houses, terrace, village and others have more respondents who did not segregate their waste (Table 3 ). Other variables, gender, education level, marital status, monthly income, occupation, the number of persons per household and the practice of cooking at home did not show any significant correlation with waste segregation practice (p>0.05, Table 3 ).

Relationship between respondent’s background and household SWM practices (the type of waste disposed) from the household in Panji sub-district

The chi-square test was also conducted to determine the relationship between socio-demographic characteristics, respondent’s background and the type of waste disposed. There is a significant correlation between locality with the waste type disposed in Panji district (Table 4 ). All localities showed that food waste was the major type of waste being disposed of from the households. A significant correlation was also found between respondents living in different house types with type of waste disposed. Most of the respondents who live in bungalows (N = 81) and other type of house (N = 78) disposed of food as the main waste from their households. Other characteristics were not significantly correlated with type of waste.

Correlation between respondents’ background (locality and/ or house type) and the perception in household SWM (appropriate site of household waste disposal provided by the local council and improper waste management contribute to disease occurrence)

Correlation analysis was also performed to determine what factors contribute towards the perception of household SWM in Panji district. No significant correlation was found between different locality with the appropriate waste disposal site provided (p = 0.152) as most of the locality has an appropriate disposal site (Table 5 ). There was also no significant relationship between type of house with appropriate disposal site provided by the local council (p=0.131). On the other hand, significant correlation was found between locality and the respondent’s perceptions on improper waste management which contribute to disease occurrence (p=0.042). Out of all localities, majority of the respondents from Kg Belukar has the perception that improper waste management contributes to disease occurrence (Table 5 ).

Principal component analysis (PCA)

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a dimension-reduction tool that can be used to reduce a large set of variables to a small set that still contains most of the information in the original large set [ 24 ]. It converts a set of observations of possibly correlated variables (entities each of which takes on various numerical values) into a set of values of linearly uncorrelated variables called principal components [ 37 ]. This transformation is defined in such a way that the first principal component has the largest possible variance (that is, accounts for as much of the variability in the data as possible), and each succeeding component in turn has the highest variance possible under the constraint that it is orthogonal to the preceding components.

PCA in this study was performed to determine the variables that influence or related to waste segregation behavior among respondents. Table 6 highlight the PCA analysis to illustrate the component factors that influence waste segregation behavior among respondents in this study. Only 13 significant variables were highlighted in the table with the factor loading of more than 0.5. Only factor loadings value >0.5 are considered for selection and interpretation due to having significant factor loadings influence the acceptable KMO value that represent a significant correlation for the PCA model in the study. The PCA generates four principal components that represent 48.26% of the total variance in the variables dataset and produced an acceptable KMO value of 0.603 (more than 0.5). Bartlett’s test of sphericity showed that PCA could be applied to the data at the p< 0.001 level. This approved that the data met the requirements for factor analysis [ 24 , 69 ].

The component matrix produced in PCA showed that PC1 represents 17.94% of the variance with high positive loading (positive relationship) on age, marital status and, type of house (Table 6 ). This pattern indicates that age, married and type of house were the group that segregates their waste the most. This group of community can be proposed as the target to actively participate in waste management practices within the district. In contrast, locality and education have negative loading or negative relationship with the segregation activity. As a result, policy makers should increase educational activities on proper household waste practices and management related issues to minimize both the environmental and health impacts of household waste practices among the population.

PC2 represents 10.93% of the variance with high loadings on cooking at home and cooking frequency. This pattern implies that those who cook at home and frequently cook were among the most respondents who practice waste segregation. However, no consequences can be drawn about individual factors as these may have the opposite relationship to the observed factor in other components. Similar trend was observed for PC3 whereby 9.96% of the data variance has high loading on the perception of the respondents towards waste management. High loading was observed on perception that improper waste management contributes to disease occurrence and the cleanliness is the main element that motivates them to segregate. PC3 has high negative loading with monthly income. This result suggests that respondents with low income are those who segregate more.

Meanwhile, PC4 represents 9.42% of the data variance. Variables that have high positive loadings were the respondents who brought the waste to the communal bin themselves, indicating that this group of respondents are those who segregate more. High positive loading was also found on the perception that residents are among those responsible for cleaning the residential area. The number of persons living in a household has negative loading in PC4, indicating that the higher the number of people lives in the household, the lesser chances of them to segregate the waste.

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

a 4 components extracted.

b Only cases for which Practice of waste segregation = Yes are used in the analysis phase.

This study explores the behavioral perspective in view that the way people manage waste is associated with their attitude and perception. Individual perception is governed by their background and present situation, shaped by values, moods, socials circumstances and individual expectation (Kaoje et al 2017). The results of this study are discussed from three aspects: (1) characterization of household solid waste management practices and perceptions among respondents (2) correlation between socioeconomic and respondent’s background with waste segregation practices and (3) correlation between socioeconomic and respondent’s background with household waste management perceptions. One of the primary intentions of acquiring the respondent’s characteristics was to understand the correlation between level of involvement in household SWM practices and the characteristics of the respondents.

Food waste was found as the major type of waste disposed by the communities in Panji sub-district (Fig. 1 and Table 2 ). Food waste has high moisture content and causes smell, which subsequently attracts disease vectors, such as flies, mosquitoes and cockroaches, and the proliferation of rodents, such as rats and mice, which pose threats to public health [ 68 , 75 ]. Majority of the respondents were found to cook at home (N=309, 91.4%) and cook on a daily basis (N=232, 68.6%; Table 1 ) which suggests that composting should be incorporated as one of the main approaches for proper waste management practices in the community. Individual compost bin should be provided in each household coupled with adequate training on simple compost technique can be organized within the locality as a stage by stage process. Alternatively, community scale composting can be proposed to focus solely on food waste management which is currently a growing practice among Malaysians [ 38 , 56 ]. This approach is gaining attention because of their lower energy footprint, ease of operation, need for lesser resources, lower operation and maintenance costs which have higher chances of public acceptance [ 32 ]. Food waste is organic waste which can decomposed and degraded into organic matter [ 33 ], which in turn can be used by the public to fertilize their garden soil. Most importantly, the training should emphasize on the practicality and feasible option of composting which is otherwise seen as a time-consuming and burdensome process [ 33 ].

Composting is beneficial to the environment by reducing greenhouse gases emissions and improvement of soil quality when applied to land. Furthermore, it is also in line with the circular economy concept by closing the loop of the system [ 14 ]. On the other hand, there are issues pertaining to its quality such as the nutrient and trace metal content. So, sorting the waste at source play a crucial role in minimising these impurities and collection systems play a fundamental role in removing some pollutants from wastes, especially organic fraction of municipal solid wastes, and improving compost quality [ 13 ]. One way to overcome this is by accommodating the waste collection and composting facilities with easy and convenient measurement of these contents which may be accessible by the community. Community composting programs should incorporate not only the step-by-step procedure of how to do composting but at the same time introducing easy to use kit or techniques applicable to the public and community such as test strip to measure the nutrients and trace metal [ 11 ]. In addition, by adding composting accelerators, the nutritional quality of the compost can be overcome. This factor can be done by developing a manual for public use.

The case of local composting at homes reduces transportation and collection cost by decreasing the amount of domestic waste carried to centralized composting facilities [ 76 ]. At the same time, household waste contains impurities and are widely distributed which hinders the efficiency of centralized composting facilities in disposing them. Centralized composting facilities in Asia suffer from low compost quality and poor sales [ 32 ]. As a result, community composting system at a smaller scale is more convenient within this region.

Composting is linked to diseases such as Aspergillosis, Legionnaire’s disease, histoplasmosis, paronychia and tetanus. In the case of Aspergillosis and Legionnaire’s disease, it may cause higher potential risk in large scale composting facilities compared to the smaller scale composting at home due to massive handling and agitating process in the former [ 26 , 59 ]. Histoplasmosis have been associated with chicken manure used in composting, however it is not able to survive in a well-done composting process [ 39 ]. Therefore, disease spread can be minimised by having local composting at homes and community composting system at a smaller scale than centralized composting facility. The most important thing in minimising disease spread would be the practise of wearing gloves and face mask during this composting activity.

In this study, there was not much difference between the respondents who separated their waste and who did not (Table 2 ), which implies there is room for increasing the practice of waste segregation. Waste segregation practice is lacking in developing countries, most prominently in Asia ( [ 15 , 48 ]; Vassanadumrongdee and Kittipongvises 2018) and African continents (Dlamini et al. 2017; Yoada et al. 2014). Since respondents lack adequate knowledge on the critical importance of waste separation at source in general, the volume of municipal solid waste dumped in landfill sites are progressively increasing, thus jeopardizing the remaining landfill space at a faster rate than initially planned. Therefore, to alleviate this environmental problem in the developing countries in general and in Panji sub-districts, specifically, more focused and sustained public awareness programs, integrated with an enabling infrastructure, are required to change residents’ perceptions toward improved waste separation at source rates [ 49 ]. Additionally, the outcome of the waste segregation activities should be similarly emphasized and how waste minimization in the first instance, and waste segregation at source, will benefit and enhance the standard of living or life quality of households ([ 44 ]; Yoada et al. 2014 [ 49 ];).

The perceptions of the respondents towards waste management were generally good. About 99.7% reported that waste management is important, 62.4% report that it is the responsibility of them to manage waste (Table 2 ). Resident’s participation in waste management activities is one of the ways in maximizing the capture of source-segregated materials which can be facilitated by providing an associated infrastructure [ 58 ]. Nevertheless, there are still some respondents who felt that waste management is not their responsibility, but instead lies mainly on the district council, which highlights the general perception of some Malaysians that waste is a local municipal issue [ 46 ]. About 95.9% of the respondents were aware that improper waste management leads to sicknesses or diseases, which implies that most of the households were aware of the health implication of waste. The management of MSW in developing Asian countries is driven by a public health perspective: the collection and disposal of waste in order to avoid the spread of disease vectors from uncollected waste [ 5 ]. The perception of the remaining 2.7% that waste management does not cause disease and 1.5% who were unsure need to be changed by targeting this group as a follow up program focusing on waste management and health issues. The respondents also have adequate level of awareness and knowledge about proper waste management (92.9%). This high level of awareness is because of several reasons for properly disposing of waste, including cleanliness as the major factor (81.4%), followed by fear of illnesses (12.4%), and odor (6.2%).

