interesting animals to do a research paper on

162 Best Animal Research Topics To Nail Your Paper In 2023

The world is filled with living things. There are some animals that we know about, some that we will discover, and there are many that we might never know about. All our knowledge about animals is mostly dependant on researchers. Well, we are rooting for you to be the next great researcher. Be it zoology, veterinary, or live wild stock, your study needs a research topic. If you’re looking for the best animal research topics to nail this year, we’re here with your help.

Table of Contents

Best Animal Research Topics

We have 162 Animal Research Topics that will help you get the best grades this year.

Physiology of Animals Research Topics

• Description of the knowledge required to work in animal physiology
• Study of animal species with different specialties in the sciences of nature and life
• Life sciences and socioeconomic impacts
• Neurulation appendages birds
• Exercises on gastrulation and neurulation
• Gastrulation amphibians birds
• Fertilization segmentation in the sea species
• Gametogenesis: A Detailed Introduction
• Study of Delimitation: bird appendages
• Particularities of the developmental biology of certain species
• Technical-commercial animal physiology
• Terrestrial and marine ecosystems
• Animal biology and forensic science: Is there a connection?
• Animal Biology Biotechnology and molecules of interest regarding food and industry
• The interest in biology in the diagnosis of animal and plant diseases
• Toxicology and environmental health concerns in animal physiology
• Animal and plant production
• Fundamentals of animal physiology research and analysis
• Behavior and evolution Genetics of behavior in animals
• Adaptation and evolution of behavior
• Comparative studies of general ecology, zoology, and animal physiology
• Study of animals about the conditions prevailing in their immediate environment
• Endocrine and neuroendocrine systems in animals
• Studying the nervous systems in birds
• Genitals and reproductive physiology of birds
• Understanding of the anatomical and functional particularities of invertebrates
• Biology and physiology of invertebrates
• Reconstruction of phylogenetic trees
• Morpho-anatomical arguments and the importance of fossils
• Argued classification of animals
• Study of the evolution of living organisms by making updates on recent advances in Animalia
• Phylogeny and animal evolution
• Principles of echolocation in the bats
• Possible evolution of the increase in complexity of the primitive nervous system
• The nervous system of the insect
• Circulation in animal physiology
• Animals without a differentiated circulatory system
• Water and mineral balance in animals
• Thermoregulation in animals
• Musculoskeletal system in animals
• Study of animal blood
• Biological rhythms of animals
• Skin and teguments of mammals
• Animal nutrition and metabolism
• Hormones and endocrine system of animals
• Emerging organic pollutants
• Mechanisms of toxicity in animals
• Animal physiology in animals from temperate regions
• Genetic correlations between animal species
• Animal communities, forest ecology, and forest birds
• Wildlife-habitat modeling

Looking for research topics in general? Read 402  General Research Paper Topics

Animal Research Topics For Student

• Impact of the agricultural raw materials crisis on the marketing of livestock feed
• Analysis of the competitiveness of poultry produced in the USA
• Animal cruelty in USA and European countries
• Seroprevalence of neosporosis in cattle herds
• The peri-urban dairy sector
• Effect of the liberalization of the veterinary profession on the vaccination coverage of livestock
• Why do people kill animals? The psyche behind animal cruelty
• Evaluation of the growth performance of three sheep breeds
• Study on the protection of terrestrial ecosystems
• Ecology of African dung beetles
• Effects of road infrastructure on wildlife in developing countries
• Analysis of the consequences of climate change related to pastoral livestock
• Strategies for management in the animal feed sector
• The feeding behavior of mosquitoes
• Bee learning and memory
• Immediate response to the animal cruelty
• Study of mass migration of land birds over the ocean
• A study of crocodile evolution
• The cockroach escape system
• The resistance of cockroaches against radiation: Myth or fact?
• Temperature regulation in the honey bee swarm
• Irresponsible dog breeding can often lead to an excess of stray dogs and animal cruelty
• Reliable communication signals in birds

Also see:  How to Write an 8 Page Research Paper ?

Animal Research Topics For University

• Color patterns of moths and moths
• Mimicry in the sexual signals of fireflies
• Ecophysiology of the garter snake
• Memory, dreams regarding cat neurology
• Spatiotemporal variation in the composition of animal communities
• Detection of prey in the sand scorpion
• Internal rhythms in bird migration
• Genealogy: Giant Panda
• Animal dissection: Severe type of animal cruelty and a huge blow to animal rights
• Cuckoo coevolution and patterns
• Use of plant extracts from Amazonian plants for the design of integrated pest management
• Research on flying field bug
• The usefulness of mosquitoes in biological control serves to isolate viruses
• Habitat use by the Mediterranean Ant
• Genetic structure of the  African golden wolf  based on its habitat
• Birds body odor on their interaction with mosquitoes and parasites
• The role of ecology in the evolution of coloration in owls
• The invasion of the red swamp crayfish
• Molecular taxonomy and biogeography of caprellids
• Bats of Mexico and United States
• What can animal rights NGOs do in case of animal cruelty during animal testing initiatives?

Or you can try 297 High School Research Paper Topics to Top The Class

Controversial Animal Research Topics

• Is it okay to adopt an animal for experimentation?
• The authorization procedures on animals for scientific experiments
• The objective of total elimination of animal testing
• Are there concrete examples of successful scientific advances resulting from animal experimentation?
• Animal rights for exotic animals: Protection of forests and wildlife
• How can animal rights help the endangered animals
• Animal experimentations are a type of animal cruelty: A detailed analysis
• Animal testing: encouraging the use of alternative methods
• Use of animals for the evaluation of chemical substances
• Holding seminars on the protection of animals
• Measures to take against animal cruelty
• Scientific research on marine life
• Scientific experiments on animals for medical research
• Experimentation on great apes
• Toxicological tests and other safety studies on chemical substances
• Why isn’t research done directly on humans rather than animals?
• Are animals necessary to approve new drugs and new medical technologies?
• Are the results of animal experiments transferable to humans?
• Humans are not animals, which is why animal research is not effective
• What medical advances have been made possible by animal testing?
• Animals never leave laboratories alive
• Scientific interest does not motivate the use of animal research
• Animal research is torture 
• How can a layperson work against the animal testing?

Every crime is a controversy too, right? Here are some juicy  Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics  as well.

Animal Research Topics: Animal Rights

• Growing awareness of the animal suffering generated by these experiments
• What are the alternatives to animal testing?
• Who takes care of animal welfare?
• Major global organizations working for animal rights
• Animal rights in developing countries
• International animal rights standards to work against animal cruelty
• Animal cruelty in developing countries
• What can a layperson do when seeing animal cruelty
• Role of society in the prevention of animal cruelty
• Animal welfare and animal rights: measures taken against animal cruelty in developing countries
• Animal cruelty in the name of science
• How can we raise a better, empathetic and warm-hearted children to put a stop to animal cruelty
• Ethical animal testing methods with safety
• Are efforts being made to reduce the number of animals used?
• The welfare of donkeys and their socioeconomic roles in the subcontinent
• Animal cruelty and superstitious conceptions of dogs, cats, and donkeys in subcontinent
• Efforts made by international organizations against the tragedy of animal cruelty
• International organizations working for animal welfare
• Animal abuse: What are the immediate measures to take when we see animal cruelty
• Efforts to stop animal abuse in South Asian Countries
• Animal abuse in the name of biomedical research

Talking about social causes, let’s have a look at social work topics too: 206  Social Work Research Topics

Interesting Animal Research Topics

• The urbanization process and its effect on the dispersal of birds:
• Patterns of diversification in Neotropical amphibians
• Interactions between non-native parrot species
• Impact of landscape anthropization dynamics and wild birds’ health
• Habitat-driven diversification in small mammals
• Seasonal fluctuations and life cycles of amphipods
• Animal cruelty in African countries
• Evolution of the environmental niche of amphibians
• Biological studies on Louisiana crawfish
• Biological studies on Pink bollworm
• Biological studies on snails
• Biological studies on Bush Crickets
• Biological studies on Mountain Gorillas
• Biological studies on piranha
• Consequences of mosquito feeding
• Birds as bioindicators of environmental health
• Biological studies on victoria crowned pigeon
• Biological studies on black rhinoceros
• Biological studies on European spider
• Biological studies on dumbo octopus
• Biological studies on markhor
• Study of genetic and demographic variation in amphibian populations
• Ecology and population dynamics of the blackberry turtle
• Small-scale population differentiation in ecological and evolutionary mechanisms
• Challenges in vulture conservation

Also interesting: 232  Chemistry Research Topics  To Make Your Neurochemicals Dance

Submarine Animals Research Topics

• The physiology behind the luminous fish
• A study of Fish population dynamics
• Study of insects on the surface of the water
• Structure and function of schools of fish
• Physiological ecology of whales and dolphins
• Form and function in fish locomotion
• Why do whales and dolphins jump?
• Impact of Noise on Early Development and Hearing in Zebrafish
• Animal cruelty against marine life on the hand of fishermen

Read More:  Accounting Research Topics

Animal Biology Research Topics

• Systematic and zoogeographical study of the ocellated lizards
• Morphological study of neuro histogenesis in the diencephalon of the chick embryo
• Anatomical study of three species of Nudibranch
• The adaptive strategy of two species of lagomorphs
• The Black vulture: population, general biology, and interactions with other birds
• Ocellated lizards: their phylogeny and taxonomy
• Studies on the behavior of ocellated lizards in captivity
• Comparative studies of the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards
• Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards
• The taxonomic and phylogenetic implications of ocellated lizards
• Research on the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards
• Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards in their natural environment
• Comparative studies of the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards in different countries
• Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards in their natural environment in the light of evolutionary and ecological insights

Animal research topics are not hard to find for you anymore. As you have already read a load of them. You can use any of them and ace your research paper, and you don’t even need to ask permission. If you are looking for a research paper writing service , be it animal research, medical research, or any sort of research, you can contact us 24/7.

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Animal Research Topics Unleashed: Fauna Frontiers

Table of contents

• 1 How to Choose Animals Research Topics?
• 2.1 Animal Physiology Research Topics
• 2.2 Controversial Animal Topics
• 2.3 Animal Rights Topics For Research Paper
• 2.4 Interesting Animal Research Topics
• 2.5 Veterinary Topics For Research Paper
• 2.6 Animal Testing Research Topics
• 2.7 Animal Cruelty Topics
• 2.8 Research Questions about Animals
• 3 Get Professional Help for Your Animal Research Paper

Contrary to popular belief, animal research topics are not only used by veterinarians. They are also pursued by students majoring in Healthcare, Sound Engineering, and even subjects like Fashion Studies and Chemistry. Of course, it may require writing an excellent custom research paper because the trick here is to tailor things to what you need. The most challenging, however, is to choose your topic correctly and avoid being vague about what you must explore. Even if you would like to explore environmental issues, using animal research topics will be essential. You need to provide an explanation of your reasoning and the negative effects of human interaction with flora and fauna.

How to Choose Animals Research Topics?

While there may be no universal topic that will reflect all sides of animal-related research, consider those subjects that you know well. It must inspire you and be an area where you feel comfortable. If you love marine life and can provide personal research examples, it would be good to choose something that will suit a reflection journal. Alternatively, consider animal topics for research papers that can be supported by reliable sources and statistical information.

Start with an outline or a list of arguments that you would like to explore. Once done, continue with the wording for your topic that introduces the problem and offers a solution. You may also pose a research question about a problem or make a claim that will be supported by what you include in your paper. Always refer to your grading rubric and choose your research paper type accordingly. For example, your nursing research paper may talk about the use of animals for rehabilitation purposes, while a legal student may talk about animal rights in various countries. It all should be approached through the lens of what you learn as a primary subject!

50+ Most Interesting & Easy Animal Research Topics

Animal physiology research topics.

As you might already know, animal physiology studies anything related to the physical processes, changes in behaviors, breeding patterns, and more. As you think about choosing the animal physiology branch, always narrow things down if possible.

• Life-supporting properties of trained dogs in the wilderness.
• Homeostatic processes in migrating birds and the global warming challenges.
• The changes in circadian pacemakers and the processes of aging.
• The changes in flora and related metabolomic-based processes.
• Self-healing practices and digestive enzyme aspects.
• Food intake and glucose stimulation methods.
• Insensitivity to insulin: causes and consequences among domestic animals.
• Muscle cells development and fat management.
• Fish and Shellfish immunology processes in relation to Covid-19 studies.
• The role of mammals in the prevention of aquatic toxicology.

Controversial Animal Topics

This aspect of animal research essay writing may not be everyone’s cup of tea, which is why it is necessary to explore the facts and provide information that represents both sides of the debate. Stay sensitive and avoid being too graphic unless it is necessary. Below are some ideas to consider:

• The cultural practices of whaling in the Faroe Islands and Iceland.
• Animal testing and vaccination practices in Asian countries.
• The use of horses, camels, and donkeys to entertain tourists in the Middle East.
• The consequences of irresponsible dog breeding practices.
• Climate change and the subsequent loss of the natural habitat.
• The dark truth about the ivory trade.
• The use of pets for advertisement and promotional purposes.
• Animal rights protection and restrictions of breeding.
• SPA for the pets: a natural development or immoral practice?
• Animal trading and certification issues.

Animal Rights Topics For Research Paper

The subject of animal rights is popular among students coming from all academic disciplines. Since you can approach it via the philosophical, legal, or medical lens, think about how to reflect your primary skills. It will make your research of animal right topics sound more confident.

• The regulation of puppy mills and breeding in the United States.
• The legal aspect of animal sports and related regulation.
• How should one treat pets that have been abandoned by the owners?
• Clothing industry and legal regulations: from trading to advertisement.
• The use of innovative methods in medical research and experimentation.
• Animal ethics and the theological aspect of animal rights.
• Training your dog well: what are the basic behavior rules to consider?
• The breeding limitations and the farming practices in the United Kingdom.
• Animal rights in the United States vs regulations in Canada.
• Animal trading: what country should be held responsible for animal mistreatment?

Interesting Animal Research Topics

• Why do elephants remember everything and how does their brain work?
• Perception of love and affection among dogs vs cats.
• The communication methods used by the dolphins.
• Do horses feel the spirit of the competition during the ride?
• Perception of children and the elderly by mammals.
• Survival in the wilderness and the hunt for water.
• The navigation system of the working bee.
• How has technology changed domestic animals and their habits?
• The use of dogs in the world’s rescue operations: unusual case studies.
• Establishment of emotional bonds with dogs vs cats.

Veterinary Topics For Research Paper

In the majority of cases, you may refer to your veterinary branch first and proceed from there or take a look at the variety of veterinary research topics that we have presented below. Remember to quote every citation and idea that has been taken from other sources to avoid plagiarism.

• How to establish immune responses in chickens by using disease vaccine prevention methods?
• How do low doses of ketamine affect healthy dogs during epidural anesthesia?
• The use of biomarkers for therapeutic purposes and the role of pet owners.
• RNA genetic analysis and the use of AI-based endometria research to establish common sequences.
• What do we know about canine coronavirus research: pros and cons of artificial modeling.
• Egg production changes related to air pollution and chemical vapors.
• Wildlife surveillance ethics in the United States: pros and cons of modern remote monitoring.
• What are the causes and consequences of selenium deficiency and how can this aspect be addressed by the tissue analysis.
• Veterinary cardiology principles and the use of knowledge sourced from human cardio-vascular research.
• Canine immunopathologies and the high levels of stress caused by Covid-19 restrictions and social distancing.

Animal Testing Research Topics

Even though this subject seems to be discussed everywhere these days, finding good animals topics to write about that deal with animal testing is not easy. Think about what are the underlying reasons for testing and what forces scientists to use it as a method. It will help you come up with ideas and better exploration strategies.

• Does finding a cure without the use of animals represent only an economical challenge?
• Genetic research in the United States and the use of animals for research purposes.
• Should animal cloning and illegal breeding practices be banned?
• Beauty products industry and animal testing controversies.
• Stell Cell Research: the role of animals in the current advancement.
• Cell modulation and modeling as the replacement of animal testing.
• Animal experimentation and the history of the world’s vaccination methods.
• Does animal testing lead to safety in relation to emerging diseases?
• Animal lifespan and the research objectives for medical testing.
• Current human testing practices: do they represent an alternative to animal testing?

Animal Cruelty Topics

Warning: writing about animal cruelty subject is not for everyone, which is why you must be aware that the facts and statistics you may find will be shocking. It should be explored only if you are ready to embrace this disturbing subject. At the same time, you can explore milder animal cruelty cases like using pets as influencers on social media or the use of donkeys at the beaches to entertain tourists. There is always something to think about!

• The practice of cockfighting.
• The cultural heritage of bull-fighting in Spain.
• The use of monkeys for entertaining purposes.
• How are animal rights obeyed during filming practices?
• The use of pets as animal beauty promoters and social media influencers.
• Illegal farming practices in Asian countries and the Middle East.
• How can dog hunters be identified and punished?
• Why does whaling still continue in the Faroe Islands?
• The use of natural fur during beauty commercials.
• Vegetarian foods production: how justified it is for natural animal habitat?

Research Questions about Animals

When you would like to take a general approach to animals research, it is good to come up with a research question as a part of your thesis statement or main argumentation. See these animals research paper examples:

• The use of canines in cancer research methods: what breeds fit the most?.
• Pig kidney transplantation methods: what are the core genetic aspects.
• The use of rats in the decrease of immune diseases: why do they represent the most fitting species?
• Blood transfusions and the use of animal cardio-vascular system principles: what are the points to consider?
• Can animal behavior patterns be helpful for use in human mental diseases?
• Animal Welfare Regulations: are there mechanisms to have an impact on animal care?
• The use of dangerous dog breeds in the world: should such breeding be regulated like gun control?
• Improvement of cognitive functions among children who are dog owners: what is the role of the animals in question?.
• PTSD among military veterans: how can we use the animals to help the healing processes?
• The study of myocardial infarction in primates vs canine studies: why dogs represent better research models?

Get Professional Help for Your Animal Research Paper

Without a doubt, it is easy to get stuck with a multitude of topics and ideas. If you are planning to write about animal rights but do not know how to include certain animal physiology principles, it is safer to consider timely help with research paper. Our skilled team of specialists in this field will provide you with relevant sources and will help you polish things to perfection when you need assistance or do not know how to continue.

The same relates to checking your existing draft and citations in terms of plagiarism and originality. Writing about animals is never easy, which is why we know how you feel and also realize what your college professors expect to see. Take a look at our research topics about animals, trust us with your concerns and we shall help you achieve success!

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244 Awesome Animal Topics for Research Papers

So, did your professor just asked you to write an exceptional animals research paper? You may think that it is an easy assignment, but it may not be. Don’t wait until the last possible moment to write this essay because you may not be able to do a good job on it. Even though you know how to write the paper, there is another problem you need to take into consideration: finding a great topic.

Truth be told, finding excellent animal topics for research papers is a lot more difficult than you think. Yes, you can find many such topics on the Internet, but you won’t be able to find an original one. Unfortunately, your classmates are using the same websites to look for ideas. This means that you could pick a topic that one or more of your classmates have already selected. Your teacher will definitely not appreciate it, and this will reflect on your final grade.

Looking for Awesome Animal Topics for Research Papers?

All students looking for research paper on animals should visit this page periodically. Our topics are the best and they are all 100% original. Also, many of them are relatively easy to use. Keep in mind that a good topic is one that has plenty of information about it on the Internet. Why spend days doing the research when you can start writing the paper right away?

But why would you choose our animal research topics? There are surely other good topics on the Internet. Well, there really aren’t that many good ideas on other websites. Here are just some of the reasons to take a look at our ideas and pick the best topics for your next research paper:

All our ideas are original at the time this article was written. These topics have been created by our experienced ENL writers. We are working hard to add new topics periodically. Also, we are removing topics that are not of interest anymore. You can use any of our topics without having to pay anything. Yes, this list of topics really is 100 percent free. You do not have to give credit to our website when you use a topic you find on this page. You are free to reword our topics as you see fit. You can always get in touch with our experienced writers and editors if you need more topics. We can compile a brand new list just for you in no time.

Choose One of Our 244 Research Topics About Animals

You can find everything from animal rights to veterinary doctor topics in our latest list of 244 animal topics for a research paper. Enjoy:

Easy Animal Topics to Write About

If you are looking for some easy animal topics to write about, we have the best ideas. Check out the ideas below and pick the best one for your next research paper:

• Discuss a well-known Asiatic horse breed
• Dog vs. cat as a pet
• How to train a pony quickly
• Polar bears at the South Pole?
• Saving the last remaining orangutans
• The weirdest 3 animals on Earth
• Poaching and its negative effects
• Best ways to train a dog
• Negative effects of veal on humans
• Best ways to train a cat
• Discuss the classification of migratory birds
• Why are penguins flightless birds?
• Africa and its wildlife: an in-depth analysis
• Can you have a pet spider?
• Can Grizzly bears sense fear?
• Methods to prevent poaching in wildlife preserves
• Negative effects of pork meat on humans
• The disastrous effects of palm oil

Interesting Animal Research Topics

If you are looking for some of the most interesting animal research topics on the Internet, you have arrived at the right place. Here are some ideas for you:

• Are mosquitos useless insects?
• Lion prides in African wildlife preserves
• Talk about the anatomy of the hyena
• An in-depth look at the Tardigrade
• Discuss the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
• Best wildlife parks in the United States
• Animal adaptations to survive the desert
• Endangered animal species in the UK
• Analyze a butterfly’s life cycle
• Are dolphins really as intelligent as they are portrayed?
• Is medical testing on animals justified?
• Pros and cons of zoos
• Giant Panda and related conservation efforts
• Benefits of poisonous animals
• Should you spay or neuter your pet?
• How do monkeys climb trees so quickly?
• Largest whales in the world
• Animal adaptations to survive the cold
• What is a porpoise?
• Ethical problems with animal testing

Research Questions About Animals

Take a look at our research questions about animals and pick the one you like. All of these questions should work great for 2023:

• Should we test antibiotics on animals?
• Why did the dinosaurs go extinct?
• How do you care for an exotic pet?
• Which is a better pet, a cat or a dog?
• Which is the largest predator in the United States?
• Are zoos inhumane prisons for animals?
• Are dolphins friendly?
• Do we have the right to kill animals?
• Should we ban hunting for sport?
• Should we give animals more rights?
• Should we stop euthanizing stray animals?
• How can we protect endangered species?
• Which is the largest land mammal in Europe?
• Should you buy a dog or adopt one?
• Do you really need a pet?
• Should exotic pets be banned in the UK?
• Can we improve the life of zoo animals?
• Should punishments for animal cruelty be more severe?
• Can a fox be a good pet?
• Is medical testing on animals justifiable?

Animal Rights Topics for Research Paper

Are you looking for awesome animal rights topics for research paper? No problem, we have a list of the most interesting topics right here:

• Talk about animal rights in the US
• Giving more rights to animals in the US
• Discuss animal rights in China
• Do feral dogs have any rights?
• Analyze animal rights in Europe
• Do invasive species have rights too?
• Discuss animal rights in the United Kingdom
• Fishing practices and animal rights
• Analyze animal rights in North Korea
• Discuss animal rights in zoos
• Destroying predator animals without breaking the law
• Discuss animal rights in India
• Do feral cats have rights too?
• Analyze the ethics behind pet euthanasia
• Factory farming and animal rights
• Discuss cow rights in India
• Animal rights violations in the whaling industry
• Cosmetics testing on animals
• Analyze the decline of ivory trade worldwide
• Cockfighting in the United States

Simple Animal Rescue Topics

We know you probably don’t want to spend too much time working on your research paper. Check out the following list of simple animal rescue topics and choose one:

• Why should we rescue animals in need?
• Effects of Australian bushfires
• Poor social skills of rescue animals
• What does animal rescue do?
• Negative effects of wildfires on animals in the US
• Should zoos be forced to rescue animals?
• Euthanizing rescued animals
• Exotic animals in the United States
• Resource guarding problems with rescue dogs
• Lack of veterinary care for rescued animals
• Inadequate screening procedures for adoption
• Anxiety problems in rescue dogs
• Destructive behavior in rescue cats
• The dangers of animal rescue operations
• Where do rescued animals end up?
• Are all rescued animals traumatized?

