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Home / Online Bachelor’s Degree Programs / Online Bachelor’s in Forensic Psychology Degree / Bachelor’s in Forensic Psychology Resources / Psychology of Crime: History’s Famous Criminal Minds

The Mind of a Criminal: A Look At The Psychology of Some of History’s Famous Crooks The Mind of a Criminal: A Look At The Psychology of Some of History’s Famous Crooks The Mind of a Criminal: A Look At The Psychology of Some of History’s Famous Crooks

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An increase in mass shootings in recent years has left people struggling to comprehend the enormous scope of each tragedy and what drove the shooters to commit their horrible acts. We may ask: What personality traits do mass shooters and other significant criminals have in common? Are such criminals born or made? How do mental health, demographics, and other factors influence crime?

Questions like these are part of a major field of interest for those who study crime. People who study the psychology of crime dedicate their careers to understanding what drives criminals to do what they do. Forensic and criminal psychologists use their understanding of human psychology, forensics, and neuroscience to evaluate the criminal mind. They apply the science of the mind to create criminal profiles of mass shooters, serial killers, rapists, and even a variety of white-collar criminals to catch the perpetrators and prevent additional crimes from occurring. The hope is that by understanding what motivates such individuals, crime psychologists can help create a safer society and deliver criminal justice more effectively.

Students who pursue a  degree in forensic psychology  usually are interested in putting their love of psychology to work to create safer communities. With the online bachelor’s degree in forensic psychology from Maryville University, you’ll learn to apply the science of the mind in the court and corrections systems, social services, and private sector and gain insight into what motivates someone to commit the darkest of crimes.

The Psychology of Crime

What motivates perpetrators of heinous crimes? The job of understanding the incomprehensible falls on psychologists, including the experts at the FBI’s Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU), which is tasked with conducting detailed analyses of crimes and creating profiles of serial killers, active shooters, and other dangerous criminals to better understand unknown offenders and prevent future threats. FBI profiling is an  extensive process  that can be used to track down a specific suspect or generate a list of potential suspects.

In the 2022 Uvalde elementary school shooting, the BAU’s active shooter profile  matched key facts related to the perpetrator , who died during the incident. The 18-year-old shooter fit almost all the shared data points seen in past attacker profiles, including red flags like buying guns, being bullied at school, and having a falling-out with one’s parents before the attack. Understanding pre-attack behaviors is key to preventing future shootings and understanding what motivates the shooters, many of whom don’t survive to provide a motive.

The study of  criminal statistics , like those collected by the FBI, can provide important insight into the psychology of crime. Another piece of the puzzle is provided by forensic psychology, which draws on the study of sociological and psychological theories related to mental health, behavior, and motivation to analyze the factors causing and influencing individuals to commit crimes.

History of Famous Criminal Minds

The mind of a notorious criminal is terrifying and fascinating. For those interested in exploring the motivations and mental states that lead to crime, here are some resources on some of history’s most notable criminal minds.

• Bernie Madoff, Ponzi Scheme Mastermind :  Explore one of the stranger sides of crime psychology, as the previously successful and mild-mannered Madoff became the architect of what’s believed to be the biggest investment fraud in U.S. history, defrauding tens of thousands of people of as much as $65 billion.
• Elizabeth Holmes and Sunny Balwani, Theranos :  The pair were convicted of fraud charges related to the blood-testing company Theranos, which Holmes founded and Balwani helped run. They engaged in a multimillion-dollar scheme to defraud investors and a separate scheme to defraud doctors and patients.
• Theodore Kaczynski, the Unabomber :  An American domestic terrorist and former mathematics professor, the serial bomber mailed or delivered 16 package bombs to scientists, academicians, and others over 17 years, killing three people and injuring 23. The FBI spent nearly 20 years hunting him down. Some analysts have  linked his behavior to his time at Harvard .
• George Metesky, the Mad Bomber :  When this mysterious madman planted bombs around New York City in 1940, James Brussel created the first criminal profile to aid in his capture.
• John Wayne Gacy :  He was known as the Killer Clown because of his Pogo the Clown performances at charities and fundraisers. Beneath the guise was a serial killer who murdered at least 33 people.
• Evaluation of John Hinckley :  John Hinckley Jr. attempted to assassinate former President Ronald Reagan. He’s also known for a bizarre obsession with actress Jodie Foster, whom he hoped to impress with the assassination.
• Ted Bundy :  A researcher looks at the elements of the serial killer’s psychopathy. He confessed to 30 homicides and was convicted for other crimes. Despite his heinous acts, he was often described as charming, charismatic, and brilliant, taking the psychology of crime into uncharted waters.
• Evaluating Jeffrey Dahmer :  Dahmer was convicted of atrocities such as murder and cannibalism. His crimes may have been related to personality disorders.
• Charles Manson: Exploiting Psychological Needs :  Charles Manson gained a devoted cult of followers whom he convinced to commit murders and other terrible acts.
• Prosenjit Poddar and Tatiana Tarasoff :  Poddar’s murder of Tarasoff prompted new laws about mental health patient privacy and situations in which therapists are required to report potential violence.
• The Story of Ralph Tortorici :  Tortorici was a college student who took 35 students hostage and injured two. Although he was judged competent enough to stand trial, he later committed suicide in prison.
• School Shooters :  In the aftermath of tragedies like the Columbine and Virginia Tech shootings, psychologists have tried to understand the aggressors, prevent mass violence, and protect the public.
• James “Whitey” Bulger :  Several books have been written about notorious Boston mobster James “Whitey” Bulger, as scholars, law enforcement, and psychologists try to understand the man behind a crime ring.
• Lizzie Borden :  Legendary killer Lizzie Borden murdered her parents with an ax long before criminal profiling was practiced.

Studying the Psychology of Crime

Criminal and forensic psychologists make important contributions to law enforcement. However, the two roles are distinct and often confused. For students wondering  how they’re different , it helps to think of forensic psychology as the broader field that applies psychological principles to the criminal justice system and law, while crime psychology focuses more on individual criminals.

• Forensic psychologists  consult with law enforcement to integrate psychology into criminal and civil legal matters. Their duties can include selecting juries, evaluating witnesses, and conducting mental health evaluations.
• Criminal psychologists  seek to understand the motivations of criminals and develop a psychological profile to understand or apprehend them. Their approach to the psychology of crime involves examining individual criminal behaviors and diagnosing any mental health conditions. They frequently step into the courtroom to provide expert testimony. Other duties include counseling individuals who’ve committed crimes or evaluating their risk of recidivism, or returning to prison.