Most of the respondents thought that improper waste management could lead to diarrhea and malaria (Table 2 ). Diarrhea and waste management is associated with environmental factors such as waste disposal mechanism. House-to-house waste collection has been shown to decrease the incidence of malaria compared to other waste collection method [ 7 ]. Hence, this implies the possibility of malaria incidence in areas which burn their waste and areas which are inaccessible by any waste collection. Other diseases could be related to typhoid, dysentery, cholera, respiratory infections and injury [ 42 ]. Proper waste management can lead to improvement in the quality of the environment and public health while, mismanagement of waste can be implicated with water, soil and air pollutions [ 1 ], breeding of mosquitos, which in turn, causes disease [ 15 , 68 ]. Although knowledge and awareness are acceptable among the respondents, this perception did not inculcate into waste segregation practices. In order to bridge the gap between awareness and behavior change, it is necessary for individuals to understand the importance of their role in how to do it and why it is important to do so [ 34 ]. More focused, detailed and continuous awareness and knowledge should be emphasized on this aspect specifically in the topics of environmental cleanliness, drainage systems, the recycling process in theory and practice, and a proper way to dispose of wastes [ 61 ].

Our findings have reported that socio-demographic factors (age, marital status) and respondents’ background (locality and house types) have influenced the household waste practices and perceptions in Panji sub-district (Tables 3 , 4 , 5 and 6 ). Age is associated with the maturity of the person which plays a significant factor in impacting their level of awareness on environmental health and sanitation ([ 12 , 17 ]; Meneses and [ 40 , 45 ]). The result of our study is consistent with the findings by Fan et al. [ 22 ] that older individuals prefer to engage more in waste sorting activities than young people in Singapore.

On the other hand, the number of children in the household may be a significant factor that influence waste separation. This for instance has been mentioned in Xu et al., (2017), where the intention of middle-aged adults towards behaving a more eco-friendly system was affected by critical social reference groups around them, such as the interaction with family or the motivation, especially children, and/or the consideration of the health situation of the whole family.

However, in other studies such as in Ittiravivongs [ 28 ] and Vassanadumrongdee & Kittipongvises (2018), socio-demographic variables became insignificant factors that influenced waste segregation participation. Knussen et al., [ 36 ] & White & Hyde [ 73 ] also indicate that the strongest variable influence participation in waste segregation program was past behaviour on regular source separation at home or recycling habit. Having waste separation in the office also could have positive influence on source separation intention, which is consistent with the study of Saphores et al. [ 64 ].

Considering number of children in the analysis is beyond the scope of this paper. Our result indicates that there is no significant difference in the waste segregation practice by the number of occupants in the household (χ 2 = 2.36, p = 0.31). For instance, the results show 54.2% of household with more than 6 occupants practice waste segregation, as compared to those who are not at 45.8%. This would suggest that the number of children in the house could be less influence on the waste segregation practice or vice versa. Future study may consider number of children in the family as one of the variables to be tested to confirm the hypothesis.

It was interesting to note that the types of housing in the case study were found to contribute heavily to the practices and perceptions of household waste management. Respondents who lived in bungalows (30.5%) and other type of houses than semi-detached, terrace and village (28.4%) are most likely to segregate their waste. Bungalows are associated with high income areas in Malaysia [ 53 ], which could be related to waste collection services are provided from these areas and possibly these households subscribe to this service. Potentially, these types of houses also have more space to be allocated for waste sorting than the other type of houses.

Other socio-demographic characteristics such as gender, education level and monthly income did not influence the practices and perceptions of the respondents. There were no significant associations between gender and waste segregation practices (χ 2 =0.596, p=0.440). Our finding is contrasting to the study by Ehrampoush and Moghadam [ 18 ] which reported that gender is likely to have an influence on the perceptions of household SWM. This view is supported by Mukherji et al. [ 48 ] who found that women, because of traditional gender roles associated with their household activities, have a closer engagement with waste management at household level.

The level of education has been reported as an important factor that could influence people’s perception of household waste management [ 40 ]. In this study, most of the respondents received their education until secondary school (57.4%), followed by diploma or degree (31.1%) but this did not influence their household SWM practices and perception (χ 2 =6.188, p=0.19), in particular waste segregation practice (Table 3 ). The poor average income of respondents is considered a very important variable that could influence people’s perception and attitudes negatively on solid waste management system (Parfitt et al. 1994 [ 40 ];). But, this is not the case in our study as economic consideration appears not to play a major role in the respondent’s perception as well as attitude to solid waste management practices (χ 2 =4.55, p=0.47).

The outcome from the PCA analysis showed that age, marital status and type of housing are the factors which contributed the most to waste segregation practices at home. Our finding agrees with the study by Vassanadumrongdee and Kittipongvises (2018) which found that age and family with children have a positive influence on respondent's source separation. Age was also a determinant factor in waste management practices in other studies [ 2 , 15 ]. With aging and married respondents, this could be highly related to the increasing sense of responsibility towards the environment and the importance of increasing the quality of life among household members. Types of housing could be related to either waste collection services were provided in these areas or that limited number of households subscribe to their service. Other studies in the literature have reported on the positive relationship between residence types and waste separation practices ([ 15 ]; Vassanadumrongdee and Kittipongvises 2018).

The high loadings on cooking at home and cooking frequency towards waste segregation practices indicate that these groups of respondents can be chosen for further interventions in terms of adopting proper waste management practices such as small-scale composting, recycling and waste minimization practices. The lifestyle of the respondents plays a significant role in the daily waste disposal practices in households (Yoada et al. 2014 [ 15 ];). The link between improper waste management practice and disease occurrence was also reported in studies in Ghana (Yoada et al. 2014 [ 2 ];). Their studies also reported that cleanliness was the main factor which motivates them to segregate the waste which is concurrent with the findings in this study.

Education is negatively related to waste segregation activity (Table 6 ), indicating that people with lower education are more willing to segregate their waste as compared to those with higher education. The likely reasons could be related to different lifestyle and time constraint to allocate purposely for waste sorting activities [ 15 ]. People with higher education level may be spending most of their time at the workplace, and not at home. However, more educational campaign should be promoted by emphasizing on the benefits of waste segregation activities. Sufficient knowledge, such as clear instructions provided in a communication and collection campaign, can increase the probability of waste separation behavior (Vassanadumrongdee and Kittipongvises S 2018).

The higher number of occupants living in the household is associated with a less likely chance of segregating the waste (Table 6 ). The result of our study is consistent with the study by Addo et al. [ 2 ] which reported that household sizes of 4 to 6 and above 7 were less likely to engage in the practice of waste management as compared to household size below 4 people. This is probably due to the household size tends to reduce the quantity of household waste and the practice of waste management. In contrast, studies by Osbjer et al. [ 54 ], indicate that waste management practice is associated with a higher number of people in the households, which could possibly be due to the need to handle waste generated by larger populations within the household.

One of the objectives of this study was to determine variables that influence waste segregation behavior among respondents. The PCA was adapted for this objective rather than correlation analysis for several reason. The correlation coefficient assumes a linear association where any linear transformation of variables will not affect the correlation. However, variables X and Y may also have a non-linear association, which could still yield a low correlation coefficient [ 30 ]. In addition, the correlation coefficient cannot be interpreted as causal.

It is possible that there is a causal effect of one variable on the other, but there may also be other possible explanations that the correlation coefficient does not take into account. Since several variables may influence respondent’s behavior on waste segregation activity at one time, the correlation coefficient analysis may not adequate to identify the significant variables and the connectivity between them accurately. Therefore, PCA was used to help us understand the connection between these variables as it can identify the correlation among the features efficiently.

There are thousands of features in the dataset that possible to highlight some trend or the influence of one factor to another. There are challenges to visualize the algorithm on all features efficiently especially when the performance of the algorithm may reduce with the bigger dataset. The PCA improve the algorithm performance by getting rid of correlated variables which don't contribute to the model and the analysis of the algorithms reduces significantly with less number of features. The Principal Components are also independent of one another. There is no correlation among them. It also reduces overfitting by reducing the number of features where it mainly occurs when there are too many variables in the dataset.

The scenario of the covid-19 pandemic contributes to a significant challenge in managing household waste management globally and specifically in developing countries. Waste management in the pandemic scenario requires consideration in SARS-CoV-2 transmission through MSW handling that includes survival time of the virus on the surfaces: population density and socioeconomic conditions [ 35 ]. In general, waste management phases (waste packing and delivering by the users; waste withdrawal; waste transport; and waste treatment) exposed the community and workers to direct contact with contaminated objects and surfaces; as well as contact with airborne droplets at a distance that may lead to the covid-19 [ 16 ]. Due to these reasons, waste management practices are designed to respond to the pandemic through changes in the collection system, allocation of treatment options, safety measure and priority separation, and functionality of circular economy strategies [ 72 ].

As a developing country, it is predicted that the effect of covid-19 on the waste management practices are more crucial due to the increase in disposable personal protective equipment at the household level and changes in eating habits, as a consequence of lifestyle disruptions and psychological stress due to lockdowns [ 4 , 55 ]. Developing countries have a higher risk of waste and wastewater contamination, leading to significant public health issues [ 71 ]. Inefficient waste management practices such as insecure landfills, lack of technical knowledge, scientific and economic resources, and lack of waste emergency policies produce severe consequences to the community and workers [ 63 , 65 , 71 ].

In order to improve the level of household solid waste management in the study area and Malaysia in general, it is important to empower the key drivers. The key drivers can be categorized as institutional-administrative, technological, economical, and social drivers [ 70 ]. A strong policy that implements direct regulation and enforcement; provide economic incentives or disincentives; and inform, interact and engage with the community are required [ 60 ].

Household solid waste management technologies that are being practised globally are landfilling, incineration, pyrolysis, Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF), gasification, and anaerobic digestion [ 57 ]. As a developing country that focuses on solid waste management through landfilling, it is important to put extra attention on: i. decentralization of household solid waste management; ii. segregation at the source; iii. hygienic and safe handling; iv. flammable landfilll gasses handling; v. soil salinity from compost application; vi. Sustainable landfill management; vii. alternative markets for energy products; and viii. Implementation of the “pay as you throw” system [ 50 ].

Practical Implications, Study Limitations and Future Perspectives

This study highlights that waste segregation practice among respondents are still low and food waste are mixed with other household waste. This study provides as a baseline data in the region where less study was emphasized.