Veterinary Topics for Research Paper

Interested in writing about veterinary topics? Our experienced writers and editors have compiled a list of great veterinary topics for research paper:

• What does being a veterinarian mean?
• Challenges of the veterinary profession
• What is Brucellosis?
• Most common cat diseases in the United Kingdom
• Discuss biomedical research conducted on animals
• Talk about poor veterinary care in rural areas of Europe
• Discuss natural animal feeds
• Breakthroughs in veterinary technology
• Best way to fight a Tapeworm infection
• Diseases humans can get from pets
• Most popular exotic animals as pets in 2023
• Using punishments effectively for training purposes
• Why it’s good to microchip your pets
• Causes of mycotoxicoses
• Ways to treat a Hookworm infection
• Is there an effective cure for Rabies?
• Most common dog diseases in the US
• Can Campylobacteriosis infections cause death?

Animal Abuse Topics

If you want to write about animal abuse and other related subjects, we have a list of animal abuse topics that should get you a top grade on your next research paper:

• Talk about animal abuse issues in the United States
• Animal abuse issues in the United Kingdom
• Animal cruelty versus animal abuse
• Discuss animal abuse issues in China
• Effects of animal hoarding behaviors
• Staging animal fights is abuse
• Animal abuse issues in Eastern Europe
• Cruelty to animals leading to violence against people
• Animal abuse issues in India
• Is animal testing animal abuse?
• Can neglect be considered animal abuse?
• Animal abuse: rural versus urban cases
• Shooting is an animal abuse
• Animal abuse laws in the US
• Animal abuse laws in the UK

Animal Topics for High School

Looking for some of the best animal topics for high school? Take a look at the list below and pick the most interesting idea:

• Why is veterinary care so expensive?
• Differences between dromedaries and camels
• Should pets be allowed in school?
• Compare and contrast lions and cheetahs
• Wild animals as pets in the UK
• The worst pet on Earth
• Adopting an animal from the local animal shelter
• Can elephants swim?
• An in-depth look at the camel
• Compare and contrast cats and dogs
• Discuss irresponsible dog breeding in your city
• Analyze the habitat loss of orangutans
• How do killer whales hunt?
• Animal rights issues in Asia
• Discuss disastrous fishing practices
• Animal welfare issues in adoption centers

Animal Testing Research Topics

Talking about animal testing research topics shouldn’t worry you, as long as you remain objective and impartial. Here are some relatively simple topics on this:

• Is it ethical to test cosmetics on animals?
• Animals used for chemical warfare testing
• Lab mice and their awful fate
• Testing vaccines on animals
• Finding a cure for Covid-19 using animals
• Stem cell research using animals
• Worst medical tests done on animals
• Banning animal experimentation in the UK

Animal Cruelty Topics

Looking for the best and most interesting animal cruelty topics you can find? We have a list of ideas right here for high school and college students:

• Animal cruelty punishments in the US
• What constitutes animal cruelty?
• Puppy mills in the United States
• Animal cruelty punishments in the UK
• Exotic animals as pets: a form of cruelty
• Dog fighting
• Pet overpopulation in large cities
• Factory farming
• Animal abuse vs. animal cruelty

Persuasive Topics About Animals

Writing about animals in a persuasive manner shouldn’t be too difficult. If you have access to some good persuasive topics about animals to write about, things will get even easier:

• Stop deforestation before it is too late
• Avoid eating animal foods
• The effects of global warming on wildlife
• Stop using animals in circuses
• Avoid eating pork
• Get your pet a microchip
• Is pet insurance worth the money?
• Foxes are not meant to be pets
• Adopt your pet instead (as opposed to buying it)
• Negative consequences of pollution on animals
• Banning factory farming practices

Endangered Animals Topics

Do you want to raise awareness about endangered species of animals? No problem, we have some of the greatest endangered animals topics right here:

• Can we save the whooping crane?
• Saving the bonobo monkey
• Can we save the peregrine falcon?
• The endangered Galapagos penguin
• Can we save the black-footed ferret?
• Save the South Asian river dolphin
• Can we save the whale shark?
• The dwindling population of Loggerhead sea turtles
• Can we save the Monarch butterfly?

Advanced Topics About Animals

If you want to impress your professor, why not write your research papers on some advanced topics about animals? Here are a couple of interesting ideas for students:

• The life cycle of an alligator
• Most dangerous exotic pets
• Deep sea fish adaptations
• Discuss bioluminescence

Informative Animal Topics for an Essay

Writing an informative essay is definitely not a complicated thing to do. However, the grade you get on your paper depends on the quality of the informative animal topics for an essay:

• Describe the rabbit
• Discuss the red panda
• Describe the horse
• What is a Saola?
• Talk about the Thylacine
• An in-depth look at the Asian elephant
• Talk about the Dodo bird
• Wolfs on the edge of extinction
• What is a Kakapo bird?
• Are polar bears in danger?
• The life of the green sea turtle

Complex Veterinarian Research Paper Topics

If you want to try your hand at some complicated research papers, we have some quite complex veterinarian research paper topics right here:

• How do dog vaccines work?
• Why are lab mice perfect for experiments?
• Animals in extreme cold conditions
• Animals at extreme depths: adaptations

Most Engaging Animal Topics

We know, you want to engage your audience and impress everyone in the class. Here are some of our most engaging animal topics. Pick one and start writing now:

• Buying your child a pet
• Animal fight games in the UK
• Should you vaccinate your cat?
• Zoo animals psychological issues

Topics About Your Favorite Animal

Everyone has a favorite animal, including your teacher. So, why not write something about it? Here are some topics about your favorite animal that should work great:

• What is your favorite animal and why?
• The funniest animals in existence
• Why do dogs make such good pets?
• Should you own an exotic pet?
• What do you appreciate about your favorite animal?
• The best animal in the world
• The traits of your favorite animal
• Can an animal be loyal?

Animal Topics for College

College students should not pick easy topics because professors tend to penalize them. Check out these animal topics for college students and select one of them:

• The best pet for a college student
• How do Tardigrades survive in space?
• Using snake venom to make anticancer drugs

Controversial Animals Topics

Why would you be afraid to write about controversial topics? Check out our list controversial animals topics and pick the best one for your needs right now:

• Chemical testing on animals
• Weapon testing on animals
• Testing cosmetic products on animals
• Testing new drugs on animals
• Animals used in scientific experiments
• Saving laboratory mice from their fate
• Poaching in Africa
• Stopping the trade of ivory
• Hunting animals for their fur

Topics on the Conservation of Animal Species

There are so many endangered species of animals in the world that it’s difficult to pick one to write about. Here are some of our most interesting topics on the conservation of animal species:

• An in-depth look at the conservation of wild orangutans
• Analyze conservation efforts of the lion population
• Saving the blue whales from extinction
• An in-depth look at the conservation of wild cheetahs
• An in-depth look at the conservation of wild tigers
• Is the California condor an endangered species?
• Saving the snow leopards from extinction
• Analyze conservation efforts of the giant panda population
• An in-depth look at the conservation of wild Javan rhinoceros

Argumentative Essay Topics About Animals

Finding some exceptional argumentative essay topics about animals can be difficult, especially if you want your paper to stand out from the rest. Here are some great ideas for you:

• Cats make the best pets
• Animals should not be held in captivity
• Exotic pet ownership must be banned
• Palm oil should be banned
• Zoos should be more tightly regulated
• Never feed wildlife no matter what
• We need more elephant sanctuaries
• Stopping Maasai from hunting lions
• Dogs make the best service animals
• Hyenas are becoming an endangered species
• The importance of flies

Get Help From Our Professional Writers

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• 2021 IN REVIEW

The 12 most intriguing animal discoveries of 2021

Here are our editors’ picks for the most compelling wildlife findings of the year, from ants that can regrow their brains to the world’s tiniest reptile.

As we approach the third year of the COVID-19 pandemic, amid increasingly destructive climate change, news coverage of science can sometimes be a heavy read.

But Earth is still an incredible place, bursting with promise and mystery. Research into the wonders of the natural world continue to show us how amazing life on our planet really is.

Here are the top 12 animal discoveries that got our attention this year.

‘Virgin births’ in a rare bird  

California condors—magnificent scavengers with a wingspan of over nine feet—almost went extinct by the middle of the 20th century, due to poisoning, poaching, and habitat destruction. In an ambitious bid to save them, all 22 condors were captured from the wild in 1987 and bred in captivity, before being released back to parts of California, Utah, Arizona, and Baja California. The total population is now more than 500.

Researchers have kept careful track of the birds’ breeding habits and genetics, and in October, they discovered that two female birds had given birth to young—without breeding . This is the first evidence of virgin birth, also known as parthenogenesis , in this species (and likely any non-domesticated bird). Scientists think that this form of reproduction is significantly more common in the animal world than thought, in part because it’s difficult to detect and rarely tracked.

Although parthenogenesis could serve as a life raft for rare species when mates are scarce, it could also have downsides, such as reducing genetic diversity.

Why did this happen? “We just don’t know,” says Oliver Ryder , director of conservation genetics at the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance. “Will it happen again? I rather believe so.”

COVID-19 found in wild deer, other animals  

The virus that causes COVID-19 doesn’t just afflict humans: It can also infect a wide variety of animal species.

So far, researchers have found evidence of infection in captive or domesticated animals, including tigers, lions , gorillas , mink s, snow leopards, domestic dogs , and domestic cats . Generally, the virus is thought to cause mild symptoms in other animals.

But the virus also infects wild white-tailed deer in North America. Scientists in Iowa found active infections in about 80 percent of deer, according to research published in November on bioRxiv , a site that posts preliminary scientific findings. The analysis suggests that deer have been infected multiple times from people and are passing it to one another‚ though nobody knows how deer might have picked up the virus. This research is similar to a study published earlier in the year showing that 40 percent of 152 deer tested in three states—Michigan, Illinois, and New York— had antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 .

Having a reservoir of the virus in a common animal is concerning, since deer could potentially transmit it back to humans, researchers say.

World’s smallest reptile discovered  

In February, researchers announced a new species of chameleon discovered in a rainforest in northern Madagascar, named Brookesia nana , or B. nana for short. This so-called nano-chameleon is about the size of a sunflower seed, and may be the smallest reptile on Earth .

Finding such a tiny reptile raises interesting questions about the lower limits of body size in vertebrates. It also highlights the astonishing—and highly threatened—biodiversity of Madagascar, scientists say. Its discoverers suspect the chameleon will soon be listed as critically endangered.

Black-footed ferret cloned  

To save another endangered species, scientists have successfully cloned a black-footed ferret , using preserved cells from a long-dead wild animal. This is the first time any native endangered species has been cloned in the United States.

The achievement, announced in February, is a major advance, since there are only about 500 black-footed ferrets remaining—all of which are closely related and descendants of a single colony found in 1981 in Wyoming after the species was thought to be extinct.

But cells from one female named Willa, who died in the mid-1980s without reproducing, were preserved on ice at the Frozen Zoo, a program of San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance . These cells have now been cloned and made into a viable ferret named Elizabeth Anne.

Researchers hope that her offspring will be able to be reintroduced to the wild in the coming years, injecting a much needed dose of genetic diversity into the inbred population.

World’s bee diversity hotspot found  

The San Bernardino Valley, straddling Arizona and Mexico, is one of the most important inland wetlands in the U.S. Southwest. Over the eons, water has traveled south from the mountains and forced its way out of artesian wells, giving rise to a bevy of plants and flowers throughout the year. This diversity of plants also supports a huge range of insects, including bees.

In April, a study published in the Journal of Hymenoptera Research , found that 497 species of bees live within just over six square miles of the valley—10 times smaller than Washington, D.C. This is, by far, the highest concentration of bee diversity on Earth .

The discovery makes crucial the need to protect the valley, which has suffered from the construction of the border wall, a 30-foot steel fence that bisects the valley. Builders used vast amounts of aquifer water to make cement for the base of the wall, which caused springs in the valley to dry up.

Some elephants are evolving to lose their tusks

Mozambique’s civil war, which lasted from 1977 to 1992, was brutal for African elephants: More than 90 percent of the animals were killed for ivory in the country’s Gorongosa National Park. But the carnage had an unexpected result: Some elephants are evolving without tusks—thus giving them a lower chance of being killed by poachers.

As National Geographic previously reported , about a third of younger female elephants in Gorongosa, born after the war ended in 1992, never developed tusks.

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Research published in October in Science   shows that such elephants have mutated copies of two genes that normally promote tusk development .

Normally, tusklessness would occur only in about 2 to 4 percent of female African elephants .

Jaguars moving into the U.S., reclaiming old territory  

Arizona and New Mexico are traditional jaguar territories: As recently at the early 1900s the big cats were found throughout both states, and as far north as the Grand Canyon. But in the past 15 years, a total of seven male jaguars have been reported in Arizona.

As National Geographic reported in March , scientists now know that one adolescent male jaguar inhabits protected land a few miles south of the border where Mexico, Arizona, and New Mexico meet—a sign that the species may be extending north from a breeding population in Sonora, Mexico.

It’s possible the feline could eventually reclaim parts of their former U.S. range, scientists predict, if the animals themselves and their wildlife corridors are protected—and if the border wall does not further expand.

Wild horses and donkeys dig desert wells  

Though some consider wild horses and donkeys, or burros, to be an introduced menace, they can impact their environment in ways that help other animals.

In April in the journal Science , scientists reported these animals can use their hooves to dig more than six feet deep to reach groundwater, in turn creating oases that serve as a boon to other wildlife . The team found such wells in the Sonoran Desert, in western Arizona, and in the Mojave Desert, recording a total of 57 species that visited the water sources. These include American badgers; black bears; and an array of birds, including some declining species, such as elf owls.

The behavior fits the definition of “ecosystem engineering,” a phenomenon whereby wildlife alter their environment, says study author Erick Lundgren , a postdoctoral researcher at Aarhus University in Denmark.

These sea slugs chop off their own heads  

Usually, when an animal loses its head, that animal’s life is over. But not so for some sea slugs. As described in a study published in March in Current Biology, two species of the marine animals can rip off their own heads . Each dismembered head can then regenerate an entirely new body.

These creatures are also unusual in that they can steal chloroplasts from algae and potentially harvest energy from the sun within their own bodies.

Researchers are interested in such extreme examples of bodily regeneration , which could have implications for human medicine. ( Learn more: Solar-powered sea slugs hide wild secrets .)

Cockatoos learn from their kin  

Do animals have culture? If culture consists of a shared set of behaviors that can be passed between individuals, then the answer is yes. But studies of animal learning and culture often focus on a specific group of mammals, such as cetaceans and great apes. Scientists wanted to know if parrots also have culture.

In the suburbs of Sydney , Australia, some sulfur-crested cockatoos—a gregarious, colorful parrot— have figured out how to open garbage can lids , allowing them access to a new food source, according to a July study in the journal Science . Other cockatoos quickly copied the behavior.

This discovery means that parrots “have joined the club of animals that show culture,” says study leader Barbara Klump , a behavioral ecologist at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior in Germany.

Whale migration sets records  

How far can a whale swim?

A gray whale set the world record for a marine vertebrate , traveling more than 16,700 miles—over halfway around the world, according to a study published in June in the journal Biology Letters . The male cetacean, spotted off Namibia in 2013, is also the first gray whale ever observed in the Southern Hemisphere .

When study co-author Simon Elwen , a zoologist at the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, first heard of the 2013 sighting, he was skeptical.

“It’s like someone saying they saw a polar bear in Paris—technically it could get there, but it just doesn’t seem very realistic.” But research showed that the whale’s genes matched those from the known population in the North Pacific.

Ants can shrink and regrow their brains

Indian jumping ants, a species with forceps-like jaws and large black eyes that inhabit forests along India’s western coast, have a strange way of picking queens. To do so, workers host competitions in which the winner becomes the monarch, capable of producing eggs. The winning female’s ovaries expand, and her brain shrinks up to 25 percent.

But these queens can also be taken off their pedestal and become workers again, causing their reproductive organs to shrink and the brain to expand once more —an extraordinary feat not previously known to occur in insects, according to a study published in April in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences .

“In the animal world,” explains study leader Clint Penick , of Kennnisaw State University in Georgia, “this level of plasticity—and especially reversible plasticity—is pretty unique.”

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49 Most Interesting Biology Research Topics

August 21, 2023

In need of the perfect biology research topics—ideas that can both showcase your intellect and fuel your academic success? Lost in the boundless landscape of possible biology topics to research? And afraid you’ll never get a chance to begin writing your paper, let alone finish writing? Whether you’re a budding biologist hoping for a challenge or a novice seeking easy biology research topics to wade into, this blog offers curated and comprehensible options.

And if you’re a high school or transfer student looking for opportunities to immerse yourself in biology, consider learning more about research opportunities for high school students , top summer programs for high school students , best colleges for studying biomedical engineering , and best colleges for studying biology .

What is biology?

Well, biology explores the web of life that envelops our planet, from the teeny-tiny microbes to the big complex ecosystems. Biology investigates the molecular processes that define existence, deciphers the interplay of genes, and examines all the dynamic ways organisms interact with their environments. And through biology, you can gain not only knowledge, but a deeper appreciation for the interconnectedness of all living things. Pretty cool!

There are lots and lots of sub-disciplines within biology, branching out in all directions. Throughout this list, we won’t follow all of those branches, but we will follow many. And while none of these branches are truly simple or easy, some might be easier than others. Now we’ll take a look at a few various biology research topics and example questions that could pique your curiosity.

Climate change and ecosystems

The first of our potentially easy biology research topics: climate change and ecosystems. Investigate how ecosystems respond and adapt to the changing climate. And learn about shifts in species distributions , phenology , and ecological interactions .

1) How are different ecosystems responding to temperature changes and altered precipitation patterns?2) What are the implications of shifts in species distributions for ecosystem stability and functioning?

2) Or how does phenology change in response to climate shifts? And how do those changes impact species interactions?

3) Which underlying genetic and physiological mechanisms enable certain species to adapt to changing climate conditions?

4) And how do changing climate conditions affect species’ abilities to interact and form mutualistic relationships within ecosystems?

Microbiome and human health

Intrigued by the relationship between the gut and the rest of the body? Study the complex microbiome . You could learn how gut microbes influence digestion, immunity, and even mental health.

5) How do specific gut microbial communities impact nutrient absorption?

6) What are the connections between the gut microbiome, immune system development, and susceptibility to autoimmune diseases?

7) What ethical considerations need to be addressed when developing personalized microbiome-based therapies? And how can these therapies be safely and equitably integrated into clinical practice?

8) Or how do variations in the gut microbiome contribute to mental health conditions such as anxiety and depression?

9) How do changes in diet and lifestyle affect the composition and function of the gut microbiome? And what are the subsequent health implications?

Urban biodiversity conservation

Next, here’s another one of the potentially easy biology research topics. Examine the challenges and strategies for conserving biodiversity in urban environments. Consider the impact of urbanization on native species and ecosystem services. Then investigate the decline of pollinators and its implications for food security or ecosystem health.

10) How does urbanization influence the abundance and diversity of native plant and animal species in cities?

11) Or what are effective strategies for creating and maintaining green spaces that support urban biodiversity and ecosystem services?

12) How do different urban design and planning approaches impact the distribution of wildlife species and their interactions?

13) What are the best practices for engaging urban communities in biodiversity conservation efforts?

14) And how can urban agriculture and rooftop gardens contribute to urban biodiversity conservation while also addressing food security challenges?

Bioengineering

Are you a problem solver at heart? Then try approaching the intersection of engineering, biology, and medicine. Delve into the field of synthetic biology , where researchers engineer biological systems to create novel organisms with useful applications.

15) How can synthetic biology be harnessed to develop new, sustainable sources of biofuels from engineered microorganisms?

16) And what ethical considerations arise when creating genetically modified organisms for bioremediation purposes?

17) Can synthetic biology techniques be used to design plants that are more efficient at withdrawing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere?

18) How can bioengineering create organisms capable of producing valuable pharmaceutical compounds in a controlled and sustainable manner?

19) But what are the potential risks and benefits of using engineered organisms for large-scale environmental cleanup projects?

Neurobiology

Interested in learning more about what makes creatures tick? Then this might be one of your favorite biology topics to research. Explore the neural mechanisms that underlie complex behaviors in animals and humans. Shed light on topics like decision-making, social interactions, and addiction. And investigate how brain plasticity and neurogenesis help the brain adapt to learning, injury, and aging.

20) How does the brain’s reward circuitry influence decision-making processes in situations involving risk and reward?

21) What neural mechanisms underlie empathy and social interactions in both humans and animals?

22) Or how do changes in neural plasticity contribute to age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases?

23) Can insights from neurobiology inform the development of more effective treatments for addiction and substance abuse?

24) What are the neural correlates of learning and memory? And how can our understanding of these processes be applied to educational strategies?

Plant epigenomics

While this might not be one of the easy biology research topics, it will appeal to plant enthusiasts. Explore how epigenetic modifications in plants affect their ability to respond and adapt to changing environmental conditions.

25) How do epigenetic modifications influence the expression of stress-related genes in plants exposed to temperature fluctuations?

26) Or what role do epigenetic changes play in plants’ abilities to acclimate to changing levels of air pollution?

27) Can certain epigenetic modifications be used as indicators of a plant’s adaptability to new environments?

28) How do epigenetic modifications contribute to the transgenerational inheritance of traits related to stress resistance?

29) And can targeted manipulation of epigenetic marks enhance crop plants’ ability to withstand changing environmental conditions?

Conservation genomics

Motivated to save the planet? Conservation genomics stands at the forefront of modern biology, merging the power of genetics with the urgent need to protect Earth’s biodiversity. Study genetic diversity, population dynamics, and how endangered species adapt in response to environmental changes.

30) How does genetic diversity within endangered species influence their ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions?

31) What genetic factors contribute to the susceptibility of certain populations to diseases, and how can this knowledge inform conservation strategies?

32) How can genomic data be used to inform captive breeding and reintroduction programs for endangered species?

33) And what are the genomic signatures of adaptation in response to human-induced environmental changes, such as habitat fragmentation and pollution?

34) Or how can genomics help identify “hotspots” of biodiversity that are particularly important for conservation efforts?

Zoonotic disease transmission

And here’s one of the biology research topics that’s been on all our minds in recent years. Investigate the factors contributing to the transmission of zoonotic diseases , like COVID-19. Then posit strategies for prevention and early detection.

35) What are the ecological and genetic factors that facilitate the spillover of zoonotic pathogens from animals to humans?

36) Or how do changes in land use, deforestation, and urbanization impact the risk of zoonotic disease emergence?

37) Can early detection and surveillance systems be developed to predict and mitigate the spread of zoonotic diseases?

38) How do social and cultural factors influence human behaviors that contribute to zoonotic disease transmission?

39) And can strategies be implemented to improve global pandemic preparedness?

Bioinformatics

Are you a data fanatic? Bioinformatics involves developing computational tools and techniques to analyze and interpret large biological datasets. This enables advancements in genomics, proteomics, and systems biology. So delve into the world of bioinformatics to learn how large-scale genomic and molecular data are revolutionizing biological research.

40) How can machine learning algorithms predict the function of genes based on their DNA sequences?

41) And what computational methods can identify potential drug targets by analyzing protein-protein interactions in large biological datasets?

42) Can bioinformatics tools be used to identify potential disease-causing mutations in human genomes and guide personalized medicine approaches?