Why Study Crime Psychology?

With violent crime on the rise in the United States as the COVID-19 pandemic eases, law enforcement is under increasing pressure. The annual murder rate in the U.S. is up sharply since 2019, and other violent crimes, including shootings and other assaults, have increased overall.

Students who are interested in psychology and its application to the criminal justice system should consider pursuing a degree in forensic psychology. The  online Bachelor of Arts in Forensic Psychology  from Maryville University offers a broad range of coursework in psychology, criminal justice, and social science to help students expand their expertise and prepare to apply their education to a wide range of fields, including policing, law, corrections, and social services. The program blends experiential learning opportunities and practical coursework to give you a comprehensive understanding of today’s forensic psychology landscape.

Bring us your ambition and we’ll guide you along a personalized path to a quality education that’s designed to change your life.

Five Famous Cases Cracked by Forensic Psychologists

• Published December 1, 2016
• Last Updated May 19, 2021
• Read Time 3 mins

An understanding of the criminal mind is one of the most useful tools in solving crimes, which becomes apparent in these five famous cases cracked by forensic psychologists. Although techniques are becoming more sophisticated every year, forensic psychology has a long and storied history.

1. Ted Bundy

A psychologist could spend a lifetime examining the twisted mind of Ted Bundy, one of America’s most notorious and charismatic killers. Luckily, several forensic psychologists used their expertise to crack this famous case. Over time, Ted Bundy’s brutal attacks and killings became less careful and more frequent. Their psychological profile, which benefited greatly from a former girlfriend’s information, eventually ended the nationwide manhunt for Bundy and even linked him to other unsolved murders.

2. John Wayne Gacy

Although complaints and suspicions from neighbors were ultimately what ended “killer clown” John Wayne Gacy’s shocking killing spree, forensic psychologists ensured that the culprit in this famous case didn’t go free on a bogus insanity plea. Through a series of interviews, psychologists on the case were able to determine that Gacy’s murders involved premeditation and a detailed plan to hide his victims bodies. Without forensic psychologists assistance in this case, traumatized families may have never experienced the satisfaction of seeing Gacy punished for his crimes.

3. Explosions at Radio City Music Hall

An ongoing series of bombings at New York City’s famed Radio City Music Hall is an intriguing case that’s often forgotten these days. This case, which involved more than a dozen explosions between 1940 and 1950, proved so problematic for police that it was one of the inspirations for the development of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Psychologist James Brussel was able to determine that due to the intricacy and knowledge of the explosive devices, the bomber was almost definitely an engineer, most likely at Con Edison. This profile directed the police towards George Metesky. The remarkable accuracy and efficacy of the forensic psychologist’s profile increased the demand for these experts across the nation.

4. Aileen Wuornos

The case of serial killer Aileen Wuornos, who you might know as the inspiration for Charlize Theron’s mesmerizing performance in “Monster,” may have never been solved without a famous use of forensic psychology. Psychologists were able to determine a consistent motivation for Wuorno’s killings–her intense fear of losing her relationship with her long-time partner Tyria Moore. This profile proved to be incredibly accurate when each of Wuornos’s killings was later linked to rocky periods and short-term separations between the lovers.

5. Andrei Chikatilo

Andrei Chikatilo’s reign of terror had Russian police mystified for more than two decades, until it became one of these famous cases cracked by forensic psychologists. To date, Chikatilo has been linked with the murders of 53 Russian women and children. Growing frustrated with the lack of promising leads, Viktor Burakov, the case’s chief investigator decided to employ a new method. He enlisted Dr. Alexander Bukhanovsky’s help in compiling a psychological profile for the killer. This information proved invaluable in narrowing down their list of suspects down to Chikatilo himself, who confessed to his horrific crimes in 1990.

The Ongoing Importance of Forensic Psychology

Although many people probably think of Clarice Starling in the movie “Silence of the Lambs,” when they think of forensic psychology, it’s not just a plot device in a movie. The real-life psychological profiles from these five famous cases that were cracked by forensic psychologists were the difference between letting a case go cold and capturing a criminal.

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Psychology of Crime

Module 6 explores the interaction between psychological factors and criminal behavior. The examination between psychology and crime provides an opportunity to consider how individual psychological characteristics, experiences, and processes can contribute to the commission of criminal acts. The field of forensic psychology focuses on understanding how psychological principles can shed light on the causes of crime, the motivations of offenders, and the impact of crime on victims and society. It also examines the application of psychological knowledge in the criminal justice system to better understand and address criminal behavior. It’s important to note that while psychology can provide valuable insights into criminal behavior, it is just one piece of a larger puzzle. Criminal behavior is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon influenced by social, economic, cultural, and environmental factors, in addition to individual psychological traits. The integration of psychological knowledge with other disciplines, such as sociology, criminology, and law, is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of crime and the development of effective strategies for crime prevention, intervention, and justice.

Learning Objectives

After completing this module, you should be able to:

• explain how mental illness relates to crime in general.
• describe the fundamentals of psychoanalytic theory, including Freudian elements of personality and defense mechanisms.
• enumerate the three learning mechanisms operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and observational learning and how they relate to theories of crime.
• explain cognitive structure and cognitive content and how they have been applied to criminal behavior.
• distinguish between general personality research and research on a “criminal personality.” Furthermore, be able to provide examples of general traits related to crime and the specific attributes of a psychopath.
• summarize the debate on the relationship between IQ and criminal behavior.
• discuss the contributions of psychology to the study of crime.
• identify the major principles of psychological perspectives of criminal behavior.
• explain how personality explains criminality.
• recognize the treatment implications of psychological understandings of criminality.

The psychology of crime is the study of the psychological factors that contribute to criminal behavior, including the motivations, thoughts, emotions, and personality traits of individuals involved in illegal activities. This field of study seeks to understand why some individuals engage in criminal acts while others do not and how psychological factors interact with social, environmental, and cultural influences to shape criminal behavior.

Certain personality traits have been associated with an increased likelihood of criminal behavior. Traits such as impulsivity, sensation-seeking, low empathy, aggressiveness, and a lack of conscience or guilt (associated with psychopathy) have been linked to criminal conduct.