Quantitative and qualitative approach were used in this study by adopting descriptive and statistical analysis to improve the significance of the issue. Despite the significance of some aspects of this study, further studies should be done to incorporate children and teenagers as the participants and a more detailed questionnaire incorporating detailed health implications. Apart from that, a cross-sectional survey using random sampling technique was used to assess the household SWM practices and perceptions among the residents. This study is also limited to only Panji sub-districts which requires a wider region to generalize the findings of the study. The survey questionnaires depend on self-reporting manner, which may be subject to bias. Further study is recommended to engage observation at houses or at the waste collecting points to complement the survey. Moreover, the association between household socio-economic factors and health implications were limited. Future study should address this factor for a more focused and sustained public awareness programs.

Conclusions

The study found that the waste segregation practice among respondents can be considered as low, where the number of respondents who segregate their waste was equivalent to those who did not, which implies there is room for improvement. The main component of solid waste generated at home was largely food debris that has the potential to be composted and plastics that can be recycled, which were mainly disposed without separation. The local solid waste management authority should focus on utilizing this organic waste through a larger scale and wider involvement of the locals in composting program. The growth of small-scale community-based waste composting can act as a potential start up venue in accelerating this program, without the necessity of extensive investment by the local authority. The authority in the study area has provided appropriate waste disposal sites, but there are also some that were disposed in inappropriate sites. Majority of the respondents were also aware that improper waste management can lead to diseases. Age, marital status and, type of house was found to be the group that segregate their waste the most, indicating that respondents which fall under this category can be the target for further intervention programs. This study suggests the local authorities to design waste separation programs that suit the needs of targeted population, to ensure high participation rate among the community. Marketing and campaigns should emphasize the positive perception and attitude towards waste separation at home and also negative perception of non-participants. This study may provide authorities in Malaysia with baseline information to set the future implementations of waste segregation activities in households. This study also suggests focusing on inculcating community involvement in doing waste separation at source, waste reduction and recycling as a habit and way of life. The local authority may facilitate this activity by providing bins to segregate wastes, establishing waste banks and recycling facilities at a wider scale than the scattered existing ones. Both a top-down and bottom-up approach should work hand in-hand to realize the sustainable solid waste management as a success.

Nevertheless, acknowledging the limitations of the current study, a more detailed and thorough study should incorporate a wider region, in-depth association of waste separation programs and health implications. Combining survey questionnaire with statistical analysis act as a stepping stone to expand the study by engaging the community in actual waste separation activities. This can be done by initiating a collaboration between the local authority, the leader in a community and the residents itself as a pilot study. In addition, the findings of this study will serve as baseline evidence and pave the way for other researchers and policymakers to conduct more rigorous studies on this arena.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the supplementary material section.

Abbreviations

Statistical Package for Social Science

Solid Waste Management

municipal solid waste

not in my backyard

Kota Bharu Municipal Council

Sustainable Development Goals

Malaysian Ringgit

Principal component analysis

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkim

Refuse Derived Fuel

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Acknowledgments

We are grateful to everybody who completed the questionnaires and to Miss Aisyah Ariff, Miss Zetty Hiddayah binti Zuharizam and Mr Wan Izulfikri bin Wan Mohd Roslan for assisting in data collection.

This study was financially supported by Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia (Postdoctoral Fellowship SLAB) and Universiti Sains Malaysia. None of the funders were involved in the design of the study, in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in the writing of the manuscript.

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WF contributed in conceptualization and writing the manuscript. NINI collected the data, contributed to the literature review and execute the project. SNSI contributed in the formal analysis, methodology, data curation and the tables and figures. MHJ contributed to editing of the manuscript. HA contributed in supervision, project administration and planning. All authors have read and approved the final version of this manuscript.

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Fadhullah, W., Imran, N.I.N., Ismail, S.N.S. et al. Household solid waste management practices and perceptions among residents in the East Coast of Malaysia. BMC Public Health 22 , 1 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12274-7

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• Published: 03 August 2023

Measuring the recycling potential of industrial waste for long-term sustainability

• Qudsia Kanwal 1 ,
• Xianlai Zeng   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5563-6098 1 &
• Jinhui Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7819-478X 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  471 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Industrial waste is the byproduct of many industrial processes. Estimating the recycling potential of industrial waste can help solve the anthropogenic circularity conundrum. Here we employed the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) to verify GDP as a route to "amplified resource efficiency". The results provide substantial evidence for an inverted U and N relationship between the hypothesized GDPPC and industrial waste generation. During 2011–2025, the recycling potential in China showed a downward trend. China is projected to experience a dramatic increase in the production of industrial hazardous waste until the successful implementation of industrial hazardous waste prevention measures reverses the current trends. The turning point of the EKC between industrial waste generation and economic development is around US$8000, while the comprehensive utilization is 102.22 million tons. The EKC inflection points established by the study are correlated with the waste category’s turning point. The revised EKC claims that technological change may accelerate the turning points; thus, the graph shifts downward and right. The study recommends investing in new technology development to help the industry produce virgin and recycled industrial waste for a circular economy. Recycling potential evaluation also assists us to achieve our Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

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Introduction

In the Anthropocene era, material flow from the lithosphere to the anthroposphere caused the rapid depletion of geological minerals and serious pollution of the ecological environment, resulting in the dramatic generation of solid waste. The majority, <90%, of material is sinking finally as waste, yet it could potentially be recycled (Zeng and Li, 2018 ). Industrial waste is one offspring of anthropogenic metabolism as the global population has grown and become more urban and affluent in the past century. China’s industrial waste generation, which includes tailings, sludge, slag, and coal tar, increased tenfold between 1998 and 2018 and is expected to double by 2025 (Hoornweg et al., 2013 ; Kanwal et al., 2022 ). China, for example, generated around 3.5 billion tons (t) of industrial waste in 2019, accounting for ~30% of all solid waste generated globally (Kanwal et al., 2021 ; Kanwal et al., 2022 ). Global average special waste (i.e., industrial waste) is expected to rise to 12.73 kg/capita/day (Kaza et al., 2018 ; Wang et al., 2000 ). These statistics introduce significant challenges which may be addressed by estimating the recycling potential of industrial waste.

Industrial wastes and byproducts are increasingly used as structural fillers. Secondary materials used in construction include recovered rocky or earthy waste materials and industrial byproducts. Slags from the steel industry (used in coastal protection, highways, and parking lot foundations), ashes from municipal solid waste incineration (used in road construction, noise barriers), and construction and demolition waste (used in foundations, road construction) are only a few examples (Ayres and Ayres, 2002 ; Dijkstra et al., 2019 ). Industrial waste quantification and recycling are necessary components of a system-oriented industrial ecology to determine the existence of "new anthropogenic elements".

It is well known that China experienced sustained, rapid industrialization from the late 1970s when economic reform was introduced. Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (GDPPC) has grown nearly 10% yearly. Rapid economic growth enhances living standards and social welfare while creating severe environmental problems. According to the central baseline scenario modeled using the OECD ENV-Linkages model, global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is predicted to quadruple between 2011–2060. As a result, global average per capita income will reach current OECD levels by 2060 (around US$ 40,000) (OECD, 2019 ). Although waste generation in OECD countries will peak by 2050 and in Asia–Pacific countries by 2075, waste will continue to rise in Sub-Saharan Africa’s fast-growing cities. Based on current trends, it is estimated that by 2100, solid waste generation will reach 11 million tons per day, more than three times today’s rate (Hoornweg et al., 2013 ).

There is a correlation between economic growth and municipal/electronic trash; nevertheless, these growths are truly correlated with generation quantity; as a result, an increase in GDP is the cause of an increase in industrial waste generation (D’Adamo et al., 2020 ). The EKC approach is applied in this study because of its ability to determine the correlation between each social-economic driving factor and solid waste generation. According to the EKC hypothesis, metal consumption peaks and declines throughout economic development. Metals are necessary for economic growth, human progress, and a prerequisite for expanding renewable energy. Metals’ anthropogenic use has increased significantly, particularly in emerging economies. As defined by GDPPC, affluence has been recognized as the primary economic driver of domestic metal consumption. On the other hand, domestic metal consumption declines as affluence increases, implying that high-income economies are becoming more resource-efficient (Bechle et al., 2011 ).

This study can provide a scientific basis for resolving the contradiction between the rapid development of the social economy and the degradation of the ecological environment due to the enormous quantity of industrial solid waste, and thus serve as a guide for ecological environment management decisions regarding waste management in China.

Due to the lack of empirical study on the recent evolution of income distribution and environmental pollution, this essay explores the problem of growing income inequality and environmental degradation (waste generation) to reassess the Kuznets theory from a Chinese viewpoint. The novelty/significance of this research is:

Currently, we focus on fiscal development and industrial waste generation nexus.

Despite being part of industrial ecology, waste sector research is patchy. "The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12 focuses on waste management and is part of the anthropogenic circularity debate.

To our knowledge, this is the first observational analysis modeling the Kuznets curve: the income–pollution link across China while also accounting for additional control variables such as population, comprehensive utilization, and mineral rent (% of GDP) and therefore, our analysis results in more appropriate policy prescriptions.

This paper is based on a comprehensive analysis of China’s industrial hazardous waste recycling potential (see Fig. S1 ). The article proceeds as follows. The first two sections describe the conceptual underpinnings of EKC and its integration with the STIRPAT model, current knowledge, methods, and data employed. The third segment discusses the factors contributing to industrial waste and formulates theories for testing. The fourth section explains the conclusions and the fifth section policy implications.

Literature review

Environmental kuznets curve (ekc).

Grossman and Krueger’s ( 1995 ) EKC theory defines the dynamic link between income per capita and the environment (Grossman and Krueger, 1995 ; Kasioumi and Stengos, 2020 ). Environmental quality deteriorates during the early phase of economic growth, forming an inverted U-curve. However, the pattern reverses after reaching a particular per capita income threshold (Bank, 1992 ).

Since the early 1990s, a slew of experiments has looked into two Kuznets-related hypotheses: the inverted U-curve hypothesis and the EKC, to see any potential links (between growth and income redistribution and growth and the environment) (Panayotou, 1993a ). Real GDP and GDPPC are the most commonly utilized economic measures in EKC literature, including panel data (Ge et al., 2018 ; Narayan and Narayan, 2010 ; Ozcan, 2013 ) and cross-sectional data (Ahmad et al., 2017 ; Hill and Magnani, 2002 ). Nevertheless, the findings of these surveys, carried out mainly in the early 2000s, remain inconclusive (Ota, 2017 ). Therefore, research using a new time frame and methodology is needed.

