logical development in essays

11.1 Developing Your Sense of Logic

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify key rhetorical concepts and thought patterns in a variety of texts.
• Explain how patterns of thought function for different audiences, purposes, and situations.

For the purposes of this course, logic means “reasoning based on thought and evidence.” In practical terms, logic is the ability to analyze and evaluate persuasive or argument writing for effectiveness. By extension, it also means that you can learn to use logic in your own argumentative writing. Like any other new skill, you are likely to learn best when you have a starting point. Here are some suggestions for how to begin thinking and writing logically:

• Approach a topic with an open mind.
• Consider what you already know about the topic.
• Consider what you want to know about the topic.
• Find credible information about the topic.
• Base your judgments of the topic on sound reasoning and evidence.

Once you have formed your opinions on a particular debatable subject, you must decide on the best way to organize them to share with others. Developing your skills in six widely used reasoning strategies , or patterns for thinking and writing, can help you determine the most logical and effective means of organizing information to make your points.

In this chapter, you will examine these six reasoning strategies—analogy, cause and effect, classification and division, comparison and contrast, problem and solution, and definition—that are often used in college classes. In addition, you will consider how writers’ personal views, cultural backgrounds, and purposes for writing help determine

• which reasoning strategy suits their needs; and
• what they decide to include in their writing.

As you progress in your college classes and beyond, you will find these reasoning strategies used in all genres of writing, both nonfiction (e.g., textbooks, how-to books) and fiction (e.g., novels, short stories). Understanding how these strategies work can help you recognize their common formats and analyze what you read; likewise, as a writer, understanding how these strategies work to reflect your thinking can help you determine the strategy you need to use.

Writers frequently use analogy as a strategy to compare two unlike subjects—one subject is familiar to readers, whereas the other is not. To explain or clarify the unfamiliar subject, the writer emphasizes the way or ways in which the two subjects are similar, even though they are dissimilar and unrelated in all other ways. Analogies are basically long forms of similes (short comparisons of unlike elements, based on the word like or as ) or metaphors (short comparisons without signal words). In the example paragraph, the writer explains unfamiliar aspects of the COVID-19 pandemic by comparing it with the more familiar concept of a robbery spree.

Model Paragraph

student sample text Examining COVID-19 is like examining a robbery case in this way: both require a great deal of investigation. Those investigating the causes behind the pandemic look for the history of how the virus spread, and those investigating a crime look for the backstory that might connect the victims and criminals. In addition, the two groups of investigators look at the reasons behind the focus of their study. Medical investigators look at why the virus spread throughout the world; police investigators look at why the crime spree took place in a particular area. Also, both types of investigators are trying to stop whatever or whoever is the focus of their investigation. Medical investigators want to stop the virus; police investigators want to stop the crimes. end student sample text

Cause and Effect

Cause-and-effect writing identifies and examines the reasons (causes) for and consequences (effects) of an action, event, or idea. Cause-and-effect writing often answers the question “Why?” and helps readers understand the connections between what happens because of—or as a result of—something else.

student sample text Ray’s grocery, Artie’s Hardware store, and Cradle and Teen department store all went out of business because a well-known superstore opened in Springdale. Customers who frequented Ray’s, an establishment that had been run by the same family for four generations, used to drive many miles to take advantage of the high quality of items in the meat and deli departments. After the opening of the superstore, however, those same customers found they could get similar items at a savings, even if the quality was not as high as the products at Ray’s. Customers at Artie’s Hardware often talked with owner Artie Shoeman about their hardware needs, but the store did not offer the same variety of items they could find in the superstore. The same was true for those who shopped at Cradle and Teen. The superstore featured lower prices and more variety, even if the items did not match the quality of the items at Cradle and Teen. end student sample text

Classification and Division

Classification and division are actually two closely related strategies, generally discussed together because of their similarity. When using the strategy of division, the writer identifies a single subject or group and explains categories within that subject or group. In other words, the writer divides the larger unit into component parts. When using the strategy of classification, writers do the opposite. They group various elements and place them into larger, more comprehensive categories rather than divide the whole into parts. In general, the reasoning strategy of classification and division looks at smaller elements as parts of a larger element and thus helps readers understand a general concept and the elements that it comprises.

Model Paragraphs

student sample text Extra material in the textbook can be divided into photographs, quotations, and tables. The photographs were all taken by the author and focus on various parts of the life cycle of the plants highlighted in the chapter. In addition, to add color and more information about the subject matter of each chapter, the author has inserted sidebar quotations from both famous and non-famous people. The tables the author has included help readers see more details about the progression of the plants’ spread across the country. end student sample text

student sample text After three months of training, the young dogs were placed into three categories: those who would go directly to permanent homes, those who would repeat the course, and those who would advance to the next level. The dogs that would be homed immediately were those who were far too social or far too active to be service dogs. The dogs that would repeat the course had possibilities as service dogs but needed more discipline and instruction. Their futures were yet to be decided. Those that advanced to the next level were obedient and focused and learned quickly. They displayed great promise as service dogs. end student sample text

Comparison and Contrast

Compare and contrast , one of the most frequently used reasoning strategies, analyzes two (sometimes more) subjects, examining the similarities (comparisons) and differences (contrasts) between them. Nearly everything you can think of can be a subject for comparison and contrast: objects, people, concepts, places, movies, literature, and styles, to name a few. To elaborate on the separate points, writers provide details about each element being compared or contrasted. Comparison and contrast helps readers analyze and evaluate subjects.

This strategy is helpful when the similarities or differences are not obvious and when a significant common thread exists between the subjects. For example, a contrast between an expensive, elegant restaurant and a fast-food restaurant would be useless because the differences are clearly obvious, despite the common thread—both are restaurants. However, not so obvious might be some similarities.

When subjects have no common thread or have obvious shared characteristics, any comparison or contrast makes little sense—like contrasting a fish and a shoe (no common thread) or comparing two fast-food restaurants (obvious similarities). However, a writer actually might find a common thread between a fish and a shoe (perhaps shine or texture or color), and a valid topic of contrast might be differences between the two fast-food restaurants.

student sample text Although they seem different on the surface, one way in which Romantic-period poetry and 1980s rap music are alike is the desire the writers had to create a new approach to their art. They wanted to represent simpler values that were more connected to the natural world, values to which a general audience could relate. For example, in William Wordsworth ’s “Daffodils,” the speaker can escape the depressing, industrialized urban world to find peace in nature by contemplating a field of flowers. Similarly, in the Sugarhill Gang ’s 1979 “Rapper’s Delight,” the band sings of how their beats can lift spirits and cause listeners to dance and forget their woes. However, Romantic-period poetry and 1980s rap music are different in the delivery style and form of the art; “Rapper’s Delight” is set to music, which is an integral part of the piece, but “Daffodils” is not. end student sample text

Problem and Solution

When using this reasoning strategy, writers introduce a predicament or challenging issue (the problem) and offer information about what was done or what should be done to remedy the predicament or issue (the solution). Problem-and-solution writing helps readers understand the complexities of some predicaments and the actions that can improve or eliminate them.

student sample text The issue of combating the spread of hate speech and misinformation on social media can be addressed if more social media providers improve their monitoring services. Aside from creating more algorithms that search for linked key words and phrases, social media providers should increase the number of professional monitors conducting active searches. Additionally, while many platforms such as Twitter and Facebook respond within a few days to reports of posts that violate their policies, more monitors could lessen the amount of time these posts are available. According to Facebook, inappropriate posts are investigated and removed within 24 to 48 hours (Facebook “Community Standards”). Some offenders have been reported multiple times for their platform violations, and social media sponsors should increase their monitoring of those offenders. Although such surveillance would increase the burden on the social media providers, it would help solve the growing challenge of online hate speech and misinformation. end student sample text

When using the reasoning strategy of definition , writers elaborate on the meaning of an idea, a word, or an expression, usually one that is controversial or that can be viewed in multiple ways. Beginning writers tend to think that definition writing looks only at the denotation , or dictionary definition. However, definition writing entails much more than relaying a dictionary definition. It also explains and elaborates on the connotations , the emotions and implications the topic evokes. Definition writing is especially useful for explaining and interpreting terms, ideas, or concepts that are easily or often confused or that have meanings beyond their denotations. Sometimes these meanings are personal interpretations and thus reflect a writer’s particular viewpoint. Additionally, this strategy is beneficial when writers want to explain or reinforce a term before making an argument about a larger concept.

student sample text In everyday speech, the word critical is often used to highlight negative aspects of a topic. If someone says a friend was critical of a new haircut, the implication is that the friend did not like the cut. However, when used in college classes, critical has an expanded meaning: noting both the negative and positive aspects of a topic, examining those aspects in depth, and then making decisions about the discoveries. Students directed to use critical thinking, critical reading, or critical writing should know they are expected to examine all sides of a topic fully, evaluate the validity of those sides, and then make sound judgments on the basis of their evaluation. end student sample text

In this chapter, you have learned about various reasoning strategies that you may use in academic and professional writing. Utilizing these strategies when you write can help you both evaluate and analyze text that you read and create more logical and persuasive arguments.

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Patterns of Organization and Methods of Development

Patterns of organization can help your readers follow the ideas within your essay and your paragraphs, but they can also work as methods of development to help you recognize and further develop ideas and relationships in your writing. Here are some strategies that can help you with both organization and development in your essays.