43) What are the challenges and opportunities in analyzing “omics” data (genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics) to uncover novel biological insights?

44) Or how can bioinformatics contribute to our understanding of microbial diversity, evolution, and interactions within ecosystems?

Regenerative medicine

While definitely not one of the easy biology research topics, regenerative medicine will appeal to those interested in healthcare. Research innovative approaches to stimulate tissue and organ regeneration, using stem cells, tissue engineering, and biotechnology. And while you’re at it, discover the next potential medical breakthrough.

45) How can stem cells be directed to differentiate into specific cell types for tissue regeneration, and what factors influence this process?

46) Or what are the potential applications of 3D bioprinting in creating functional tissues and organs for transplantation?

47) How can bioengineered scaffolds enhance tissue regeneration and integration with host tissues?

48) What are the ethical considerations surrounding the use of stem cells and regenerative therapies in medical treatments?

49) And can regenerative medicine approaches be used to treat neurodegenerative disorders and restore brain function?

Biology Research Topics – Final thoughts

So as you take your next steps, try not to feel overwhelmed. And instead, appreciate the vast realm of possibilities that biology research topics offer. Because the array of biology topics to research is as diverse as the ecosystems it seeks to understand. And no matter if you’re only looking for easy biology research topics, or you’re itching to unravel the mysteries of plant-microbe interactions, your exploration will continue to deepen what we know of the world around us.

• High School Success

Mariya holds a BFA in Creative Writing from the Pratt Institute and is currently pursuing an MFA in writing at the University of California Davis. Mariya serves as a teaching assistant in the English department at UC Davis. She previously served as an associate editor at Carve Magazine for two years, where she managed 60 fiction writers. She is the winner of the 2015 Stony Brook Fiction Prize, and her short stories have been published in Mid-American Review , Cutbank , Sonora Review , New Orleans Review , and The Collagist , among other magazines.

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Do Insects Have an Inner Life? Animal Consciousness Needs a Rethink

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5 Animal Research Websites for Students

• stayingcoolinthelibrary
• February 24, 2019
• Lesson Plans , Research

Ready to do some animal research? Finding trustworthy and appropriate animal websites for students to use can be a challenge. Below are my go-to websites that you can feel confident having your students go to. Most of these sites also have videos, games and other educational activities as well.

National Geographic for Kids

DK Find Out

San Diego Zoo Kids

These websites below do have some advertisements on them.

Animal Fact Guide

Ready to research and use these animal websites for students?

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Articles making an impact in Animal Science and Zoology

Discover impactful articles published in our animal science and zoology journal portfolio with our High-Impact Research collections, featuring the most read, most cited, and most discussed articles published in recent years, which have caught the interest of your peers.

Animal Science

Ornithology, high-impact research from behavioral ecology.

Behavioral Ecology  is broad-based and covers both empirical and theoretical approaches and published studies on the whole range of behaving organisms, including plants, invertebrates, vertebrates, and humans.

High-Impact Research from BioScience

BioScience presents timely and authoritative overviews of current research in biology, accompanied by essays and discussion sections on education, public policy, history, and the conceptual underpinnings of the biological sciences.

High-Impact Research from Current Zoology

Open access, Current Zoology  publishes review articles and research papers in the fields of ecology, evolution and behaviour.

High-Impact Research from Integrative and Comparative Biology

Integrative and Comparative Biology  publishes forward-looking reviews, synthesis, perspectives and empirical articles in integrative, comparative and organismal biology.

High-Impact Research from Animal Frontiers

Animal Frontiers publishes discussion and position papers that present international perspectives on high-impact, global issues in animal agriculture. 

High-Impact Research from Journal of Animal Science

Journal of Animal Science provides new knowledge and perspectives across a range of topics in both animal production and fundamental aspects of genetics, nutrition, physiology, and the preparation and utilization of animal products.

High-Impact Research from Translational Animal Science

Translational Animal Science encompasses a broad scope of research topics in animal science, focusing on translating basic science to innovation.

Aquatic Science

High-impact research from journal of crustacean biology.

The  Journal of Crustacean Biology  publishes articles of broad interest on the biology of crustaceans and other marine arthropods.

High-Impact Research from Journal of Molluscan Studies

Journal of Molluscan Studies  publishes research on the biology of molluscs, including the developing subjects of molecular genetics, cladistic phylogenetics and ecophysiology, as well as ecological, behavioural and systematic malacology.

High-Impact Research from Annals of the Entomological Society of America

Annals of the Entomological Society of America publishes cutting-edge research, reviews, and collections on a common topic of broad interest, across the entomological disciplines.

High-Impact Research from Arthropod Management Tests

Arthropod Management Tests publishes short reports from a single year on a routine screening test for management of arthropods that may be harmful or beneficial.

High-Impact Research from Environmental Entomology

Environmental Entomology  reports on the interaction of insects with the biological, chemical, and physical aspects of their environment.

High-Impact Research from Insect Systematics and Diversity

Insect Systematics and Diversity publishes original research on systematics, evolution, and biodiversity of insects and related arthropods. 

High-Impact Research from Journal of Economic Entomology

The Journal of Economic Entomology is the most-cited entomological journal and publishes articles on the economic significance of insects and other arthropods.

High-Impact Research from Journal of Insect Science

The  Journal of Insect Science  publishes articles based on original research, as well as Reviews, interpretive articles in a Forum section, and Short Communications in all fields of entomology.

High-Impact Research from Journal of Integrated Pest Management

An extension-focused journal publishing original articles on any aspect of integrated pest management. The  Journal of Integrated Pest Management  is targeted at a non-technical audience of farmers, pest control operators, foresters, and others.

High-Impact Research from Journal of Medical Entomology

Journal of Medical Entomology publishes reports on all phases of medical entomology and acarology, including the systematics and biology of insects, acarines, and other arthropods of public health and veterinary significance.

High-Impact Research from Journal of Mammalogy

Promoting interest in mammals throughout the world, the Journal of Mammalogy publishes research on all aspects of the biology of mammals, including behavior, conservation, ecology, genetics, morphology, physiology, and taxonomy. 

High-Impact Research from Mammalian Species

Mammalian Species  is published by the American Society of Mammalogists with 15-35 individual species accounts issued each year, summarizing the current understanding of the biology of an individual species including systematics, distribution, fossil history, genetics, anatomy, physiology, behavior, ecology, and conservation.

High-Impact Research from Ornithology

Ornithology  publishes original research from all parts of the globe that tests fundamental, scientific hypotheses through ornithological studies and advances our understanding of living or extinct bird species. 

High-Impact Research from Ornithological Applications

Ornithological Applications  publishes original research, syntheses, and assessments on the application of scientific theory, ornithological knowledge, and methods to the conservation and management of birds and to policy.

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• The Inventory

10 Animals That Made Significant Contributions to Research

When it comes to animals and research, it's best to stay away from the subject since most of the time it's incredibly depressing. However, animal research has given us some fantastic breakthroughs and cool stories. Let's take the time to honor ten of our furry, feathery, and slimy lab assistants.

Related Content

10. Pigeons

For a long time, pigeons were hanging around cities eating old french fries and spreading disease. Then psychologist B.F. Skinner put them to work. By isolating them in a box, which he modestly called a Skinner Box, and subjecting to various stimuli like food pellets or changes in lighting, he developed a controlled approach to psychological experimentation.

Mice have been good enough to help people out with everything from cures for baldness to learning techniques. They're used so often, in so many capacities that Douglas Adams famously cast them as the uber-villains in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy , manipulating humanity by controlling the results for psychological testing. It's true that the use of mice and rats in experiments is a little sad, since these experiments generally end with someone taking a look at the mouse's brain, but consider it payback for the Black Plague.

8. Zebrafish

Like mice, these fish are known most for their bulk contribution to science, instead of any particular achievement. Their two main strengths are having a spine and keeping their nice clear eggs on the outside of their bodies while the eggs develop. This gives scientists an unobstructed view into the embryonic development of vertebrates.

Again, we're verging dangerously on the sad here, but let's take a look at some of the least depressing achievments of dogs. They started off strong, helping Ivan Pavlov discover the conditioned reflex. Pavlov rang a bell, or sounded a whistle, or started up a tuning fork, every time he fed his dogs, and noticed them slobber all over themselves in their desire to eat. After some time, the dogs slobbered even without the food, just hearing the bell. Pavlov learned an important behavior - bells make people want to spit. Or something. He's best known for that. Dogs, however, moved on, to outer space in the Russian space program. Nowadays, certain dogs, like doberman, have been found to be prone to narcolepsy. Scientists study them to understand the disorder.

6. Nematode Worm

The nematode worm is kind of the Paris Hilton of the animal research world. It's known for being known. It has three hundred and two neurons and all of them are mapped out. Even if something unexpected happened inside the worm, researchers would be able to see, because it's transparent. Recent experiments done on nematodes include engineering its neurons so they fire when exposed to light and making it dance for the researchers' amusement.

Spiders aren't really that impressive research subjects. They're creepy, not closely related to humans, and don't have many behaviors that are replicated by other species. They did, however, make one spectacular contribution to science. They were given drugs, and then forced to make webs. Cocaine, LSD, pot, and caffeine were all given to spiders. (I'm not sure how. Tiny joints? Tiny straws and exposure to eighties movies?) The webs that they made were then photographed. There's no clear reason for why, but I suppose scientists have to have some fun.

These little guys are the factories of research. They're basically soulless, empty hosts that can be injected with other, more useful, genes. Escherichia coli have been used to manufacture vaccines, enzymes, and human insulin.

3. Chimpanzees

Chimpanzees are used for depressing genetic and medical research, but they're more noted for their even-more-depressing behavioral research. Since they're some of the closest family humans have, they're observed to see the uninhibited, early side of human nature. Turns out that we're jerks. Chimpanzees kill, rape, have organized raiding parties and sustained border wars, are violently status-conscious, pretty misogynistic, and have been known to literally kill, rip apart, and eat their young. They are awful, awful creatures, and the world would be better off without them, but they have set the bar low for us. If you manage to be better than a chimp, then you look like a pretty good example of humanity.

2. Jellyfish

Jellyfish look pretty when they're backlit in an aquarium. Any other time they're pretty much just sea snot that can hurt you. But one particular type of jellyfish, Aequoria Victoria, has contributed greatly to research. It has given the world green flourescent protein, or GFP. GFP glows green when light shines on it. When biologists want to check out the movement of certain proteins around a cell or a body, they attach GFP to them. The flourescence lets them track whatever they want to track. It's also made glowing E. coli, glowing worms, and glowing pigs.

1. Fruit Flies

Give it up for the flies that live fast, breed hard, and die young. Drosophila melanogaster eggs take 12 hours to hatch, and can become sexually mature in a week. These guys thrive under lab conditions, produce hundreds of offspring, partially because they mate like crazy. Because they grow up fast, they can be used to track genetic legacies through several generations in a month. They also share many human diseases and cellular processes. They've been studied in labs for almost a hundred years, and the research is still going strong. At this point, they've aided in so many discoveries they should be born with PhD's.

Via University of Oregon , Ivan Pavlov.com , Space Today , Genome Welcome , Jellyfish Facts , and GFP .

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show/hide words to know

Computer model: a computer program designed to predict what might happen based off of collected data.

Ethical: relating to a person's moral principles.

Morals: a person's beliefs concerning what is right and wrong.

Zoologist: a person who studies animals.

Scientists learn a lot about snakes and other animals through basic research. Image by the Virginia State Park staff.

“Don’t worry, they aren’t dangerous” you hear the zoologist say as she leads you and a group of others toward an area with a number of different snakes. She removes a long snake from a larger glass enclosure and asks who would like to hold it. You take a step back, certain that holding a snake is the last thing you’d like to do.

"But how do you know they aren’t dangerous?” you ask. The zoologist looks up and smiles. She explains that scientists have studied this type of snake, and so we actually know quite a bit about it. This type of snake rarely bites and does not produce venom, so it isn’t dangerous to people. You nod along as she talks about the snakes, their natural habitats, and other details like what they eat.

Animals in the Research Process

How do we know so much about snakes or other animals? Animals are all unique, and scientists study them to learn more about them. For example, by studying snakes we have learned that they stick their tongues out because they are trying to pick up odors around them. This helps them sense food, predators, and other things that may be nearby. When research is performed to expand our understanding of something, like an animal, we call it basic research .

Scientists study animals for other reasons too. What we learn about animals can actually help us find solutions to other problems or to help people. For example, studying snakes helps us understand which ones are venomous so that humans know what kinds of snakes they shouldn't touch. Scientists also study animals to find new treatments to diseases and other ailments that affect both people and animals. If we learn what is in snake venom, we can create a medicine to give to people that have been bitten as a treatment to help them feel better. Using what we know about an animal or thing to help us solve problems or treat disease is called  applied research .

Scientists use many other tools, such as computer models, in addition to animals to study different topics. Image by Andreas Horn.

No matter what type of research is being performed, scientists must consider many things when they study animals.  

Do Scientists Need to Study Animals?

Of course we can learn a lot from using animals for research, but are there alternative options? Sometimes there are. For example, scientists could use some other method, like cells or computer models, to study a particular topic instead of using animals. However, for a number of reasons , scientists have found that using animals is sometimes the best way to study certain topics.

What If Scientists Harm Animals for Research?

Some research using animals only requires scientists to watch behavior or to take a few samples (like blood or saliva) from the animal. These activities may cause the animals some stress, but they are unlikely to harm the animals in any long-term way. Studies of the behavior or physiology of an animal in its natural environment is an example of such research.

In other cases, scientists may need to harm or kill an animal in order to answer a research question. For example, a study could involve removing a brain to study it more closely or giving an animal a treatment without knowing what effects it may have. While the intention is never to purposely harm animals, harm can be necessary to answer a research question.

How Do Scientists Decide When It’s OK to Study Animals?

Many animals are used in research. But there is still debate on whether they should be used for this purpose. Image by the United States Department of Agriculture.

There are  many guidelines  for when it’s ok to use animals in research. Scientists must write a detailed plan of why and how they plan to use animals for a research project. This information is then reviewed by other scientists and members of the public to make sure that the research animals will be used for has an important purpose. Whatever the animals are used for, the scientists also make sure to take care of animal research subjects as best as they can.

Even with rules in place about using animals for research, many people (both scientists and non-scientists) continue to debate whether animals should be used in research. This is an ethical question, or one that depends on a person's morals. Because the way each person feels about both research and animals may be different, there is a range of views on this matter.

• Some people argue that it doesn’t matter that there are rules in place to protect animals. Animals should never be used for research at all, for any reason. 
• Others say we should be able to use animals for any kind of research because moving science forward is more important than the rights or well-being of animals. 
• Lastly, there are people whose opinions sit somewhere in the middle. They might argue that it’s ok to use animals for research, but only in some cases. For example, if the results of the research are very likely to help treat something that affects people, then it may be okay to use animals.

Along with this debate, there are many advantages and disadvantages of doing animal research . Scientists must weigh these options when performing their research.

Additional Images via Wikimedia Commons. White rat image by Alexandroff Pogrebnoj.

Read more about: Using Animals in Research

View citation, bibliographic details:.

• Article: Using Animals in Research
• Author(s): Patrick McGurrin and Christian Ross
• Publisher: Arizona State University School of Life Sciences Ask A Biologist
• Site name: ASU - Ask A Biologist
• Date published: December 4, 2016
• Date accessed: May 1, 2024
• Link: https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/Animal-use-in-Research

Patrick McGurrin and Christian Ross. (2016, December 04). Using Animals in Research. ASU - Ask A Biologist. Retrieved May 1, 2024 from https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/Animal-use-in-Research

Chicago Manual of Style

Patrick McGurrin and Christian Ross. "Using Animals in Research". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 04 December, 2016. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/Animal-use-in-Research

MLA 2017 Style

Patrick McGurrin and Christian Ross. "Using Animals in Research". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 04 Dec 2016. ASU - Ask A Biologist, Web. 1 May 2024. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/Animal-use-in-Research

Animals are an important part of research. But many argue about whether it's ethical to use animals to help advance scientific progress.

Using Animals in Research

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The 45 Coolest Animals on the Planet Take Extreme Measures To Survive

Life on Earth isn’t easy, but these creatures make it look like a cake walk.

🦉 Let’s explore our world together. Join Pop Mech Pro .

But a few cunning creatures have developed interesting traits and habits to stay in the game. Here are 45 of the most genetically gifted, physically freakish , and just all-around coolest animals in the world.

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Snails have a crazy sleep schedule

Snails are all over the map when it comes to sleep. We’ll define them as manic. They may nap for several hours, then stay awake for sessions of 30 hours or more. On the flip side, they have crazy hibernation periods. They can snooze for periods of up to three years, a survival instinct for when they feel the need to self-preserve.

Dive Deeper: How to Hack Your Sleep

Owls can twist their heads 270 degrees

These birds have the insane ability to swivel their heads in almost a full circle thanks to their flexibility and the fact that their heads are only connected by one socket pivot. Researchers at Johns Hopkins also found that owls have backup arteries, so when they turn their heads at extreme angles, they’re still getting blood and nutrients when their blood vessels are cut off during turning.

Plus: Crows Are Self-Aware and Capable of Analytical Thought

African Lungfish can survive out of water for a year

When the African Lungfish feels it’s in a life-threatening situation, it secretes a mucus cocoon and burrows itself up to nine inches under the soil, where it gets air through its lung via a built-in breathing tube that leads to the surface. It then relies on rainwater to breathe.

Check This Out: This Goldfish Learned How to Drive

Electric eels can transmit a shock between 600 and 800 Volts

That’s enough electricity to kill a horse. And while it might not be enough to kill you instantly, it’s enough to knock you out and leave you to drown. Another nasty note: If you’re shocked by one, it burns your skin.

Plus: This Is the First Fusion Power Plant to Generate Net Electricity

Stonefish are the most poisonous fish in the world

The stonefish produces intense vasoconstriction. If you’re stung by one, it can cause shock, paralysis, malaise, nausea and vomiting, sweating, delirium, pyrexia, cardiogenic shock, respiratory distress, and even death if it’s not treated within a few hours by anti-venom. If you do survive, the symptoms can last a long time, from days to weeks, and full recovery may take many months.

Read This: Nature’s Toxic Gifts: The Deadly Story of Poison

Whale Sharks use their 4,000 teeth...to eat veggies

At over 25 tons, the whale shark is the second largest fish in the world, and yet it’s fueled mostly by plankton, plants , and algae. It has over 4,000 teeth, but it’s a filter feeder. It collects food through a technique called “cross-flow filtration,” similar to some bony fish and baleen whales.

Swim Over Here Next: 11 Close Encounters of the Shark Kind

Kangaroos can jump crazy far

Kangaroos can jump over 27 feet in one bound. They can accomplish this thanks to having small front legs and a long, strong tail that helps keep them balanced while jumping.

Next Up: How to Jump from a Moving Train Using Science

Mosquitoes are the deadliest insects on the planet

They may be small, but they cause millions of deaths a year around the world, according to the World Health Organization. This is because mosquitoes carry and transmit a number of viruses and diseases, from malaria to dengue to yellow fever. In 2015 alone, there were 438,000 deaths from malaria.

Read This: Can Science Cure Death? It Sure Looks Like It.

Black Mambas have super snake speed

The Black Mamba slithers up to 12.5 miles per hour, but hopefully you can run faster. If it catches you, you have 20 minutes to find some anti-venom—or else you’re toast. The snake is responsible for an estimated 20,000 deaths each year.

Mountain Stone Wetas freeze, but remain alive

This insect native to New Zealand freezes itself for several months, and then thaws itself. It’s the world’s largest freeze -tolerant insect, and withstands freezing 80 percent of its body tissues. It does this to survive drastic temperature changes thanks to a protein that prevents the formation of ice crystals in its blood-like fluid.

Dung beetles are crazy strong

The dung beetle has been deemed the strongest insect on Earth. They’re able to push balls of fresh animal poop (hence their namesake) that weigh more than 200 times their body weight. Researchers documented one individual dung beetle that was pushing a ball that was 1,141 times his body weight, the equivalent of a 150-pound person moving a whopping 80 tons.

Tarantula hawks leave the nastiest bug bites

Don’t let the name fool you—it’s not a spider or a bird. It’s actually a wasp. But this insect leaves one of the most painful bug bites. According to entomologist Justin Schmidt, who created the “Schmidt sting pain index” to measure the severity of bug bites, on a scale of 1 to 4, the tarantula hawk is one of just two insects that scores a 4.

Plus: How to Make a Great Garden Fence

Jaguars have killer jaws

Jaguars kill their prey with one bite by piercing the neck of their prey from behind, killing it instantly. And by the way, jaguars and black jaguars are the same species; the lack of markings is due to a mutation that occurs in approximately 6 percent of the wild population.

Hippos are insanely fast for their size

While hippos spend up to 16 hours a day submerged in water, they also take to the land (and have been known to be super aggressive). And for their size, they’re super speedy . Don’t try to outrun a hippo, because you’ll lose. They grow between 2,000 and 4,000 pounds, and can run between 15 and 30 miles per hour.

Komodo dragons eat like champs

Komodo dragons can grow up to 10 feet long and swell to around 150 pounds, which means they eat…a lot . Try up to 80 percent of their own body weight in a single meal . Their post meal-ritual? They regurgitate all of the indigestible parts (bone, hair, feathers, scales) into gastric pellets that smell awful.

King Brown snakes squeeze out the most venom

You’ve likely seen videos of scientists squeezing snakes’ venom into glass beakers. According to researchers, the snake that contains the most venom in volume is the King Brown, which can provide 1.3 grams of dry venom from a single milking.

Plus: Humans Could Live to Be 150, Science Says

Tasmanian devils have the strongest bite

Looney Tunes made Taz a lovable cartoon character. But in real life, the devil is anything but. According to a study , it has the strongest bite on Earth. Although these animals weigh just 20 pounds on average, they can exert up to 94 pounds of pressure, for a “Bite Force Quotient” of 181. That’s nearly twice as strong as a hyena and some 60 points higher than a lion.

Emperor penguins dive really deep

Emperor penguins live in the Arctic, arguably one of the cruelest environments, where it can get below -40 degrees Fahrenheit on the regular. They inhabit the ice and ocean that surrounds them, and have become experts at surviving. They dive up to 1,755 feet for food in water that’s well below freezing .

Ringtail lemurs out-stink each other

Ringtail lemurs have one of the most unique conflict-resolution tactics of all animals: stink fights. Since lemurs live in large social groups of 20 to 30, breeding season can bring a lot of competition. Male ringtails have scent glands on their wrists and shoulders. The wrist gland produces a volatile, short-lived odor, while the shoulder gland produces a brown, toothpaste-like substance, which is much longer lasting. Basically, male lemurs wave their tails and waft a fragrance toward their rivals, resulting in a smelly standoff until someone backs off.

Plus: This Ferret Died 33 Years Ago. Scientists Just Brought Her Back to Life.

African elephants are pregnant for a really long time

Nine months is nothing: African elephants have the longest pregnancy of any mammal, which can last up to two years. Scientists don’t really know why it takes so long to grow an elephant, but it could have something to do with their highly developed brains —elephants have complex social relationships and cognitive skills.

Emily Shiffer has worked as a writer for over 10 years, covering everything from health and wellness to entertainment and celebrities. She previously was on staff at SUCCESS , Men's Health , and Prevention magazines. Her freelance writing has been featured in Women's Health , Runner's World , PEOPLE , and more. Emily is a graduate of Northwestern University, where she majored in magazine journalism at the Medill School of Journalism and minored in musicology. Currently residing in Charleston, South Carolina, Emily enjoys instructing barre, surfing, and long walks on the beach with her miniature Dachshund, Gertrude.

Before joining Popular Mechanics , Manasee Wagh worked as a newspaper reporter, a science journalist, a tech writer, and a computer engineer. She’s always looking for ways to combine the three greatest joys in her life: science, travel, and food.