Cognitive factors play a role in criminal behavior. Deficits in decision-making, problem-solving skills, and executive functions can lead individuals to engage in criminal acts as a way of addressing their problems or achieving their goals.

Mental health issues can be relevant to criminal behavior, particularly in cases of severe disorders like antisocial personality disorder, conduct disorder, or substance use disorders. However, it is essential to recognize that most people with mental health issues are not involved in criminal activities.

Adverse childhood experiences, such as physical or emotional abuse, neglect, or exposure to violence, can significantly impact an individual’s likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior later in life. Early trauma can affect brain development and lead to maladaptive coping strategies.

The social learning theory suggests that individuals learn behaviors, including criminal ones, through observation and imitation of others. Exposure to criminal role models or environments can contribute to the adoption of criminal behavior.

Family influences, such as inconsistent discipline, family conflict, or a lack of parental supervision, can impact an individual’s likelihood of engaging in criminal conduct. A dysfunctional family environment may contribute to the development of delinquent behavior.

Peer relationships and social networks can play a significant role in criminal behavior. Association with delinquent peers can reinforce criminal attitudes and behavior, leading to further involvement in criminal activities.

Substance abuse can impair judgment and increase the likelihood of engaging in criminal acts to obtain drugs or maintain an addiction.

Advances in neuroscience have shown that brain structure and functioning can influence behavior, including criminal conduct. Abnormalities in certain brain regions may be associated with increased aggression or impulsivity.

The psychology of crime is a complex and multidimensional field that considers various individual and environmental factors. It’s essential to understand that criminal behavior is the result of an intricate interplay between biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors. By integrating psychological knowledge with other disciplines, policymakers and practitioners can develop more effective prevention and intervention strategies to address criminal behavior and promote public safety. Moreover, understanding the psychological aspects of crime can also contribute to efforts aimed at rehabilitation and reducing recidivism among offenders.

Key Takeaways

• Psychological theories of crime focus on the association among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior.
• Psychodynamic theory suggests that criminal behavior is influenced by unconscious mental processes, early childhood experiences, and the id, ego, and superego.
• Behavioral theory proposes that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others and the environment, especially through modeling and social learning.
• Cognitive theory emphasizes the role of mental processes, such as moral reasoning, information processing, and problem-solving, in criminal behavior.
• Personality and intelligence are two factors that may affect criminal behavior, according to various measures and models, such as the Big Five, IQ, and psychopathy.

Key Terms/Concepts

Albert Bandura (1925-2021) Antisocial Personality Attachment Theory Behavioral Theory Behavioral Conditioning Behaviorism Big Five Model of Personality Charles Goring (1870-1919) Cognitive Theory Cyberpsychology Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) Maladaptation Modeling Theory Psychoanalytic Perspective Psychopath Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Trait Theory

Modern Application

Cyberpsychology

Cyberpsychology, a discipline at the intersection of psychology and technology, explores how digital environments impact human behavior, cognition, and emotions. As the digital age progresses, understanding the psychological aspects of online interactions becomes increasingly crucial, especially in the context of deviance and crime. This field sheds light on the motivations, behaviors, and profiles of individuals engaging in cyber deviance, such as cyberbullying, cyberstalking, hacking, and other forms of cybercrime. Through cyberpsychology, researchers analyze how the anonymity, perceived detachment, and vast audience reach of the internet contribute to deviant behaviors online.

The application of cyberpsychology in understanding cyber deviance and crime is multifaceted. It helps in identifying psychological traits that predispose individuals to engage in cybercriminal activities, understanding the impact of digital environments on behavior, and developing psychological profiles of potential offenders. This knowledge is instrumental in crafting strategies and tools to combat cybercrime, including the design of safer online environments, the implementation of digital literacy programs, and the enhancement of cybersecurity measures.

Moreover, cyberpsychology contributes to the development of intervention strategies aimed at preventing cyber deviance and assisting victims. By understanding the psychological underpinnings of cybercrime, professionals can create more effective education and awareness programs, improve legal and policy frameworks, and devise therapeutic interventions for those affected by cybercrime.

However, the rapid evolution of technology and the complexity of online interactions pose significant challenges for cyberpsychology. Ethical concerns, the need for cross-disciplinary research, and the dynamic nature of digital technologies demand continuous adaptation and innovation in the field. Despite these challenges, cyberpsychology remains a vital discipline for addressing the complexities of deviance and crime in the twenty-first century, offering insights and solutions to secure cyberspace and protect individuals from the psychological impacts of cybercrime.

The CyberPsychology of CyberCrime – Mary Aiken, RCSI (Web Summit, Dec. 2015)

• New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) What is Cyberpsychology and Why is it Important?   (Feb. 2023)
• Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace (MUNI Journals)
• CSO. Why cyberpsychology is such an important part of effective cybersecurity (Mary Pratt, July 4, 2023.) [last accessed, March 3 2024].

Read, Review, Watch and Listen

1. Read Chapter 31: Psychological Theories of Crime by John W. Clark, Troy University (Clark, 2009)

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.

2. Review Saul Mcleod’s Operant Conditioning: What It Is, How It Works , And Examples (Simply Psychology, June 2023)

3. Review Saul Mcleod’s Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment On Social Learning (Simply Psychology, June 2023)

a. Albert Bandura developed a comprehensive social cognition theory of aggression that depends on cognitive processes for its explanatory power.

b. Everyone is capable of aggression but must learn how to behave aggressively.

c. Central to his theory are the ideas of observation, imitation, and modeling. People learn to act (aggressively or otherwise) by observing others, either in person or in the media.

4. Review Kendra Cherry’s What Are the Big 5 Personality Traits? Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (verywell mind, March 2023)

a. Hans Eysenck explained crime as the result of fundamental personality characteristics or traits, which he believed are largely inherited.

b. He believed the degree to which three universal supertraits are present in an individual accounts for his or her unique personality.

c. Termed these supertraits introversion/extraversion; neuroticism/emotional stability; psychoticism – people who score high on any of these are not easily socialized or conditioned and commit more crime in adulthood.

d. Psychoticism thought to be closely correlated with criminality at all stages.

e. Today, trait theories of personality have expanded to the Five Factor Model with five basic traits: openness to experience, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and agreeableness.