Major Patterns of Organization

Read the following sentences:

• Now take the pie out of the oven and let it cool on the stovetop.
• Mix the dry ingredients with the liquid ingredients.
• Set the pie crust aside while you make the filling.

How did it feel to read the above list? A bit confusing, I would guess. That’s because the steps for making a pie were not well organized, and the steps don’t include enough detail for us to know exactly what we should do. (Like what are the dry and liquid ingredients?) We all know that starting instructions from the beginning and giving each detailed step in the order it should happen is vital to having a good outcome, in this case a yummy pie! But it’s not always so simple to know how to organize or develop ideas, and sometimes there’s more than one way, which complicates things even further.

First, let’s take a look at a couple of ways to think about organization.

General to Specific or Specific to General

It might be useful to think about organizing your topic like a triangle:

The first triangle represents starting with the most general, big picture information first, moving then to more detailed and often more personal information later in the paper. The second triangle represents an organizational structure that starts with the specific, small scale information first and then moves to the more global, big picture stuff.

For example, if your topic is air pollution in Portland, Oregon, an essay that uses the general-to-specific organizational structure might begin this way:

Many people consider Portland, Oregon, to be an environmentally friendly, pollution-free place to live. They would be shocked to know how many pollutants are in the air causing a multitude of health problems in Portland’s citizens.

An essay that uses the specific-to-general structure might start like this:

When Nancy moved to Portland, Oregon, with her husband and two kids, she expected to find a clean, pollution-free city. She was shocked and angered when her daughter was diagnosed with asthma caused by air pollution.

What’s the difference between these two introductions? And how might they appeal to the intended audience for this essay (Portland voters) in different ways? The first introduction is looking at the big picture of the problem and mentions pollution’s impact on all citizens in Portland, while the second introduction focuses on one specific family. The first helps readers see how vast the problem really is, and the second helps connect readers to a real family, making an emotional appeal from the very beginning. Neither introduction is necessarily better. You’ll choose one over the other based on the kind of tone you’d like to create and how you’d like to affect your audience. It’s completely up to you to make this decision.

Does the Triangle Mean the Essay Keeps Getting More Specific or More Broad until the Very End?

The triangle is kind of a general guide, meaning you’re allowed to move around within it all you want. For example, it’s possible that each of your paragraphs will be its own triangle, starting with the general or specific and moving out or in. However, if you begin very broadly, it might be effective to end your essay in a more specific, personal way. And if you begin with a personal story, consider ending your essay by touching on the global impact and importance of your topic.

Are There Other Ways to Think about Organizing My Ideas?

Yes! Rather than thinking about which of your ideas are most specific or personal or which are more broad or universal, you might consider one of the following ways of organizing your ideas:

• Most important information first (consider what you want readers to focus on first)
• Chronological order (the order in time that events take place)
• Compare and contrast (ideas are organized together because of their relationship to each other)

The section on Methods of Development, below, offers more detail about some of these organizational patterns, along with some others.

Choose one of the following topics, and practice writing a few opening sentences like we did above, once using the general-to-specific format and once using the specific-to-general. Which do you like better? What audience would be attracted to which one? Share with peers to see how others tackled this challenge. How would you rewrite their sentences? Why? Discuss your changes and listen to how your peers have revised your sentences. Taking in other people’s ideas will help you see new ways to approach your own writing and thinking.

• Facing fears
• Safety in sports
• Community policing
• Educating prisoners
• Sex education
• A book or movie that impacted you
• One thing you would change about your community
• Beauty standards
• Toxic masculinity
• How the media affects identity formation
• Gender roles
• Race in America
• The value of art in society
• Travel as part of a well-rounded education
• Drugs and alcohol
• Advice to new parents
• Advice to teachers
• The value of making mistakes
• How you’d spend a million dollars
• What a tough day at work taught you about yourself or others.

Methods of Development

The methods of development covered here are best used as ways to look at what’s already happening in your draft and to consider how you might emphasize or expand on any existing patterns. You might already be familiar with some of these patterns because teachers will sometimes assign them as the purpose for writing an essay. For example, you might have been asked to write a cause-and-effect essay or a comparison-and-contrast essay.

It’s important to emphasize here that patterns of organization or methods of developing content usually happen naturally as a consequence of the way the writer engages with and organizes information while writing. That is to say, most writers don’t sit down and say, “I think I’ll write a cause-and-effect essay today.”  Instead, a writer might be more likely to be interested in a topic, say, the state of drinking water in the local community, and as the writer begins to explore the topic, certain cause-and-effect relationships between environmental pollutants and the community water supply may begin to emerge.

So if these patterns just occur naturally in writing, what’s the use in knowing about them?  Well, sometimes you might be revising a draft and notice that some of your paragraphs are a bit underdeveloped. Maybe they lack a clear topic, or maybe they lack support. In either case, you can look to these common methods of development to find ways to sharpen those vague topics or to add support where needed. Do you have a clear cause statement somewhere but you haven’t explored the effects?  Are you lacking detail somewhere where a narrative story or historical chronology can help build reader interest and add support?  Are you struggling to define an idea that might benefit from some comparison or contrast?  Read on to consider some of the ways that these strategies can help you in revision. And if you want to learn more, check out what the New York Times has to say in their learning blog article, “ Compare-Contrast, Cause-Effect, Problem Solution: Common ‘Text Types’ in The Times .”

Cause and Effect (or Effect and Cause)

Do you see a potential cause-and-effect relationship developing in your draft?  The cause-and-effect pattern may be used to identify one or more causes followed by one or more effects or results. Or you may reverse this sequence and describe effects first and then the cause or causes. For example, the causes of water pollution might be followed by its effects on both humans and animals. You may use obvious transitions to clarify cause and effect, such as “What are the results? Here are some of them…” or you might simply use the words cause , effect , and result , to cue the reader about your about the relationships that you’re establishing.

Here’s an example article from the New York times, “ Rough Times Take Bloom Off a New Year’s Rite, the Rose Parade ,” that explores the cause and effect relationship (from 2011) between Pasadena’s budgetary challenges and the ability of their Rose Parade floats to deck themselves out in full bloom.

Problem-Solution

At some point does your essay explore a problem or suggest a solution? The problem-solution pattern is commonly used in identifying something that’s wrong and in contemplating what might be done to remedy the situation. There are probably more ways to organize a problem-solution approach, but but here are three possibilities:

• Describe the problem, followed by the solution.
• Propose the solution first and then describe the problems that motivated it.
• Or a problem may be followed by several solutions, one of which is selected as the best.

When the solution is stated at the end of the paper, the pattern is sometimes called the delayed proposal. For a hostile audience, it may be effective to describe the problem, show why other solutions do not work, and finally suggest the favored solution. You can emphasize the words problem and solution to signal these sections of your paper for your reader.

Here’s an example article from the New York times, “ Monks Embrace Web to Reach Recruits ,” that highlights an unexpected approach by a group of Benedictine monks in Rhode Island; they’ve turned to social media to grow their dwindling membership. Monks on Facebook?  Who knew?

Chronology or Narrative

Do you need to develop support for a topic where telling a story can illustrate some important concept for your readers? Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. A chronological or narrative method of development might help you find a way to add both interest and content to your essay. Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. This pattern may be used to establish what has happened. Chronology or narrative can be a great way to introduce your essay by providing a background or history behind your topic. Or you may want to tell a story to develop one or more points in the body of your essay. You can use transitional words like then , next , and finally to make the parts of the chronology clear.

Here’s an example article from the Center for Media Literacy (originally published in the journal Media & Values ): “ From Savers to Spenders: How Children Became a Consumer Market .” To encourage his readers to think about why and how children are being marketed to by advertisers, the author uses a historical chronology of how the spending habits of children changed over a number of decades.

Comparison and Contrast

Are you trying to define something? Do you need your readers to understand what something is and what it is not? The comparison-and-contrast method of development is particularly useful in extending a definition, or anywhere you need to show how a subject is like or unlike another subject. For example, the statement is often made that drug abuse is a medical problem instead of a criminal justice issue. An author might attempt to prove this point by comparing drug addiction to AIDS, cancer, or heart disease to redefine the term “addiction” as a medical problem. A statement in opposition to this idea could just as easily establish contrast by explaining all the ways that addiction is different from what we traditionally understand as an illness. In seeking to establish comparison or contrast in your writing, some words or terms that might be useful are by contrast , in comparison , while , some , and others .

Here’s an example article from the New York times: “ Who Wants to Shop in a Big Box Store, Anyway? ” The author explores some interesting differences between the average American and average Indian consumer to contemplate the potential success of big box stores in India and also to contemplate why these giant big box corporations, like Walmart or Target, might have to rethink their business model.

These four methods of development—cause and effect, problem-solution, chronology or narrative, and comparison and contrast—are just a few ways to organize and develop ideas and content in your essays. It’s important to note that they should not be a starting point for writers who want to write something authentic—something that they care deeply about. Instead, they can be a great way to help you look for what’s already happening with your topic or in a draft, to help you to write more, or to help you reorganize some parts of an essay that seem to lack connection or feel disjointed. Look for organizational patterns when you’re reading work by professional writers. Notice where they combine strategies (e.g a problem-solution pattern that uses cause-and-effect organization, or a comparison-contrast pattern that uses narrative or chronology to develop similarities or differences). Pay attention to how different writers emphasize and develop their main ideas, and use what you find to inspire you in your own writing. Better yet, work on developing  completely new patterns of your own.