.css-cuqpxl:before{padding-right:0.3125rem;content:'//';display:inline;} Animals .css-xtujxj:before{padding-left:0.3125rem;content:'//';display:inline;}

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Research using animals: an overview

Around half the diseases in the world have no treatment. Understanding how the body works and how diseases progress, and finding cures, vaccines or treatments, can take many years of painstaking work using a wide range of research techniques. There is overwhelming scientific consensus worldwide that some research using animals is still essential for medical progress.

Animal research in the UK is strictly regulated. For more details on the regulations governing research using animals, go to the UK regulations page .

Why is animal research necessary?

There is overwhelming scientific consensus worldwide that some animals are still needed in order to make medical progress.

Where animals are used in research projects, they are used as part of a range of scientific techniques. These might include human trials, computer modelling, cell culture, statistical techniques, and others. Animals are only used for parts of research where no other techniques can deliver the answer.

A living body is an extraordinarily complex system. You cannot reproduce a beating heart in a test tube or a stroke on a computer. While we know a lot about how a living body works, there is an enormous amount we simply don’t know: the interaction between all the different parts of a living system, from molecules to cells to systems like respiration and circulation, is incredibly complex. Even if we knew how every element worked and interacted with every other element, which we are a long way from understanding, a computer hasn’t been invented that has the power to reproduce all of those complex interactions - while clearly you cannot reproduce them all in a test tube.

While humans are used extensively in Oxford research, there are some things which it is ethically unacceptable to use humans for. There are also variables which you can control in a mouse (like diet, housing, clean air, humidity, temperature, and genetic makeup) that you could not control in human subjects.

Is it morally right to use animals for research?

Most people believe that in order to achieve medical progress that will save and improve lives, perhaps millions of lives, limited and very strictly regulated animal use is justified. That belief is reflected in the law, which allows for animal research only under specific circumstances, and which sets out strict regulations on the use and care of animals. It is right that this continues to be something society discusses and debates, but there has to be an understanding that without animals we can only make very limited progress against diseases like cancer, heart attack, stroke, diabetes, and HIV.

It’s worth noting that animal research benefits animals too: more than half the drugs used by vets were developed originally for human medicine. 

Aren’t animals too different from humans to tell us anything useful?

No. Just by being very complex living, moving organisms they share a huge amount of similarities with humans. Humans and other animals have much more in common than they have differences. Mice share over 90% of their genes with humans. A mouse has the same organs as a human, in the same places, doing the same things. Most of their basic chemistry, cell structure and bodily organisation are the same as ours. Fish and tadpoles share enough characteristics with humans to make them very useful in research. Even flies and worms are used in research extensively and have led to research breakthroughs (though these species are not regulated by the Home Office and are not in the Biomedical Sciences Building).

What does research using animals actually involve?

The sorts of procedures research animals undergo vary, depending on the research. Breeding a genetically modified mouse counts as a procedure and this represents a large proportion of all procedures carried out. So does having an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan, something which is painless and which humans undergo for health checks. In some circumstances, being trained to go through a maze or being trained at a computer game also counts as a procedure. Taking blood or receiving medication are minor procedures that many species of animal can be trained to do voluntarily for a food reward. Surgery accounts for only a small minority of procedures. All of these are examples of procedures that go on in Oxford's Biomedical Sciences Building. 

How many animals are used?

Figures for 2023 show numbers of animals that completed procedures, as declared to the Home Office using their five categories for the severity of the procedure.

# NHPs - Non Human Primates

Oxford also maintains breeding colonies to provide animals for use in experiments, reducing the need for unnecessary transportation of animals.

Figures for 2017 show numbers of animals bred for procedures that were killed or died without being used in procedures:

Why must primates be used?

Primates account for under half of one per cent (0.5%) of all animals housed in the Biomedical Sciences Building. They are only used where no other species can deliver the research answer, and we continually seek ways to replace primates with lower orders of animal, to reduce numbers used, and to refine their housing conditions and research procedures to maximise welfare.

However, there are elements of research that can only be carried out using primates because their brains are closer to human brains than mice or rats. They are used at Oxford in vital research into brain diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Some are used in studies to develop vaccines for HIV and other major infections.

What is done to primates?

The primates at Oxford spend most of their time in their housing. They are housed in groups with access to play areas where they can groom, forage for food, climb and swing.

Primates at Oxford involved in neuroscience studies would typically spend a couple of hours a day doing behavioural work. This is sitting in front of a computer screen doing learning and memory games for food rewards. No suffering is involved and indeed many of the primates appear to find the games stimulating. They come into the transport cage that takes them to the computer room entirely voluntarily.

After some time (a period of months) demonstrating normal learning and memory through the games, a primate would have surgery to remove a very small amount of brain tissue under anaesthetic. A full course of painkillers is given under veterinary guidance in the same way as any human surgical procedure, and the animals are up and about again within hours, and back with their group within a day. The brain damage is minor and unnoticeable in normal behaviour: the animal interacts normally with its group and exhibits the usual natural behaviours. In order to find out about how a disease affects the brain it is not necessary to induce the equivalent of full-blown disease. Indeed, the more specific and minor the brain area affected, the more focussed and valuable the research findings are.

The primate goes back to behavioural testing with the computers and differences in performance, which become apparent through these carefully designed games, are monitored.

At the end of its life the animal is humanely killed and its brain is studied and compared directly with the brains of deceased human patients. 

Primates at Oxford involved in vaccine studies would simply have a vaccination and then have monthly blood samples taken.

How many primates does Oxford hold?

* From 2014 the Home Office changed the way in which animals/ procedures were counted. Figures up to and including 2013 were recorded when procedures began. Figures from 2014 are recorded when procedures end.

What’s the difference between ‘total held’ and ‘on procedure’?

Primates (macaques) at Oxford would typically spend a couple of hours a day doing behavioural work, sitting in front of a computer screen doing learning and memory games for food rewards. This is non-invasive and done voluntarily for food rewards and does not count as a procedure. After some time (a period of months) demonstrating normal learning and memory through the games, a primate would have surgery under anaesthetic to remove a very small amount of brain tissue. The primate quickly returns to behavioural testing with the computers, and differences in performance, which become apparent through these carefully designed puzzles, are monitored. A primate which has had this surgery is counted as ‘on procedure’. Both stages are essential for research into understanding brain function which is necessary to develop treatments for conditions including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and schizophrenia.

Why has the overall number held gone down?

Numbers vary year on year depending on the research that is currently undertaken. In general, the University is committed to reducing, replacing and refining animal research.

You say primates account for under 0.5% of animals, so that means you have at least 16,000 animals in the Biomedical Sciences Building in total - is that right?

Numbers change daily so we cannot give a fixed figure, but it is in that order.

Aren’t there alternative research methods?

There are very many non-animal research methods, all of which are used at the University of Oxford and many of which were pioneered here. These include research using humans; computer models and simulations; cell cultures and other in vitro work; statistical modelling; and large-scale epidemiology. Every research project which uses animals will also use other research methods in addition. Wherever possible non-animal research methods are used. For many projects, of course, this will mean no animals are needed at all. For others, there will be an element of the research which is essential for medical progress and for which there is no alternative means of getting the relevant information.

How have humans benefited from research using animals?

As the Department of Health states, research on animals has contributed to almost every medical advance of the last century.

Without animal research, medicine as we know it today wouldn't exist. It has enabled us to find treatments for cancer, antibiotics for infections (which were developed in Oxford laboratories), vaccines to prevent some of the most deadly and debilitating viruses, and surgery for injuries, illnesses and deformities.

Life expectancy in this country has increased, on average, by almost three months for every year of the past century. Within the living memory of many people diseases such as polio, tuberculosis, leukaemia and diphtheria killed or crippled thousands every year. But now, doctors are able to prevent or treat many more diseases or carry out life-saving operations - all thanks to research which at some stage involved animals.

Each year, millions of people in the UK benefit from treatments that have been developed and tested on animals. Animals have been used for the development of blood transfusions, insulin for diabetes, anaesthetics, anticoagulants, antibiotics, heart and lung machines for open heart surgery, hip replacement surgery, transplantation, high blood pressure medication, replacement heart valves, chemotherapy for leukaemia and life support systems for premature babies. More than 50 million prescriptions are written annually for antibiotics. 

We may have used animals in the past to develop medical treatments, but are they really needed in the 21st century?

Yes. While we are committed to reducing, replacing and refining animal research as new techniques make it possible to reduce the number of animals needed, there is overwhelming scientific consensus worldwide that some research using animals is still essential for medical progress. It only forms one element of a whole research programme which will use a range of other techniques to find out whatever possible without animals. Animals would be used for a specific element of the research that cannot be conducted in any alternative way.

How will humans benefit in future?

The development of drugs and medical technologies that help to reduce suffering among humans and animals depends on the carefully regulated use of animals for research. In the 21st century scientists are continuing to work on treatments for cancer, stroke, heart disease, HIV, malaria, tuberculosis, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s, and very many more diseases that cause suffering and death. Genetically modified mice play a crucial role in future medical progress as understanding of how genes are involved in illness is constantly increasing. 

How to write an animal report

Your teacher wants a written report on the beluga whale . Not to worry. Use these organizational tools from the Nat Geo Kids Almanac so you can stay afloat while writing a report.

STEPS TO SUCCESS:

Your report will follow the format of a descriptive or expository essay and should consist of a main idea, followed by supporting details and a conclusion. Use this basic structure for each paragraph as well as the whole report, and you’ll be on the right track.

Introduction

State your main idea .

The beluga whale is a common and important species of whale.

Provide supporting points for your main idea.

1. The beluga whale is one of the smallest whale species.

2. It is also known as the “white whale” because of its distinctive coloring.

3. These whales are common in the Arctic Ocean’s coastal waters.

Then expand on those points with further description, explanation, or discussion.

1a. Belugas range in size from 13 to 20 feet (4 to 6.1 m) in length.

2a. Belugas are born gray or brown. They fade to white at around five years old.

3a. Some Arctic belugas migrate south in large herds when sea ice freezes over.

Wrap it up with a summary of your whole paper.

Because of its unique coloring and unusual features, belugas are among the most familiar and easily distinguishable of all the whales.

Key Information

Here are some things you should consider including in your report:

What does your animal look like? To what other species is it related? How does it move? Where does it live? What does it eat? What are its predators? How long does it live? Is it endangered? Why do you find it interesting?

SEPARATE FACT FROM FICTION: Your animal may have been featured in a movie or in myths and legends. Compare and contrast how the animal has been portrayed with how it behaves in reality. For example, penguins can’t dance the way they do in Happy Feet.

PROOFREAD AND REVISE: As with any essay, when you’re finished, check for misspellings, grammatical mistakes, and punctuation errors. It often helps to have someone else proofread your work, too, as he or she may catch things you have missed. Also, look for ways to make your sentences and paragraphs even better. Add more descriptive language, choosing just the right verbs, adverbs, and adjectives to make your writing come alive.

BE CREATIVE: Use visual aids to make your report come to life. Include an animal photo file with interesting images found in magazines or printed from websites. Or draw your own! You can also build a miniature animal habitat diorama. Use creativity to help communicate your passion for the subject.

THE FINAL RESULT: Put it all together in one final, polished draft. Make it neat and clean, and remember to cite your references.

Download the pdf .

More resources

Homework help, science lab, (ad) national geographic kids almanac.

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• UConn Library
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• Research Topics

Animal Science Subject Guide — Research Topics

• Starting Your Research Project
• Searching Scholarly Databases
• Encyclopedias & Handbooks
• Finding Books
• Other Information Sources
• Useful Tools

Narrowing a topic

Sometimes narrowing to a specific topic does not come naturally and can be a difficult task. Here are some techniques available to make this process simpler.

• First, pick a topic in which you are interested. You will spend a lot of time with your topic and you will do a better job with it if you find the topic enjoyable. As you search through potential topics, note which pique your interest and follow them further.
• Look for a topic with some recent controversy or a set of related topics which can be compared and contrasted.
• Pick a topic which you have some hope of understanding. If you cannot understand the basics you will not be able to write about it. Not all topics are appropriate for undergraduate paper writing.

Some additional sites with help on choosing and narrowing topics are listed below.

• Choosing and Narrowing a Topic
• Narrowing a Topic
• Narrowing a Topic and Developing a Research Question
• Identifying when a Topic is Too Narrow or Too Broad

Where to find possible topics for science papers

If you don't know on what topic you want to write a paper, start by looking in sources with broad spreads of relevant information. 

• Search any database by a particular journal or review journal (Science, Nature, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, etc.)
• Look for a classic topic in your textbook 
• Scan popular science sciences magazines such as Bioscience, Scientific American, Discover, etc.
• Go to the popular  website  www.sciencedaily.com which covers most aspects of science and search for a topic
• Search for ideas in the encyclopedias, handbooks or other books listed in this guide on a separate page
• If you have some idea of a topic, search for review articles on that topic in one of the science databases listed in this guide
• Search the table of contents of a journal which specializes in review articles, such as Trends in Ecology and Evolution

Search Strategies for Topics

Part of picking a topic will involve conducting literature searches. As you search for your topic(s) start with searches as BROAD as possible, while remaining relevant to your topic. Starting broad will give a breadth of coverage that allows you easy options for narrowing your topic. If you start with a narrow topic it is much harder to broaden your topic later to explore more options.

Describe your topic in a sentence.

How did carnivorous plants evolve digestive enzymes?

What are your major concepts? Identify the main elements of your topic.

Think of related terms for your concepts. Use both common words and scientific terms.

Add Boolean Operators (AND & OR) to structure the search in a database search interface.

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• Open access
• Published: 29 October 2019

What’s new from the zoo? An analysis of ten years of zoo-themed research output

• Paul E. Rose   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5375-8267 1 , 2 ,
• James E. Brereton   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9104-3975 3 ,
• Lewis J. Rowden 4 ,
• Ricardo Lemos de Figueiredo 5 &
• Lisa M. Riley 6  

Palgrave Communications volume  5 , Article number:  128 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental studies
• Science, technology and society

The modern zoo’s roles command empirical enquiry to determine the effectiveness of zoos locally and globally. Ten years ago, published work identified the need for empirical research on a diverse range of species beyond charismatic zoo megafauna. We review zoo-based research published in the decade since this original recommendation. We collectively evaluate zoo-themed research papers from those working in zoos and those external to zoos but studying zoo-housed animals. By systematically searching Web of Science © for zoo-based research and performing inductive content analysis to code year, journal, study animal’s taxonomic classification, and research aims and outputs we evaluate trends in zoo-themed research, contrasted with trends in species holding. Significantly more birds and fish are kept compared to mammals, reptiles and amphibians, but mammals are consistently the primary research focus. Whilst output generally rises, only for birds is a steady increase in publications apparent. Husbandry evaluation is a major aim/output, but papers on pure biology, cognition and health also feature. Most publications lead to “specific advancement of knowledge” including validation of methodologies. We show that: (1) trends in species holdings are unrelated to trends in publication; (2) zoo-themed research makes meaningful contributions to science; (3) zoo researchers should diversify their aim/output categories and chosen study species to close the persisting research gaps that we have identified. Finally, we discuss our findings in the context of evident species biases within research outputs across the broader fields of zoology, conservation and ecology.

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Introduction.

Zoos and aquariums have the potential to be excellent locations to develop, implement and complete scientific research. Zoo populations enable hypothesis-driven questions to be answered on species/topics that would be challenging in the wild. This is evidenced by, for example, ground-breaking insights into the reproductive biology of the critically endangered Sumatran rhinoceros, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Roth et al., 2004 ) or results on the energetic costs of locomotion in bears, Ursidae (Pagano et al., 2018 ). Zoological databases that hold information on species’ biology can enhance the scientific literature on natural history and ecology (Conde et al., 2019 ); information that also informs animal management practices and species conservation strategies both in-situ and ex-situ. As centres for both pure and applied science, the output from zoological collections not only covers a range of disciplines (Loh et al. 2018 ) but is of increasing value to multiple stakeholders working in all parts of the world with all taxonomic groups.

The four aims of the modern zoo—conservation, education, research and recreation (Mason, 2007 , Fernandez et al., 2009 ) provide a framework for scientific investigation. The importance of research to the modern zoo is reflected in the number of pieces of national zoo legislation that require research activities to be conducted (Hosey et al., 2009 ). Conversely, entertainment is perceived as the least important role of the zoo (Reade and Waran, 1996 ), yet visitation must be maintained as zoos can be reliant on entrance fees for income. This income provides a means for zoos to fulfil their roles in conservation and education, hence zoos must remain attractive destinations to visit (Bueddefeld and Van Winkle, 2018 ). Research into the educational role of the zoo has scrutinised the effectiveness of zoos as learning environments (Marino et al., 2010 , Dawson and Jensen, 2011 , Moss and Esson, 2013 ). Despite an increase in zoo visitor studies over the past decade (Jensen, 2010 , Moss and Esson, 2010 ), there is little evidence that zoos promote understanding or pro-conservation behaviour. The importance of robust experimental design and application of “good science” is also evident in literature (Wagoner and Jensen, 2010 , Moss et al., 2017 ) promoting the need for an evidence-based approach.

Such an evidence-based approach extends to animal husbandry, central to which is researching animal behaviour. A majority of zoo scientific studies has previously been shown to be of a behavioural nature (Hosey, 1997 ). The relevance of behavioural science to conservation outcomes was postulated by Sutherland ( 1998 ) who states the importance of conserving behaviour as part of conservation objectives. A potential fifth aim of the zoo, to promote excellence in animal welfare (Fernandez et al., 2009 ) further supports the need to increase the amount of scientific study and application of such study, into zoo animal management. An increasingly ethically-aware public, who focus on the importance of good welfare and are not just concerned with animal cruelty (Whitham and Wielebnowski, 2013 ) emphasises the need for zoos to manage their populations to ensure a high quality of life can be attained and maintained for all individuals.

As scientific research that collects data to answer an hypothesis-driven question is key to ensuring husbandry regimes are most appropriate, zoos have invested in collaboration with academics (Fernandez and Timberlake, 2008 ), in the development of research methodologies (Plowman, 2003 , Plowman, 2008 ) and in the creation of research-focussed committees and working groups (BIAZA, 2018b ) to increase and develop their scientific output and its uptake by zoological collections. By expanding on how empirical research is applied within zoological collections (e.g., to husbandry routines, visitor engagement and interpretation objectives, or population management goals) the reach, impact and outcome of each of the zoo’s aims is strengthened.

With a new focus on collection planning for population sustainability (Traylor-Holzer et al., 2019 ), a paucity of scientific research for many familiar (i.e., commonly-kept, often-seen-in-the-zoo) species has been apparent (Melfi, 2009 ). This paper (Melfi, 2009 ) shows that researchers study a limited number of individuals of high-profile, charismatic species—a trend previously noted in the wider field of “wildlife research” (Bautista and Pantoja, 2005 ). Species less appealing to the public but housed in greater numbers across more zoological collections have been ignored. Likewise, when considering species responses to captivity, mammals are often focal subjects (Clubb and Mason, 2003 ) and ecological data are used to inform our understanding of their responses to captivity (Mason, 2010 , Kroshko et al., 2016 ). However, for other non-mammalian taxa we consider how they cope with the human-created environment of the zoo less often (Carere et al., 2011 ). Species with a long history of captivity, well-known and recognisable to the visiting public can still challenge us regarding their optimal captive care (Hatt et al., 2005 , Rose, 2018 ) and empirical, structured research programmes can help redress the balance between what a species needs to thrive and what is provided for survival in the zoo. Therefore, to move forward with species-specific Best Practice (husbandry) Guidelines (EAZA, 2019 ) less considered taxa, common but “ignored” species or animals perceived as less charismatic, e.g., reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates, (BIAZA, 2018a ) need to be the focus of future research attention. Melfi ( 2009 ) highlights this lack of research into non-mammals as the cause of anecdote or “rules of thumb” methods of providing captive care.

As such, the aim of our paper was to look retrospectively from 2009 to 2018 to see how much more scientific research has been conducted into the areas identified by Melfi ( 2009 ) as lacking a research focus. Specifically, we collected research papers from five different taxonomic groups, to evaluate the range of taxa now included in scientific publications and we investigated if/how uptake and output of evidence, useful for management, has diversified. We used Melfi ( 2009 )’s Table 1 (page 581) and Fig. 2 (page 582) as a guide to what constitutes “forgotten taxa”—focussing on those animals with large populations but limited scientific investigation. We have added invertebrates, amphibians and fish to our analysis that were excluded or not fully included in the original Melfi paper for reasons outlined below. Melfi ( 2009 )’s Fig. 2 shows the relationship between the number of individuals of specific animal species held by British and Irish association (BIAZA) zoos, as well as the number of zoos that hold each represented species, compared to the number of projects conducted on these species, based on records from the BIAZA research database. A bias towards the study of a small number of charismatic mammalian species, for example chimpanzees (Pan troglyodytes) , bonobos (P. paniscus) , orangutans (Pongo sp.) , elephants (Elephas maximus, Loxodonta africana) , is clear from this figure. Melfi notes that more projects between 1998 and 2008 were conducted on the two species of Pan compared to all projects on birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates in this sample of BIAZA institutions—90 against 84 studies. We aim to see if such a bias exists in a sample of wider zoo output in the ten years from this dataset being published.

Papers were collected using the bibliographic database Web of Science©. Key term searches were carried out by including zoo* combined with either behaviour*/behavior* or welfare or nutrition and research for each type of taxa (mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, fish), for example “zoo* bird behaviour*. Each author was assigned a specific taxon and asked to scrutinise search results in the same manner, inputting data into a standardised spreadsheet. In January 2019, the lead author searched for remaining papers in 2018 across all taxa and terms to complete the dataset. Papers were categorised by year, species (and later class, genus and order), aim and main output. Aim was defined as the reason why the research was conducted (e.g., to determine the effect of a change of husbandry routine, or the influence of enrichment on behaviour, or to benchmark positive indicators of welfare). Output was defined as the key finding of the study and how this helps to underpin evidence-based zoo management.

Papers that covered more than one species of the same taxa (e.g., free-flight aviaries) were categorised as “multiple mixed”. Papers that covered a range of species from different taxa (e.g., visitor studies research or research into common patterns of stereotypic behaviours) were categorised as “multiple taxa review”. Papers that detailed methodological advances or novel approaches to data collection were categorised as “theory”. Papers that focussed on people including where data could add information on best practice animal care (e.g., influences on collection planning based on visitor perception) were categorised as “visitor”. Only peer-reviewed scientific papers in the Web of Science© search were included. Conference papers were not counted. In total, 1063 papers were categorised from 236 publications.

The impact factor of each publication was recorded from the individual journal website or from www.bioxbio.com if the impact factor was not clear on the journal’s homepage.

Rationalising aims and outputs from each article

Using content analysis, two authors (PER and LMR) coded the description of a paper’s aim and outcome into an aim class and an outcome class and outcome gain (see Table 1 for explanation). Papers were checked at the original source if both reviewing authors (during coding) were unsure of the aims and outcomes of the paper from its abstract. Aims were prioritised based on the paper’s own statement of their original aim and not on subsidiary findings. The aim “Husbandry and training” also includes papers that investigated visitor effects because visitors are provided in the zoo whether the animal wants them or not and therefore they directly impact on daily husbandry and management decisions. For each paper, one author stated their interpretation of aim and outcome code and this was judged using a protocol (Table 1 ) by the second author who also ensured the first aim/outcome was prioritised. Triangulation was not necessary as the two authors agreed on 100% of codes. Codes were created using an inductive approach. If a new aim/outcome was coded or new example were added, all previously papers in that aim class, outcome class or output gain were re-coded to reduce bias.