5. Review NBC News’ The shape of your brain may strongly influence your thoughts and behavior, study finds (Bendix, A. , May 21, 2023) [last accessed July 2023]

6. Watch Social Learning Theory: Bandura’s Bobo Beatdown Experiments (Sprouts, 2022)

a. Social learning theory suggests that all behaviors, including crime, are learned in much the same way, involving the acquisition of norms, values, and patterns of behavior conducive to crime, so that crime is a product of the social environment rather than an innate characteristic of some individuals.

7. Watch Psychoanalytic Theory (Khan Academy, 2015)

a. Psychoanalytic theory, based on the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), suggests that criminal behavior is maladaptive, the result of inadequacies inherent in the offender’s personality which is formed by early childhood experiences that influence his or her likelihood for committing future crimes.

b. Psychoanalysis suggests that one possible cause of crime may be a poorly developed superego, which leaves the individual operating without a moral guide.

8. Watch TEDx Talks (May 2016), Brian Boutwell: The Future of Criminology Saint Louis University [14:34] (TED, 2021) – also embedded below.

9. Watch and Review How Sociopaths Are Different from Psychopaths by Marcia Purse (verywell mind, November 2022)

a. The concept of the psychopathic personality was developed by Hervey Cleckley, who described a psychopath as a “moral idiot,” with poverty of affect as the central defining characteristic.

b. There are several different types of psychopaths, including sociopaths, who are born with a normal personality but develop psychopathic characteristics due to personal experiences early in life.

c. Today, the terms “psychopath” and “sociopath” have fallen out of favor and have been replaced by the concept of antisocial personality.

10.  Watch JCS’ What Pretending to be crazy looks like (May 2021)

11. Watch Psychopath Child (AP Psychology, August 2013)

To access the PPT file, click HERE . Note that files are updated regularly and as such might change in content and appearance.

Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.

Contact the professor with any course-related questions

Click HERE to report any needed updates, e.g., broken links.

The Future of Criminology Saint Louis University

Students should review the course syllabus to determine the assignment of this activity.

This is a copy of the module’s activity that students find within Blackboard. For that reason, refer to the Activities page to submit your work for review.

Violent Video Games and Crime Nexus?

Instructions.

• Review behavioral theory as explained within Chapter 31  Psychological Theories of Crime  (p. 274)
• Read attached article from Do Violent Video Games Make Kids More Violent  and explore a few of those links embedded within the file.
• Watch  Video 1 :  Video game violence linked to bad behavior, study says (also embedded below)
• Watch  Video 2 :  How do video games affect behavior?  (also embedded below)

• Use modeling theory within the context of social learning theory to explain how you believe violent video games might affect a player’s emotions and influence their perceptual or emotional view of the world and increase the likelihood of maladaptive behavior.
• Summarize how playing violent video games might influence a person’s real-life behavior?
• A recent summary of this emerging literature finds a moderate correlation between exposure to violent video games and both aggression and lack of empathy. An exclusive review of studies of criminal aggression, however, did not find that video gaming had a significant impact. Skeptics of the link between media exposure and real-world violence also point out that both cross-national research and American crime trends cast doubt on the existence of a large effect. Using aspects of Module 6, explain whether or not you believe there is in fact a connection between video games and real-world violence.

Definitions for these terms are found within Module 6

• Albert Bandura
• Behavioral Theory
• Behavioral Conditioning
• Modeling Theory

Refer to the course learning management system (LMS); that is Blackboard (BB), for the correct due date. In addition, submit your work via BB for grading.

Discussion Questions

• How does the development of the id, ego, and superego influence deviant and/or criminal behavior?
• How does social learning theory explain the acquisition of violent and aggressive behavior?
• What are the three primary sources of behavior modeling according to Bandura?
• How does moral development theory account for the different stages of moral reasoning?
• What are some factors that may impair the information-processing abilities of criminal offenders?
• How does the Big Five model of personality measure individual differences in personality?
• What are some personality traits that are correlated with delinquent and criminal behavior?
• What are the arguments for and against the nature-versus-nurture debate in relation to intelligence and crime?

Supplemental Resources

• The Moral Sense Test: How do you decide between right and wrong?
• Treating Antisocial Personality Disorder (Psych Central, 2023)
• Clark, J. W. (2009). Psychological Theories of Crime. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 271-278). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600042/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=18bf305f
• Simply Psychology, Operant Conditioning: What It Is, How It Works, And Examples (Saul Mcleod, Feb. 2, 2024). https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html. Accessed 3 March, 2024.
• Simply Psychology, Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment On Social Learning (Saul Mcleod, Feb. 1, 2024). https://www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html#:~:text=Bobo%20doll%20experiment%20demonstrated%20that,(1977)%20Social%20Learning%20Theory. Accessed 3 March, 2024.
• verywell mind, What Are the Big 5 Personality Traits? Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (Kendra Cherry, March 11, 2023). https://www.verywellmind.com/the-big-five-personality-dimensions-2795422#toc-the-big-5-personality-traits. Accessed 3 March, 2024.
• NBC News (May 21, 2023), The shape of your brain may strongly influence your thoughts and behavior, study finds (Bendix, A.). https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/brain-shape-may-influence-thoughts-behavior-rcna86938. Accessed 3 March, 2024.
• Sprouts (April 2022), Social Learning Theory: Bandura’s Bobo Beatdown Experiments [Video] (YouTube). https://youtu.be/XHIhkM1cAv4?si=c3m8YiBZrBLQWj24,. Accessed 3 March, 2024.
• Kahan Academy (Sep. 13, 2013), Psychoanalytic theory [Video] (YouTube). https://youtu.be/jdawTFsCNtc?si=qpix8Hg3Xh5-9509. Accessed 3 March, 2024.
• TEDx Saint Louis University (May 26, 2016), Brian Boutwell: The Future of Criminology [Video] (YouTube). https://youtu.be/xbikaH4GTSo?si=hjHj5F_yzrYJ8sqZ. Accessed 3 March, 2024.
• verywell mind, (Nov. 14, 2022) How Sociopaths Are Different from Psychopaths (Purse, M.). https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-sociopath-380184. Accessed 3 March, 2024.
• JCS (May 26, 2021), What Pretending to be crazy looks like [Video] (YouTube). https://youtu.be/Mwt35SEeR9w?si=4BKfZ3c6Zkk1Lz2J. Accessed 3 March, 2024.
• AP Psychology (Aug. 26, 2013), Psychopathic Child  (Calvin Hecker) [Video] (YouTube). https://youtu.be/VDVaiwzU8yc?si=5LicZqkIe_BmHgl0. Accessed 3 March, 2024.