The Word on College Reading and Writing Copyright © by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Using Logic

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This resource covers using logic within writing—logical vocabulary, logical fallacies, and other types of logos-based reasoning.

Logical Vocabulary

Before using logic to reach conclusions, it is helpful to know some important vocabulary related to logic.

Premise: Proposition used as evidence in an argument. Conclusion: Logical result of the relationship between the premises. Conclusions serve as the thesis of the argument. Argument: The assertion of a conclusion based on logical premises. Syllogism: The simplest sequence of logical premises and conclusions, devised by Aristotle. Enthymeme: A shortened syllogism which omits the first premise, allowing the audience to fill it in. For example, "Socrates is mortal because he is a human" is an enthymeme which leaves out the premise "All humans are mortal." Induction: A process through which the premises provide some basis for the conclusion. Deduction: A process through which the premises provide conclusive proof for the conclusion.

Reaching Logical Conclusions

Reaching logical conclusions depends on the proper analysis of premises. The goal of a syllogism is to arrange premises so that only one true conclusion is possible.

Example A: Consider the following premises:

Premise 1: Non-renewable resources do not exist in infinite supply. Premise 2: Coal is a non-renewable resource.

From these two premises, only one logical conclusion is available:

Conclusion: Coal does not exist in infinite supply.

Example B: Often logic requires several premises to reach a conclusion.

Premise 1: All monkeys are primates. Premise 2: All primates are mammals. Premise 3: All mammals are vertebrate animals. Conclusions: Monkeys are vertebrate animals.

Example C: Logic allows specific conclusions to be drawn from general premises. Consider the following premises:

Premise 1: All squares are rectangles. Premise 2: Figure 1 is a square. Conclusion: Figure 1 is also a rectangle.

Syllogistic Fallacies

The syllogism is a helpful tool for organizing persuasive logical arguments. However, if used carelessly, syllogisms can instill a false sense of confidence in unfounded conclusions. The examples in this section demonstrate how this can happen.

Example D: Logic requires decisive statements in order to work. Therefore, this syllogism is false:

Premise 1: Some quadrilaterals are squares. Premise 2: Figure 1 is a quadrilateral. Conclusion: Figure 1 is a square.

This syllogism is false because not enough information is provided to allow a verifiable conclusion. Figure 1 could just as likely be a rectangle, which is also a quadrilateral.

Example E: Logic can also mislead when it is based on premises that an audience does not accept. For instance:

Premise 1: People with red hair are not good at checkers. Premise 2: Bill has red hair. Conclusion: Bill is not good at checkers.

Within the syllogism, the conclusion is logically valid. However, the syllogism itself is only true if an audience accepts Premise 1, which is very unlikely. This is an example of how logical statements can appear accurate while being completely false.

Example F: Logical conclusions also depend on which factors are recognized and ignored by the premises. Therefore, premises that are correct but that ignore other pertinent information can lead to incorrect conclusions.

Premise 1: All birds lay eggs. Premise 2: Platypuses lay eggs. Conclusion: Platypuses are birds.

It is true that all birds lay eggs. However, it is also true that some animals that are not birds lay eggs. These include fish, amphibians, reptiles, and a small number of mammals (like the platypus and echidna). To put this another way: laying eggs is not a defining characteristic of birds. Thus, the syllogism, which assumes that because all birds lay eggs, only  birds lay eggs, produces an incorrect conclusion.

A better syllogism might look like this:

Premise 1: All mammals have fur. Premise 2: Platypuses have fur. Conclusion: Platypuses are mammals.

Fur is indeed one of the defining characteristics of mammals —in other words, there are not non-mammal animals who also have fur. Thus, the conclusion here is more firmly-supported.

In sum, though logic is a very powerful argumentative tool and is far preferable to a disorganized argument, logic does have limitations. It must also be effectively developed from a syllogism into a written piece.

What does “logically developed” mean?

Logically developed means that the ideas in your paper, the way you support these ideas and the connections you make between ideas make logical sense. Logic in this sense can be both formal patterns of reasoning like the deduction Sherlock Holmes liked to use to solve mysteries and more informal, but equally rigorous, ways of developing ideas like identifying the causes of a problem before recommending solutions. For more on logic in writing and flaws in logical reasoning see “Logical Argument in College Writing” by D.G. Jerz at Seton Hill University.

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5 Step #2: Primary Pattern of Development

Many college essays follow a primary pattern of development for laying out their ideas and expressing their main thesis. A pattern of development is the way the essay is organized, from one paragraph to the next, in order to present its thesis and the relevant, authoritative support for it.

Your readers will be experiencing your essay in time. That is, they will read it starting in paragraph one and then two, then three, four, five, six… This may seem obvious, but you will need to consider how the reader will experience the essay in time and in relation to your thesis statement.

Thus, we will need to organize the essay into a coherent pattern which allows the reader to easily follow our logic through the essay and fully relate it back to our central theme(s). Some essays use a combination of patterns to communicate their ideas but usually a primary pattern is established to present the overall structure and logical flow of the essay. Common patterns include:

• Narration & Description
• Exemplification
• Cause & Effect
• Comparison & Contrast
• There are several more variations of patterns of development (see below) but these are the most common.

BEST: Patterns of development work best when they are used consistently and in conjunction with the structure and theme of the primary thesis statement.

• Follow this link to a more developed discussion on the more popular modes of essay writing.
• Consult this handout on the basic understanding and uses of the primary patterns of development .
• Consult this handout on the patterns of development discussed as the modes of essay writing .
• Here is a useful link that helps to visualize and summarize the primary patterns of rhetorical writing.
• And one more useful link that does more of a deep dive into the modes. With relevant exercises and questions.

The Writing Process Copyright © 2020 by Andrew Gurevich is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Development in Composition: Building an Essay

Learning to support your main ideas with pertinent details

 Lisbeth Hjort/Getty Images

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In composition , development (also known as elaboration ) is the process of adding informative and illustrative details to support the main idea in a paragraph or essay . Paragraphs and essays can be developed in many different ways. In conventional composition courses, the following patterns of exposition are often presented as the standard methods of development in expository writing :

Observations on Development

"[The] methods of development aren't empty jugs to pour full of any old, dull words. Neither are they straitjackets woven by fiendish English teachers to pin your writing arm to your side and keep you from expressing yourself naturally. The methods are tools for achieving your purpose in writing, whatever that purpose may be. They can help you discover what you know, what you need to know, how to think critically about your subject, and how to shape your writing." —From "The Bedford Reader" by X.J. and Dorothy M. Kennedy

The Importance of Providing Supporting Details

"Possibly the most serious—and most common—weakness of all essays by novice writers is the lack of effectively developed body paragraphs . The information in each paragraph must adequately explain, exemplify, define, or in some other way support your topic sentence . Therefore, you must include enough supporting information or evidence in each paragraph to make your readers understand your topic sentence. Moreover, you must make the information in the paragraph clear and specific enough for the readers to accept your ideas." —From "Steps to Writing Well" by Jean Wyrick

Body-Building

"What the opening of an essay promises, the body of the essay must deliver. This is known as 'developing your ideas,' but I like to use a body-building metaphor because it implies adding not just bulk to a framework, but musculature. In other words, good essay development strengthens , not merely fills out. . . .

"What is the best way to reinforce the main idea of your essay? You can do some by making good use of any combination of the following six methods of development:

• Classification and Division
• Example, case-in-point
• Characterization ,  dialogue

"By using these bodybuilding elements, you are telling your readers, 'I don't expect you to take my word for these claims ; I want you to see for yourself!" —From "LifeWriting: Drawing from Personal Experience to Create Features You Can Publish" by Fred D. White

Multiple Patterns of Development

"Although most short papers may employ one primary pattern with other patterns woven throughout, longer papers may have two or more primary patterns of development . For example, if you are writing a paper on the causes and effects of child abuse in the foster care system, you might, after the causal analysis, shift the primary focus of the essay to prevention, thus continuing the essay with a process analysis of what the state might do to prevent child abuse. Then you might end the essay by addressing the objections from those defending the system, shifting the focus of the essay to argumentation .

"Your decision to include other primary patterns depends on your purpose and audience . Your thesis makes your purpose clear to your reader. Then as you develop your essay, you may integrate other patterns into your paragraphs." —From "Bridges to Better Writing" by Luis Nazario, Deborah Borchers, and William Lewis

Further Resources

• Cause and Effect
• Comparison and Contrast
• Current-Traditional Rhetoric
• Extended Definition
• Models of Composition
• Process Analysis
• Kennedy, X.J.; Kennedy, Dorothy M. "The Bedford Reader," Seventh Edition. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2000
• White, Fred D. "LifeWriting: Drawing from Personal Experience to Create Features You Can Publish." Quill Driver Books, 2004
• Nazario, Luis; Borchers, Deborah; Lewis, William; "Bridges to Better Writing. Wadsworth." 2010
• Unity in Composition
• Understanding Organization in Composition and Speech
• Definition and Examples of Body Paragraphs in Composition
• What Is Expository Writing?
• 6 Steps to Writing the Perfect Personal Essay
• How to Structure an Essay
• Paragraph Writing
• The Five Steps of Writing an Essay
• Definition and Examples of Paragraphing in Essays
• An Essay Revision Checklist
• Writers on Writing: The Art of Paragraphing
• How To Write an Essay
• The Ultimate Guide to the 5-Paragraph Essay
• Understanding General-to-Specific Order in Composition
• Definition and Examples of Analysis in Composition
• What Is a Compelling Introduction?