Specialised journals and global species holding

To compare any trend in publication output seen in the main Web of Science © dataset with two specialist zoo journals that are i) an annual publication without an impact factor and ii) have only incomplete listing on this database, an analysis of the output from the International Zoo Yearbook, IZYB, (published annually since 1960 by the Zoological Society of London) and the new open-access Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research, JZAR, (published by the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria, EAZA) was conducted in the same manner (assessing the number of publications per taxa between 2009 and 2018). From these two journals, 354 papers were collected.

To provide context to research output gathered from searching for numbers of papers on specific taxa, data on species holdings of all zoos globally, published in the International Zoo Yearbook, were analysed alongside of the research-focussed data. These (unpublished) species holdings data were collected as part of an on-going additional research project (by author JEB) with the annual number of each species of mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and fish kept at each zoo being recorded.

Invertebrates

Papers on zoo-applicable invertebrate research were sampled alongside of the main dataset. As we were keen to follow Melfi ( 2009 )’s categories of research subjects as closely as possible and because of the high number of papers to review between authors, details collected on invertebrate papers were restricted to: the name of the journal and year, the type of aim of the paper and the study subject. Again, only papers found in Web of Science © were recorded and the same categories for searching across the complete database were used: e.g., “zoo* invertebrate OR cephalopod OR arachnid welfare”. Abstracts of papers were read to ensure there was an application to zoo populations- i.e., the paper was not solely focussed on laboratory experimentation. A total of 17 papers were identified from 2011 to 2018 across 12 different publications.

Total sample size

Overall, 1434 zoo-focussed research papers were collected for analysis and evaluation (from the main dataset, from the IZYB and JZAR dataset, and for the separate search for invertebrate-specific research).

Data analysis

Data were analysed in R studio v. 1.0.136 (R Core Team, 2016 ). Where required, data were checked for collinearity using the “car package” (Fox and Weisberg, 2011 ), with values <2 taken as acceptable. Plots of residuals in R for each model were used to assess the distribution of data before further testing.

To compare differences between total counts of mammalian, avian and fish species held, a two-sample t -test was run. To determine any change in the number of species in each class housed by global zoos over the course of the study, a one-way ANOVA was run for species counts against year.

To compare the number of papers published against the taxonomic class of species held plus year of publication, a general liner model was run in R and post-hoc testing to ascertain differences between predictors was run using the “pbkrtest” and “lsmeans” packages for R studio (Halekoh and Højsgaard, 2014 , Lenth, 2016 ).

Fitted models were also run in R, with associated linear regression plots, for each outcome, gain and taxonomic class per year to identify any significant trend in the number of papers published on that theme.

For those papers with a focus on one taxonomic class only ( n  = 863), a multinomial logistic regression was run in R studio using “multinom” function from the package “nnet” (Venables and Ripley, 2002 ). The “AER” (Kleiber and Zeileis, 2008 ) and “afex” (Singmann et al., 2019 ) packages were used to generate P values of the model fit from ANOVA and Wald’s tests. Post-hoc testing was run using the “lsmeans” package (Lenth, 2016 ) using (model, pairwise ~ factor | object, adjust = “tukey”, mode = “prob”) to generate P values for each pair of factors for each outcome across taxonomic class.

A linear regression was run in R with follow-up ANOVA analysis of the fitted model to determine the significance of predictors (taxonomic class, aim, outcome, gain and year of publication) on journal impact factor.

To remove any chances of Type 1 error, the Benjamini and Hochberg ( 1995 ) method of correcting the level of significance was employed when comparing multiple P values.

Global species holdings and the taxonomic focus of research papers

Figure 1 shows that birds and fish are the most speciose taxa housed in zoos globally, and amphibians comprise the fewest number of species housed. Significantly fewer species of mammal are housed compared to birds ( t  = −21.07; df = 11896; P  < 0.001) and fish ( t  = −8.86; df = 9291; P  < 0.001). For each taxonomic class, there was no significant change in the number of species held by zoos globally between 2009 and 2018 (mammals P  = 0.985; birds P  = 0.809; reptiles P  = 0.488; amphibians P  = 0.559; fish = 0.999).

The mean number of species within each taxonomic class (white dot, no line) housed globally in zoological establishments that provided data to the International Zoo Yearbook from 2009 to 2018 compared to the number of publications (red dot, red line), per year, for that taxonomic class. Overall birds are the most speciose taxonomic class housed by zoos globally and show the biggest increase in research output

There is a significant relationship between the number of papers published on each taxonomic class, the year of publication and the mean number of species in that class held ( F 14,35  = 58.59; r 2  = 0.94; P  < 0.001). Across years the increase in the number of papers published for all taxonomic classes combined was not statistically significant (regression slope = 7.41; P  = 0.338), suggesting that the overall number of papers on all topics identified from this literature search remains similar.

Significant differences are noted for the output for mammals against reptiles (higher number of mammalian papers), for fish against mammals (lower number of fish papers) and for amphibians against mammals (lower number of amphibian papers), Table S1 (supplementary information). When evaluating the interaction between species held and taxonomic class (species_holding*taxonomic_class) there is no significant relationship, showing that the average number of each species (in each taxonomic class) held in zoos is not influencing the number of publications on these taxa (intercept = 1.16, P  = 0.976) even though the relationship between the overall number of papers published and taxonomic class of animal is still significant (F 9,40  = 74.65; r 2  = 93%; P  < 0.001). As there is no significant change in the number of species held over this time period, an increase in the holdings of one class is not causing an increase in research output in that specific class.

Trends in the specific categories and aims of zoo-based papers

Analysis reveals that most of the papers have a husbandry and/or welfare focus (see Table S2, supplementary information), be that in the aim ( n  = 301) of the paper or the overall outcome ( n  = 435). The high number of papers coded as a pure biology outcome ( n  = 271) shows that zoos can be centres for the advancement of “blue sky” science, as well as for applied science. This idea is supported by the proportion of papers (75%) that add to our knowledge of the species or topics being investigated. With only 1.7% of papers having no specific gain (i.e., a need for more research to answer the paper’s aim) zoo-based papers are clearly able to impact on knowledge and practice in this area of science.

Is there a relationship between the question being asked and what type of animal is being studied?

The Analysis of Deviance (type II) tests from the model showed that a paper’s aim (likelihood ratio χ 2  = 81.65; df = 36; P  < 0.001), outcome (likelihood ratio χ 2  = 54.23; df = 20; P  < 0.001) and gain (likelihood ratio χ 2  = 30.13; df = 16; P  = 0.017) are all significant predictors of the taxonomic class of the paper. Year was not a significant predictor but may be trending in that direction (likelihood ratio χ 2  = 49.97; df = 36; P  = 0.06). Post-hoc comparison of outcomes for each taxonomic class identified multiple significant predictors (for example Table S3, supplementary information).

Surveying across single-taxonomic class papers only (for the aim, outcome and gain of each paper) shows differences in the proportion of papers on each specific theme by taxa. For fish, 43% of papers had a husbandry aim, 57% of fish papers had a pure biology outcome and 71% of fish papers were identified as having a gain of a specific advancement in knowledge.

Across those papers on reptiles, 45% had a veterinary medicine and animal health aim, 42% had an animal and ecosystem health outcome, and 52% of papers had a gain of a specific advancement in knowledge. For amphibians, 16% of papers had a behavioural aim and 16% had a veterinary medicine and animal health aim, 29% of amphibian papers had a husbandry outcome and 48% paper were identified as providing a gain by specifically advancing knowledge.

An aim of behaviour was identified for 31% of all papers focussing on birds, 39% of bird papers had a husbandry and welfare outcome and 69% of bird papers provided a gain of a specific advancement in knowledge. For papers on mammals, 32% had a husbandry and training aim, 43% had a pure biology outcome, and 70% provided a gain in the specific advancement of knowledge.

For those wishing to advance an evidence-basis for zoo animal husbandry, 23% of all papers provided a gain of how to advance practice (either species-specific or general) with 78% of these being on mammals. Most papers focussed on adding to our knowledge of the study subject(s). Table S4 (supplementary information) further evidences the popularity of specific taxonomic orders as subjects for zoo-themed research by illustrating the types of question asked and output gained on the different taxonomic classes identified in our dataset. Details are provided for the top five orders from mammals, birds and amphibians, for all three orders of reptiles and for all six orders of fish from the ten-year dataset. Bias in the questions being asked at a taxonomic level is evident for each order and may relate to the accessibility of this animal in a zoo or the expertise of the researcher conducting the science.

Predicting future trends

Assessing the main dataset ( n  = 1063) for increases or decreases in the number of publications per theme or on a particular taxonomic group type of animal identifies key areas where zoo research is growing in output. A significant relationship is found for the number of papers published on captive birds over the ten-year period, +3.5 papers/year ( F 1,8  = 26.99; r 2  = 74.3; P  = 0.001), supporting the trend illustrated by Fig. 1 . Papers with an overall methodology aim also increase, +1.01 papers/year, indicating that zoological research is continuing to publish new ways of assessing the animals within collections ( F 1,8  = 30.23; r 2  = 76.5; P  = 0.001). Papers with an aim of veterinary medicine and animal health also increase (+1.01 articles per year) significantly ( F 1,8  = 8.97; r 2  = 47.0%; P  = 0.017). Figure S1 (supplementary information) illustrates these trends over time.

There are also increases on year for outcome with 1.12 extra papers per year published on animal and ecosystem health ( F 1,8  = 9.69; r 2  = 49.1%; P  = 0.014). Output of papers with a visitor studies aim was not significant ( P  = 0.08, +0.2 papers/year). Husbandry and welfare outcome papers may tend towards a significant increase of +1.7 papers/year ( P  = 0.062). This general trend is supported by Fig. S1, which shows a rise in this outcome category over time (although this is not consistent from one year to the next). Finally, there is a significant increase (+5.8 papers/year) in the number of papers published that specifically advance our knowledge of zoo animals ( F 1,8  = 38.18; r 2  = 80.5%; P  < 0.001).

Conservation and population sustainability papers and those focussing on human behaviour change outcomes appear low overall, when compared to those on pure biology and on husbandry (Fig. S1). Such information highlights areas for research to expand into in the future to ensure output continues to be novel and relevant.

Patterns of publication from an annual and a new scientific journal

To compare with output taken from the impact factor-listed publications in the main dataset, Fig. S2, supplementary information, shows the publication trend for the IZYB and for JZAR. Trends in the IZYB data are harder to predict, even though overall the number of mammal-focussed papers is higher than for other classes (47% overall). However, a notable pattern of mammal-focussed publication is evident in each year of JZAR; since its first publication in 2013, 59% of papers are on mammals. All single-class taxonomic categories aside from mammals can be absent from each of these two publications (Fig. S2). Therefore, consideration for the theme of each volume or the breadth of papers included within may be needed to ensure that a wide-range of species are focussed on per edition.

Assessing impact

Differences are apparent in the spread of journal impact factors for where papers on each class of animal and each type of research topic are published (Fig. 2 ). The top five highest impact factor journals include research on multiple taxonomic classes and papers that provide a general advancement in knowledge (with one species-specific focus (elephants) that provides a specific advancement in knowledge). Of the 1063 papers from 2009–2018, two are published in journals with an impact factor of above 10, with the majority (75%) published in journals with an impact factor of below 2.

Boxplots to show the median impact factor of papers for each type of animal or research aim. Top: taxonomic class (A amphibians, All All classes included, B birds, F fish, M mammals, M+ Mammals plus another taxa, R Reptiles, RA+ Reptiles and amphibians plus another taxa). Middle: Aim category (BEH Behaviour, BPR Breeding programmes, HUS husbandry and training, MTH methods, NUT nutrition, PHY physiology, VET veterinary medicine and animal health, VIS visitor studies, WEL welfare). Bottom: Outcome category (AEH animal and ecosystem health, BCH behaviour change human, CSN conservation and sustainability, HUS husbandry and welfare, PUB pure biology, SCI scientific validity). Papers covering all taxa show the largest range in impact and the highest impact overall

Papers with Husbandry and welfare, Human behaviour change, and Conservation and sustainability outcomes are published in the highest impact journals. Papers with a Welfare, Visitor studies, Methods, and Husbandry aim are also found in these higher-impact publications. It is exciting to see that a wide range of topics can be published and disseminated widely across the breadth of the scientific literature- zoo-focussed research is not restricted to “zoo only” journals.

There is a significant relationship between several predictors and publication in a higher impact factors journal ( F 34, 1028  = 2.59; r 2  = 5%; P  < 0.001). Taxonomic class ( P  < 0.001), aim ( P  < 0.001) and outcome ( P  = 0.009) are all significant predictors of publication in a journal with a higher impact factor. Year of publication ( P  = 0.36) or gain (0.994) show no relationship to a journal’s impact factor. Model estimates for individual GLMs show significantly higher impact factor journals contain papers covering both reptiles and amphibians (estimate = 1.32, P  = 0.007) and papers on birds were more likely to be published in lower impact factor journals compared to other taxonomic groups (estimate = −0.57; P  < 0.001).

For the aim of the paper, those on nutrition (estimate = −0.49; P  = 0.012) and veterinary medicine/animal health (estimate = −0.33; P  = 0.006) were published in lower impact journals, whereas those on visitor studies were significantly more likely to be found in higher impact publications (estimate = 0.52; P  = 0.002). When assessing each paper’s outcomes, those relating to human behaviour change were more likely to be published in journals with higher impact factors (estimate = 0.94; P  < 0.001) compared to other outcome categories.

Comparing the interaction between taxonomic class and the paper’s aim ( F 61,1001  = 1.85; r 2  = 5%; P  < 0.001) shows that higher impact journals are successfully chosen for physiology papers that cover all classes (estimate = 2.36; P  = 0.04) and for methods papers published on reptiles and amphibians (estimate = 3.06; P  = 0.05). A significant interaction is present for papers on reptiles and amphibians with conservation/sustainability outcomes (estimate = 4.47; P  = 0.001), model summary F 39,1023  = 3.003; r 2  = 7%; P  < 0.001. No significant relationship is noted for any interaction between the paper’s gain and the taxonomic class used as the subject, and choice of higher impact journals.

What about invertebrates?

For the 17 relevant papers obtained on invertebrates, the highest number ( n  = 11, 65%) focussed on reviewing or providing commentary on, across taxa, bigger questions relating to welfare (including a paper on enrichment practices that covered other taxa as well invertebrates to determine preferences for a specific type of enrichment provided and a paper on how to design judgement bias tasks, both of which have important welfare connotations). Papers on cephalopods and those covering a review of invertebrate taxa as part of a wider question (e.g., enrichment or welfare assessment) made up several of the articles recorded ( n  = 5, 29%, respectively). Invertebrates articles could cover pure science (i.e., personality studies), as well as be used to inform the management of other taxa in the zoo (i.e., investigating food supplements for invertebrates that are then used as foods for other species). The median impact factor was 1.5, similar to output presented for other taxa in Fig. 2 . Papers published in the top-five impact factor journals were two articles that reviewed welfare (published in journals with an impact factor of 16), a cephalopod welfare paper (published in a journal with an impact factor of 5.23) and paper on cephalopod personality (in a journal with an impact factor of 4.13) and a review paper on welfare (in a journal with an impact factor of 3).

Our results show that zoo-themed researchers are increasing their research output year-on-year; Fig. 1 illustrates that, for bird research at least, the overall trend in output is positive. A bias in the study of large charismatic mammals dominates the overall number of papers published, but zoo-themed researchers are investigating a wide array of topics and increasing their output into areas of knowledge gain, as well as practical application (Fig. S1, supplementary information). This mammal bias appears similar to that noted in the wider field of zoology (Bautista and Pantoja, 2005 ) and the need for a more informed approach (such as our call for more scientific investigation for taxon-specific husbandry guides) is echoed by previous research that highlights a lack of scientific rigour within strategies implemented for habitat and wildlife conservation (Reichhardt, 1999 ).

Zoo-themed research output appears to be aligning with wider conservation messages, for example as emphasised by the One Plan Approach (CBSG, 2015 ), as well as with moves to encourage more direct pro-environmental human behaviour change (Smith et al., 2008 , Spooner et al., 2019 ) and wider usage of ecological evidence for the development of species-specific management plans (EAZA, 2019 ). We demonstrate that zoo-themed research output can cross academic boundaries and answer big questions that extend far beyond the animals housed at the zoo themselves. Increases in the number of papers adding to knowledge of species biology shows the wider relevance of zoos to “blue sky” science and an impact across different fields for all taxa investigated (Fig. 2 ). This expanding and considered research output appears to align with developments noted in other areas of biology too- for example the relative success of conservation initiatives in the United States (Schwartz, 2008 ) even though data to underpin these measures can often be lacking.

The focus on specific taxonomic groups compared to others (Table S1) may be a facet of the particular research interest of individual scientists, the commonality of a particular species in the zoo, or the availability of species in zoos close to the workplace of scientists that are publishing in this field. There are clear trends in the choice of taxonomic order when looking over the aims, outcomes and gains from research published on zoo-housed animals (Table S3), indicating that researchers opt for a particular taxonomic order as a study system when designing how to test an experimental hypothesis. A Husbandry and training aim and a Husbandry and welfare outcome predominates in this dataset (Table S2) showing that zoo research is focussing on key areas of management to improve captive care. This illustrates that the majority of these papers are adding to knowledge to strengthen the aims of the modern zoo, and it is encouraging that only 18 papers provided no firm conclusion to their way. Those researching the zoo are clearly able, in the vast majority of cases, to provide an answer to their question.

Our results identify some interesting trends in how zoo animals are used for research. Notably that reptiles feature more in veterinary and health-related papers than other taxonomic classes, yet whilst mammals are the most commonly studied class (Fig. 1 ), they show the least variation in research aim for across all classes (Table S3), with papers asking either behavioural or husbandry and training related questions. Amphibians are the class with the most diverse array of questions asked—covering breeding, husbandry, nutrition, physiology, behaviour, and veterinary medicine and animal health. This suggests that the conservation relevance of amphibians in zoos (Zippel et al., 2011 ) and the urgency by which captive-naïve populations have had to be created suddenly ex situ (Pavajeau et al., 2008 ) has created niches for variation in research questions more quickly than in mammal populations, for example, that have not been exposed to sudden changes in the novelty of species held.

We identify papers that cover each of the four roles of the modern zoo, demonstrating that zoos are prepared to research how well they are meeting their goals and be scrutinised on the outputs from such research. Given calls for good welfare to be a fifth aim of the modern zoo (Fernandez et al., 2009 ), the high number of papers with a full or in-part welfare outcome (41% of all identified papers) is encouraging. Welfare science is moving quickly, with novel approaches validated (Williams et al., 2018 , Richter and Hintze, 2019 , Yon et al., 2019 ) and an increasing use of natural ecology information as a keystone in determining the relevance of husbandry in the zoo (Rose, 2018 ). Therefore, the application of animal-based welfare assessment to ensure individual welfare is good, rather than a completely resource-based approach is a key area of research for zoos to focus upon (Whitham and Wielebnowski, 2013 ). And as 74% of identified papers that had either a specific or general advancement in practice ( n  = 245) were fully or partly focussed on a welfare outcome, zoos are forging ahead to evaluate many aspects of welfare of the animals they house. Our results indicate this is not confined to a single taxon but relevant to all investigated except reptiles where focus is on health and conservation. This may be because so little of the wild biology is known for many reptilian species that, when in captivity, immediate threats to survival (e.g., disease) must be the primary research concern. Whatever the underlying reason, here there is an identifiable opportunity for future zoo research.

Three key gaps in knowledge of zoo animal management were identified by Melfi ( 2009 ). Firstly, that research tended to investigate indicators of poor rather than positive welfare. Change is evident with research assessing animal-based indicators of a good quality of life now being published (Williams et al., 2018 , Yon et al., 2019 ), and methods for positive welfare assessment for zoo invertebrates, as well as an evidence-basis for captive invertebrate care (Bethell, 2015 , Tonkins et al., 2015 ) can also be found. We demonstrate that targeted research, evidenced by the year-on-year increase in bird research output (for example), with popular aims of husbandry and welfare and with an advancing knowledge outcome, means all aspects of welfare are being considered and investigated.

Secondly that housing and husbandry are historically based on anecdote or tradition. A scientific approach to inform husbandry is noticeable in our dataset, with housing style (Rowden and Rose, 2016 ), daily husbandry regimes (Rose et al., 2016 ), nutrition (Gussek et al., 2018 ), enrichment practices (Costa et al., 2018 ), breeding recommendations (Asa et al., 2011 ) and animal health measures (Greenwell and Montrose, 2017 ) being based on evidence gathered to determine optimal care. The asking of numerous questions (Table S4) with an amphibian model shows that zoo researchers are considering key knowledge gaps at different taxonomic levels when constructing an experimental design. Even within a taxonomic group bias persists as certain species (e.g., Pan spp. in the Primate order) command the evidence-based approach. This is not to say zoos specifically ignore other species as a myriad reasons may explain why the husbandry practices of one species are more science-led than another (for example, the number of individuals kept in zoos). And as Pan sp . studies continue to demonstrate, many research projects are required before an holistic approach to husbandry (and welfare generally) can be achieved. Our paper shows that for many species, zoo research is the start of this evidence-gathering journey.

Thirdly, a lack of species-specific biological data may be inhibiting zoo research output. Well-studied animals, such as Pan sp ., will continue to receive research interest because scientists have a reliable bank of background information to utilise. Consequently, equally important research candidates remain understudied due to this lack of baseline information. Use of ecological information on species’ habitat choices can be used to inform housing (Mason, 2015 , Kroshko et al., 2016 , Mellor et al., 2018 ) and suitability of husbandry can be evaluated via individual preference testing (Mehrkam and Dorey, 2015 , Troxell-Smith et al., 2017a , Troxell-Smith et al., 2017b ). Therefore, constructing “in-zoo” questions based on manipulations that can yield species-specific information means that these poorly understood species can be researched and improvements to their husbandry be made on an evidence-based approach.

We demonstrate that zoo-themed research output is slowly filling in these gaps for more and more species, and we have evaluated how this research can have wider impact across scientific publications with a broader readership (Fig. 2 ). From the output in Melfi ( 2009 ), 89% of the sample concerned mammals (60% of which was primate-focussed), with 8% on birds, 1% on reptiles and 1% on other taxa. Whilst the Melfi ( 2009 ) dataset was restricted to output from only one region (British & Irish facilities), the bias for investigating mammalian species is clear. Within our main Web of Science© dataset, 69% of papers focussed solely on mammals (40% on primates)- therefore highlighting a shift change towards the use of other species as research subjects that is unrelated to the number of species kept of a given taxa.

Inter-disciplinary research also identifies the usefulness of zoo information to big data questions, and such an approach helps further reduce the lack of biological information as identified by Melfi ( 2009 ). Information held in the Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS) database, managed by species360 (species360, 2018 ) has added to the bank of biological information held on non-domestic species (Conde et al., 2019 ) to improve our knowledge and understanding of many important areas of species biology, physiology and life history. To develop this research output, zoos should be increasing the number of scientific studies being published within higher impact journals. Our dataset shows that mammals remain considerably better represented in publications than all other taxonomic groups combined. Indeed, two mammalian Orders, Carnivora (154 papers) and Primates (294 papers), are both better represented in research output than all birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish together (204 papers) for papers covering a single taxonomic class.

Publication output centring on a few species within taxonomic groups that are the focus of research attention is documented (Bautista and Pantoja, 2005 ) and similar reasons are postulated to ones that we cover in our evaluation (i.e., flagship for conservation). These authors also note that fish are an underrepresented group in “wildlife research” and again this echoes our own zoo-focussed findings. Given that aquarium-housed fish can be flagships for conservation research, e.g., McGregor Reid et al. ( 2013 ), there is the potential to build on key traits that make a specific taxa suitable for scientific study to increase its use for research. Increases in species-specific output may be based on active researchers investigating questions on the same taxa because these are considered the most appropriate for that question. However, scientists could consider diversifying the taxa used to ask a similar question. For example, the use of highly-cognitive birds instead of primates for cognition research, facilitating the use of non-mammalian species. Use of cephalopods to determine personality differences (Carere et al., 2015 ) can be a realistic alternative to primate studies given the complex cognition of these invertebrates (Mather and Dickel, 2017 ) that involves both short- and long-term learning and engagement in behaviours such as play.