Albert Bandura was a prominent psychologist best known for his work on social learning theory, which later evolved into the broader framework of social cognitive theory. Bandura made significant contributions to the field of psychology through his research on the processes through which individuals learn in social contexts.

Refers to a psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others. Individuals with antisocial personality typically demonstrate a lack of empathy and remorse for their actions, along with a tendency to engage in impulsive and irresponsible behavior. This disorder is also known as antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and is often associated with behaviors such as lying, manipulation, aggression, and a disregard for social norms and rules.

Suggests that healthy personality development in young children requires a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with the primary caregiver. Children lacking such a relationship are more likely to engage in maladjusted behavior.

Attachment theory postulates three forms of attachment.  Secure attachment is a healthy form of attachment and develops when a child is confident that the mother figure will be responsible and available when needed.  Anxious-avoidant attachment develops when children feel rejection and develop a lack of confidence in the support and care of the parent.  Anxious-resistant attachment develops from similar experiences and results in feelings of uncertainty, causing the child to feel anxious, to become fearful of his or her environment, and to cling to potential caregivers and partners.  The latter two forms of attachment are non-secure and may lead to delinquent behavior.

The second main thrust of early psychological theorizing, built upon the concept of conditioned behavior, particularly concept of classical conditioning demonstrated by Pavlov. Researchers such as B.F. Skinner further developed the theory, which involves the use of rewards and punishments to control a person’s responses, or operant behavior. One of the earliest learning theories was Gabriel Tarde’s theory, which was based on imitation and suggestion. Albert Bandura’s social cognition theory of aggression suggests that people learn to act by observing others; observation of aggressive behavior teaches one how to behave aggressively.

Emphasizes the concept of operant behavior: behavior choices operate on the environment to produce consequences for the individual. When behavior results in rewards or desirable feedback, the behavior is reinforced and will probably become more frequent. When behavior results in punishment, the frequency of that behavior decreases. There are four conceptual categories of rewards and punishments: 1. Positive rewards 2. Negative rewards 3. Positive punishments 4. Negative punishments Behavior theory differs from other psychological theories in that the major determinants of behavior are in the surrounding environment rather than in the individual.

A psychological theory and approach that focuses on the study of observable behaviors rather than mental processes or internal states. It emerged as a dominant school of thought in the early 20th century, particularly with the work of behaviorist pioneers such as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner.

Also known as the Five-Factor Model (FFM), is a widely accepted and influential framework for understanding and categorizing human personality traits. It proposes that personality can be described and organized into five broad dimensions, or factors, which capture the most important and distinctive aspects of an individual's personality. These five factors are often referred to by the acronym OCEAN.

Was a British psychiatrist and criminologist who is known for his research on the relationship between crime and intelligence. He conducted a significant study that focused on the connection between criminality and intellectual abilities.

Goring's most famous work is "The English Convict: A Statistical Study," which was published in 1913. In this extensive study, Goring examined the characteristics and backgrounds of over 3,000 prisoners in English prisons. He compared these characteristics with those of non-criminals to determine whether there was a significant difference in intelligence between the two groups.

Goring's research aimed to investigate the prevalent eugenic theories of his time, which suggested that there was a hereditary basis for criminality and that criminals were more likely to have lower intelligence. However, his study did not support these ideas. He found that there was no evidence of a direct link between criminal behavior and low intelligence. In fact, Goring's research indicated that criminals did not differ significantly from non-criminals in terms of intelligence.

This finding challenged the eugenic views of his era, which had proposed that criminality was largely inherited and associated with low intelligence. Goring's work contributed to a more nuanced understanding of the complex factors that contribute to criminal behavior, including social, environmental, and psychological factors. His research played a significant role in shifting the focus of criminology away from simplistic notions of biological determinism and toward a broader exploration of the causes of crime.

A psychological perspective that focuses on the study of mental processes, such as thinking, memory, perception, problem-solving, and decision-making. Unlike behaviorism, which emphasizes observable behaviors, cognitive theory looks at the internal mental processes that influence how people perceive and interact with the world.

A study of the human mind and behavior in the context of human-technology interaction, particularly focusing on how digital technologies, the Internet, and virtual environments influence psychological processes, emotions, and social behaviors. This interdisciplinary field combines elements from psychology, computer science, and information technology to explore a wide range of topics, including online identity, digital communication patterns, cyberbullying, online addiction, virtual reality, and the impact of social media on mental health.

Was a French sociologist, criminologist, and social psychologist. He is known for his significant contributions to the field of sociology, particularly in the areas of social theory, social psychology, and the study of social phenomena. Tarde suggested that the basis of society was imitation, and he developed a theory of behavior built upon three laws of imitation and suggestion: (1) People in close contact tend to imitate each other’s behavior, (2) Imitation moves from the top down, and (3) New acts and behaviors either reinforce or replace old ones.

Was an American psychologist known for his research and theory on moral development. He was a professor at Harvard University and is best known for his work in the field of developmental psychology, particularly his theory of moral development, which expanded on the ideas of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development proposed that individuals progress through distinct stages of moral reasoning as they mature. He identified six stages of moral development, which were grouped into three main levels:

Preconventional Level: a. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation b. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

Conventional Level: a. Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships and "Good Boy/Girl" Orientation b. Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order and Authority Orientation

Postconventional Level: a. Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights b. Stage 6: Universal Principles

Kohlberg's theory suggested that moral development is a lifelong process, and individuals may not necessarily progress through all the stages. He argued that individuals move through these stages as they encounter moral dilemmas and engage in moral reasoning.

Refers to a condition or response that is not well-suited or appropriate for the given situation or environment. In various fields, such as psychology, biology, and ecology, the term is used to describe instances where an organism or individual exhibits behaviors, traits, or characteristics that hinder their ability to function effectively or adapt to their surroundings.

Within the context of psychology, refers to a framework for understanding how individuals learn and acquire new behaviors, attitudes, and emotional responses through observation and imitation of others. Rooted in the principles of social learning theory, particularly as developed by Albert Bandura, modeling theory posits that people can learn not only through direct experience but also by observing the actions and outcomes of others' behaviors. This process involves attention to the model's behavior, retention of the observed behaviors, reproduction of the behavior, and motivation to replicate the behavior based on the observed consequences. Modeling theory has broad applications, including understanding the acquisition of social skills, the impact of media on behavior, therapeutic interventions, and educational strategies. It underscores the significant influence that societal, familial, and media models have on an individual's development and behavior.