Unit 4: Fundamentals of Academic Essay Writing

27 Paragraph Structure and Development

In the following section, you will learn more about paragraph development.

Features of an effective paragraph

An effective paragraph includes the following:

• a topic sentence (typically the first sentence, identifying the topic and controlling idea)
• unity (the paragraph focuses on one topic only)
• coherence (ideas are organized logically and connected with transitions)
• supporting ideas (sentences which sufficiently develop the topic)
• not all paragraphs require a concluding sentence

Common Patterns of Organization

Read about five of the most common patterns of paragraph organization:

• Generalization and example
• Sequence of events (chronological)
• Comparison and contrast
• Cause and effect

Explanation: Contains a series of items which support the main idea of the paragraph.

Example topic sentence: University students experience various challenges during their first semester of college.

#2 Generalization and example

Explanation: An idea, word, or concept is explained and then illustrated with an example.

Example topic sentence: Online learning can take many forms. For example, “hyflex learning,” also known as “hybrid flexible” learning is a type of learning where…

#3 Sequence of events

Explanation: Contains information in the order in which it occurred

Example topic sentence: The history of the University of Wisconsin – Madison can be traced back to 1848.

#4 Comparison and contrast

Explanation: Demonstrates the similarities and differences among two or more topics

Example topic sentence: Online learning can be divided into two main approaches, synchronous and asynchronous.

#5 Cause and effect

Explanation: Describes an event caused by another event

Example topic sentence: Providing access to support services can better ensure student success in the first year of college.

Directions: Look at paragraph two from the Model Essay on Peer Review. Which of the patterns above does this paragraph illustrate?

Peer review is used in ESL classes to improve student’s English writing or get better grades on writing assignments. Many ESL programs involve international students in peer review to improve their writing skills, and many studies support the idea that peer review is essential to improve students’ writing skills. Bijami, Kashef and Nejad (2013) state that critical and specific peer comments can be utilized to enhance students’ writing skills and help students become competent writers (p.93). Peer comments can address specific aspects of writing. For example, peer comments help students improve their writing ability in terms of organization and content (Zeqiri, 2012, p. 50). Moreover, helping the writer identify the strengths and weaknesses in his or her writing helps the writer develop self-awareness. According to Tsui and Ng (2000), it is often difficult for students to see their own weaknesses, but peers can point out these problems (p. 166). These examples illustrate how ESL students’ writing skills can be enhanced through peer review because it helps them improve awareness of their papers’ strengths and weaknesses.

Academic Writing I Copyright © by UW-Madison ESL Program is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Does my paper flow? Tips for creating a well-structured essay.

by Jessica Diaz

A sure way to improve your paper is to strengthen the way you present your argument. Whether you only have a thesis statement or already have a fully-written essay, these tips can help your paper flow logically from start to finish.

Going from a thesis statement to a first outline

Break down your thesis statement

No matter what you are arguing, your thesis can be broken down into smaller points that need to be backed up with evidence. These claims can often be used to create a ready outline for the rest of your paper, and help you check that you are including all the evidence you should have.

Take the following thesis statement:

Despite the similarities between the documentaries Blackfish and The Cove , the use of excessive anthropomorphism in Blackfish allowed it to achieve more tangible success for animal rights movements, illustrating the need for animal rights documentaries to appeal to human emotion.

We can break the thesis down into everything that needs to be supported:

Despite the similarities between the documentaries Blackfish and The Cove , the use of excessive anthropomorphism in Blackfish allowed it to achieve more tangible success for animal rights movements , illustrating the need for animal rights documentaries to appeal to human emotion .

In the paper, we have to (1) explain and support the similarities between the two documentaries, (2) provide support for excessive anthropomorphism in Blackfish , (3) show that Blackfish achieved more tangible success than The Cove , and (4) demonstrate the importance of human emotion in animal documentaries.

Already, we have four main points that can serve as the backbone for an essay outline, and they are already in an order that makes some intuitive sense for building up the argument.

It is likely that you will need to rearrange, expand, or further break down the outline. For example, in this case we would probably need to add a paragraph that explains anthropomorphism. We also might want to move the section on differences in animal rights success earlier so that it contrasts with the similarities between the films. However, having this starting structure and identifying the main sections of the paper can allow you to go ahead and start writing!

Checking that your argument builds

Reverse outline

While writing, it is often hard to take a step back and assess whether your paper makes sense or reads well. Creating a reverse outline can help you get a zoomed-out picture of what you wrote and helps you see if any paragraphs or ideas need to be rearranged.

To create a reverse outline, go through your paper paragraph-by-paragraph. For each one, read it and summarize the main point of the paragraph in 3-5 words. In most cases, this should align closely with the topic sentence of that paragraph. Once you have gone through the entire paper, you should end up with a list of phrases that, when read in order, walk through your argument.

Does the order make sense? Are the ideas that should go together actually next to each other? Without the extra clutter, the reverse outline helps you answer these questions while looking at your entire structure at once.

Each line of your reverse outline should build on the last one, meaning none of them should make sense in isolation (except the first one). Try pretending you don’t know anything about this topic and read one of your paragraph phrases at random (or read it to someone else!). Does it make sense, or does it need more context? Do the paragraphs that go before it give the context it needs?

The reverse outline method and the line of thinking detailed above help put you in the mind of your reader. Your reader will only encounter your ideas in the order that you give it to them, so it is important to take this step back to make sure that order is the right one.

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Paragraph Unity, Coherence, and Development

In each paragraph of an essay, one particular idea or topic is developed and explained. In order to successfully do so, however, it is essential that the paragraph be written in a unified and coherent manner. 

A unified paragraph must follow the idea mentioned in the topic sentence and must not deviate from it. For a further explanation on topic sentences, see the Write Right on Topic Sentences .

A coherent paragraph has sentences that all logically follow each other; they are not isolated thoughts. Coherence can be achieved in several ways. First, using transitions helps connect ideas from one sentence to the next. For more on transitions, see the Write Right on Transitions . Second, ordering thoughts in numerical sequence helps to direct the reader from one point to the next. Third, structuring each paragraph according to one of the following patterns helps to organize sentences: general to particular; particular to general; whole to parts; question to answer; or effect to cause. 

Remember that a paragraph should have enough sentences so that the main idea of the topic sentence is completely developed. Generalizations should be supported with examples or illustrations. Also, details and descriptions help the reader to understand what you mean. Don't ever assume that the reader can read your mind: be specific enough to develop your ideas thoroughly, but avoid repetition

An effective paragraph might look like this:

It is commonly recognized that dogs have an extreme antagonism toward cats. This enmity between these two species can be traced back to the time of the early Egyptian dynasties. Archaeologists in recent years have discovered Egyptian texts in which there are detailed accounts of canines brutally mauling felines. Today this type of cruelty between these two domestic pets can be witnessed in regions as close as your own neighborhood. For example, when dogs are walked by their masters (and they happen to catch sight of a stray cat), they will pull with all their strength on their leash until the master is forced to yield; the typical result is that a feline is chased up a tree. The hatred between dogs and cats has lasted for many centuries, so it is unlikely that this conflict will ever end.

This paragraph is effective for the following reasons:

• The paragraph shows unity. All the sentences effectively relate back to the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. 
• The paragraph shows coherence. There is a flow of thoughts and ideas among the sentences in this paragraph. There are good transitions employed in the paragraph. The writer also presents her sub-topics in an orderly fashion that the reader can follow easily.
• The paragraph is developed. The writer gives herself enough space to develop the topic. She gives us at least two reasons to accept her argument and incorporates some examples in order to give those reasons more validity.

Reference: Strunk, Wiliam Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style . 4th ed., Allyn and Bacon, 2000.

Copyright © 2009 Wheaton College Writing Center

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Using Logical Reasoning in Academic Writing

The model we were taught in school for writing an effective essay has some good bones: Create a thesis. Present several claims and argue for those statements. Tie those arguments back to the thesis with supporting evidence to show your reader that what you're saying is true. If any of your arguments fall apart, your entire work will unravel faster than the scarf I made during my first attempt at learning to crochet. If you're creating a work of academic writing, you will need to follow a pattern of clearly defined logic to reinforce and support your argument.

Logic refers to the process of making a conclusion under valid laws of inference. Through this process, a writer makes arguments using statements to explain why these arguments are true. Logical reasoning is the act of settling on a viewpoint and then expressing to others why you selected that opinion over all other available conclusions.

Apply logical reasoning in your academic writing, and you'll be on your way to creating a strong conclusion with supporting evidence. Here are some tips on constructing a perfectly logical argument in your work.