Several host studies were conducted to investigate the EKC. Li ( 2016 ) conducted an observational analysis of economic development and environmental pollution in Gansu province. The findings revealed that Gansu and the west zone have more complex economic conditions and environmental pollution (Li, 2016 ). Research on pollution and economic growth of Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei has shown that these cities are already on the left side of the EKC curve: and a greater emphasis on inverted U-shaped green construction must be made (Dal Mas et al., 2021 ; Yuan, 2019 ).

Since then, observational research into the effect of GDP on potentially mitigating environmental pollution based on the Kuznets curve has progressed. Various countries or territories, sampling periods, pollutants, data sets, and methodologies were used (Boubellouta and Kusch-Brandt, 2020 ; Dodds et al., 2013 ; Lieb, 2003 ; Ota, 2017 ; Purcel, 2020b ; Sarkodie and Strezov, 2019 ; Van Alstine and Neumayer, 2010 ). The research linking EKC to materials and industrial waste is smaller than municipal waste and air pollution. Precedent research uses a geographically weighted regression (GWR) model to consider spatial heterogeneity to explain the interactions between environmental performance and economic growth in China (Kim et al., 2018 ; Madden et al., 2019 ). Mazzanti and Zoboli ( 2009 ) examined empirical evidence for decoupling economic growth and municipal waste output by observing an inverted U-shaped curve to gross domestic savings as a proportion of GDP (Ercolano et al., 2018 ; Khajuria et al., 2012 ; Mazzanti and Zoboli, 2009 ; Mazzanti and Zoboli, 2005 ). Based on the EKC hypothesis, a study investigates the relationship between environmental pollution and economic growth in Chinese provinces. Waste gas, wastewater, and solid waste as environmental indicators and GDP are used as economic indicator. All these pollutants are U-shaped; it can be explained by an ever-cleaner industrial structure, rapidly increasing investment in environmental protection, and tighter environmental policy (Tao et al., 2008 ; Xuemei et al., 2011 ; Yanrong et al., 2011 ).

Similarly, research on panel data from 258 prefecture-level cities in China from 2003 to 2016 uses an extended stochastic effect on population, wealth, and technology (STIRPAT) regression model with the difference-in-difference (DID) approach to research the impact of waste collection policy and MSW’s main socioeconomic variables and the environmental hypothesis of EKC measure. A substantial N, U, or inverted N-shaped curve was observed between the MSW generation and economic growth at the national level. However, the traditional EKC hypothesis has no evidence to support it (Cheng et al., 2020 ; Gui et al., 2019 ). For the first time for e-waste of 174 countries, the EKC hypothesis was tested using ordinary least square regression. It includes population, urbanization, industrialization, and electricity access. The results strongly support the hypothesized inverted-U relationship between GDPPC and e-waste per capita worldwide (Boubellouta and Kusch-Brandt, 2021 ).

However, no preceding research accounts for the industrial waste generation concerning EKC variables. Thus, this EKC-China study covers gaps by offering an essential roadmap to estimate Chinese industrial waste recycling potential.

Data, method, and modeling

Data and variables.

To ensure data consistency, we established EKCs using GDP as the economic indicator and tailings (total tailings, Fe tailings, Cu tailings, and Au tailings), smelting slag (ISS, NFSS, RM), coal ash, coal gangue, and industrial byproduct gypsum as environmental indicators between 1993- 2018. This paper’s data are derived from the World Bank development indicator, the National Statistical Bureau of China. Table 1 contains descriptive information, including the mean and standard deviation. Table 2 shows the regression and covariance coefficients of various indicators. Our descriptive statistics analysis highlights the need to deal with our data’s heterogeneity.

Independent variables

We use GDPPC as an independent variable based on previous studies related to environmental economics. GDPPC square and cube are applied to the regression model to test the EKC hypothesis. Suppose the GDPPC coefficient is positive and statistically significant, and the GDPPC square and cube coefficient is negative and significant. Thus inverted U-shaped relationship between GDPPC and industrial waste per capita is obtained; hence, the EKC hypothesis is tested.

Dependent variables

The dependent variable in our study is the industrial waste generation expressed in million tons per annum. Industrial waste has witnessed exceptionally high growth worldwide over the past few years (Kanwal et al., 2022 ). Industrial waste from various processes, such as sludge, kiln mud, slags, and ashes, is referred to as industrial waste (JeyaSundar et al., 2020 ). This variable comprises ten waste categories; based on field surveys, literature reviews, and governmental websites.

Control variables

Time-series analysis is based on the mathematical EKC model of historical data. It inevitably leads to uncertainty as we do not know whether the historical trends in recycling potential can persist. Nonetheless, contextual factors impact potential demand changes (Schipper et al., 2018 ). Among these subjective factors, demographic variations, Comprehensive utilization rate, and Mineral rents (% of GDP) significantly influence a particular country’s waste resource potential.

Comprehensive utilization rate

The comprehensive utilization stage consists of resource recovery and recycling; for example, the crude oil removed during the treatment stage and the sludge can be used in various ways (Dal Mas et al., 2021 ). Using EKC analysis, an estimate of China’s industrial waste production, primary treatment, extensive recycling, and disposal process was carried out using 2011- 2018 as the time boundary.

Mineral rents (% of GDP)

The economic potential of industrial waste is calculated in terms of Mineral rents. The difference between the production value for a mineral stock at world prices and its total production costs (Text S1 ). The values range from 1.45–16.4 million tons (% of GDP) (2020) (SI excel sheet). Thereby, we use Mineral rents as a control variable to estimate recycling potential. We also assumed that the rise in demand is projected to exceed the Chinese mineral and metal demand, as China has already taken an indispensable position in the mineral industry.

We used the population variants depicted in several World Bank publications (Nations, 2015 ; Zhang et al., 2017 ) to forecast recycling potential. Hence, we used 1993 as the base year. Previous research indicates that the growing population increases consumer demand, resulting in environmental degradation. However, a shift in environmental impact per capita is possible (Al Mamun et al., 2014 ; Boubellouta and Kusch-Brandt, 2020 ; Ohlan, 2015 ; Salman et al., 2019 ). From 2004–2006, there was a positive relationship between population and municipal waste generation per capita in 547 Italian municipalities (Abrate and Ferraris, 2010 ; Hanif and Gago-de-Santos, 2017 ). Based on this, we anticipate that population growth would positively impact industrial waste generation.

Financial growth

Given that China is already at a crossroads in expanding financial reform and reducing environmental pollution, it is critical and worthwhile to examine the relationship between financial development and environmental performance in China (Maneejuk et al., 2020 ; Zhao et al., 2019 ) (Awasthi et al., 2018 ). The existing research uses an "investment in environmental pollution treatment" as a financial sector indicator. Therefore, we chose this measure as financial depth. It is expressed as the ratio of total investment to the GDP in percentage terms. Data is collected from China Statistical Yearbook (Book).

Methodology

The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) is used in this study to assess the relationship between social-economic factors and industrial hazardous waste generation and calculate Chinese future recycling potential. By quantitatively assessing the IHW generation trend at a macro level, our study may provide a comprehensive picture of IHW generation and feedback on the Chinese government’s efficiency.

EKC modeling

The EKC model is based on the quadratic relationship between GDPPC and the environment. Many factors influence the relationship between the two, so in this paper, we adopt a trinomial equation to establish the quantitative relationship between GDPPC and the generation of industrial wastes. GDPPC is plotted along the horizontal axis, while industrial waste generation is plotted along the vertical axis. After determining the model, we use Origin to perform data fitting analysis.

We chose polynomial regression models (Grossman and Krueger, 1991 ; Miyama and Managi, 2014 ; Panayotou, 1993b ) because of their robustness in dealing with non-linear data and unobserved distinct heterogeneity variation. Using a quadratic function allows testing the standard EKC hypothesis (i.e., the hypothetical bell-shaped connection between pollution and growth). Furthermore, a quadratic functional form enables an EKC with an N or M shape (Terrell, 2020 ). In contrast, a higher polynomial order specification, such as the cubic function, allows for multiple pattern modeling (Purcel, 2020a ). The formulation of the model is well supported by literature (Enchi Liu et al., 2020 ; Jie Gu et al., 2020 ; Kim et al., 2018 ; Lazar et al., 2019 ; Tao et al., 2008 ; Xuejiao Huang et al., 2020 ; Xuemei et al., 2011 ). The model takes the following form:

where R p is the recycling potential index for industrial waste, ψ is the intercept value, γ is the economic development index (GDPPC), α 0 , α 1 , α 2 is the parameter to be estimated, δ is the random error term. The paper uses third-order polynomial fitting curves to have a higher fit, and R 2 and F tests show excellent results. The alpha coefficients determine the precise functional form as follows:

α ≠ 0, α 0  = α 1  = 0: the linear relationship between industrial waste and growth

α 0  < 0, α 1  > 0, α 2  = 0: U-shaped industrial waste growth nexus

α 0  > 0, α 1  < 0, α 2  = 0: inverted U-shaped industrial waste growth nexus

α 0  > 0, α 1  < 0, α 2  > 0: N-shaped industrial waste growth nexus

α 0  < 0, α 1  > 0, α 2  < 0: inverted N-shaped industrial waste growth nexus

An EKC-STIRPAT Model

STIRPAT is a well-known model in ecology; it is a mathematical expansion of the classic IPAT model. The model employs driving factors to assess the impact ( I ) of human activity on the environment (Wang et al., 2017 ). There are three basic specifications: population ( P ), affluence ( A ), and technology ( T ), usually in non-logarithmic form (Wang et al., 2013 ). Although this is important for theoretical work, researchers typically estimate using its logarithm version (STIRPAT).

Here, representative pollutants industrial hazardous waste emissions were selected as I indicators, and the indicators of the social economy were selected as P (Population/10000 persons), A (Affluence GDPPC), and T (Energy intensity by GDP) indicators, while e denotes an error.

Since the relationship between GDP and environmental degradation might be non-linear, the STIRPAT model has been used to investigate the EKC hypothesis between GDP and emissions (CO 2 ) or other environmental indicators. This has yet to be tested for solid waste. Combining the EKC hypothesis with the STIRPAT model could give a powerful technique for investigating the relationship between GDP and waste quantity in each industrial hazardous waste category.