However, we should also be mindful of the importance of knowledge gaps (e.g., the achievement of optimal welfare) for all captive species, regardless of taxonomic class and therefore zoos should actively engage in directed scientific research to answer key applied questions. A lack of background knowledge on such species, hampering effective evaluation of any results generated, may be causing researchers to choose more familiar species as study models. When considering zoo-specific and open access publications (Fig. S2, Supplementary information) there is an overall predominance of mammalian-research noted, even when annual volumes are themed around a particular taxa, such as freshwater fish (McGregor Reid, 2013 ), or area of work, such as reintroduction and translocation practice (Gilbert and Soorae, 2017 ).

The continuing decline in biodiversity is resulting in zoos providing care for species with a limited to non-existent captive history. Science has a role to play in informing practice for these species if species conservation initiatives are to be successful. Zoos and aquariums are unique in their capacity to provide direct conservation action to threatened species across the globe (Michaels et al., 2014 , Biega et al., 2019 ), and it is encouraging to see that many zoo research projects already focus on conservation breeding and the wider role of animals in ecosystem health. Zoo studies currently are used to better inform conservation projects for animals in situ (da Silva et al., 2019 , Lacy, 2019 ) and this trend is likely to continue into the future. The success of in-situ conservation initiatives can be hindered by a lack of evidence (Reichhardt, 1999 , Schwartz, 2008 ) and therefore decisions that influence population management, breeding recommendations and similar measures to conserve biological diversity ex situ must have an evidence basis to them.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (2020) is currently developing a post-2020 global biodiversity framework, which will aim to address the key drivers of extinction (CBD, 2019 ). A key area for future focus is the relatively poor representation of amphibians, both in zoo collection plans, and also in the research output. Zoos appear to be housing relatively few species of amphibians. In relation to biodiversity and conservation, there are over 7900 amphibian species, and roughly 40% of these species are threatened with extinction (IUCN, 2019 ). While some animal collections have produced excellent conservation education strategies centred around amphibians (Pavajeau et al., 2008 ), it is clear there is room for development of collection plans for these species. It may be difficult for visitors to appreciate the diversity of threatened amphibians if few are represented in captivity (Michaels et al., 2014 b).

Because zoological collections have the responsibility of maintaining populations of highly endangered species, prioritising research into areas of population sustainability, educational initiatives and human behaviour change, can help inform the overall conservation plan for species at the brink of extinction. Whilst our results show that current conservation and ecosystem health output appears low, there is evidence that the quantity of research output is growing. This range of publications has value for those engaged in direct conservation action, as well as to educators disseminating information to zoo visitors and beyond.

It is interesting to note that the best represented animals in our dataset also appear to be some of the favourite animals of zoo visitors (Carr 2016 ). Primates, carnivores and elephants are well-represented in the public’s top ten favourite animals (Courchamp et al., 2018 ) and whilst it is beyond the scope of this paper to determine why these animals appear to feature in both public interest and in zoo literature, we do suggest that public interest could act as a driver for research focus on this species (i.e., to better inform practice and scrutinise the extent to which species are presented to visitors). We do not suggest “less primates” in the output from zoos but more focus on other taxa, as well as the continuation of high levels of research on traditional study species. We would encourage researchers to consider their choice of study population carefully and think about other benefits to their research. It might be intriguing to study chimpanzees but is there more added conservation, education and recreational value if the waxy monkey frog (Phyllomedusa sauvagii) was studied instead…?

In conclusion, our results demonstrate that, globally, zoo-themed researchers have an impressive scientific output and are investigating a range of empirical, hypothesis-driven questions that relate to all the modern zoo’s key roles. Between 2009 and 2018, considerable progress has been made regarding the number of zoo-based publications, especially papers focussed on welfare assessment or improvement. Our results show that there remains a mismatch between the number of species within a taxonomic class held in captivity and the representation of this class in the peer-reviewed literature. Whilst it is relevant that some charismatic species are receiving considerable publication interest, further focus on species that are less represented in literature would help the zoological community to develop welfare indicators and evidence-based husbandry more rapidly for a wider range of taxa. The research output of zoological collections is worthwhile, not only for those working within the industry, but also for those working in other capacities with wild animals and in related disciplines (e.g., academia). As such, progress in increasing the number of questions being posed and output of answering such questions, both within and beyond the zoo, has value to people and animals worldwide.

Data availability

The dataset on publications gathered from scientific databases is available at Open Research Exeter: https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/handle/10871/39092 . The dataset generated on species holdings are not publicly available due to this project still be researched but are available from author James E. Brereton upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We thank A. Loader for her help with compiling data from JZAR and the IZYB. We thank S. Bereton for assistance with the global species holdings dataset. The open access publication charge was covered by the University of Exeter’s Institutional APC Fund.

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Rose, P.E., Brereton, J.E., Rowden, L.J. et al. What’s new from the zoo? An analysis of ten years of zoo-themed research output. Palgrave Commun 5 , 128 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0345-3

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Scientists push new paradigm of animal consciousness, saying even insects may be sentient

Bees play by rolling wooden balls — apparently for fun . The cleaner wrasse fish appears to recognize its own visage in an underwater mirror . Octopuses seem to react to anesthetic drugs and will avoid settings where they likely experienced past pain. 

All three of these discoveries came in the last five years — indications that the more scientists test animals, the more they find that many species may have inner lives and be sentient. A surprising range of creatures have shown evidence of conscious thought or experience, including insects, fish and some crustaceans. 

That has prompted a group of top researchers on animal cognition to publish a new pronouncement that they hope will transform how scientists and society view — and care — for animals. 

Nearly 40 researchers signed “ The New York Declaration on Animal Consciousness ,” which was first presented at a conference at New York University on Friday morning. It marks a pivotal moment, as a flood of research on animal cognition collides with debates over how various species ought to be treated. 

The declaration says there is “strong scientific support” that birds and mammals have conscious experience, and a “realistic possibility” of consciousness for all vertebrates — including reptiles, amphibians and fish. That possibility extends to many creatures without backbones, it adds, such as insects, decapod crustaceans (including crabs and lobsters) and cephalopod mollusks, like squid, octopus and cuttlefish.

“When there is a realistic possibility of conscious experience in an animal, it is irresponsible to ignore that possibility in decisions affecting that animal,” the declaration says. “We should consider welfare risks and use the evidence to inform our responses to these risks.” 

Jonathan Birch, a professor of philosophy at the London School of Economics and a principal investigator on the Foundations of Animal Sentience project, is among the declaration’s signatories. Whereas many scientists in the past assumed that questions about animal consciousness were unanswerable, he said, the declaration shows his field is moving in a new direction. 

“This has been a very exciting 10 years for the study of animal minds,” Birch said. “People are daring to go there in a way they didn’t before and to entertain the possibility that animals like bees and octopuses and cuttlefish might have some form of conscious experience.”

From 'automata' to sentient

There is not a standard definition for animal sentience or consciousness, but generally the terms denote an ability to have subjective experiences: to sense and map the outside world, to have capacity for feelings like joy or pain. In some cases, it can mean that animals possess a level of self-awareness. 

In that sense, the new declaration bucks years of historical science orthodoxy. In the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that animals were merely “material automata” — lacking souls or consciousness.

Descartes believed that animals “can’t feel or can’t suffer,” said Rajesh Reddy, an assistant professor and director of the animal law program at Lewis & Clark College. “To feel compassion for them, or empathy for them, was somewhat silly or anthropomorphizing.” 

In the early 20th century, prominent behavioral psychologists promoted the idea that science should only study observable behavior in animals, rather than emotions or subjective experiences . But beginning in the 1960s, scientists started to reconsider. Research began to focus on animal cognition, primarily among other primates. 

Birch said the new declaration attempts to “crystallize a new emerging consensus that rejects the view of 100 years ago that we have no way of studying these questions scientifically.” 

Indeed, a surge of recent findings underpin the new declaration. Scientists are developing new cognition tests and trying pre-existing tests on a wider range of species, with some surprises. 

Take, for example, the mirror-mark test, which scientists sometimes use to see if an animal recognizes itself. 

In a series of studies, the cleaner wrasse fish seemed to pass the test . 

The fish were placed in a tank with a covered mirror, to which they exhibited no unusual reaction. But after the cover was lifted, seven of 10 fish launched attacks toward the mirror, signaling they likely interpreted the image as a rival fish. 

After several days, the fish settled down and tried odd behaviors in front of the mirror, like swimming upside down, which had not been observed in the species before. Later, some appeared to spend an unusual amount of time in front of the mirror, examining their bodies. Researchers then marked the fish with a brown splotch under the skin, intended to resemble a parasite. Some fish tried to rub the mark off. 

“The sequence of steps that you would only ever have imagined seeing with an incredibly intelligent animal like a chimpanzee or a dolphin, they see in the cleaner wrasse,” Birch said. “No one in a million years would have expected tiny fish to pass this test.”

In other studies, researchers found that zebrafish showed signs of curiosity when new objects were introduced into their tanks and that cuttlefish could remember things they saw or smelled . One experiment created stress for crayfish by electrically shocking them , then gave them anti-anxiety drugs used in humans. The drugs appeared to restore their usual behavior.

Birch said these experiments are part of an expansion of animal consciousness research over the past 10 to 15 years. “We can have this much broader canvas where we’re studying it in a very wide range of animals and not just mammals and birds, but also invertebrates like octopuses, cuttlefish,” he said. “And even increasingly, people are talking about this idea in relation to insects.”

As more and more species show these types of signs, Reddy said, researchers might soon need to reframe their line of inquiry altogether: “Scientists are being forced to reckon with this larger question — not which animals are sentient, but which animals aren’t?” 

New legal horizons

Scientists’ changing understanding of animal sentience could have implications for U.S. law, which does not classify animals as sentient on a federal level, according to Reddy. Instead, laws pertaining to animals focus primarily on conservation, agriculture or their treatment by zoos, research laboratories and pet retailers.

“The law is a very slow moving vehicle and it really follows societal views on a lot of these issues,” Reddy said. “This declaration, and other means of getting the public to appreciate that animals are not just biological automatons, can create a groundswell of support for raising protections.” 

State laws vary widely. A decade ago, Oregon passed a law recognizing animals as sentient and capable of feeling pain, stress and fear, which Reddy said has formed the bedrock of progressive judicial opinions in the state.  

Meanwhile, Washington and California are among several states where lawmakers this year have considered bans on octopus farming, a species for which scientists have found strong evidence of sentience. 

British law was recently amended to consider octopuses sentient beings — along with crabs and lobsters .

“Once you recognize animals as sentient, the concept of humane slaughter starts to matter, and you need to make sure that the sort of methods you’re using on them are humane,” Birch said. “In the case of crabs and lobsters, there are pretty inhumane methods, like dropping them into pans of boiling water, that are very commonly used.”

Evan Bush is a science reporter for NBC News. He can be reached at [email protected].

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How Do We Know What Animals Are Really Feeling?

Animal-welfare science tries to get inside the minds of a huge range of species — in order to help improve their lives.

Credit... Photo Illustration by Zachary Scott

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By Bill Wasik and Monica Murphy

Bill Wasik is the magazine’s editorial director and Monica Murphy is a veterinarian and writer.

• April 23, 2024

What makes a desert tortoise happy? Before you answer, we should be more specific: We’re talking about a Sonoran desert tortoise, one of a few species of drab, stocky tortoises native to North America’s most arid landscapes. Adapted to the rocky crevices that striate the hills from western Arizona to northern Mexico, this long-lived reptile impassively plods its range, browsing wildflowers, scrub grasses and cactus paddles during the hours when it’s not sheltering from the brutal heat or bitter cold. Sonoran desert tortoises evolved to thrive in an environment so different from what humans find comfortable that we can rarely hope to encounter one during our necessarily short forays — under brimmed hats and layers of sunblock, carrying liters of water and guided by GPS — into their native habitat.

Listen to this article, read by Gabra Zackman

This past November, in a large, carpeted banquet room on the University of Wisconsin’s River Falls campus, hundreds of undergraduate, graduate and veterinary students silently considered the lived experience of a Sonoran desert tortoise. Perhaps nine in 10 of the participants were women, reflecting the current demographics of students drawn to veterinary medicine and other animal-related fields. From 23 universities in the United States and Canada, and one in the Netherlands, they had traveled here to compete in an unusual test of empathy with a wide range of creatures: the Animal Welfare Assessment Contest.

That morning in the banquet room, the academics and experts who organize the contest (under the sponsorship of the American Veterinary Medical Association, the nation’s primary professional society for vets) laid out three different fictional scenarios, each one involving a binary choice: Which animals are better off? One scenario involved groups of laying hens in two different facilities, a family farm versus a more corporate affair. Another involved bison being raised for meat, some in a smaller, more managed operation and others ranging more widely with less hands-on human contact.

Then there were the tortoises. On screens along the room’s outer edge, a series of projected slides laid out two different settings: one, a desert museum exhibiting seven Sonoran specimens together in a large, naturalistically barren outdoor enclosure; the other, a suburban zoo housing a group of four tortoises, segregated by sex, in small indoor and outdoor pens furnished with a variety of tortoise toys and enticements. Into the slides had been packed an exhausting array of detail about the care provided for the tortoises in each facility. Only contestants who had prepared thoroughly for the competition — by researching the nutritional, environmental, social and medical needs of the species in question — would be able to determine which was doing a better job.

“Animal welfare” is sometimes misused as a synonym for “animal rights,” but in practice the two worldviews can sometimes be at cross purposes. From an animal rights perspective, nearly every human use of animals is morally suspect, but animal-welfare thinkers take it as a given that animals of all kinds do exist in human care, for better or worse, and focus on how to treat them as well as possible. In the past half century, an interdisciplinary group of academics, working across veterinary medicine and other animal-focused fields, have been trying to codify what we know about animal care in a body of research referred to as “animal-welfare science.”

The research has unlocked riddles about animal behavior, spurred changes in how livestock are treated and even brought about some advances in how we care for our pets: Studies of domestic cats, for example, have found that “puzzle feeders,” which slow consumption and increase mental and physical effort while eating, can improve their health and even make them friendlier. The discipline has begun to inform policy too, including requirements for scientists receiving federal grants for their animal-based research, regulations governing transport and slaughter of livestock, accreditation standards for zoos and aquariums and guidelines for veterinarians performing euthanasia.

Contest organizers hope to help their students, who might someday go into a range of animal-related jobs — not just as vets but in agribusiness, conservation, government and more — employ data and research to improve every aspect of animal well-being. Americans own an estimated 150 million dogs and cats, and our policies and consumption patterns determine how hundreds of millions of creatures from countless other species will live and die. The Animal Welfare Assessment Contest tries to introduce students to that enormous collective responsibility, and to the complexity of figuring out what each of these animals needs, especially when — as in the case of reptiles living in a shell — their outlook differs radically from our own.

The effort to improve the lives of America’s animals began more than 150 years ago. As it happens, a hundred or so turtles figured in one of the most important events in the early history of animal activism in America. It was May 1866 — the heyday of turtle soup, a dish so beloved at the time that restaurants in New York would take out newspaper ads, or even maintain special outdoor signage, declaring the hour at which the day’s batch would be ready. And so this group of unlucky sea turtles, after being captured by hunters in Florida, was brought to New York upside down on a schooner. To further immobilize them, holes were pierced through their fins with cords run through them.

The turtles would have assumed a tranquil, passive demeanor under such conditions, perhaps making it possible for the ship’s crew to believe that the creatures weren’t suffering. But there is every reason to believe they were. Evolution has equipped the marine turtle for a life afloat, with a large lung capacity filling the space beneath the shell, to enable long dives. When the turtles were on their backs, the weight of their organs would have put pressure on these lungs, forcing their breathing to become deliberate and deep.

The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals started up the month before. Its president and founder, a Manhattan shipbuilding heir named Henry Bergh, spent its early weeks focusing on domestic species — above all, horses, the rough treatment of which in 19th-century streets was the main inspiration for his activism. But when he became aware of these suffering sea turtles for sale at Fulton Market, he decided to extend his campaign to a wildlife species that then barely rated more consideration than a cockroach, if not a cabbage.

Bergh made a case that the infliction of prolonged pain and distress upon sea turtles bound for the soup pot was illegal as well as immoral. As with other “mute servants of mankind” providing labor, locomotion, meat or milk to human beings, the turtle was entitled to be treated with compassion. But when Bergh hauled the ship’s captain in front of a judge, the defense argued (successfully!) that turtles were not even “animals,” but rather a form of fish, and thereby did not qualify under the new animal-cruelty law that Bergh succeeded in passing earlier that year.

Still, the case became a media sensation — and signaled to New Yorkers that Bergh’s campaign on behalf of animals was going to force them to account for the suffering of all animals, not just the ones they already chose to care about.

It’s perhaps no accident that Bergh turned to activism after a failed career as a dramatist. There’s something irreducibly imaginative in considering questions of animal welfare, regardless of how much science we marshal to back up our conclusions. George Angell of Boston, his fellow titan of that founding generation of animal advocates, pirated a 13-year-old British novel called “Black Beauty” and turned it into one of the century’s best-selling books, touting it as “the ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’ of the Horse” — though its real innovation was its use of an animal as a first-person narrator, thrusting readers into a working horse’s perspective and forcing them to contemplate how the equines all around them might see the world differently.

But how far does imagination really get us? The philosopher Thomas Nagel famously explored this problem in an essay called “What Is It Like to Be a Bat?” which took up that question only to dramatize the impossibility of answering it to anyone’s satisfaction. “It will not help,” he wrote, “to try to imagine that one has webbing on one’s arms, which enables one to fly around at dusk and dawn catching insects in one’s mouth; that one has very poor vision, and perceives the surrounding world by a system of reflected high-frequency sound signals; and that one spends the day hanging upside down by one’s feet in an attic. Insofar as I can imagine this (which is not very far), it tells me only what it would be like for me to behave as a bat behaves.”

In the case of chelonians like turtles — and their encarapaced brethren, the tortoises — we may know even less about how they experience the world than we do about bats. Take their vision, for example: Among those species that have been studied, scientists have found evidence of broad-spectrum color vision, sometimes including ultraviolet wavelengths invisible to the human eye. And while chelonians can see well beyond their pointed beaks, where edible vegetation or predators may await notice, their brains process these visual signals slowly — a quality of certain animal brains that might, some experts have theorized, result in a sped-up perception of time. (In chelonian eyes, do grasses wave frenetically in the breeze and clouds race across the sky?)

Next to vision, smell is probably the sense turtles and tortoises rely upon most. Their sensitive nasal epithelium, distributed between two chambers, can detect odors diffused in a warm desert breeze or dissolved in a cold ocean current. Chelonian ears are where you’d expect them to be, but buried beneath their scaled reptilian skin. They hear well at low frequencies, even if they don’t register the high notes of twittering birds, humming mosquitoes or the whistling wind. Some chelonians seem to have the power of magnetoreception, which means that somewhere in their anatomy — perhaps their eyes, or their nervous systems, or elsewhere — there are chemicals or structures that allow them to sense the earth’s geomagnetic field and navigate by it.

The chelonian sense of touch presents fewer mysteries. Specialized receptors in the skin and on the shell detect mechanical, temperature and pain stimuli and send messages to the nervous system — just as they do in humans and a wide variety of other species. Recognition of pain, in particular, is considered a primordial sense, essential to the survival of animals on every limb of the evolutionary tree. But even here, there are differences separating species: What does the nervous system do with signals from its nociceptors? Does the desert tortoise withdraw its foot from the scorpion’s tail only reflexively, or does it consciously register the pain of the sting? What suffering does a turtle endure when its shell is struck by the sharp edges of a boat propeller?

As Nagel argued, there is no way to meaningfully narrow the gulch in understanding that exists around “what it is like to be” such a creature. The strategy of animal-welfare science is to patiently use what we can observe about these other kinds of minds — what they choose to eat and to do, how they interact with their environments, how they respond to certain forms of treatment — looking for objective cues to show experts what imagination cannot.

Upstairs from the banquet hall, student competitors nervously milled around carpeted corridors. One by one they were called into conference rooms to face a judge, who sat at a table beside a digital chronograph. In one room, a neatly dressed young woman in owlish glasses took a breath as the display began counting up hundredths of seconds in bright red digits. Catherine LeBlond, a second-year student at Atlantic Veterinary College at Canada’s University of Prince Edward Island, began her presentation about the bison scenario.

She was allowed to refer only to a single 3-by-5 index card, which she had packed with information based on a “summary sheet” of takeaways that she and her teammates worked up together, with key phrases emphasized and sources cited, all of it broken down by category: social behavior (“Bison are a very social species with strong matriarchal divisions”), handling guidelines (“Prods should not be used to move bison unless safety is an issue”), facility design (“Ensure that there is a sufficient number of gates within facilities to slow the animals”), euthanasia (“The recommended euthanasia method of a bison is gunshot”) and more.

LeBlond began by declaring her choice: The wilder facility provided a more humane environment for its animals. She felt it was helping bison “live a more natural life”: The more spacious grounds would support wallowing behavior, she reasoned, and allow the animals to choose their social grouping, an important policy given bisons’ strong sense of social structure. She also praised the operation for enabling bison to avoid “aversive life events,” by using drones, rather than ranchers on horseback, to monitor the animals in the field, and also by slaughtering the animals on-site to avoid the distress they experience in transport. As she ran through her presentation, she took care to hit two important rhetorical notes that judges look for: “granting” some areas in which the other institution excelled and offering positive advice about how it might improve.

One way to think about her reasoning is through the lens of “the five freedoms,” a rubric that animal-welfare thinkers have long embraced to consider all the different obligations that humans have to the animals in their care. They are: 1. the freedom from hunger and thirst; 2. the freedom from discomfort; 3. the freedom from pain, injury or disease; 4. the freedom to express normal behavior; and 5. the freedom from fear and distress. In fact, it was arguably the articulation of these five freedoms — in the Brambell Report, a document put out by a British government committee in 1965 to assess the welfare conditions of the nation’s livestock — that inaugurated the whole field of animal-welfare science.

What made this list of “freedoms” so influential, in retrospect, was that it created a context for other, more targeted thinking about how a species might experience each freedom or its violation. What sort of environment will offer “freedom from discomfort” to a beef steer, on the one hand, and a freedom “to express normal behavior” on the other? Trying to answer such questions in a rigorous way involves considerations of veterinary medicine but also of evolutionary history, behavioral observation, physiology (scientists have begun using proxies like cortisol levels as an indication of animal stress), neuroscience and more.

In her bison presentation, by citing “a more natural life” and avoiding “aversive life events,” LeBlond was emphasizing Freedoms 4 and 5, the freedom to express normal behavior and the freedom from distress. In the scenario about tortoises, though, Freedoms 4 and 5 seemed to be at odds. When LeBlond addressed the judge for that category, she awarded the edge to the zoo — weighing its better health outcomes and stimulating enrichments over the more naturalistic setting at the museum. She zeroed in on the zoo’s visitor program, which gave the tortoises a novel method of choosing whether or not they wanted to interact with humans: Staff put out a transport crate, and over the course of 20 minutes, tortoises could decide to climb into the crate to be taken to the human guests, and later receive a special biscuit for their service.