Define your thoughts

Before you even start composing your text, clarify your own thoughts on the subject. You already have a solid idea that you want to illustrate for your readers. It makes perfect sense to you, because you have access to all the good arguments, supporting evidence, and gut feelings you've accumulated during your research at the forefront of your brain. Unfortunately, you can't open your brain and instantly share your certainty of an idea with others. This problem is especially apparent every time you have a misunderstanding with another person. You might feel passionate about an idea, but when you try to communicate your point, your mannerisms might portray petulance and impatience, which can cloud the perception of the other person. Maybe you feel frustrated that your significant other leaves the door open, and you are worried that your dog will run away forever. Your approach to the situation can be clouded by your delivery, which is heavy with the emotion connected to the issue, and your significant other can miss your message entirely if it is framed in a way that makes him/her defensive. If we could see a situation from the complete point of view as our friends and neighbors, the world might be a much more peaceful place!

Of course, sadly, the only way to express your thoughts and feelings is through the use of language and expression. While there is no perfect way to bring others into your world to share your thoughts, you can create the best-case scenario by mapping out your idea and why you feel it is true before you begin writing. Write out your idea and the supporting arguments. How do you know they are true? Seeing your points laid out on paper can help you remove your own perspective in a small way and view them as others might. Do your points represent logical connections between ideas, or are you depending on leaps in logic that will be too wide for your readers to navigate?

Gather irrefutable evidence to support your claim

When using logical reasoning, you draw conclusions whose evidence to support the claim creates a guarantee of a specific result. Look for concrete facts backed by studies and expert inquiries. If you are publishing a paper on your own research, aim to represent your work clearly and thoroughly by outlining the steps you took to create a conclusion. Ask yourself these questions:

• At the beginning of your research, what did you think would happen?
• How did you set out to prove/disprove this assertion?
• What result did you observe, and was it in line with your previous expectations?

As most researchers will attest, the greater the scope of your study, the more irrefutable your evidence will be, and you can be more confident that your conclusions can be considered facts.

Avoid logical fallacies

A logical fallacy is false reasoning that leads your argument to become unreliable or untrue. When your readers encounter a logical fallacy, you lose their trust in your argument. Be aware of these fallacies and take measures to avoid them within your argument.

• The bandwagon fallacy: Under this fallacy, you might claim that an idea is true simply because the majority of the people believe it. The common advertising claim , "4 out of 5 dentists prefer this toothpaste" draws on the bandwagon fallacy with the hope that its audience will believe that this toothpaste brand is the best on the market, whereas it is not necessarily true.
• The correlation/causation fallacy: Just because two elements seem to be connected doesn't mean one directly leads to another. For example, if you changed the font on your company website last month, and then website hits were down during that same month, you might apply the correlation/causation fallacy and state that the font was detrimental to business without any other evidence supporting this claim.
• Ignoratio elenchi (Latin for "ignoring refutation"): If your argument has an opposing side (and most do, of course), you will need to address that opposition with convincing logic. This fallacy arises when you respond to a counterargument without properly addressing the point of the argument. Let's say I am presenting the benefits of building a new bike trail in my city. My opponents assert that the city just doesn't have the budget to fund this project, while I claim that the advantages of a bike trail far outweigh any cost incurred. My claim is that cost is irrelevant to the project. In doing so, I fail to present a solution to the lack of money needed to build the path.
• The straw man fallacy: This fallacy arises when you oversimplify your opposing argument and thus misrepresent it, thereby presenting your argument as the more obvious choice in the matter. In the debate on whether schools should implement school uniforms, an opponent of the school uniform might claim, "Schools that enforce dress codes discourage students' individuality." Such an argument dismisses any benefits of the opposing argument and boils down the claim to a simplified form that might not be fully true.
• The anecdotal evidence fallacy: Under this fallacy, instead of applying logical evidence to your argument, you cite a story of one instance in which something happened, seeming to support a claim. Maybe your aunt tried a certain type of dryer sheet and the next day her dryer went up in flames. Does this mean that type of dryer sheet causes people's clothes dryers to ignite? This fallacy is also related to the correlation/causation fallacy.

Consider the opposition

An effectively formulated argument must acknowledge that the viewpoint presented is not shared by everyone, and some opposing arguments exist with relation to the topic. Imagine you are preparing for a debate; an effective approach include preparing your demonstration based on what you might expect your opponent to argue. For example, let's say I'm asserting that plastic bags should be banned. In addition to collecting data on the detrimental effects of plastic bags on the environment and the species of animals that suffer as a result of their invention, I should also consider who stands to benefit from plastic bags. I should investigate the low cost of producing and offering plastic bags from the perspective of businesses and stores in relation to alternative options and the effects those alternatives would have on my customer base. In order to present an effective argument against plastic bags, I should create strong data regarding the cost of alternatives and reveal statistics to show that their use is not as cost effective as previously considered. By anticipating the opposing view, I can create an argument to refute it.

By applying logical reasoning in your academic writing, you can present a strong argument on your subject. Create a stance that you can support with irrefutable evidence, having already mapped out your personal views in order to organize your desired viewpoint. Also, when you know what types of logical fallacies can exist, you can keep your eyes open for any problems in your logic and thereby avoid them. Following these tips can help you achieve a solid piece of writing that will earn you a good grade in class, convince your mentor that your thesis is bulletproof, or charm the socks off the editors at the journal in which you seek to be published.

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2.1: Introduction

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This unit will introduce you to the essay in general--its structure and key parts.

An essay is a coherent piece of writing that contains several paragraphs all about the same topic. Several paragraphs are necessary because the topic is complex and requires detail for each of its subtopics. Just like a paragraph, an essay has three parts: it thoroughly introduces its topic in an introductory paragraph, discusses each subtopic in detail in its body paragraphs, and concludes the topic and makes its final remarks in a conclusion paragraph

Key Elements of the Logical Order Essay:

• An introduction providing background on the topic that will discussed
• A clear thesis statement with a controlling idea that lists the features, aspects, qualities, etc. that will be discussed about that topic
• Each feature, aspect, or quality has its own body paragraph
• Further explanations, details, and examples of the feature, aspect, or quality in each body paragraph
• Clear subtopic sentences with transition words introducing each new feature, aspect, or quality
• Concluding statements with a restatement of the thesis, summary, and prediction or recommendation

Objectives: By the end of this unit, you will be able to

• Define an essay and its parts.
• Write an introduction and conclusion paragraph for an essay.
• Write a coherent thesis statement.
• Provide adequate support for a thesis statement in body paragraphs.
• Use transitional expressions to show organization of ideas.
• Use the entire writing process to write, edit, and revise a logical order essay.
• Coherently combine clauses and use correct comma placement.
• Enhance vocabulary by using suffixes to vary word forms.

Common Essay Structures / Patterns of Development

Cause and effect.

Cause and effect is just what it says. You might write an essay that searches out the causes of something. Or you might write an essay that investigates a variety of effects that stem from a particular event or condition. Writing about causes and effects deals with identifying “reasons why” and/or “results.”

When you write an essay using a cause and effect pattern, know that you can either focuses on causes, or focus on effects, or some combination of both. The important thing to remember is that this pattern calls for logical thinking in dealing with causes, and logical probabilities in explaining effects.  Don’t fall into a logical fallacy by assuming simple and/or incorrect causation.  Instead, make sure that you link causes and effects logically, carefully considering both evidence and probability.

As you develop a focus and working thesis for a cause and effect essay, you might ask yourself the following questions:

• Do I want to focus on effects of a particular cause?  If so is there a main effect that’s broken down into smaller pieces, or are there multiple effects of equal weight?
• Do I want to focus on the causes of a particular event, issue, etc.?  If so, is there one primary cause that’s broken down into smaller pieces, or are there multiple causes of equal weight?

It will help if you list causes/effects, or create a mind map as you prewrite for an essay applying a cause and effect pattern.

Remember that your topic should be focused enough to yield some depth and insight, yet broad enough to be developed.  Writing in general about the causes of the 2008 global financial crisis may be unproductive, because the multiple and complex nature of those causes cannot be dealt with briefly and might require a book with multiple chapters instead of a relatively brief college essay.  Or writing about the proposed effect of the World Health Organization’s initiative to eliminate rabies by 2030 through dog vaccinations and more available health education may be unproductive, because the effect is very focused and can be stated in a few sentences.  On the other hand, writing about the effects of the 2008 crash on Baby Boomers’ retirement plans, or writing about causes of rabies in rural areas in India, may be more productive, as these foci can be tackled within the framework of a college essay.

View the following video for more information about cause and effect essays.

Here are some graphic organizers for cause and effect essays.

Cause and Effect in Action

Make sure to read sample Cause and Effect essays in the Sample Essays section of this text.

• Cause and Effect. Authored by : Susan Oaks. Provided by : Empire State College, SUNY OER Services. Project : College Writing. License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
• image of falling dominoes being stopped. Authored by : CSchmidt-EC. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : https://pixabay.com/en/dominoes-domino-barricade-hand-1902622/%20 . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
• video Cause and Effect essay. Provided by : EAP Foundation. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMD7VjsHfBA . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

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• How to structure an essay: Templates and tips

How to Structure an Essay | Tips & Templates

Published on September 18, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

The basic structure of an essay always consists of an introduction , a body , and a conclusion . But for many students, the most difficult part of structuring an essay is deciding how to organize information within the body.

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Table of contents

The basics of essay structure, chronological structure, compare-and-contrast structure, problems-methods-solutions structure, signposting to clarify your structure, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about essay structure.