Refers to a psychological approach that was developed by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. It is a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy that focuses on the unconscious mind and its influence on human behavior. The core ideas of the psychoanalytic perspective revolve around the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and motivations in shaping human experiences and behaviors.

Also known as a sociopath, is an individual who exhibits a cluster of personality traits and behaviors associated with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). Psychopathy is a term commonly used in forensic psychology and criminology to describe individuals who display a specific set of characteristics, which often include manipulativeness, a lack of empathy, shallow emotions, and a propensity for engaging in impulsive and antisocial behaviors.

Was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a groundbreaking approach to understanding the human mind and behavior. He is considered one of the most influential figures in the field of psychology and his ideas have had a profound impact on various disciplines, including psychology, psychiatry, and cultural studies.

Also known as personality trait theory, is a psychological perspective that focuses on identifying and describing the enduring patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions that make up an individual's personality. According to trait theory, individuals possess characteristic traits or predispositions that influence how they perceive, interpret, and respond to the world around them.

Criminology: Foundations and Modern Applications Copyright © 2023 by Eric Ramirez-Thompson, PhD is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Law and Crime

What are the "causes" of crime, it's important to differentiate between cause and opportunity..

Posted March 16, 2022 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• For decades, there has been a futile search for "root causes" of crime, citing nearly any adversity as causal to criminal conduct.
• There is a difference between an environmental cause and providing an "opportunity" for crime to occur.
• Critical to understanding criminal behavior are basic personality makeup and thinking patterns.

The perennial search continues to identify causes of criminal behavior. Nearly everything but the federal deficit has been identified as playing a causal role. The term “root cause” is still used to describe what are considered critical environmental factors. The earliest citation of a link between poverty (long considered a “root cause”) and crime has been attributed to Roman emperor and philosopher Marcus Aurelius (121-180 A.D.) who stated, “Poverty is the mother of crime.” In some quarters, crime is even considered to be a normal and adaptive response to economic disadvantage.

Unanticipated setbacks and hardship have been regarded as critically important to “pushing over the edge” into crime people who have been law-abiding throughout their lives. A woman in jail told me that when her boyfriend deserted her and her baby, she had no money even to purchase diapers. Out of desperation, she started selling drugs (eventually to an undercover police officer). She asserted that she is not a “criminal,” but just wanted to care for her infant. One might wonder the following: What does her choice of boyfriend say about her? Why did she not seek help to receive financial assistance? What, if any, was her prior connection to drugs and how did she find her way into the drug market? As was the case with this woman, there is always more to the story about the person committing a crime versus resolving her dilemma in a more responsible way.

Hardship does not "cause" criminal behavior

Let’s take three recent examples in which a particular hardship has been seen as causing people to turn to crime.

According to a Wall Street Journal column of December 6, 2021, Jen Psaki, the White House press secretary, stated that the COVID-19 pandemic is “a root cause [of a surge in crime] in a lot of communities.” The Washington Post reported that the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in “a growing subset of Americans who are stealing food.” A young woman explained to a reporter, “People are being forced to steal when they shouldn’t have to.” Another said, “I don’t feel too bad about taking $15 or $20 of stuff from Whole Foods when Jeff Bezos [owner of Whole Foods Market] is the richest man on earth.” The statements made by the two thieves clearly are after the fact justifications. One might wonder why one of them chose to shop at Whole Foods when it is one of the most expensive grocery chains. Next to this article was another that focused on a very different response to the pandemic— generosity by Black Americans despite their own hardships.

Millions of people have been struggling through the pandemic while suffering loss, illness, isolation, and financial pressures. There is no evidence that the pandemic has turned responsible people into criminals.

Recently, The Los Angeles Times (3/10/22) reported, “Concerns about gas thefts from cars rise as prices soar.” Citing a warning from the American Automobile Association, the Times stated, “There is a possibility that people are looking for crimes of opportunity [and] gasoline for their own vehicles.” Consequently, they are punching holes in gas tanks. However, most motorists are trying to become more economical and find ways to reduce gasoline consumption. Inflated prices do not “cause” criminal behavior.

Crime results from the way a person thinks

It is time to eliminate the term “root cause” because it turns out to be meaningless. Twelve years ago, a Christian Science Monitor article concluded with a simple statement, “The root cause of crime is the opportunity to commit it.” Opportunities present themselves, but only a small number of people exploit those opportunities in a criminal manner.

Making improvements to the environment can reduce opportunities for criminals to strike. However, such changes do not transform a criminal into a responsible person. Attributing criminal behavior to external circumstances perpetuates a deterministic view that ignores the role of choice and tends to absolve people of personal responsibility.

Crime results from the way a person thinks. One must look at the overall personality of the individual and his thinking patterns to understand the genesis of criminal behavior. Writing about juvenile crime in 1966, sociologist Robert MacIver stated, “To ask why delinquency occurs is like asking why human nature is what it is.”

Gerard Baker, "Biden Finds a Culprit for America's Crime Wave: Covid-19," The Wall Street Journal , 12/6/21

"More Americans are shoplifting among pandemic," The Washington Post, 12/13/20, p. G1

"While Black Americans have less, they give more," The Washington Post , 12/13/20, p. G1

"Concerns about gas theft from cars rise as prices soar," The Los Angeles Times , 3/10/22

Tim Worstall, "The root cause of crime? It's Simple," The Christian Science Monitor , 2/22/10

Robert M. McIver. The Prevention and Control of Delinquency , NY: Atherton Press, 1966, p. 41

Stanton Samenow, Ph.D. , an expert in criminal behavior, was the author of many books including Inside the Criminal Mind .

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Psychological contributions to cold case investigations: A systematic review

This article presents a systematic review of the available literature on ‘what works’ in cold case investigations, with a specific focus on psychological evidence-based research. Long-term unsolved and cold cases present their own unique set of challenges, such as lack of hard evidence, recall accuracy, and witness credibility. Therefore, this review provides a collated base of research regarding preventative methods and investigative tools and techniques developed to highlight gaps in the literature and inform best practice in cold case investigations. The review features victim and crime characteristics that may contribute to a case becoming cold and displays contributing factors to cold case clearance. Although promising, at present, psychological research in this field is insufficient to inform evidence-based guidance. Future research should aim to explore the wider psychological and criminal justice-based literature (e.g., memory retrieval and cognitive bias) to investigate what could be applicable to cold case investigations.