Interrelationship among strategic elements to support EKC

The schematic view of the model is illustrated in Fig. 1 (produced with Vensim PLE 9.0 software). Considering the feedback loop between waste generation variables and GDP is valuable. The model allows us to evolve industrial waste recycling potential in non-trivial ways: including economics, comprehensive utilization, mineral rent, waste generation intensity, and environment. Industrialization also leads to the accumulation of waste pollutants. Growing ecological footprints and poor environmental cleanup bring about indirect EKC support. Without proper regulation, the link between the environment and development may constantly be positive. Moreover, Fig. 1 implies that China’s desire for a healthy climate increases the government’s pressure to regulate industry-based waste effectively.

Bold lines represent a ± feedback mechanism among variables.

Model equations

Numerous EKC research formulae, including linear, quadratic, and cubic, ensure the chosen model’s accuracy. Polynomial regression analysis revealed the following findings based on the GDPPC and the "three wastes" emission data statistics (Table S1 ).

Model analysis

In order to ensure the cross-compatibility of waste generation data and to develop forecasts for waste recycling potential, this analysis assumes that waste generation grows predominantly due to two variables. GDPPC growth: As a country develops economically, its per capita waste generation rises. GDPPC, with a purchasing power parity adjustment to 2011, shows economic growth. Population growth: as a country’s population increases, its total waste output rises proportionally. Figure 2 depicts the observed relationship between GDPPC and waste generation. The correlation between GDPPC and waste generation (tons/person/year) was calculated using a regression model. Total tailings and total slag (1993–2018) showed an inverted N shape, while different types of tailings, such as coal ash, coal gangue, etc., showed an inverted U shape. The independent variable in the best-fitting model is the natural logarithm of GDPPC (see STIRPAT model), while the dependent variable is per capita waste generation in tons/person/year.

It shows the GDPPC relationship, which steadily rises and correlates to industrial waste generation. The curves show quadratic regression models fitted to the data.

The Chinese EKC for the industrial waste generation curve is in the upward phase of the inverted U. Subsequently, large quantities of industrial waste, such as coal tar, different types of tailings, and slag, have increased quickly in recent years. At the same time, it demonstrates the influence of the Chinese GDPPC and the absence of timely environmental policy implementation. Numerous Kuznets curves were fitted to environmental and economic data to get regression coefficients R 2 (Fig. 2 ). The model’s R 2 for the trinomial equation is 0.86; the F test shows significance. Because the regression value is close to 1, the degree of curve fitting is more significant, and the analytical error is small. We compare our value to the volume of e-waste collected and the GDP Purchasing Power Standards, and the findings indicate that the best fit for the data is possible (Awasthi et al., 2018 ; D’Adamo et al., 2020 ).

STIRPAT model

This paper defines ln PRV , ln PPV , ln ARV , lnAPV, ln TPV , and ln TRV as dependent variables I . ln GDP , ln P , ln T (Energy intensity by GDP) are defined as independent variable PAT . It can be seen that the R 2 of all four groups of equations is more significant than 0.957, indicating that the regression results are credible. The three indexes with the greatest impact are as follows: ln PRV (11.845), ln ARV (−0.0069), and ln TRV (0.19062) (Fig. 3 ). Perhaps the most important lesson to be learned from the obtained estimates is that reducing the amount of industrial waste generated is a collaborative effort, as environmental measures taken by one municipality in the region affect the concentration levels of the pollutant in neighboring municipalities. The implications of the above model are to evaluate anthropogenic environmental impacts and constitute a valuable instrument for policy decision-making directed at controlling hazardous pollutants.

Here, lnA denotes the log of affluence, lnT the log of technology, and lnP the log of population.

EKC analysis and variable fitting

Economic development probably gives rise to environmental degradation, promoting economic prosperity with environmental protection. The EKC principle states that as the economy grows, so do emission indicators and the human population. Figure 4 shows the turning point for each variable, like comprehensive utilization in 2019 has a turning value of 102 million tons (Table S2 ). The waste category’s turning point corresponds to the study’s determined EKC inflection points. The revised EKC claims that technological change may accelerate the turning points; thus, the EKC graph shifts downward and right.

The existence of EKC in industrial waste can also be checked graphically.

The EKC turning points

During 2000–2018, the economy in China rapidly grew with an average increasing rate of 7.6% [Fig. S3A ]. For each measure of financial development, there is a range of GDPPC for which the total elasticity of financial development on industrial waste discharge per capita is negative [SI Fig. S3B ]. In other words, financial development benefits environmental quality at a particular degree of development. One explanation for this observation is that financial development’s effects on technological progress are critical for improving energy efficiency and lowering the waste emission intensity (i.e., the ratio of waste generation to GDP), which is not linear and depends on the economy’s specific characteristics.

The Chinese economy proliferated due to policies that allowed industrialization to dominate the economy. The turning point of the EKC between industrial waste generation and economic development in China is US$ 8066 (2018) (Fig. 4 ). The waste generation will continuously reduce as GDPPC increases if China’s economic growth is maintained. The underlying empirical research paid close attention to turning points in the waste generation-economic development nexus. Existing research shows that turning point values depend on various factors, including economic growth, the variables used to proxy for environmental quality, and the model used (Lazar et al., 2019 ; López-Menéndez et al., 2014 ; Sulemana et al., 2017 ). In our analysis, the presence of divergent GDP values for turning points are insulated from these sources of heterogeneity for the same pollutant (industrial waste generation) and after controlling for the same domestic (population, comprehensive utilization) and external mineral rent (% of GDP) factors. As a result, disparities in these turning points may well reproduce structural heterogeneity within our sample country.

Chinese EKC

The relationship between social economy and industrial waste pollution varies based on the country’s level of development (Levinson, 2002 ). However, this EKC pattern was most likely triggered by the following: The structure of the Chinese economy has shifted away from energy-intensive heavy industry to a more market-oriented service-based economy, which has aided China in ameliorating rather than exacerbating pollution. Additionally, corporations are committed to investing in new and enhanced technologies to increase cost-effectiveness (Luo et al., 2014 ; Panayotou, 1993b ). One of the most notable implications of this trend has been an increase in resource efficiency (comprehensive utilization) within the industrial sector, which has resulted in a 50% reduction in industrial energy intensity during the 1990s (Liu and Diamond, 2005 ). In addition, environmental awareness has increased among citizens (Luo et al., 2014 ). Environmental protection regulations have been enacted and efficiently implemented, another primary reason for impelling EKC (He and Wang, 2012 ; Kijima et al., 2011 ).

Numerical model for industrial waste recycling potential

Industrial waste is recycled based on generation volume and unit economic value (Yu et al., 2020 ). Equation 4 illustrates the quantitative model.

where \(RP_{IW}\) refers to the industrial waste recycling potential (unit: US$), and TGW a refers to the total generated amount (unit: million tons) of industrial waste a . EV a refers to the unit economic value (Chinese Yuan) of different waste categories. This model is well supported by literature (Yu et al., 2020 ). Table S3 shows the recycling potential in a million tons/yuan from 2011–2017. Then we forecast it till 2025 using integrated ARMA in NumXL software. Figure 5 shows a trend from 2011–2025, and the recycling potential shows a downward trend supporting EKC. For instance, total tailings support an inverted N-shaped. This estimation derives the probability distribution of the waste intensity factor statistically and extrapolates trash tonnages across China. This downtrend of recycling potential is due to the few valuable resources in industrial waste.

Recycling potential up to 2017 was calculated on collected data (Table S3 ). The projected forecast is based on the current trend (followed by EKC downtrend). Future recycling capacity of industrial waste will be determined by a range of socioeconomic factors that are difficult to predict.

We compare our projections result with previously published papers. Hoornweg et al., 2013 stated that extending those forecasts to 2100 for various published population and GDP scenarios demonstrates that global ‘peak waste’ will not occur this century if current trends continue (Dyson and Chang, 2005 ; Hoornweg et al., 2013 ). Li et al. 2020 estimated that the overall volume of discarded foundry sand in the United States declined from 2.2–7.1 million tons in 2004 to 1.4–4.7 million tons in 2014 (Li et al., 2020 ). Similarly, minerals included in non-hazardous industrial waste (NHIW) account for 100 million tons, with an annual power potential of ~200 billion kWh from 1990 to 2016. Both are predicted to increase by around 50% between 2017 and 2050 (Chen et al., 2021 ).

Robustness check

The sensitivity analysis with a deviation (±5%) is used to test the robustness of the EKC Model. Figure 6 shows that all the variables in EKC Model have different influence directions, as mentioned in the above model, so the estimation of the model is robust and reliable. We also validated our prediction with Integrated ARMA. Sarkodie and Strezov, 2018 used autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) analysis to validate the inverted N-shaped EKC hypothesis (Barış-Tüzemen et al., 2020 ; Sarkodie and Strezov, 2018 ).

All unknown parameters are at their base values, as indicated by the grey vertical line. The width of the bars represents the degree of uncertainty associated with each parameter (ranging from lower to upper limit). The blue segments of the bars indicate result values that increase the base case. In contrast, the orange segments indicate result values that decrease the base case.

The amount of waste generated and economic activity determines industrial waste recycling potential toward anthropogenic circularity. This paper closes the gap by establishing a sound framework to analyze industrial waste-related trends within a WKC conceptual framework encompassing the policy evaluation stage. The WKC theory was tested, and adding control variables demonstrated its robustness. The GDPPC, coal ash, and coal gangue showed an inverted U-curve, while total tailings, slag, and the industrial byproduct gypsum showed an inverted N-curve. The Chinese data set reflects signs of decoupling (reversal of industrial waste discharge per capita), indicating that the EKC of industrial waste per capita is still inverted N-curve due to the comprehensive utilization rate. The annual growth of China’s GDPPC in the 5 years leading up to the study appeared to play a significant role in the rise of industrial waste.

Thus, Chinese EKC exists in industrial waste, i.e., industrial waste generation increases as GDPPC rises and then starts declining at a certain level of GDPPC. However, this study determined the turning point at a high GDP level of US$ 8066 ± 1836 per capita. The turning point estimated in this work is consistent with Sarkodie and Strezov, who found US$7078 in 2018 (Sarkodie and Strezov, 2018 ). In EKC, the recycling rates generally remain high throughout. Thus, the proportion of industrial waste impacted recycling potential positively. The paper presents sound conclusions and recommendations. Building on the current literature overview, future work might include a meta-analysis to better understand the industrial waste-economic nexus via the EKC. Ecological changes cannot depend solely on the environment’s automaticity in economic development. Advanced technologies will increase resource utilization, resulting in industrial waste reduction. Thus, the relationship between Chinese GDPPC and industrial waste is constantly changing. The model indicates that industrial waste generation increases in lockstep with GDPPC growth.