And she linked this to a behavioral difference, illustrated by a set of charts comparing how readily each set of tortoises moved toward a “novel object” (like an enrichment toy) or a “novel person” in their midst. The numbers showed that the zoo’s tortoises were far more drawn to interactions with people. “This indicates that they have less fear of humans,” LeBlond pointed out, “which could be because they are given a choice about whether or not they get to participate in educational programs, and those that do are positively reinforced with high-value rewards.”

Most of the students followed a similar logic and chose the zoo. The judges, however, disagreed. As one of them explained later at the awards ceremony — at which LeBlond took second place among vet students — the facility may have seemed to be offering their tortoises a consensual choice, but it was more accurate to see it as heavy-handed operant conditioning, which lured them into submitting to human contact with the promise of a biscuit. In scenarios involving domestic animals, a documented comfort around humans is a sign of positive treatment, but when it comes to wild animals, the goal is the opposite: to acclimate them as little to human contact as possible. Another way of putting it is this: Biscuits might make a desert tortoise “happy,” insofar as we can even imagine what that means, but happiness isn’t ultimately what humane treatment is about.

Each year at the contest, competitors are asked to perform one “live” assessment: a situation with real animals in it. This time, the species of choice was the laboratory rat. We joined Kurt Vogel, head of the Animal Welfare Lab at University of Wisconsin-River Falls, on a tour of the scenario that he and a colleague, Brian Greco, had constructed in a warren of rooms a few buildings over from the competition site.

They had brought a great deal of brio to the task. In the first room, where several rats snoozed in containers, Vogel and Greco had left a panoply of welfare infractions for eagle-eyed students to find. One cage was missing a water bottle, while others housed only a single rat, a violation of best practices (rats prefer to be housed in groups). Feed bags sat on the floor with detritus all around, and a note in a lab journal indicated that pest rodents had been observed snacking on it.

In subsequent rooms, the horrors became more baroque. A euthanasia chamber had the wrong size lid on it, and a nearby journal described a rat escaping in the middle of its extermination. Paperwork in an office laid out the nature of the study being performed, which involved prolonged deprivation of food and water, forced swimming and exposure to wet bedding. Diagrams showed that the rats’ brains were being studied through physical implants, and students could see that the operating room was a nightmare, littered with unsterile implements and the researchers’ food trash (the remnants of Vogel’s bagel sandwich, deliberately left behind). None of the abuse was real — Vogel and Greco were even taking care to cycle the rats in and out of the fake scenario, in order to avoid undue stress from the parade of students who came through taking notes.

Happiness isn’t ultimately what humane treatment is about.

Rodents did not always play the role in labs that they do today. In the late 19th century, experiments were carried out on a whole host of species, including a high proportion of dogs — a fact that animal-welfare activists publicized to turn the “vivisection” debate into a political issue, to the point that even some prominent doctors became galvanized to restrict or ban the practice. In the 20th century, as research shifted to carefully bred rats and mice, optimized for predictability and uniformity, animal experimentation receded as an issue in the public discourse. Today animal-welfare advocates struggle to motivate their base on the matter of rodents: the Humane Society’s website illustrates its section on “Taking Suffering Out of Science” (which sits at the very end in its list of the group’s current “fights”) with a picture of a beagle in a cage, despite the fact that roughly 95 percent of all lab mammals are now rats or mice.

Lab rodents are maybe the most vivid example of a species whose suffering is hard to know how to weigh against the benefits it provides us. Studies using rat and mouse models have sought to answer basic scientific questions across diverse fields of inquiry: psychology, physiology, pathology, genetics. Look into any new advance in human health care, and you’re likely to find that it’s built on years of experimentation that consumed the lives of literally thousands of rodents. We may now be on the cusp of innovations that could allow that toll to be radically reduced — by essentially replacing animal models with some combination of virtual simulations and lab-grown tissue and organs — but it’s hard to imagine a world anytime soon where human patients would be subject to therapies that have never been tested on hundreds of animals. No one even reliably counts how many rodents are killed in U.S. labs every year, but the estimates range from 10 million up to more than 100 million.

This question of scale especially haunts the problem of livestock, which is an area where many of the contest’s student competitors will eventually find jobs. America is currently home to roughly 87 million cattle and 75 million pigs: populations that exceed those of dogs and cats in scale, but the welfare of which commands so much less of our moral attention.

When the practice of centralized, industrialized livestock management began in earnest after the Civil War, the treatment of the animals, especially during slaughter, could be barbaric. Pigs were simply hoisted up and their throats cut, and after some point were assumed to be dead enough to dump into boiling water so that the sharp bristles on their skin could be scraped away. There was little doubt that some of them were still conscious at the point that they were plunged into the water, as was reported in a broad exposé in 1880 by The Chicago Tribune: “Not infrequently,” the reporter noted, “a hog reaches the scalding-tub before life is extinct; in fact, they sometimes are very full of life when they reach the point whence they are dumped into the seething tub.”

After 1906, when Upton Sinclair’s “The Jungle” exposed the industry’s unsanitary practices, a series of reforms did lead to significant improvements in the lives and deaths of American livestock. Thanks to the Humane Slaughter Act of 1958, federal law now requires that animals be “rendered insensible to pain” before the act of killing; with pigs, this is generally done either with electrocution or by suffocation in a carbon-dioxide chamber, while with cattle, the method of choice is the captive-bolt gun. And since the 1970s, animal-welfare science has led to some considerable reforms. Perhaps the most transformational work has been done by Temple Grandin, the animal behaviorist whose research into how food animals experience and respond to their environment — particularly during transport and slaughter — has changed the way that meat and dairy producers operate.

Still, despite years of promises to end the practice, many sows are still kept almost permanently in 7-feet-by-2-feet “gestation crates,” too small to turn around in. And the rise of concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) has doomed millions of pigs, cattle and chickens to lives spent cheek to jowl in the stench of their own waste — waste that also threatens the health of nearby communities and ecosystems.

At the contest, many attendees were excited about the gains that artificial intelligence could bring to the animal-welfare field. Pilot studies have indeed shown great promise: For example, with A.I. assistance, 24-hour video surveillance can help pinpoint sick or injured animals much more quickly so they can be pulled out for veterinary care. Last year, a group of European researchers announced that based on 7,000 recordings of more than 400 pigs, they had made significant progress in understanding the meaning of their grunts. “By training an algorithm to recognize these sounds, we can classify 92 percent of the calls to the correct emotion,” one of the scientists remarked.

That well may be, but given what we know about pigs — specifically, their remarkable intelligence, which rivals (if not exceeds) that of a dog, to the point that a group of scientists recently trained some to play video games — there is no amount of A.I.-driven progress that can reconcile their short, crowded life as an American industrial food animal with any definition of what a “good” life looks like for such brainy creatures, all 75 million of them.

The laying hen, among the four species considered at the contest, is the one that lives among us in the largest numbers: There are an estimated 308 million of them in the United States alone, or nine for every 10 Americans. In a backyard flock, these hens could be expected to live six to eight years, but a vast majority of them toil in industrial operations that will slaughter them after only two to three years, once their productivity (six eggs a week) declines — and chickens, notably, are not covered by the Humane Slaughter Act. Poor air quality, soiled litter, nutritional stress and conflict with other chickens can contribute to dietary deficiencies, infectious diseases, egg-laying complications, self-mutilation, even cannibalism. And even in the best laying-hen operations, including the “cage-free” ones imagined in the contest scenario, these are short lives spent under 16 hours a day of artificial lighting in extremely close quarters with other birds.

More than in the other scenarios, the organizers had made the laying-hen choice a straightforward one. The corporate farm offered fewer amenities for the birds, which were also observed rarely to use the dirt-floored, plastic-covered “veranda” that was supposed to serve as a respite from their long hours laying in the aviary. The more commodious verandas of the family farm, covered with synthetic grass, proved more popular with their chickens, and in warm weather, its birds made use of a screened “garden” as well.

In her presentation, Catherine LeBlond correctly picked the family farm, for many of the same reasons that the judges did. Again, she “granted” some positive qualities of the corporate farm and offered it some advice — reflecting, after all, the values of the veterinary profession that she was training to enter, a field that takes on the advising of everyone who has animals in their care, not only the most conscientious.

Even so, at the very end, LeBlond briefly stepped back to ask a true ethical question, one that troubled the entire premise of a multibillion-dollar global industry: “whether or not it is ethical to keep these hens for the sole purpose of egg-laying, only to have them slaughtered at the end.” Among the scores of students we watched over the course of a weekend, LeBlond and her teammates from the Atlantic Veterinary College were the only ones who, in the final seconds of their talks, raised deep questions about the scenario’s entire premise — about whether, in the end, these fictional animals should have been put in these fictional situations in the first place.

It was a question that the judges of the Animal Welfare Assessment Contest had no doubt considered, but it also was one that seemed to lie outside the contest’s purview: In its either-or structure, the contest is helping train future professionals how to improve, rather than remove, the ties that bind animals into human society. Unless the day arrives when there is no need for laboratory rats, or poultry barns, or facilities to house desert tortoises and other captive wildlife, the animals of North America will be in the hands of veterinarians and animal scientists like LeBlond and her classmates, to help shape their situations the very best way they can.

Parts of this article are adapted from “Our Kindred Creatures: How Americans Came to Feel the Way They Do About Animals,” by Bill Wasik and Monica Murphy, published this month by Knopf.

Read by Gabra Zackman

Narration produced by Krish Seenivasan and Emma Kehlbeck

Engineered by Lance Neal

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How to Write a Hypothesis? Types and Examples 

All research studies involve the use of the scientific method, which is a mathematical and experimental technique used to conduct experiments by developing and testing a hypothesis or a prediction about an outcome. Simply put, a hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. It includes elements that are expressed in terms of relationships with each other to explain a condition or an assumption that hasn’t been verified using facts. 1 The typical steps in a scientific method include developing such a hypothesis, testing it through various methods, and then modifying it based on the outcomes of the experiments.  

A research hypothesis can be defined as a specific, testable prediction about the anticipated results of a study. 2 Hypotheses help guide the research process and supplement the aim of the study. After several rounds of testing, hypotheses can help develop scientific theories. 3 Hypotheses are often written as if-then statements. 

Here are two hypothesis examples: 

Dandelions growing in nitrogen-rich soils for two weeks develop larger leaves than those in nitrogen-poor soils because nitrogen stimulates vegetative growth. 4  

If a company offers flexible work hours, then their employees will be happier at work. 5  

Table of Contents

• What is a hypothesis? 
• Types of hypotheses 
• Characteristics of a hypothesis 
• Functions of a hypothesis 
• How to write a hypothesis 
• Hypothesis examples 
• Frequently asked questions 

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis expresses an expected relationship between variables in a study and is developed before conducting any research. Hypotheses are not opinions but rather are expected relationships based on facts and observations. They help support scientific research and expand existing knowledge. An incorrectly formulated hypothesis can affect the entire experiment leading to errors in the results so it’s important to know how to formulate a hypothesis and develop it carefully.

A few sources of a hypothesis include observations from prior studies, current research and experiences, competitors, scientific theories, and general conditions that can influence people. Figure 1 depicts the different steps in a research design and shows where exactly in the process a hypothesis is developed. 4  

There are seven different types of hypotheses—simple, complex, directional, nondirectional, associative and causal, null, and alternative. 

Types of hypotheses

The seven types of hypotheses are listed below: 5 , 6,7  

• Simple : Predicts the relationship between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable. 

Example: Exercising in the morning every day will increase your productivity.  

• Complex : Predicts the relationship between two or more variables. 

Example: Spending three hours or more on social media daily will negatively affect children’s mental health and productivity, more than that of adults.  

• Directional : Specifies the expected direction to be followed and uses terms like increase, decrease, positive, negative, more, or less. 

Example: The inclusion of intervention X decreases infant mortality compared to the original treatment.  

• Non-directional : Does not predict the exact direction, nature, or magnitude of the relationship between two variables but rather states the existence of a relationship. This hypothesis may be used when there is no underlying theory or if findings contradict prior research. 

Example: Cats and dogs differ in the amount of affection they express.  

• Associative and causal : An associative hypothesis suggests an interdependency between variables, that is, how a change in one variable changes the other.  

Example: There is a positive association between physical activity levels and overall health.  

A causal hypothesis, on the other hand, expresses a cause-and-effect association between variables. 

Example: Long-term alcohol use causes liver damage.  

• Null : Claims that the original hypothesis is false by showing that there is no relationship between the variables. 

Example: Sleep duration does not have any effect on productivity.  

• Alternative : States the opposite of the null hypothesis, that is, a relationship exists between two variables. 

Example: Sleep duration affects productivity.  

Characteristics of a hypothesis

So, what makes a good hypothesis? Here are some important characteristics of a hypothesis. 8,9  

• Testable : You must be able to test the hypothesis using scientific methods to either accept or reject the prediction. 
• Falsifiable : It should be possible to collect data that reject rather than support the hypothesis. 
• Logical : Hypotheses shouldn’t be a random guess but rather should be based on previous theories, observations, prior research, and logical reasoning. 
• Positive : The hypothesis statement about the existence of an association should be positive, that is, it should not suggest that an association does not exist. Therefore, the language used and knowing how to phrase a hypothesis is very important. 
• Clear and accurate : The language used should be easily comprehensible and use correct terminology. 
• Relevant : The hypothesis should be relevant and specific to the research question. 
• Structure : Should include all the elements that make a good hypothesis: variables, relationship, and outcome. 

Functions of a hypothesis

The following list mentions some important functions of a hypothesis: 1  

• Maintains the direction and progress of the research. 
• Expresses the important assumptions underlying the proposition in a single statement. 
• Establishes a suitable context for researchers to begin their investigation and for readers who are referring to the final report. 
• Provides an explanation for the occurrence of a specific phenomenon. 
• Ensures selection of appropriate and accurate facts necessary and relevant to the research subject. 

To summarize, a hypothesis provides the conceptual elements that complete the known data, conceptual relationships that systematize unordered elements, and conceptual meanings and interpretations that explain the unknown phenomena. 1  

How to write a hypothesis

Listed below are the main steps explaining how to write a hypothesis. 2,4,5  

• Make an observation and identify variables : Observe the subject in question and try to recognize a pattern or a relationship between the variables involved. This step provides essential background information to begin your research.  

For example, if you notice that an office’s vending machine frequently runs out of a specific snack, you may predict that more people in the office choose that snack over another. 

• Identify the main research question : After identifying a subject and recognizing a pattern, the next step is to ask a question that your hypothesis will answer.  

For example, after observing employees’ break times at work, you could ask “why do more employees take breaks in the morning rather than in the afternoon?” 

• Conduct some preliminary research to ensure originality and novelty : Your initial answer, which is your hypothesis, to the question is based on some pre-existing information about the subject. However, to ensure that your hypothesis has not been asked before or that it has been asked but rejected by other researchers you would need to gather additional information.  

For example, based on your observations you might state a hypothesis that employees work more efficiently when the air conditioning in the office is set at a lower temperature. However, during your preliminary research you find that this hypothesis was proven incorrect by a prior study. 

• Develop a general statement : After your preliminary research has confirmed the originality of your proposed answer, draft a general statement that includes all variables, subjects, and predicted outcome. The statement could be if/then or declarative.  
• Finalize the hypothesis statement : Use the PICOT model, which clarifies how to word a hypothesis effectively, when finalizing the statement. This model lists the important components required to write a hypothesis. 

P opulation: The specific group or individual who is the main subject of the research 

I nterest: The main concern of the study/research question 

C omparison: The main alternative group 

O utcome: The expected results  

T ime: Duration of the experiment 

Once you’ve finalized your hypothesis statement you would need to conduct experiments to test whether the hypothesis is true or false. 

Hypothesis examples

The following table provides examples of different types of hypotheses. 10 ,11  

Key takeaways  

Here’s a summary of all the key points discussed in this article about how to write a hypothesis. 

• A hypothesis is an assumption about an association between variables made based on limited evidence, which should be tested. 
• A hypothesis has four parts—the research question, independent variable, dependent variable, and the proposed relationship between the variables.   
• The statement should be clear, concise, testable, logical, and falsifiable. 
• There are seven types of hypotheses—simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative and causal, null, and alternative. 
• A hypothesis provides a focus and direction for the research to progress. 
• A hypothesis plays an important role in the scientific method by helping to create an appropriate experimental design. 

Frequently asked questions

Hypotheses and research questions have different objectives and structure. The following table lists some major differences between the two. 9  

Here are a few examples to differentiate between a research question and hypothesis. 

Yes, here’s a simple checklist to help you gauge the effectiveness of your hypothesis. 9   1. When writing a hypothesis statement, check if it:  2. Predicts the relationship between the stated variables and the expected outcome.  3. Uses simple and concise language and is not wordy.  4. Does not assume readers’ knowledge about the subject.  5. Has observable, falsifiable, and testable results. 

As mentioned earlier in this article, a hypothesis is an assumption or prediction about an association between variables based on observations and simple evidence. These statements are usually generic. Research objectives, on the other hand, are more specific and dictated by hypotheses. The same hypothesis can be tested using different methods and the research objectives could be different in each case.     For example, Louis Pasteur observed that food lasts longer at higher altitudes, reasoned that it could be because the air at higher altitudes is cleaner (with fewer or no germs), and tested the hypothesis by exposing food to air cleaned in the laboratory. 12 Thus, a hypothesis is predictive—if the reasoning is correct, X will lead to Y—and research objectives are developed to test these predictions. 

Null hypothesis testing is a method to decide between two assumptions or predictions between variables (null and alternative hypotheses) in a statistical relationship in a sample. The null hypothesis, denoted as H 0 , claims that no relationship exists between variables in a population and any relationship in the sample reflects a sampling error or occurrence by chance. The alternative hypothesis, denoted as H 1 , claims that there is a relationship in the population. In every study, researchers need to decide whether the relationship in a sample occurred by chance or reflects a relationship in the population. This is done by hypothesis testing using the following steps: 13   1. Assume that the null hypothesis is true.  2. Determine how likely the sample relationship would be if the null hypothesis were true. This probability is called the p value.  3. If the sample relationship would be extremely unlikely, reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis. If the relationship would not be unlikely, accept the null hypothesis. 

To summarize, researchers should know how to write a good hypothesis to ensure that their research progresses in the required direction. A hypothesis is a testable prediction about any behavior or relationship between variables, usually based on facts and observation, and states an expected outcome.  

We hope this article has provided you with essential insight into the different types of hypotheses and their functions so that you can use them appropriately in your next research project. 

References  

• Dalen, DVV. The function of hypotheses in research. Proquest website. Accessed April 8, 2024. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1437933010?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals&imgSeq=1  
• McLeod S. Research hypothesis in psychology: Types & examples. SimplyPsychology website. Updated December 13, 2023. Accessed April 9, 2024. https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-a-hypotheses.html  
• Scientific method. Britannica website. Updated March 14, 2024. Accessed April 9, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/science/scientific-method  
• The hypothesis in science writing. Accessed April 10, 2024. https://berks.psu.edu/sites/berks/files/campus/HypothesisHandout_Final.pdf  
• How to develop a hypothesis (with elements, types, and examples). Indeed.com website. Updated February 3, 2023. Accessed April 10, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-a-hypothesis  
• Types of research hypotheses. Excelsior online writing lab. Accessed April 11, 2024. https://owl.excelsior.edu/research/research-hypotheses/types-of-research-hypotheses/  
• What is a research hypothesis: how to write it, types, and examples. Researcher.life website. Published February 8, 2023. Accessed April 11, 2024. https://researcher.life/blog/article/how-to-write-a-research-hypothesis-definition-types-examples/  
• Developing a hypothesis. Pressbooks website. Accessed April 12, 2024. https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/developing-a-hypothesis/  
• What is and how to write a good hypothesis in research. Elsevier author services website. Accessed April 12, 2024. https://scientific-publishing.webshop.elsevier.com/manuscript-preparation/what-how-write-good-hypothesis-research/  
• How to write a great hypothesis. Verywellmind website. Updated March 12, 2023. Accessed April 13, 2024. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-hypothesis-2795239  
• 15 Hypothesis examples. Helpfulprofessor.com Published September 8, 2023. Accessed March 14, 2024. https://helpfulprofessor.com/hypothesis-examples/ 
• Editage insights. What is the interconnectivity between research objectives and hypothesis? Published February 24, 2021. Accessed April 13, 2024. https://www.editage.com/insights/what-is-the-interconnectivity-between-research-objectives-and-hypothesis  
• Understanding null hypothesis testing. BCCampus open publishing. Accessed April 16, 2024. https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/understanding-null-hypothesis-testing/#:~:text=In%20null%20hypothesis%20testing%2C%20this,said%20to%20be%20statistically%20significant  

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

Are you also learning about dynamic equilibrium in your science class? We break this sometimes tricky concept down so it's easy to understand in our complete guide to dynamic equilibrium .

Thinking about becoming a nurse practitioner? Nurse practitioners have one of the fastest growing careers in the country, and we have all the information you need to know about what to expect from nurse practitioner school .

Want to know the fastest and easiest ways to convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius? We've got you covered! Check out our guide to the best ways to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (or vice versa).

These recommendations are based solely on our knowledge and experience. If you purchase an item through one of our links, PrepScholar may receive a commission.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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Manor Lords beginner's guide: Everything you need to grow your settlement in your first year

How to get started with Manor Lords

Not sure how to get started in Manor Lords? It's a common complaint. I'm of the opinion that solo developer Slavic Magic has made a rather special city-builder with Manor Lords , but it has to be said that the game can be pretty obtuse and confusing at times.

If you're itching to build your own town in Manor Lords but you're not sure where to begin or whether you're doing things right, that's where we hope to help you. In this beginner's guide, I will walk you through your first year in Manor Lords, handling everything from the initial few buildings and family assignments to big projects like food production, building your first Church and Manor, and surviving your first Winter. At the end, I'll also leave you with some key objectives for you to prepare for in Year 2.

So! Here's how to get off to a roaring start in Manor Lords!

Note: for this walkthrough, I'll assume that you've chosen the default starting scenario : "Restoring The Peace". But no matter which scenario you choose, this guide should help you through the basics of setting up your town.

1. Pause the game, and construct these buildings

When you first load into the world, immediately pause the game and take a look around your region of the map. You should see a few key resources: Berries and Wild Animals will be the most important, as they're your early-game food sources. There may also be Stone , Iron , and Clay , which you won't have to worry about for a while, but it's good to note their whereabouts ahead of time.

With the game still paused, open up the build menu and construct the following buildings with your starting supplies:

• Logging Camp
• Marketplace
• (Optional) Woodcutter's Lodge

It's important to build the Logging Camp first , to get some early Timber production going as soon as possible.

All of the buildings except the Logging Camp and Woodcutter's Lodge should be near the centre of where you'd like your village to be. The Logging Camp should be placed near a forest, but make sure it isn't too close to any Wild Animals. I personally like to place down a Woodcutter's Lodge early on as well so it's ready when I need it, but it's not necessary. If you do place one now, you should ideally place it near a different patch of trees to your Logging Camp.

2. Build a basic road network between key areas

With the game still paused, start hashing out a basic road network . Roads in Manor Lords are completely free and instantly built, so it's always a good idea to build them at the start of the game while paused.

The general idea with these starting roads is to connect all your starting buildings to each other, while also leaving large-ish gaps for Burgage Plots and other buildings later on. It's particularly important to make sure your Population (and Oxen ) have road access from the Logging Camp to the rest of your village, because the Logging Camp is where you store all the Timber you need for constructing new buildings.

I'd also recommend placing down some longer roads from the centre of your village towards the nearest Berries and Wild Animals. We'll revisit them in Step 4 .

3. Assigning your families to work

It's time to unpause the game and let your villagers build those starting buildings you placed down. Feel free to speed up the game or slow it down with the buttons in the bottom-right (hotkeys: Z and X).

Once your Logging Camp is built, click on it and assign 2 families to it immediately. They'll start chopping wood for more Timber, and meanwhile your other 3 families will continue building.