There are two main things to keep in mind when working on your essay structure: making sure to include the right information in each part, and deciding how you’ll organize the information within the body.

Parts of an essay

The three parts that make up all essays are described in the table below.

Order of information

You’ll also have to consider how to present information within the body. There are a few general principles that can guide you here.

The first is that your argument should move from the simplest claim to the most complex . The body of a good argumentative essay often begins with simple and widely accepted claims, and then moves towards more complex and contentious ones.

For example, you might begin by describing a generally accepted philosophical concept, and then apply it to a new topic. The grounding in the general concept will allow the reader to understand your unique application of it.

The second principle is that background information should appear towards the beginning of your essay . General background is presented in the introduction. If you have additional background to present, this information will usually come at the start of the body.

The third principle is that everything in your essay should be relevant to the thesis . Ask yourself whether each piece of information advances your argument or provides necessary background. And make sure that the text clearly expresses each piece of information’s relevance.

The sections below present several organizational templates for essays: the chronological approach, the compare-and-contrast approach, and the problems-methods-solutions approach.

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The chronological approach (sometimes called the cause-and-effect approach) is probably the simplest way to structure an essay. It just means discussing events in the order in which they occurred, discussing how they are related (i.e. the cause and effect involved) as you go.

A chronological approach can be useful when your essay is about a series of events. Don’t rule out other approaches, though—even when the chronological approach is the obvious one, you might be able to bring out more with a different structure.

Explore the tabs below to see a general template and a specific example outline from an essay on the invention of the printing press.

• Thesis statement
• Discussion of event/period
• Consequences
• Importance of topic
• Strong closing statement
• Claim that the printing press marks the end of the Middle Ages
• Background on the low levels of literacy before the printing press
• Thesis statement: The invention of the printing press increased circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation
• High levels of illiteracy in medieval Europe
• Literacy and thus knowledge and education were mainly the domain of religious and political elites
• Consequence: this discouraged political and religious change
• Invention of the printing press in 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg
• Implications of the new technology for book production
• Consequence: Rapid spread of the technology and the printing of the Gutenberg Bible
• Trend for translating the Bible into vernacular languages during the years following the printing press’s invention
• Luther’s own translation of the Bible during the Reformation
• Consequence: The large-scale effects the Reformation would have on religion and politics
• Summarize the history described
• Stress the significance of the printing press to the events of this period

Essays with two or more main subjects are often structured around comparing and contrasting . For example, a literary analysis essay might compare two different texts, and an argumentative essay might compare the strengths of different arguments.

There are two main ways of structuring a compare-and-contrast essay: the alternating method, and the block method.

Alternating

In the alternating method, each paragraph compares your subjects in terms of a specific point of comparison. These points of comparison are therefore what defines each paragraph.

The tabs below show a general template for this structure, and a specific example for an essay comparing and contrasting distance learning with traditional classroom learning.

• Synthesis of arguments
• Topical relevance of distance learning in lockdown
• Increasing prevalence of distance learning over the last decade
• Thesis statement: While distance learning has certain advantages, it introduces multiple new accessibility issues that must be addressed for it to be as effective as classroom learning
• Classroom learning: Ease of identifying difficulties and privately discussing them
• Distance learning: Difficulty of noticing and unobtrusively helping
• Classroom learning: Difficulties accessing the classroom (disability, distance travelled from home)
• Distance learning: Difficulties with online work (lack of tech literacy, unreliable connection, distractions)
• Classroom learning: Tends to encourage personal engagement among students and with teacher, more relaxed social environment
• Distance learning: Greater ability to reach out to teacher privately
• Sum up, emphasize that distance learning introduces more difficulties than it solves
• Stress the importance of addressing issues with distance learning as it becomes increasingly common
• Distance learning may prove to be the future, but it still has a long way to go

In the block method, each subject is covered all in one go, potentially across multiple paragraphs. For example, you might write two paragraphs about your first subject and then two about your second subject, making comparisons back to the first.

The tabs again show a general template, followed by another essay on distance learning, this time with the body structured in blocks.

• Point 1 (compare)
• Point 2 (compare)
• Point 3 (compare)
• Point 4 (compare)
• Advantages: Flexibility, accessibility
• Disadvantages: Discomfort, challenges for those with poor internet or tech literacy
• Advantages: Potential for teacher to discuss issues with a student in a separate private call
• Disadvantages: Difficulty of identifying struggling students and aiding them unobtrusively, lack of personal interaction among students
• Advantages: More accessible to those with low tech literacy, equality of all sharing one learning environment
• Disadvantages: Students must live close enough to attend, commutes may vary, classrooms not always accessible for disabled students
• Advantages: Ease of picking up on signs a student is struggling, more personal interaction among students
• Disadvantages: May be harder for students to approach teacher privately in person to raise issues

An essay that concerns a specific problem (practical or theoretical) may be structured according to the problems-methods-solutions approach.

This is just what it sounds like: You define the problem, characterize a method or theory that may solve it, and finally analyze the problem, using this method or theory to arrive at a solution. If the problem is theoretical, the solution might be the analysis you present in the essay itself; otherwise, you might just present a proposed solution.

The tabs below show a template for this structure and an example outline for an essay about the problem of fake news.

• Introduce the problem
• Provide background
• Describe your approach to solving it
• Define the problem precisely
• Describe why it’s important
• Indicate previous approaches to the problem
• Present your new approach, and why it’s better
• Apply the new method or theory to the problem
• Indicate the solution you arrive at by doing so
• Assess (potential or actual) effectiveness of solution
• Describe the implications
• Problem: The growth of “fake news” online
• Prevalence of polarized/conspiracy-focused news sources online
• Thesis statement: Rather than attempting to stamp out online fake news through social media moderation, an effective approach to combating it must work with educational institutions to improve media literacy
• Definition: Deliberate disinformation designed to spread virally online
• Popularization of the term, growth of the phenomenon
• Previous approaches: Labeling and moderation on social media platforms
• Critique: This approach feeds conspiracies; the real solution is to improve media literacy so users can better identify fake news
• Greater emphasis should be placed on media literacy education in schools
• This allows people to assess news sources independently, rather than just being told which ones to trust
• This is a long-term solution but could be highly effective
• It would require significant organization and investment, but would equip people to judge news sources more effectively
• Rather than trying to contain the spread of fake news, we must teach the next generation not to fall for it

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Signposting means guiding the reader through your essay with language that describes or hints at the structure of what follows.  It can help you clarify your structure for yourself as well as helping your reader follow your ideas.

The essay overview

In longer essays whose body is split into multiple named sections, the introduction often ends with an overview of the rest of the essay. This gives a brief description of the main idea or argument of each section.

The overview allows the reader to immediately understand what will be covered in the essay and in what order. Though it describes what  comes later in the text, it is generally written in the present tense . The following example is from a literary analysis essay on Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein .

Transitions

Transition words and phrases are used throughout all good essays to link together different ideas. They help guide the reader through your text, and an essay that uses them effectively will be much easier to follow.

Various different relationships can be expressed by transition words, as shown in this example.

Because Hitler failed to respond to the British ultimatum, France and the UK declared war on Germany. Although it was an outcome the Allies had hoped to avoid, they were prepared to back up their ultimatum in order to combat the existential threat posed by the Third Reich.

Transition sentences may be included to transition between different paragraphs or sections of an essay. A good transition sentence moves the reader on to the next topic while indicating how it relates to the previous one.

… Distance learning, then, seems to improve accessibility in some ways while representing a step backwards in others.

However , considering the issue of personal interaction among students presents a different picture.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
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• False cause fallacy
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The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarized in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

Comparisons in essays are generally structured in one of two ways:

• The alternating method, where you compare your subjects side by side according to one specific aspect at a time.
• The block method, where you cover each subject separately in its entirety.

It’s also possible to combine both methods, for example by writing a full paragraph on each of your topics and then a final paragraph contrasting the two according to a specific metric.

You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.

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• v.36(40); 2021 Oct 18

Creating Logical Flow When Writing Scientific Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke's International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

Numerous guidelines on how to write a scientific article have been published. Many books and articles giving detailed instructions on how to develop a research question, perform a literature search, or design a study protocol are widely available. However, there are few guidelines on how to create logical flow when writing a scientific article. Logical flow is the key to achieving a smooth and orderly progression of ideas, sentences, paragraphs, and content towards a convincing conclusion. This article provides guidelines for creating logical flow when writing the text and main sections of a scientific article. The first step is creating a draft outline of the whole article. Once completed, the draft outline is developed into a single, coherent article that logically explains the study. Logical flow in the text is created by using precise and concise words, composing clear sentences, and connecting well-structured paragraphs. The use of transitions connects sentences and paragraphs, ensuring clarity and coherence when presenting academic arguments and conclusions. Logical flow in the main sections of a scientific article is achieved by presenting the whole story of the article sequentially in the introduction, methods, results, and discussion, focusing attention on the most important points in each section, and connecting all of these to the main purpose of the study.