Policy implications to achieve a circular economy

Economic liberalization and other growth-oriented measures are not a replacement for environmental policy. Economic growth depends on inputs (environmental resources) to outputs (product waste) (Arrow et al., 1995 ). EKC’s structure is determined by various factors, including the economic institutions that govern human activity. Only highly developed countries are expected to reach a turning point. Policy management, control, and monitoring will become increasingly important for long-term sustainable growth. From 2016–2020, China’s yearly growth rate is predicted to be less than seven percent (Zhang et al., 2016 ), a much slower pace than in the previous three decades. The Chinese government’s primary economic goal has switched from expansion to growth-balancing economic activity and environmental protection. Empirical evidence from EKC requires policymakers to understand if economic and sustainable development are stirring simultaneously.

An adequate waste management system will minimize mismanaged waste and generate financial returns by recycling and reusing materials. The Circular Economy can contribute to several different SDGs. Continued efforts are needed in all countries to improve waste collection, recycling, and reuse. The sustainability bottleneck is necessary to respond to China’s complexities and unique challenges of different waste flows. Offering targeted incentives to the private sector and improving national regulations are two factors that may contribute to developing the legal and institutional structure for proper waste management. Our findings help policymakers and academics devise research methods and evaluate the recycling potential of industrial waste.

Based on the preceding study, China’s industrial waste management might employ many CE practices to help achieve some SDG 12 goals. In the context of China, the responsible management of chemicals and waste (Target 12.4), the reduction of waste generation (Target 12.5), and the expansion of technological capacity (Target 12.6) are being pursued. In addition, lifecycle methods (Targets 12.4–12.6) and economic and social challenges merit additional consideration in promoting SDG 12. As an added measure, we must disseminate recycling procedures and technology that eliminate chemical emissions harmful to the environment. This would help get us closer to target 12.4 ("By 2020, achieve environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle."). Urgent initiatives are required for the successful execution of the Chinese Circular Economy Action Plan and the achievement of UN SDG Target 12.4:

Facilitate collaboration and involvement of all key actors along the whole life cycle of chemicals and materials with transparent supply chain management towards a unified vision based on the 12 principles of circular chemistry at the national, continental, and global levels.

Implement funding for new technology research to assist the industry in producing virgin and recycled industrial waste efficiently suitable for a circular economy model.

Waste must be included in future nexus studies to understand better these ties, especially in feedback and dynamics from interconnections between different SDGs.

Focusing on SDG 13 (Climate Action) is crucial for effective industrial waste recycling. According to Climate Action Tracker, initiatives that invest in green energy infrastructures, such as energy efficiency and low and zero-carbon energy supply technologies, have the highest impact on cutting emissions, regardless of whether the economy recovers optimistically or pessimistically by 2030.

Guarantee that everyone can access appropriate, safe, affordable solid waste collection services. Often, uncollected waste is dumped in waterways or burned in the open air, resulting in direct pollution and contamination.

Optimizing waste collection, source segregation, treatment technology, and landfill diversion is vital. Using the Internet of Things to manage and monitor waste saves CO 2 emissions. This will help mitigate climate change.

Here some policy suggestions are tentatively made. Green development of traditional industries should focus on the inherent requirements of "green, circular, and low-carbon" development. Using the "polluter pays" principle, pollution fees (taxes) are levied to increase non-green. Use the guiding role of the capital market to build a green financial system. Briefly, China should develop a plan to maximize the benefits of waste comprehensive utilization technology transfer and resource recovery technology.

Limitations

Our analysis yielded novel insights into the significant determinants of industrial waste and contributed to the EKC’s analytical discussion. Due to the limitation of the original data, the time series samples are only taken from 1993–2018 (and, for fewer cases, 2011–2018). Thus, the sample size is small; the empirical analysis is often more relevant if we use quarterly or monthly data. When additional data sets spanning many years become accessible, we allow prospective studies to use more extensive data sets covering a more extended period. Additionally, we urge future experiments to use various explanatory variables and other techniques to account for time-invariant characteristics.

Data availability

The supported data sources are publicly available, and their citations are mentioned in references of this paper and the Supplementary Information file.

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CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION

1.5 hypothesis.

Based on the aforementioned research questions, the following hypotheses were framed.

H 0 1: There is no significant difference between the pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2 mean scores of solid waste disposal and management knowledge test (SWDMT).

H 0 2a: There is no significant difference between the pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2 mean scores of character and values questionnaire (CVQ).

H 0 2a1: There is no significant difference between the pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2 mean scores on the items of ecological worldview in character and values questionnaire (CVQ).

H 0 2a2: There is no significant difference between the pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2 mean scores on the items of social and moral compassion in the character and values questionnaire (CVQ).

H 0 2a3: There is no significant difference between the pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2 mean scores on the items of socio-scientific accountability in the character and values questionnaire (CVQ).

1.6 Significance of the Study

SWDM-based SSIs activities that are proposed through this study will be beneficial for primary science teachers and primary school pupils. These activities could be included as guidelines to teach the topic of waste material in Year Six science curriculum. Primary science teachers could adapt these activities in real teaching as these activities are suggested to be integrated without revamping the existing curriculum. Currently, the education ministry places emphasis to employ the 21 st century teaching in order to produce productive, skilled and high level thinking pupils. Therefore, to meet this teaching objective a new interdisciplinary kind of teaching is required. Perhaps, SWDM-based SSIs activities suggested in this study will be a practicable approach for teachers to implement in their teaching. The activities suggested through this study could be a viable approach implemented by primary teachers because these activities provide 5E learning process. This teaching

approach could aid the teacher to place pupils in a well-structured learning environment in order to facilitate knowledge construction.

The primary pupils, on the other hand will benefit from these SSIs activities by enhancing their knowledge about SWDM issues. Exposing them to real life learning environment could cultivate the primary pupils‟ knowledge construction about SWDM issues. Additionally, they could develop additional skills such as communication skills; problem solving and reasoning skills since these activities are based on discussions and arguments. Engaging with SWDM-based SSIs activities promotes skills development because the pupils are engaged in various information search and evaluation processes as well as argumentation and reasoning processes.

On the other hand, the activities suggested through this study could turn primary pupils into responsible individuals in solving SWDM issues. These activities could cultivate the primary pupils‟ character and values in order to show responsibility towards society and also express willingness to solve social issues.

Making moral judgements by taking into consideration ethical and moral viewpoint could aid primary pupils to make reasoned decisions to obtain a clear solution for SWDM issues.

Other than that, the SWDM-based SSIs activities will be beneficial for curriculum designers, especially for primary science curriculum developers. It will be helpful for the curriculum developers, to include the SWDM-based SSIs activities proposed through this study in the curriculum specifications and in the training activities for in-service teachers. Currently, the Malaysian Education Ministry places emphasis on developing in-service teachers‟ teaching proficiency in order to make sure they are equipped with the knowledge and skills to face 21 st century challenges.

Thus, the activities suggested through this study could be used as a training module.

1.7 Limitation of the Study

The aim of this study was to enhance primary pupils‟ knowledge and promote character and values towards solid waste disposal and management (SDWM) issue.

The study was conducted relating the teaching and learning process of waste material topic of Year 6. Therefore, the scope of this study was restricted to the topic of waste material and cannot be generalized to other topics of primary science and subjects.

In this study, it was reported that ten SWDM-based activities were conducted for a six week time frame to observe the development of the pupils‟ knowledge and character and values. Probably, the development of pupils‟ character and values towards SWDM issues can be clearly seen if the duration of study is prolonged as Kohlberg (1986) stressed values change over time. However, Rokech (1973) claimed that continuous exposure enhances the formation of values. Thus, continuously engaging pupils for duration of six weeks as in this study is appropriate to measure value change. Lee et al. (2013) reported that duration of 4 weeks was indicated in the development of character and values among students.

The sample size of this study was limited to 58 samples of Year 6 pupils. The result could be more accurate and valid if the sample size increases. Although, Creswell (2010) asserts a minimum sample size of 30 is accepted for an experimental research, more samples are required for the findings to be generalized.

Generalization of this study is also limited because the samples of this study were from urban areas who have different exposure on SWDM issues compared to pupils from rural areas. The outcomes of this research might differ if it involved samples from rural areas. Thus, the treatment that is suggested through this study would not be generalized to other schools. Perhaps, the study needs to be repeated in rural schools in order to accurately identify the impact.

The evidences that were employed in this study were obtained from newspapers and YouTube. The articles and video clips from YouTube were mostly in English language causing constrains for primary pupils to understand the information precisely. However, in the context of this study, the information about the articles and clips were explained by the teacher. The additional sources that were used during the activities were limited.

In the current study, the effectiveness of integrating SWDM-based SSIs activities were reported based on data obtained from one group of students. Probably, the outcome of the treatment will be well established if the study was conducted with two control and experimental groups. Shadish et al. (2002) claimed the effectiveness of any kind of treatment is better reported using quasi-experimental design involving two groups. However, for current study the sample that involved was 58 and this sample divided into two groups will have less than 30. According Creswell (2013), minimal 30 samples are needed for experimental research.

1.8 Operational Definitions

Socio-scientific issues – Socio-scientific issues are described as debatable social dilemmas with conceptual association to science (Sadler, 2004; Fleming, 1986;

Zeidler, 2003). SSI is well known as open-ended dilemmas without any specific solutions and has multidimensional solutions which will be influenced by factors such as politics, economics, ethics and morality (Sadler, 2011; Zeidler et al., 2005).

Solid waste disposal and management (SWDM) is an open-ended multidimensional issue and there are many solutions for this such as SWDM-based SSIs.

SWDM-based SSIs - Solid waste disposal and management issues are controversial SSI (Hand & Levinson, 2012). It is about the accumulation of various kinds of solid waste and its effects to the environment, public and nature. These issues have a great impact on the environment and public health (Zurbrugg 2003; Yildiz, 2011). These issues also lead to societal environmental issues such as global warming, various kind of pollutions and health issues.