1. Introduction

Over the past couple of decades, there has been an increasing fascination with cold cases in popular culture. We see this in the emergence of true crime podcasts, documentaries, best-selling books, and even CrimeCon, an annual convention for true crime fans hosted in various countries [ 75 ]. Although we are generally more aware of these types of cases, currently there is no clear, universal definition of a ‘cold case’ [ 2 , 18 ]. In the UK, a ‘long-term case’ is defined as one that is open for twenty-eight days or longer [ 24 ]. Whereas a ‘cold’ case is often used to describe a case which has not been cleared by arrest or prosecution [ 14 ]; however, there is no specified point in time whereby an unsolved long-term case becomes a cold case. With this in mind, it is generally recognized that a case becomes cold when it is deemed that no further progress can be made (i.e., when all viable leads have been exhausted [ 16 ]). This effectively recategorizes the case from a long-term active to a long-term inactive, or cold, case.

It is difficult to estimate the number of cases that are unsolved, and thus deemed cold. However, this figure is likely to be substantial. For example, in the United States, The Murder Accountability Project reports 34% (roughly 331,000) of homicides reported between 1965 and 2020 as unsolved [ 67 ]. Similarly, in England and Wales, 33% of all initially recorded homicides between April 2018 and March 2019 saw no suspects charged [ 44 ]. These figures demonstrate a high proportion of homicide cases likely to go cold. However, in the whole category of cold cases there is a breadth of other crimes that must be considered.

Research has ascertained that long-term missing person inquiries are an important contributor to cold cases [ 9 , 78 ]. In fact, it is estimated that in the United Kingdom there are over 5000 unsolved missing person cases over one year old and over 1000 unidentified body cases [ [58] , [65] ]. In addition, although sexual assault is one of the most common violent offenses [ 21 ], it is also one of the most underreported and most difficult to prosecute [ 15 ], leading to many reported cases remaining unsolved and more recently, an influx of delayed allegations. Most recent figures from the Home Office and the Ministry of Justice show a decline in the rate of resolution for these cases, with less than 2% of rape cases resulting in suspects being summonsed or charged [ 12 ]. Thus, although we are unable to provide a singular number that defines how many long-term and cold cases exist, it is evident that these cases form a large proportion of police investigations.

Compared to current and active investigations, cold cases present a unique set of challenges to investigators. New investigative leads are needed, but they are often time-critical and become more difficult to find as time passes [ 3 ]. Research has suggested that the framing of a cold case as being one that is difficult, if not impossible, to solve, can create a cognitive response in investigators based on pessimism [ 74 ]. This mindset can in turn have a detrimental impact on the motivation and effort to continue searching for more leads, resulting in unfruitful outcomes. Exacerbating this further, many police forces are under-resourced due to budget cuts, meaning that cases are prioritized according to their likelihood of resolution, with cold cases naturally scoring lower on such prioritization matrices [ 31 , 57 , 89 ].

In many criminal investigations, witness accounts play a central role in informing the police about what happened and who was involved [ 37 ]. It is therefore important to obtain reliable information promptly, that is sufficiently detailed, to develop investigative lines of enquiry that ultimately help find, arrest, and bring perpetrators to justice. Psychological research has shown that the quality of witness accounts is time-critical [ 45 ]. As the delay increases, so too does the likelihood of forgetting, meaning that potentially critical leads from witnesses become less available over time. The passing of time can also pose a serious threat to recall accuracy, as there is greater opportunity for a witness's memory to be contaminated by inaccurate information encountered between the time of the event and the time of providing an account to the police [ 32 , 59 ]. Exposure to post-event information from co-witnesses, friends, family, local or national news, and social media, can also negatively influence a witness's original memory for what happened and who was involved [ 36 ]. Furthermore, research has shown that greater emotion can increase people's susceptibility to false memories [ 49 ], suggesting that memory recall could be especially at risk of contamination from the loved ones of a cold case victim. In sum, a sizable challenge for cold-case investigators is their ability to obtain a reliable account from witnesses about a crime that happened in the past.

Although there are important obstacles to consider in cold case investigations, advances in forensic science have helped develop new methods, tools, and techniques to aid the investigation process. For example, the introduction of DNA testing was a turning point in criminal investigations, enabling suspects to be identified from biological traces such as blood, saliva, and hair [ 50 ]. More recently, genetic genealogy, using direct-to-consumer genetic testing companies such as 23andMe or AncestryDNA, has been successfully used to infer genetic relationships in both active and cold cases [ 40 ]. In recent years, psychological research has also been central to informing policy and procedures surrounding effective evidence gathering techniques such as investigative interviewing [ 62 ] and identification procedures [ 88 ]. In the context of investigative interviewing, this has led to the development of scientifically informed training and practice of core skills such as rapport building, retrieval facilitation techniques, and the use of effective questions [ 26 , 38 , 63 , 85 ]. For example, the UK based College of Policing has a ‘What Works Centre for Crime Reduction’ that collects and shares research evidence on crime reduction and supports its use in practice [ 25 ]. In short, psychological research has, and continues to, support evidence-based practice within many areas of criminal investigations. However, the current body of knowledge is yet to be collated to inform and support cold case investigations.

To understand how psychology can best contribute to the investigation of cold cases, it is imperative to start by reviewing the literature and identifying relevant empirical research. In the last few years, greater attention has been paid to how we can bridge the gap between police working on cold cases and academics researching ways to assist investigations [ 52 ], however we still know relatively little. Therefore, this article presents a systematic review of the available literature on ‘what works’ in cold case investigations, with a specific focus on psychological evidence-based research. This review is both practical and timely given the rise in the number of cold cases (34% of reported homicides between 1980 and 2000 compared to 43% of reported homicides between 2000 and 2021 [ 67 ]), and the associated challenges with cold case investigations. Furthermore, it is the first to collate, synthesize and evaluate the findings of empirical research regarding methods, investigative tools and techniques developed to prevent, solve, and inform best practice in cold case investigations.

2. Methodology

2.1. search strategy.