Graphical Abstract

INTRODUCTION

Creating a logical flow in scientific articles can be developed and honed through practice and study. Although it can be overwhelming for writers to maintain a clear and organized content, there are guidelines on how to achieve clarity and brevity in scientific articles. 1 , 2 Keeping track of ideas and writing in a clear and concise manner will benefit readers. Articles with disorganized content from unrelated text and shifting ideas are difficult to comprehend. Moreover, disorganized content diverts attention from the main aim or focus of scientific articles. 3

A well-written scientific article requires content proficiency and specialized writing skills to weave together terminology, language, facts, and ideas into a highly coherent information 4 devoid of repetitive language. 5 , 6 Clear and logical writing efficiently disseminates quality primary data and its analyses. 7

There are numerous guidelines for writing a scientific article, often with specific instructions for developing a research question, performing a literature search, or designing a study protocol. 8 , 9 , 10 However, there is still a need for more journal articles detailing the sequential steps and providing published examples on how to achieve logical flow in scientific writing. 8 , 11 This article aims to provide specific guidelines to help authors create and maintain logical flow when writing the text and main sections of a scientific article. To illustrate key points, examples from peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided.

CHARACTERIZING POOR WRITING FLOW

Writing that lacks flow often has no logical argument or structure. It contains awkward phrasing and disjointed sentences which do not effectively lead to the next logical idea. 12 , 13 The sentences are fragmented, robotic, repetitive, or exaggerated, 6 with inconsistencies in tenses and use of language. 14 Missing transitions create disjointed phrases or paragraphs with little sense of continuity. 14 The writing shifts from one topic to another 12 and provides no evidence towards a valid conclusion. 15

Poor writing flow weakens the unity and substance of a scientific article. Readers will not be able to adequately understand the research findings. They may be unable to experience a phenomenon or an event being described since they cannot comprehend the core message of the article. Often, this incomprehension is due to failure by the writer to communicate convincing conclusions and novelty. 16 Poor writing flow can create a sense of disconnect between the author and the reader, 6 and may stem from the author's lack of mastery of the content and weak writing skills. 17 , 18 Signs of weak writing may include the use of contracted or casual words, improper collocations, illegitimate or redundant text, long incomprehensible sentences, illogical argumentation, nominalization, and inappropriate hedges. 19 Thus, achieving clarity and logical flow when writing a scientific article is a crucial skill to acquire and deserves serious attention.

EMPHASIZING LOGICAL FLOW IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING

Logical flow is the smooth and orderly progression of ideas, sentences, and paragraphs 20 , 21 without ambiguity or excessive transitioning. 22 , 23 Style, tone, viewpoint, and tenses 14 are consistent, even when using varied language, 6 word order, and length of sentences. 3 Logical flow allows readers to comprehend ideas with speed and ease. 17 The goal of any writer should be to present ideas consistently and coherently 24 without interruption of the writing flow, enabling readers to connect with the ideas. 16 The logical organization and linking 25 of ideas and content 23 require a detailed understanding and step-by-step presentation of the study's internal logic 26 to achieve credibility and a sound conclusion. 27

CREATING LOGICAL FLOW IN ARTICLE TEXT

Creating logical flow in the text requires the use of concise words, clear sentences, and well-structured paragraphs. To maintain overall coherence, sentences and paragraphs should be connected by appropriate transitions. This would ensure sound arguments with logical conclusions. 17 , 28

Writing concise words

To be concise, writers should choose brief but comprehensive words that most effectively communicate findings. Brevity in writing involves pruning redundant words or overstated ideas and directly presenting the message 17 thus maintaining reader interest. 23 Use of correct terminology or specialized vocabulary (i.e., discipline-specific terminology), general academic vocabulary, and more formal instead of colloquial words would help in concise writing. 29 When faced with several options, the word that best conveys the meaning of a phrase should be used. Choosing precise words ensures clarity of the text without superfluities ( Table 1 ).

Composing clear sentences

The clarity of sentences determines the readability and comprehension of an article. To write clear sentences, focus on one topic. 31 Without sacrificing clarity, remove redundancy and minimize fragments in the middle of sentences (e.g., which, that, although, where, and when). Use less modifiers (e.g., very, basically, generally, specifically) and avoid unnecessary clauses beginning with that, who, and which.

It is advisable to vary the types, lengths, and start of sentences. Write parallel sentences and combine sentences with the same ideas. Tie ideas together in sentences by using pronouns, repeating keywords, and inserting transitional words or phrases (e.g., therefore, however, or consequently). 13 Highlight content using short and declarative sentences (i.e., 20–25 words maximum length) 5 or sentences with a maximum of three lines. 3 , 32

Box 1. Examples of long or unclear sentences made shorter and clearer (revised parts in bold font)

Original sentence (20 words): A 55-year-old woman was admitted in a hospital complaining of experiencing 10 minutes of chest pain after smoking a cigarette.

Shorter and clearer sentence (15 words): A 55-year-old woman was admitted for chest pain she felt for 10 minutes after smoking.

Original sentence (18 words): The coronary spasm is specifically an important differential diagnosis of the causes of the chest pain in patients.

Shorter and clearer sentence (10 words): Coronary spasm is an important differential diagnosis of chest pain .

Original sentence (20 words): Our progress of chemotherapy to the treatment of unresectable colorectal cancer has provided many patients with a prolonged survival period.

Shorter and clearer sentence (11 words): Progress in chemotherapy for unresectable colorectal cancer has prolonged patient survival.

Original sentence (29 words): The histological types were distributed and classified as adenocarcinoma in 51 cases, squamous cell carcinoma in 24 cases, large cell carcinoma in 15 cases, and carcinoid in 10 cases.

Shorter and clearer sentence (17 words): The histological types were adenocarcinoma (n = 51) , squamous cell carcinoma (n = 24) , large cell carcinoma (n = 15) , and carcinoid (n = 10) .

Original sentence (28 words): An abnormal noradrenaline transporter gene has been reported by other studies in a part of the disease, and the pathological conditions based in genetic abnormality are being suspected.

Shorter and clearer sentence (18 words): An abnormal noradrenaline transporter gene reportedly plays a role in the disease pathogenesis , thus genetic abnormality is suspected.

Original sentence (40 words): Among the factors which have effects on quality of life, the positive factors were Spousal Support and the negative factors were Distress and infertility period, and of those factors, the most influential negative factor on quality of life was Distress.

Shorter and clearer sentence (27 words): Among factors affecting quality of life, the positive factor was spousal support and the negative factors were distress and infertility period, with distress being the strongest factor.

Original sentence (30 words): A social support has been specifically described as having the very function of buffering life when there is a stressfull life events and is related to promoting our very well-being.

Shorter and clearer sentence (14 words): Social support has a buffering function against stressful life events and promotes our well-being.

Original sentence (9 words): It is a method that is often carried out.

Shorter and clearer sentence (5 words): This method is often performed .

Original sentence (10 words): This is a procedure that is recommended by the FDA.

Shorter and clearer sentence (7 words): This procedure is recommended by the FDA.

Original sentence (6 words): These data are preliminary in nature.

Shorter and clearer sentence (4 words): These data are preliminary .

Constructing well-structured paragraphs

Constructing well-structured paragraphs involves focusing on the main idea of each paragraph and ensuring unity, coherence, and evidenced-based explanations of the idea. 33

The first sentence in a paragraph is the topic sentence. 21 , 31 It introduces the main idea of the paragraph 31 and gives a clue to its contents 21 , 23 , 33 and their interpretion. 11 , 16 A well-written topic sentence has a specific assertion. 34 It creates a framework for connecting the supporting ideas in the paragraph. 35

The middle sentences corroborate the main idea in the topic sentence. 31 These sentences provide explanations, definitions, comments, evidence, and examples to illustrate important points. 21

The last sentence summarizes the information in the middle sentences. 31 It re-emphasizes the topic sentence and acts as a transition sentence to the next paragraph. 31 , 32 , 36

When writing paragraphs, write facts and avoid lengthy generalizations. 24 Preferably, compose sentences of about 20 words 31 and relate all sentences to the main idea. Make each sentence flow from the previous sentence while maintaining a link to the topic sentence. Maintain the “one idea-one paragraph” principle and build paragraphs based on deductive reasoning. 33 It may help to use a sentence pattern to achieve a linear logic, 15 as an important feature of the text is a linear flow of argumentation wherein the theme of the previous sentence becomes a topic of the following sentence. 29

Overall, successful flow in paragraphs is determined by selecting unified ideas that support the main idea in each paragraph, and then creating effective connections between paragraphs. 6 This sequence in paragraphs builds a compelling argument with logical flow 14 ( Fig. 1 ).

Connecting sentences and paragraphs using transitions

Transitions are words, phrases, or sentences that connect consecutive sentences or paragraphs 37 , 38 and enable readers to follow the logical flow of the message. 39 Transitions may be grouped into three encompassing categories as to how these create logical flow in terms of language, role, and function.

In terms of language, Philbrook 37 classified transitions into transitional words, transitional sentences, and transitional paragraphs as summarized below. Some examples from published articles are also provided.

Transitional words indicate the relationship between each idea (e.g., additionally, as well as, conversely, otherwise).