SWDM-based SSI activities- Socio-Scientific Issues (SSI) activities emphasise learning contexts (Sadler, 2009) which engage students in authentic practices and stimulate their own moral thinking and judgment about issues that affects the society (Zeidler, 2005). It encourages students to work together with friends, share and communicate by using newspapers, magazines and internet articles (Nuangchalerm, 2010) to identify, ask questions, construct and analyze arguments, judge the reliability of sources, interpret data, hypothesize, conclude and make value judgments about an issue (Tal & Kedmi, 2006). As such, the SWDM-based SSI activities in this study employed the pupils to actively participate in hands-on activities; exposed them to informative media such as videos clips, newspapers and articles; and using arguments and discussion to take informed decisions about SWDM issues. The SWDM-based SSIs activities were developed based on 5E Instructional Model which emphasizes on 5 learning stages as such engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration and evaluation (Bybee et al., 2006; BSCS, 1989).

Knowledge about solid waste – Knowledge about solid waste is the information, understanding and skills about solid waste that are gained through experience and education (Getahun, 2015). In this study, pupils will develop information and knowledge about the types of solid waste and its effects on others and the ways to manage solid waste in a proper manner through SWDM-based SSIs activities. Pupils were guided to improve their knowledge on solid waste, paper waste, plastic waste, food residue waste, hazardous waste, smoke and gases, biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste. The knowledge about the effect that arises from solid waste was also delivered to the pupils. Furthermore, knowledge about reduce, reuse and recycle (3R); waste segregation and landfill was also exposed to pupils. The pupils‟

knowledge on SWDM issue was measured by using a SWDM knowledge test which assessed the pupils‟ knowledge on current problems regarding SWDM issues, different types of solid waste, the effect of solid waste and the way to manage the solid waste in proper manner. Furthermore, the improvement of pupils‟ knowledge was also measured through open-ended knowledge tests (OPKT) which employed after each SWDM-based SSI activity.

Character and Values –Character and values are considered to be self-belief and guidance to act responsibly towards SSIs by showing respect and compassion towards other human beings, community and globally (Choi et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2013). It is identified as one of the dimensions of the 21st century Scientific Literacy (Choi et al., 2011). In this study, character and values of primary pupils toward SWDM issues was measured based on three dimensions; ecological worldview; social and moral compassion; and socio-scientific accountability.

Character and Values towards SWDM-based SSIs

Character and values is dynamic forces that assist or act as key points of reference for individuals to make a correct decision. Character and values towards SWDM-based SSIs describes about character and values towards solid waste disposal and management issues. This is about acting responsibly, showing compassion and considering others and nature while acting upon SWDM issues. The pupils‟ character and values towards SWDM-based SSIs was measured by using a character and values questionnaire which consists of 12 questions. The 12 questions were focused on three key elements of character and values such as ecological worldview, social and moral compassion and socio-scientific accountability.

Ecological Worldview – Ecological worldview is a mutual belief that all human beings coexist and are interconnected with nature (Smith & Williams; Bowers, 1999) and an individual‟s action will be based on self-evaluation by considering how the issues will impact the others. In this study, ecological worldview of the pupils were viewed as their common belief about others, environment and nature when handling solid waste and on how their actions contributed towards SWDM issues such as waste pollution, waste segregation and 3R practices and affects other human beings, environment and the nature. The pupils‟ changes in the value of ecological worldview were measured by using 4 questions in CVQ and 3 questions that were posed during the interview session.

Social and Moral Compassion – Social and moral compassion is the empathy and respect shown to protect the well-being of other human beings and living creatures (Gilligan, 1987; Ruiz & Vallejos, 1999). Social and Moral compassion towards SWDM issue is about expressing compassion and empathy. So that, this issue has a minimal impact towards other human beings, community surrounding them, on the society and other living things. The pupils‟ changes in the value of social and moral compassion were measured by using 5 questions in CVQ and 3 questions that were posed during the interview session.

Socio-scientific accountability – Socio-scientific accountability refers to accountable feelings and personal willingness to act responsibly towards any SSIs (Hodson, 1999). Socio-scientific accountability towards SWDM-based SSIs is about the individuals‟ attempt to make informed decisions and actively involve in sustainable practices such as implementing 3R in daily life, segregate solid waste and dispose solid waste in a proper way. The pupils‟ changes in the value of socio-scientific accountability were measured by using 3 questions in CVQ and three questions that evaluated during interview session.

1.9 Summary

This chapter started with an introduction followed by a detailed background of the study and the statement problems. The purpose of the study and objective of the research were explained. This chapter also discussed the research questions and hypothesis. This is followed by the elaboration of the rationale and significance of the study. This chapter ended with the limitation of this study and it provided definitions for important terms that were used throughout the writing. This chapter

summarizes that solid waste disposal and management issues became as critical issues that need to be tackled from the primary level. The amount solid waste that generated in Malaysia increase tremendously. Various strategies were took by our government. Awareness through eductions also given to primary, secondary and tertier pupils through various core subjects. However, this effort still fail in producing actively citizen who can solve this crucial dillemmas. This is due to the primary pupils‟ knowledge on SWDM issue and character and values were minimal.

The primary pupils‟ knowledge and character and values can be enhanced by implementing SSI activities in science education.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction

The main aim of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of integrating SWDM-based SSIs activities into primary science teaching in promoting primary school pupils‟ knowledge about SWDM issues and to promote their character and values towards these issues. This chapter will provide a detailed literature review on the Malaysian primary science curriculum focusing on the topic of waste material, reviews of literature on SWDM issues and SWDM knowledge among the Malaysian students. Additionally, this chapter will provide a review of literature on character and values. This chapter also discusses about the two theories: constructivist learning theory and moral development theory and 5E instructional model that governs this study. This chapter will end with providing the theoretical and conceptual framework that governs the study.

2.1 Primary Science Curriculum

The Malaysian science curriculum is intended to foster a culture of science and technology among the students. The curriculum emphasises on the individual development in producing individual who is competitive, dynamic, robust, resilient and capable to master scientific knowledge and technology competency (CDC, 2015). Furthermore, Malaysian science education also aimed to develop the overall potentials of individuals in an integrated manner so as to produce Malaysian citizens who are scientifically and technologically literate, competent in scientific skills, practice good moral values, capable of coping with the changes of scientific and technological advances, be able to manage nature with wisdom and responsibility for

the betterment of mankind (CDC, 2013). Malaysian science curriculum standards that have been developed through newly introduced KSSR education system is not only giving emphasizes on acquisitions of knowledge, skills and experience scientific attitudes and values but also stressed the ability to apply knowledge and skills acquired in daily life. These include inculcating creative, critical, reasoning, innovative problem solving and decision making skills among the students (CDC, 2015).

This notion appears to be in line with OECD‟s view on science education.

Science education should not only play roles in fostering the acquisition of scientific content knowledge, but also need to engage students in scientific inquiry, in lifelong learning and in discussions about modern science and technology problem as well as their personal and societal implications (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, OECD, 2012).

The learning process gets more meaningful when the students able to apply what they have learnt into their everyday lives (CDC, 2015). In this context, researchers have argued and suggested the importance of exposing students with controversial and socially relevant issues (Driver, Newton & Osborne, 2000;

Hodson, 2003; Kolsto, 2001; Zeidler, 2003). Science, technology and society (STS) approach is one of the approaches that would be able to expose the students with real-world issues as the STS approach involves interaction between science and social issues (Aikenhead, 2005). In the new KSSR curriculum inquiry-based STS approach is proposed as one of the strategies to deliver science content (CDC, 2015).

For example, the topic of waste material in Year Six science curriculum requires the pupils to make responsible decision on real life issues that are related to waste. STS approach is highly relevant and appropriate to deliver the issues on solid waste. STS

approach is also appropriate to teach the content on interaction among living things, human life process, microorganisms and energy. This is because these topics require pupils to be exposed to the real life issues which emphasise the social and science aspect.

Ziedler, Salder, Simmons and Howes (2004) discussed and analyzed about STS and SSI approach in an article entitled „Beyond STS: Research Based Framework for Socio-Scientific Issues education‟. Ziedler et al. (2004) stated that STS education was not embedded in a coherent manner or in an appropriate sociological framework. As such the STS approach failed to effectively develop the child‟s psychological and epistemological growth as well as character development.

In another study, Shamos (1995) claimed that although STS education emphasises the impact of decision on science and technology in society, it does not consider ethical issues, moral or character development.

In more recent studies, societal issues to do with the use of science are now coined as socio-scientific issues (SSIs) (Hodson, 2006; Sadler, 2004). In contrast to STS, the SSI approach would enable the students to understand science-based issues and guide the students to make decisions by considering the moral principles, concerning their own living and considering their physical and social world around them (Driver et al., 1996; Driver, Newton, & Osborne, 2000; Kolstø, 2001a; Sadler, 2004). Accordingly, SSI education is paralleled with the consideration of ethical issues and structuring of moral judgments about scientific topics through social interaction and discussion (Zeidler et al., 2005).

As far as the primary science KSSR curriculum is concerned, SSIs integrated at a minimal level into teaching and learning of topics as indicated in Table 2.1.

The Topics of Primary Science Curriculum for upper Primary Science. Adapted from CDC, (2013); CDC, (2014); and CDC, (2015).

This includes topic on human life process, energy, microorganism, interaction among living things and waste materials. While learning about human life process, SSI issues such as smoking, drinking alcohol and taking drugs are integrated. During the lessons on energy, the pupils are given opportunities to explore about renewable and non-renewable energy which are SSIs issues as well. Learning about microorganisms allows the pupils to discuss about spreading of diseases. Interaction among living things involves learning about global warming, deforestation, flash flood, extinction and logging. This analysis reflects the minimal level of integration

• Background of the Study
• Statement of the Problem
• Hypothesis (You are here)
• Operational Definition
• Character and Values
• Character and Values in the Context of Science Education
• Character and Values as Global Citizens
• Socio-scientific Issues
• Theory of Constructivism
• Theory of Moral Development
• Conceptual Framework
• Research Design
• Character and Values Questionnaires (CVQ)
• Analysis of Open-ended Knowledge Questions
• Quantitative Analysis of SWDM Knowledge
• Analysis of Ecological Worldview
• Summary of Qualitative Analysis on Character and
• The Effectiveness of SWDM-based SSIs Activities in

DOKUMEN BERKAITAN

Growth Strategies Aid Waste Management (WM) Amid Competition

Waste Management WM has had an impressive run over the past year. The stock has jumped 29.9%, outperforming 29.3% growth of the industry it belongs to and the 27.7% rise of the Zacks S&P 500 composite.