Once your Storehouse and Granary are built, assign 1 family each to them, to start storing resources so they don't get ruined when it starts to rain. Your one remaining family can deal with the rest of the building for now, but if need be you can take one extra family off the Logging Camp to help out.

The extra benefit of assigning families to work in the Storehouse and Granary is that you'll quickly get Food and Firewood Stalls set up in your Marketplace . You'll need these Stalls to keep your people happy after setting them up in Burgage Plots in Step 5 .

4. Set up food production

Now it's time to set up food production . At the moment, your families are living off the supplies of bread they brought with them, but that will soon run out.

The type of food production you set up first really depends on which food source is closer to your village: the Berries , or the Wild Animals . In my playthrough the berries were nearby, so I set up a Forager Hut in the wood right next to the Berry bushes.

But if Wild Animals are in a better spot for you, then I'd recommend building a Hunting Camp near them instead. You don't need both food sources immediately, so just pick whichever is more convenient.

Once your chosen building (Forager Hut or Hunting Camp) is built, set a family working there, but make sure you still have one family free for building. To recap: your families should now have the following work:

• Logging Camp (1 family)
• Storehouse (1 family)
• Granary (1 family)
• Food building (1 family)
• 1 family unassigned and free for building jobs

5. Build your first Burgage Plots

All this time, your families have been living in their starting tents, and you may have noticed your Approval Rating starting to decline next to the thumbs up arrow at the top of your screen. The solution is to start building Burgage Plots , which are where your families live in Manor Lords.

We'd highly recommend you build your first 3 or so Burgage Plots so that they have extra Living Space Extensions (depicted by the icon of the house with the plus sign). As you'll know if you've read our Manor Lords tips and tricks guide, Living Space Extensions allow you to expand your population more easily, with less overall cost to your Burgage Plots.

Plop down 3 Burgage Plots for now, and let your builders work on them for a while.

6. Get another Ox and Hitching Post

One thing that really slows down a lot of new players in the early game is that they rely heavily on their one starting Ox to ferry all that Timber to and fro. But you can easily double that workrate by ordering another Ox ! To do this, just click on your Htiching Post (which you begin the game with), and click the "Order Another Ox" button. It costs 20x Regional Wealth out of your total 50, but it's a worthwhile investment.

However, you also need to build another Hitching Post , because each Hitching Post can only handle one Ox. It's a good idea to build multiple Hitching Posts anyway, so that your Oxen are spread across your settlement and can do transport jobs more quickly. I placed mine pretty much in the centre of my town, and I suggest you do something similar.

7. Time to eliminate homelessness

You should now have 3 Burgage Plots set up, but that still means 2 out of your 5 families are stuck in your starting tents. You can build more Burgage Plots (and indeed, that's the next step ), but it's even quicker to make use of those Living Space Extensions you built into your first Plots.

• Click on a couple of your Burgage Plots and select the " Expand Living Space " button. Each expansion costs 2 Timber (the same as making a new Burgage Plot), but it's a quicker job and allows you to place two families in a single Plot, which is useful later on because you only have to upgrade one Plot instead of two in order to make both families happy!

Once those extensions are built, you should see your starting tents disappear, as no one is living in them anymore. No more homelessness! Huzzah!

8. Expand your village with more Plots and Roads

Your overall goal is to expand your town and take over the map, but your smaller goals should really be dictated by your settlement levels. Hover over your settlement name at the top of the screen and you'll see the requirements needed to upgrade to the next settlement level. In our case, we need 5 Burgage Plots, so let's build the other two now.

Remember to keep your Burgage Plots fairly close to your Well and Marketplace as they're important for your Approval Rating; and it's also a good idea to keep them close-ish to the Storehouse, Granary, and Logging Camp.

I also took this opportunity to flesh out my settlement's road system a bit more. Now that the starting supply areas and tents were gone, I could afford to be a little neater and more efficient with road placement.

9. Your first Development Point

The moment your fifth Burgage Plot is built, you'll enter a new settlement level: the Small Village. And you'll get a shiny new Development Point, to pop wherever you like in the Development Upgrades tech tree. Open up the tree by clicking on the settlement name at the top of the screen.

We'd recommend you put your first Development Point into Trade Logistics. It's a fantastic early-game tech which will make setting up trade routes much, much less expensive. We'll be starting up our Trade network very soon in Step 11 , so it's a good time to get Trade Logistics.

10. Assign your first new families to work

Now that you've eliminated homelessness, your Approval Rating should start creeping up above 50%. As long as it's above 50% and you have empty Burgage Plots, you will periodically get new families joining your village. Which is great, because at the moment we're basically using all our families already.

Whenever your next few families arrive, you should assign them to build a second food production building for whichever food source you haven't already got (Berries or Wild Animals), and start a family working there the moment it's built.

Your next family to arrive at the settlement should go towards building a Sawpit near your Logging Camp and working there to start making Planks. And your next family after that can start working in the Woodcutter's Lodge for Firewood production.

If you need more Burgage Plots before these families arrive, then go ahead and build them (and it wouldn't hurt to have a couple of them with Backyard Extension space as well).

11. Build your first Trading Post

It's time to build your first Trading Post. Traders come from off the edge of the map; there are little icons off the map edge to tell you where they spawn. Try to build your Trading Post fairly close to the edge of the map, connected to the main road.

Trade is very important in Manor Lords. It's the easiest and earliest way to get lots of Regional Wealth, which you'll need for expanding and upgrading your town. Once it's built, have a look at all your resources in the Trade tab to see if you have any large surpluses of resources.

In my case, I had an awful lot of Berries - enough to feed my village for 35 months, which is rather more than I need. So I started selling my Berries until I was down to just 100 of them, which is still more than enough for the time being.

A brief word on Bandits This isn't really a step, but at around this point of your playthrough, you may see your first Bandit Camps arise elsewhere on the map. These bandits may periodically steal some resources from your village. There's nothing you can do about this until you start building up an army and taking them out, which we'd recommend you wait until Year 2 to do. So it's not a big issue for now, it's just something to keep in mind going forward!

12. Goats, Hides, and Leather

It may be a strange time to think of Clothing in the summer months, but winter will be on us soon. I recommend taking this time to start producing Leather , so that when winter arrives you'll be able to start making Shoes .

You'll have started getting a few Hides from your Hunting Lodge, but it's good to get more, and closer to home. Take a couple of Burgage Plots with Backyard Extension Slots, and build some Goat Sheds there (or just one if you don't yet have the Regional Wealth for it). These will provide a steady supply of Hides for your village.

Meanwhile, construct a Tannery nearby in the centre of town, and assign a family there once it's built so you can start converting those Hides into Leather.

13. Keep an eye on your Firewood!

It was around this time that I realised my Firewood reserves were dangerously low, so consider this your warning to get a family working in the Woodcutter's Lodge so that you have a nice healthy stockpile before Winter! Firewood is consumed twice as fast in Winter, so you'll need a good amount.

14. Even more Burgage Plots

It's time to build even more Burgage Plots! You need 10 Burgage Plots in total to reach the next settlement level, so I'd recommend building the remaining ones now. Living Space Extensions are always welcome as usual, but even more important at this point is to have some Backyard Extension slots ready for when you need to start creating weapons, Ale , and other more exciting resources.

Once again, keep your Burgage Plots fairly tight around the centre of your village, where your Well and Marketplace Stalls reside.

15. Planning ahead for major builds

It's time to do a little bit of earmarking of space inside your village for some key buildings. Those buildings are: the Church , for religion; and the Tavern , for a different kind of religion altogether. The Church in particular is quite large, about the equivalent of a couple of decently-sized Burgage Plots. And it has to be fairly close to your Burgage Plots, so try and find a good spot for it.

It's also a good idea to earmark one of your Burgage Plots that has a Backyard Extension slot, preferably as near as possible to where your Tavern will go. This Burgage Plot can become your Brewery later on!

16. Lay a couple of Chicken Coops

I like to do what I can to diversify food types in the first year. So to that end, if you've got a couple of spare Burgage Plot Backyard Extensions handy, I'd recommend building a couple of Chicken Coops for 25x Regional Wealth each.

These Chicken Coops provide a slow but endless passive supply of Eggs , which will increase the total food offerings available to your Population. Not only does this increase their happiness, but the varied diet also makes your villagers less susceptible to illness .

Remember: if you need more Regional Wealth, go to your Trading Post and sell off any big surpluses of major resources!

17. And along came religion

With all that work your Sawpit has been doing, you should now have at least 20x Planks (and probably a lot more to be honest). So now is a good time to build your first Church.

The Church is a hefty building, costing those 20x Planks I mentioned, plus 5x Timber and 10x Stone. You won't have Stone production set up yet, but you should have enough Stone in your starting supplies to get the Church built.

Once it's built, you can set a Family working inside it if you like, but it's not a requirement. It'll just give you a little extra Approval Rating boost.

18. Expand your storage

My other recommendation at this Autumnal stage of your first year is to look at expanding your storage, to avoid any annoying " Generic Storage Full " prompts from the game. A Large Storehouse will hold 2,500 items instead of the regular Storehouse's 250, and it doesn't cost much at all.

Just be sure to build it while it isn't raining , because the moment you begin the upgrade, the entire contents of the Storehouse will be dumped on the ground.

19. Upgrade your first Burgage Plots

We're getting towards the end of the first year's major objective: reaching the Medium Village milestone. You should already have at least 10 Burgage Plots in your settlement, so all that remains to hit the settlement level goal is to upgrade at least two Burgage Plots to Level 2 .

Upgrading only costs 4x Timber . You can only do it once all of the approval requirements in that Burgage Plot are satisfied, but that shouldn't be an issue if you've been following along with this walkthrough! Get those upgrades done, and I'll see you in the Medium Village era.

20. Your second Development Point

Congratulations! You are now the proud owner of one Medium Village. Your reward? A new Development Point . And I know just where it should go.

So, open up the Development tech tree again by clicking on the village name at the top, and this time select Better Deals , which is the Development Upgrade just on from the Trade Logistics tech you unlocked last time.

Better Deals is probably the single most powerful Development Upgrade in Manor Lords right now. It removes the 10x Regional Wealth tariff on all your imports at the Trading Post, which in simple terms means everything can be bought for 10x Regional Wealth cheaper . That's a huge deal when you're looking at more expensive items like Polearms and other weapons that you'll need for raising your first army later on.

21. Start collecting Stone for your Manor

As Winter dawns, there's just a couple more jobs that I'd recommend squeezing into Year 1 if you can. The first is to construct your Manor , which in some ways (mainly thematic ways) is the most important building in your whole settlement.

Once you construct your Manor, you'll be able to start taxing your Population for Treasury and Influence , and you can also start hiring Retinue to help you in battle.

The only issue is that your Manor requires Stone to build, and you probably won't have enough. You could always purchase the Stone at the Trading Post, but there's no reason why you can't start collecting Stone for yourself. Find the nearest Stone patch, build a road out to it, and construct a Stonecutter Camp there. Then set one of your families working in the Stonecutter Camp, and they'll periodically ferry the Stone back to your base. Soon you'll have more than enough to build your first Manor.

When the time comes to actually place down your Manor, you'll enter the Castle Planning screen where you can expand walls, add towers and outposts, and more. But all of that stuff is very costly in materials and time-consuming to build, so we'd recommend just building the basic Manor for now. Once it's built, you can re-enter the Castle Planning screen at any time to add more walls and gubbins.

22. Start making Shoes from your Leather

Remember all that Leather you've been making? Well, your Level 1 citizens may have been happy draping Leather over themselves, but Level 2 citizens want actual Clothes. There are three types of Clothing items in Manor Lords: Clothes, Cloaks, and Shoes . Clothes and Cloaks require Linen and Yarn, neither of which you have yet. So that leaves Shoes, which you can thankfully make out of Leather.

To start building Shoes, all you need to do is select one of your Level 2 Burgage Plots with a Backyard Extension Slot (if you don't have one, build it!), and create a Cobbler's Workshop . The Workshop costs 5x Regional Wealth and 5x Planks to make, which shouldn't exactly break the bank. The downside is that you're effectively locking that family away from any other jobs throughout the village, but that's okay. You can always get more families.

Once the Cobbler's Workshop is done, you should begin to see Leather being slowly turned into Shoes and stored in your Large Storehouse (or sold at a Clothing stall). That's one of the major hurdles for upgrading to Level 3 Burgage Plots already complete!

23. Surviving Winter

By this point in my game, Winter had arrived, and draped my burgeoning settlement in a lovely blanket of white snow. Thankfully, if you've followed along with this guide, there's really nothing to worry about over the Winter period. Your people should have plenty of food (of varying varieties) and lots of Firewood . If need be, you can always set two families working in your Woodcutter's Lodge at once, for extra Firewood - but it shouldn't be necessary.

You don't need to take any special precautions during Winter. This isn't Frostpunk ; your people can take care of themselves as long as they have food, fuel, clothes, and a little bit of religion to help them get through the long nights. And that's just about the entire first year of Manor Lords sorted! Congratulations on surviving and thriving!

24. Year 2 objectives...

I'll leave you with a few key objectives to think about for Year 2 of your Manor Lords playthrough:

• Farming: You should start putting down a Farm or two. One for Wheat (Emmer) and one for Barley (for your Ale). For details, check out our Manor Lords Farming guide .
• Rooftiles: To upgrade your Burgage Plots to Level 3, you need to upgrade your Wooden Church to a Stone Church. Apart from all the Stone you'll obviously need, the upgrade also costs Rooftiles, which are made from Clay. So you'd better build a Mining Pit over your nearest Clay source...
• Bandits: It's time to start thinking about raising an army and marching them across the map to deal with those Bandits that keep stealing your goods. Bandits are weak in battle, but I'd recommend having an army of at least 20 to take on the standard band of 16 Bandits.
• Ale Production: What's life without Ale? You need a Tavern to keep your people happy. And for the Tavern to work, you need Ale. And to make Ale, you need Malt. And to make Malt, you need Barley. It's a fairly long process, so you'd best start early on in your second year.
• Iron Production: Iron is the other key resource you haven't tapped yet. Iron Ore from your Mine can be refined into Slabs, which can be formed into Tools , weapons, and armor. You won't be able to handle the incoming Raiders without it.
• Expanding your Town: Aside from everything else, don't forget to keep expanding your settlement. Build more Burgage Plots whenever you start to fill them up. And when the time comes, you can look at claiming your second territory and starting from scratch there with a new neighbouring settlement.

I'll let you figure out the details of these Year 2 objectives for yourself, but you should be on very firm footing after such a successful first year. Hopefully you found this beginner's guide useful, and good luck Manor Lording!

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What the data says about crime in the U.S.

A growing share of Americans say reducing crime should be a top priority for the president and Congress to address this year. Around six-in-ten U.S. adults (58%) hold that view today, up from 47% at the beginning of Joe Biden’s presidency in 2021.

We conducted this analysis to learn more about U.S. crime patterns and how those patterns have changed over time.

The analysis relies on statistics published by the FBI, which we accessed through the Crime Data Explorer , and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), which we accessed through the  National Crime Victimization Survey data analysis tool .

To measure public attitudes about crime in the U.S., we relied on survey data from Pew Research Center and Gallup.

Additional details about each data source, including survey methodologies, are available by following the links in the text of this analysis.

With the issue likely to come up in this year’s presidential election, here’s what we know about crime in the United States, based on the latest available data from the federal government and other sources.

How much crime is there in the U.S.?

It’s difficult to say for certain. The  two primary sources of government crime statistics  – the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) – paint an incomplete picture.

The FBI publishes  annual data  on crimes that have been reported to law enforcement, but not crimes that haven’t been reported. Historically, the FBI has also only published statistics about a handful of specific violent and property crimes, but not many other types of crime, such as drug crime. And while the FBI’s data is based on information from thousands of federal, state, county, city and other police departments, not all law enforcement agencies participate every year. In 2022, the most recent full year with available statistics, the FBI received data from 83% of participating agencies .

BJS, for its part, tracks crime by fielding a  large annual survey of Americans ages 12 and older and asking them whether they were the victim of certain types of crime in the past six months. One advantage of this approach is that it captures both reported and unreported crimes. But the BJS survey has limitations of its own. Like the FBI, it focuses mainly on a handful of violent and property crimes. And since the BJS data is based on after-the-fact interviews with crime victims, it cannot provide information about one especially high-profile type of offense: murder.

All those caveats aside, looking at the FBI and BJS statistics side-by-side  does  give researchers a good picture of U.S. violent and property crime rates and how they have changed over time. In addition, the FBI is transitioning to a new data collection system – known as the National Incident-Based Reporting System – that eventually will provide national information on a much larger set of crimes , as well as details such as the time and place they occur and the types of weapons involved, if applicable.

Which kinds of crime are most and least common?

Property crime in the U.S. is much more common than violent crime. In 2022, the FBI reported a total of 1,954.4 property crimes per 100,000 people, compared with 380.7 violent crimes per 100,000 people.  

By far the most common form of property crime in 2022 was larceny/theft, followed by motor vehicle theft and burglary. Among violent crimes, aggravated assault was the most common offense, followed by robbery, rape, and murder/nonnegligent manslaughter.

BJS tracks a slightly different set of offenses from the FBI, but it finds the same overall patterns, with theft the most common form of property crime in 2022 and assault the most common form of violent crime.

How have crime rates in the U.S. changed over time?

Both the FBI and BJS data show dramatic declines in U.S. violent and property crime rates since the early 1990s, when crime spiked across much of the nation.

Using the FBI data, the violent crime rate fell 49% between 1993 and 2022, with large decreases in the rates of robbery (-74%), aggravated assault (-39%) and murder/nonnegligent manslaughter (-34%). It’s not possible to calculate the change in the rape rate during this period because the FBI  revised its definition of the offense in 2013 .

The FBI data also shows a 59% reduction in the U.S. property crime rate between 1993 and 2022, with big declines in the rates of burglary (-75%), larceny/theft (-54%) and motor vehicle theft (-53%).

Using the BJS statistics, the declines in the violent and property crime rates are even steeper than those captured in the FBI data. Per BJS, the U.S. violent and property crime rates each fell 71% between 1993 and 2022.

While crime rates have fallen sharply over the long term, the decline hasn’t always been steady. There have been notable increases in certain kinds of crime in some years, including recently.

In 2020, for example, the U.S. murder rate saw its largest single-year increase on record – and by 2022, it remained considerably higher than before the coronavirus pandemic. Preliminary data for 2023, however, suggests that the murder rate fell substantially last year .

How do Americans perceive crime in their country?

Americans tend to believe crime is up, even when official data shows it is down.

In 23 of 27 Gallup surveys conducted since 1993 , at least 60% of U.S. adults have said there is more crime nationally than there was the year before, despite the downward trend in crime rates during most of that period.

While perceptions of rising crime at the national level are common, fewer Americans believe crime is up in their own communities. In every Gallup crime survey since the 1990s, Americans have been much less likely to say crime is up in their area than to say the same about crime nationally.

Public attitudes about crime differ widely by Americans’ party affiliation, race and ethnicity, and other factors . For example, Republicans and Republican-leaning independents are much more likely than Democrats and Democratic leaners to say reducing crime should be a top priority for the president and Congress this year (68% vs. 47%), according to a recent Pew Research Center survey.

How does crime in the U.S. differ by demographic characteristics?

Some groups of Americans are more likely than others to be victims of crime. In the  2022 BJS survey , for example, younger people and those with lower incomes were far more likely to report being the victim of a violent crime than older and higher-income people.

There were no major differences in violent crime victimization rates between male and female respondents or between those who identified as White, Black or Hispanic. But the victimization rate among Asian Americans (a category that includes Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders) was substantially lower than among other racial and ethnic groups.

The same BJS survey asks victims about the demographic characteristics of the offenders in the incidents they experienced.

In 2022, those who are male, younger people and those who are Black accounted for considerably larger shares of perceived offenders in violent incidents than their respective shares of the U.S. population. Men, for instance, accounted for 79% of perceived offenders in violent incidents, compared with 49% of the nation’s 12-and-older population that year. Black Americans accounted for 25% of perceived offenders in violent incidents, about twice their share of the 12-and-older population (12%).

As with all surveys, however, there are several potential sources of error, including the possibility that crime victims’ perceptions about offenders are incorrect.

How does crime in the U.S. differ geographically?

There are big geographic differences in violent and property crime rates.

For example, in 2022, there were more than 700 violent crimes per 100,000 residents in New Mexico and Alaska. That compares with fewer than 200 per 100,000 people in Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire and Maine, according to the FBI.

The FBI notes that various factors might influence an area’s crime rate, including its population density and economic conditions.

What percentage of crimes are reported to police? What percentage are solved?

Most violent and property crimes in the U.S. are not reported to police, and most of the crimes that  are  reported are not solved.

In its annual survey, BJS asks crime victims whether they reported their crime to police. It found that in 2022, only 41.5% of violent crimes and 31.8% of household property crimes were reported to authorities. BJS notes that there are many reasons why crime might not be reported, including fear of reprisal or of “getting the offender in trouble,” a feeling that police “would not or could not do anything to help,” or a belief that the crime is “a personal issue or too trivial to report.”

Most of the crimes that are reported to police, meanwhile,  are not solved , at least based on an FBI measure known as the clearance rate . That’s the share of cases each year that are closed, or “cleared,” through the arrest, charging and referral of a suspect for prosecution, or due to “exceptional” circumstances such as the death of a suspect or a victim’s refusal to cooperate with a prosecution. In 2022, police nationwide cleared 36.7% of violent crimes that were reported to them and 12.1% of the property crimes that came to their attention.

Which crimes are most likely to be reported to police? Which are most likely to be solved?

Around eight-in-ten motor vehicle thefts (80.9%) were reported to police in 2022, making them by far the most commonly reported property crime tracked by BJS. Household burglaries and trespassing offenses were reported to police at much lower rates (44.9% and 41.2%, respectively), while personal theft/larceny and other types of theft were only reported around a quarter of the time.

Among violent crimes – excluding homicide, which BJS doesn’t track – robbery was the most likely to be reported to law enforcement in 2022 (64.0%). It was followed by aggravated assault (49.9%), simple assault (36.8%) and rape/sexual assault (21.4%).

The list of crimes  cleared  by police in 2022 looks different from the list of crimes reported. Law enforcement officers were generally much more likely to solve violent crimes than property crimes, according to the FBI.

The most frequently solved violent crime tends to be homicide. Police cleared around half of murders and nonnegligent manslaughters (52.3%) in 2022. The clearance rates were lower for aggravated assault (41.4%), rape (26.1%) and robbery (23.2%).

When it comes to property crime, law enforcement agencies cleared 13.0% of burglaries, 12.4% of larcenies/thefts and 9.3% of motor vehicle thefts in 2022.

Are police solving more or fewer crimes than they used to?

Nationwide clearance rates for both violent and property crime are at their lowest levels since at least 1993, the FBI data shows.

Police cleared a little over a third (36.7%) of the violent crimes that came to their attention in 2022, down from nearly half (48.1%) as recently as 2013. During the same period, there were decreases for each of the four types of violent crime the FBI tracks:

• Police cleared 52.3% of reported murders and nonnegligent homicides in 2022, down from 64.1% in 2013.
• They cleared 41.4% of aggravated assaults, down from 57.7%.
• They cleared 26.1% of rapes, down from 40.6%.
• They cleared 23.2% of robberies, down from 29.4%.

The pattern is less pronounced for property crime. Overall, law enforcement agencies cleared 12.1% of reported property crimes in 2022, down from 19.7% in 2013. The clearance rate for burglary didn’t change much, but it fell for larceny/theft (to 12.4% in 2022 from 22.4% in 2013) and motor vehicle theft (to 9.3% from 14.2%).

Note: This is an update of a post originally published on Nov. 20, 2020.

• Criminal Justice

John Gramlich is an associate director at Pew Research Center

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