Box 2. Examples of transitional words (in bold font) from published articles

• “One of the most worrying features of COVID-19 is a phenomenon known as the “cytokine storm”, which is a rapid overreaction of the immune system. Additionally , coagulation abnormalities, thrombocytopenia and digestive symptoms, including anorexia, vomiting, and diarrhea, are often observed in critically ill patients with COVID-19.” 40
• “We describe the validity of measures and their potential biases, as well as the scientific methods used in this field.” 41
• “Although obesity provides an advantage in cold conditions it conversely impedes heat loss and makes obese people susceptible to heat stress more than lean individuals.” 42
• “There are several instances where tele-physiotherapy may be an appropriate form of primary care, including the early management of acute pain, which may otherwise become chronic.” 43

Transitional sentences connect one paragraph to another. These sentences mention the topic of the previous paragraph, and establish a connection between that previous topic and the next topic.

Box 3. Example of transitional sentence (in bold font) (field: breast cancer) 44

Box 4. Example of transitional sentence (in bold font) (field: cardiac surgery) 45

Transitional paragraphs serve as introductory paragraphs to describe the large section and transition readers to new information.

Box 5. Example of a transitional paragraph (in bold font) (field: gastroenterology) 46

In terms of role, wordvice.com classified transitions into four types 47 : additive, adversative, causal, and sequential transitions, as summarized below. Examples from published articles are also provided.

Additive transitions indicate the addition of new information (e.g., furthermore, in addition to), highlight information (e.g., particularly, to illustrate), refer to something (e.g., regarding, with regards to), show similarity (e.g., similarly, in the same way), and clarify important information (e.g., specifically, this means that). 47

Box 6. Example of an additive transition (in bold font)

• “Inflammation markers have been proposed as prognostic markers for the development of T2DM and its complications. Furthermore , modulation of the inflammatory process may offer future treatment strategies for T2DM.” 48

Adversative transitions distinguish facts, arguments, and other information by contrasting and showing differences (e.g., however, on the other hand), distinguishing/emphasizing points (e.g., primarily, most importantly), conceding points (e.g., nevertheless, in spite of), dismissing an argument or assertion (e.g., regardless of, at any rate), and indicating an alternative (e.g., instead of, at least). 47

Box 7. Example of an adversative transition (in bold font)

• “Evidence of the relationship between temperature during pregnancy and human embryo mortality is limited. Most importantly , the literature lacks causal estimations and studies on early pregnancy losses.” 49

Causal transitions show the cause or reason (e.g., since, owing to), explain the conditions (e.g., unless, in the event that), show the effects/results (e.g., therefore, as a result), show the purpose (to, for the purpose), and highlight the importance of circumstances (e.g., otherwise, under these circumstances). These transitions are used after establishing an important point or for exploring hypothetical relationships. 47

Box 8. Example of a causal transition (in bold font)

• “Transplants have become common with excellent patient and graft outcomes owing to advances in surgical technique, immunosuppression, and antimicrobial prophylaxis.” 50

Sequential transitions organize information by number (e.g., firstly, first of all), show continuation in thought or action (e.g., subsequently, after this), refer to previously mentioned information (e.g., summarizing, as mentioned above), indicate digressions (e.g., incidentally, returning to the subject), and make a conclusion (e.g., overall, in conclusion). Sequential transitions create structure to help understand the logical development of the methods, results, and analysis. 47

Box 9. Example of a sequential transition (in bold font)

• “A serine/threonine protein phosphatase (PPs) activity assay was employed to monitor PPs activity. Subsequently , flow cytometry was used to monitor chemokines levels in plasma samples from individuals with cognitive deficits.” 51

In terms of function, some examples are as follows 6 : to express agreement or reinforcement (e.g., also, in the same way, likewise); to express alternatives or contrarian evidence (e.g., in contrast, on the contrary, in reality, although, instead, rather); to present effects or consequences (e.g., as a result, for this reason, thus, consequently, therefore, accordingly); to introduce examples or to emphasize importance (e.g., for example, for instance, to demonstrate, as an illustration, notably, namely, indeed, certainly, such as, in fact); to conclude, summarize, or restate ideas (e.g., all things considered, as shown, given these points, in short, to summarize, in essence, altogether, to sum up, in any case, ultimately); and to hedge (e.g., possibly, this suggests, it may seem, perhaps, we may conclude). 12

Box 10. Example of a transition in terms of function (in bold font)

• “Elderly population and age-related diseases are on the rise. On the contrary , aging studies are technically hard to conduct, because they require elderly animals, the maintenance of which requires ample effort and is expensive.” 52

Altogether, transitions link ideas, sentences, and paragraphs 6 , 12 , 17 , 23 and create logical connections that help deliver the argument, present information, and enhance coherence and flow. 4

Ensuring sound argument to achieve logical connections

Effective transitions provide connection, clarity, and logical flow to ideas and arguments. However, they cannot be used solely as a substitute for ideas and content. Ideas must first be established in a simple and orderly way—through clear sentences and well-structured paragraphs. Afterwards, appropriate transitions should be used to connect individual sentences and consecutive paragraphs and show how these are related. 53 After using transitions to develop the sentences and paragraphs fully, integrate the topic sentence, lines of evidence, and other attributes of each paragraph to ensure the logical movement of an argument through the text. 35 This entails clearly stating the thesis statement and supporting it with thoroughly analyzed evidence. It also implies the logical discussion, exploration, explanation, reflection, summary, synthesis, and participation in the whole intellectual process of scientific writing. 34

Maintaining overall coherence

Coherence in scientific articles means that the words, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs are clearly related to one another and to the main topic of the article. 12 It is achieved when the ideas flow precisely and logically. 54 Scientific articles must maintain both logical coherence and lexical coherence. Logical coherence is achieved by the orderly placement of the main ideas and their supporting details. 55 Lexical coherence is attained by the appropriate use of words that help readers navigate the article to its main message. 34 Coherence can be maintained by repetition of keywords or by referring to the main idea of the previous paragraph before introducing the current paragraph. 56

ESTABLISHING LOGICAL FLOW IN THE ARTICLE AND ITS MAIN SECTIONS

After creating logical flow in the article text, the next step is to present the whole story of the article by establishing logical flow in its main sections: introduction, methods, results, and discussion (i.e., IMRAD) 5 and avoiding language errors. 57 The focus is on the most important points and the order in which they are presented. 23 Regarding order, the rhetorical (move-step) model can be applied to empirical research articles to establish logical flow. 29

Creating the introduction section

The introduction section describes how the study adds new knowledge that addresses an important question. 32 Create logical flow in the introduction section by making three paragraphs. 7 In the first paragraph, describe the scope, nature, or magnitude of the problem being addressed. In the second paragraph, clearly articulate why a better understanding of this problem is useful. Include current knowledge and previous studies' limitations. In the third paragraph, state the aims and briefly explain what the study adds to the scientific knowledge base. 5 , 7

Constructing the methods section

The methods section provides information necessary for recreating the analysis given the same data. To create logical flow in the methods section, describe exactly how the data relevant to the study's objectives or purpose were collected, organized, and analyzed. 5 Describe the study design first, followed by the setting, subjects, data collection methods, and finally data analysis. 7 Refrain from writing partial results in the methods section. 11

Describing the results section

To logically describe the results section, draft the figures first to reveal data trends or relationships, and then the tables to show specific data points. Use these figures and tables as supporting evidence when describing the main outcome. Next, identify the figures and tables that best describe the findings. Then, write a sentence summarizing each figure and table. 5 Afterwards, write the text with a sequential discussion and a brief statement of conclusion for each figure and table. Interpret the results in detail in the discussion section. 7 , 32 Present the data efficiently and logically by focusing on how they relate to the main purpose or objectives of the study. 11

Organizing the discussion section

The discussion section is the keystone of a scientific article. Write the discussion section with precision, brevity and without ambiguity. 58 Unify ideas to clearly communicate the main message of the study. Observe brevity but do not sacrifice logic and clarity. 11 To achieve logical flow, aim to write the discussion in four to six paragraphs.

In the first paragraph, briefly restate what the study's purpose or objectives are. Then, highlight the key results 59 with a focus on how these met the study's aims. 7

In the second, third, and fourth paragraphs, contextualize each key result with the relevant literature in separate paragraphs. When interpreting key results, emphasize their uniqueness, usefulness, and relevance. Then, expand the interpretation by assessing what can be achieved now with these new data or what gap in previous knowledge could be filled. 32 Finally, frame the results by describing how the study adds to the literature. 59 Follow the same order of the methods and results when discussing each key result. 7

In the fifth paragraph, state the limitations in the methodology, results, or manuscript organization. 59 Then, list the strengths and weaknesses of the study. Finally, describe the needs and offer perspectives for future studies. 7

In the sixth paragraph, state the conclusions and implications of the study. Then, provide recommendations for further research into the remaining gaps. Finally, make suggestions regarding the changes needed. 5

Establishing logical flow in the whole article

To establish logical flow and readability of the whole article, write short, simple, clear, concise, and coherent sentences. 60 Choose and correctly place keywords and transitions to establish a link between sentences and between paragraphs. Be mindful of the logical interrelationship between the first and final parts, together with the supporting middle parts. 61 This means that the first (topic), middle, and final sentences in paragraphs are logically connected, and that the first, middle, and final paragraphs in an article are logically interrelated 61 ( Fig. 2 ).

Creating logical flow is a crucial but often neglected component in writing a scientific article. Logical flow in the text and main sections of a scientific article enhances the presentation of key results and the whole story of the article with clarity and depth. It allows the reader to grasp the key message of the article with speed and ease, facilitating the valuable exchange of ideas.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.