WM reported impressive fourth-quarter 2023 results, wherein earnings and revenues beat the Zacks Consensus Estimate. Adjusted earnings per share of $1.74 surpassed the Zacks Consensus Estimate by 13.7% and improved 33.9% year over year. Total revenues of $5.2 billion beat the consensus estimate by a slight margin and increased 5.7% year over year.

How Is Waste Management Doing?

WM focuses on differentiation and continuous improvement. Also, it instills price and cost discipline to achieve better margins. In order to improve service quality, the company anchors on competitive advantages, cost control and process improvement.

Waste Management, Inc. Revenue (TTM)

Waste Management, Inc. revenue-ttm | Waste Management, Inc. Quote

Waste Management's current ratio at the end of fourth-quarter 2023 was 0.90, higher than the preceding quarter’s 0.84 and the year-ago quarter’s 0.81. Increasing current ratio indicates that the company is less likely to face any issues while meeting its short-term obligations.

WM has a dominant market capitalization and a steady dividend and share repurchase policy. In 2023, 2022 and 2021, the company repurchased shares worth $1.3 billion, $1.5 billion and $1.35 billion, respectively. It paid out $1.14 billion, $1.1 billion and $970 million in dividends in 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

Waste Management operates in a highly competitive and consolidated waste industry. National, regional and local companies pose a competitive threat to WM. Increasing prices become tough in a competitive situation, thereby affecting its top line.

The company is witnessing an increase in its financing costs. Net interest expenses were $365 million, $378 million, and $500 million for 2021, 2022, and 2023, respectively.

Zacks Rank and Stocks to Consider

Waste Management currently carries a Zacks Rank #3 (Hold).

Some better-ranked stocks in the broader Zacks Business Services sector are APi Group APG and Charles River Associates CRAI.

APi Group flaunts a Zacks Rank of 1 (Strong Buy) at present. You can see the complete list of today’s Zacks #1 Rank stocks here.

APG has a long-term earnings growth expectation of 17.9%. It delivered a trailing four-quarter earnings surprise of 5.1%, on average.

Charles River Associates carries a Zacks Rank of 2 (Buy) at present. It has a long-term earnings growth expectation of 16%.

CRAI delivered a trailing four-quarter earnings surprise of 8.1%, on average.

Zacks Investment Research

• Service Areas
• St. Petersburg

St. Petersburg, Florida

Hazardous waste disposal in st. petersburg.

Clean Management offers Hazardous waste disposal services across the state of Florida , including the city of St. Petersburg . We can address any hazardous or nonhazardous waste management issue that may arise here. We provide the widest range of disposal and treatment options available for Hazardous and non-hazardous waste. Our extensive network of hazardous waste transporters and disposal facilities reaches across the nation.

There isn’t a single waste stream we aren’t capable of handling.

We handle all types and forms of waste: hazardous waste, non-hazardous waste, chemical waste, solid, sludge, liquid and gas waste. Whether you generate one 55-gallon drum of waste a year or multiple drums a month; we’ve got you handled. We handle all size DOT shippable containers including, but not limited to: 5-gallon pails, 30-gallon drums, 55-gallon drums, 85-gallon overpacks, Cubic yard boxes, supersacks and pallets. If your container is not DOT-shippable, we can provide those for you to keep you in compliance. With our extensive network of transporters throughout St. Petersburg  and across the nation, we can have your waste picked up on time, on YOUR schedule.

We can do anything. Just ask.

In addition to Hazardous Waste disposal services, we also offer effective environmental solutions. We specialize in oddball drums, materials, and projects. We can handle your project from cradle to grave and dispose of any waste, anywhere. No job is too big or too small. We also provide a wide array of industrial services, remediation, spill response, lab packs, and hazardous waste transportation throughout St. Petersburg , Florida.

Not sure what type of waste material you have?

Many of our customers have had containers of waste that have been sitting on their site for years and have no idea what type of waste it is. Clean Management specializes in characterizing and identifying what type of waste you have so that it can be disposed of properly. Give us a call and we will help you identify what you have and get your facility in St. Petersburg  in compliance.

We make it easy

We understand you’re busy and filling out paperwork is the last thing you want to worry about; that’s why we fill it all out for you. We fill out your hazardous waste profiles for you and get them approved at the disposal facility. Any required shipping documents (including but not limited to: labels, markings, placards, manifests, BOLs, LDRs) will be pre-printed and sent to you before we send the truck to your St. Petersburg  location to pick up your waste.

One Stop Shop

Clean Management Environmental is your one stop shop when it comes to Hazardous and Non-Hazardous waste disposal in St. Petersburg , Florida . Clean Management can handle any type of waste stream you have. Whether you have hazardous chemicals, paint waste, inorganic acids, or radioactive waste, we’ve got you covered in St. Petersburg . Instead of calling 3 different vendors to come pick up your waste, you can make one call and let Clean Management handle the rest. Whether you have 1 location in St. Petersburg  or 100 locations throughout the United States, Clean Management has you covered.

Competitive prices

Being in business for almost 30 years has allowed us to develop efficient transportation routes and disposal methods, therefore offering you the most competitive prices in the industry. Our environmental experts have a combined 150+ years of environmental experience. Hazardous waste disposal could be extremely expensive, but with Clean Management’s experience and knowledge in the industry, we can get it done at a competitive price.

In addition to St. Petersburg , Florida , we service all 50 states, so handling multiple locations is not a problem. Let us save you time and money by being your go-to company when it comes to your waste disposal needs. Getting rid of environmental waste shouldn’t feel like it’s wasting your time.

There are a lot of laws, rules, and regulations in the hazardous waste disposal business. We know how to keep you fully compliant with all of them. Leave the complicated stuff to us.

Give us a call today about your Hazardous waste disposal needs in St. Petersburg , Florida ; one of our live operators will answer the phone to give you a quote. No need to wait days or weeks for a quote; we can get you one today .

Request a Quote Give Us a Call Email Us

Any Waste. Anywhere.

Let us help you with your waste management needs.

• International edition
• Australia edition
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‘Poison portal’: US and UK could send nuclear waste to Australia under Aukus, inquiry told

Labor describes claims as ‘fear-mongering’ and says government would not accept waste from other nations

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Australia could become a “poison portal” for international radioactive waste under the Aukus deal , a parliamentary inquiry into nuclear safety legislation has heard.

New laws to establish a safety framework for Australia’s planned nuclear-powered submarines could also allow the US and UK to send waste here, while both of those countries are struggling to deal with their own waste, as no long-term, high-level waste facilities have been created.

The government introduced the Australian naval nuclear power safety bill in November last year. If passed, it will establish a nuclear safety watchdog, allow for naval nuclear propulsion facilities to be created, including for storing or disposing of radioactive waste from Aukus submarines. A second bill to enable the regulator to issue licenses was introduced at the same time.

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Both have been referred to a Senate inquiry, which is due to report on 26 April.

Dave Sweeney, the Australian Conservation Foundation’s nuclear free campaigner, said the issue of waste disposal was “highly disturbing” and that the Aukus partners could see Australia as a “a little bit of a radioactive terra nullius”.

“Especially when it’s viewed in the context of the contested and still unresolved issue of domestic intermediate-level waste management, the clear failure of our Aukus partners to manage their own naval waste, the potential for this bill to be a poison portal to international waste and the failure of defence to effectively address existing waste streams, most noticeably PFAS ,” he said.

The defence minister, Richard Marles, has previously accused the Greens of “fearmongering” when they raised similar concerns, saying the government would not accept waste from the other nations.

However, the legislation allows for the creation of facilities for “managing, storing or disposing of radioactive waste from an Aukus submarine”, and defines an Aukus submarine as either an Australian or a UK/US submarine, and “includes such a submarine that is not complete (for example, because it is being constructed or disposed of)”.

The Greens defence spokesperson, David Shoebridge, said HMS Dreadnought, one of the UK’s first nuclear submarines, had been “rusting away” since being decommissioned in 1980.

“You can go on Google Maps and look at them rusting away in real time, can’t you?” Shoebridge asked Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (Arpansa) chief regulatory officer, James Scott.

“Yes. There is no disposal pathway yet,” Scott said, adding he was “aware of the UK plans to establish a deep geological repository somewhere in the 2050s to 2060s”.

“There’s no exact date,” he said.

“The UK is pursuing a disposal pathway, and Australia will need to do the same. We are fully aware of this; we are engaging with our own radioactive waste agency, ARWA, on this, and it’s something that needs to be dealt with now, not later.”

The Dreadnought’s nuclear fuel has been removed to be stored safely. This has happened with some but not all of the submarines, but there is still no permanent disposal facility. The US also removes nuclear fuel for temporary storage .

Robin Townsend, an engineer and fellow at the UK-based Royal Institution of Naval Architects, told the inquiry that there was “a very big mountain to climb” to safely store nuclear waste, with the technology “still in its infancy”.

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“All countries are struggling to not just decommission the submarines, but also … to deal with the waste. Planning is critical. People who say that you need to plan to store the waste for 100,000 years aren’t wide of the mark,” he said.

“There’s very little progress I think it’s fair to say …. I would strongly advise that you do take it into account as early as possible.”

Other concerns raised at the hearings include a lack of transparency with the Aukus deal and the independence of the watchdog. There is another public hearing on Thursday.

The defence department said the bill would provide “a regulatory framework able to accommodate any future government decisions regarding the management of radioactive waste”.

“It would not determine those future government decisions, nor does it presuppose them,” it said in a statement.

Under questioning from Shoebridge, the defence department’s domestic nuclear policy branch assistant director general, Kim Moy, said nuclear facilities, including high-level waste facilities, could be established but that they would be established under regulations, which can be disallowed by parliaments.

Asked if such facilities could take waste from Australian, US, or UK nuclear-powered submarines, Moy said: “Yes. The bill enables the management of radioactive waste. It is a separate question about what policy or plans are associated with those aspects.”

A defence spokesperson said in a statement that the government was “committed to maintaining the highest levels of nuclear safety and stewardship, including a robust regulatory framework that is fit for purpose”.

“Australia will be responsible for nuclear waste generated from Australia’s conventionally-armed, nuclear-powered submarines over the full life cycle,” the spokesperson said.

“The Government has been clear that it will not accept high level nuclear waste and spent nuclear fuel from other countries as part of Australia’s acquisition of a nuclear-powered submarine capability.”

The government will establish a regulatory framework after consultation with the public, stakeholders and communities, and it will be done transparently, they said.

• Nuclear waste
• Australian politics
• Australian military
• Royal Australian Navy

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