In January 2022, three academic databases (EThOS: e-thesis online service, PsycInfo, Web of Science) were searched to identify studies that reported on preventative methods, and investigative tools and techniques relevant to cold case investigations. The following Boolean search string was used, where all words must appear in the abstract: (“cold case*” OR “unsolved case*” OR “long-term case*” OR “long-term unsolved”) AND (“investigat*” OR “police” OR “law enforcement”). Upon finding no results in our EThOS search, we decided to exclude non-peer reviewed papers. In addition, we conducted a manual search of papers' bibliographies relevant to the topic.

2.2. Criteria for inclusion and exclusion of studies

Studies were included if they examined psychologically informed preventative methods, investigative tools and/or techniques intended to prevent or improve the efficacy of cold case or long-term investigations. Both quantitative and qualitative research was included. Studies were excluded if they: (1) did not focus on cold case or long-term investigations; (2) did not come from within the field of psychology (e.g., forensic science); (3) did not include an evaluation of preventative methods, or investigative tools or techniques, and; (4) were written in languages other than English. Finally, we excluded reviews, non-peer reviewed papers, and non-empirical books and book chapters.

2.3. Search results

Our initial search yielded 265 results (this included 263 results from our chosen databases and two results from manual searching, no grey literature was found). Duplicates were then removed, leaving 250 articles for title and abstract screening. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flow chart outlines the steps we followed throughout the screening process, including the number of articles we found, included, excluded and common reasons for exclusion (see Fig. 1 ).

Prisma flow chart outlining key phases.

2.4. Screening and study selection

Screening is the practice of determining eligibility by reviewing the initially identified studies against the inclusion and exclusion criteria. We used a two-step screening process that comprised: (1) title and abstract screening, and (2) full-text review. During the first step, titles that had no relevance to cold case or long-term investigations were eliminated. Abstracts were also inspected to determine whether each study reported on preventative methods, tools, and/or techniques, were psychologically informed, and were evaluated for use in cold case investigations. Studies that did not meet these criteria were removed. Studies that passed the title and abstract screening, or were deemed unclear at this stage (e.g., due to insufficient information presented in the abstract), were included in the second step of the screening process.

During the second step, articles were determined to be ineligible if the study did not investigate specific preventative methods, or investigative tools or techniques, it was not psychologically informed, and/or it did not evaluate the methods, tools, or techniques for use in cold case investigations. Twelve articles passed the second step of the screening process and were reviewed to determine their goal or focus (e.g., victim or crime characteristics) and methodological approach.

The first step of the screening process was undertaken by multiple researchers who had all received relevant training. The statistical test Cohen's Κ was performed to determine the level of agreement between researchers during the abstract screening process, and there was a substantial level of interrater agreement with the given inclusion and exclusion criteria, Κ = .681, p  < .001 [ 61 ].

3. Results and discussion

Of the twelve studies that met the inclusion criteria, six were quantitative, five were qualitative, and one was mixed methods. Through a thorough review of these studies, we found that two themes of focus emerged: (1) preventative methods, 1 which comprised of six studies (five quantitative and one qualitative), and analyzed crime and victim characteristics in solved and unsolved cases to identify factors that may lead to a case going cold; and (2) investigative tools and techniques, which comprised of six studies (five qualitative and one mixed methods), and explored ‘what works’ in already cold cases.

3.1. Preventative methods

Six studies examined the solvability of cases to better understand the characteristics associated with a case being unsolved and by extension going cold. Articles in this theme examined the crime characteristics to provide insight into the qualities of the perpetrator and offense before, during, and after the crime; and/or the victim characteristics to understand what attributes of a victim are more likely to be associated with unsolved cases. Table 1 summarizes the key features of the studies included within the systematic review categorized as preventative methods. Four studies [ 17 , [19] , [20] , [21] ] examined criminal offenses with a sexual motive (sexual homicide, rape, and other sexual offenses), one focused on contract killings [ 13 ] and one [ 73 ] investigated general homicide.

Summary of key points from articles categorized within preventative methods.

3.1.1. Crime characteristics

Crimes can be split into three phases, namely pre-crime, crime, and post-crime. These phases reflect the lead-up to the crime, the crime itself, and the events after the crime, respectively. Given the complexity of the topic, most studies provided insight on more than one of these phases.

With regards to the pre-crime phase, Chopin et al. [ 21 ] examined behaviors that rape offenders utilize to avoid police detection and found that the likelihood of a case being solved increased if the victim was initially targeted by the offender and the offender used a ruse or con to approach the victim. In contrast, they found that the case was more likely to remain unsolved when the victim and offender were strangers, and the offender used a surprise attack. Chiu and Leclerc [ 19 ] performed a regression and conjunctive analysis to identify predictors of solved and unsolved sexual crimes. They discovered that the offender consuming alcohol or drugs prior to the offense was strongly associated with the solvability of the case. This is presumably due to intoxication often leading to more reckless behavior and less forensic awareness (e.g., leaving more evidence and/or witnesses). Alcohol is known to impair decision-making and can lead to taking more risks [ 39 ]. Previous research has indicated that alcohol increases the solvability to a crime due to lower forensic awareness [ 6 ]. It is possible that in sexual offenses, alcohol consumption can influence arousal to a sub-optimal level, thereby impairing their forensic awareness [ 6 ]. In the context of general homicide, the presence of known pre-crime factors, such as an argument, increases the odds of a case clearance [ 73 ]. A lack of understanding of pre-crime circumstances often indicates a lack of information or evidence. An argument before a homicide has taken place would, for example, have given a viable lead for the police to follow in the beginning stages of an investigation.

Proceeding to the crime phase, Chai et al. [ 17 ] investigated body disposal patterns in sexual homicide and examined whether offender's behaviors differ between solved and unsolved cases. Identifying behavioral patterns associated with body disposal can potentially assist police investigators in narrowing down a possible suspect list by providing information about the nature of the crime, an offender's criminal experience level, and whether there might have been a relationship between the victim and the offender (see also [ 66 ]). In this study, the only crime phase variable they found associated with unsolved cases was evidence of stabbing. In other words, a case was more likely to remain unsolved when an offender stabbed their victim in a sexual homicide. Similarly, Regoeczi et al. [ 73 ] found that homicides involving a knife were solved less frequently than homicides involving physical violence using one's own extremities. Previous research has indicated that such personal weapons (i.e., hands and feet), are often characteristic of intimate partner violence [ 77 , 79 ], which is known to have higher clearance rates [ 43 ].

With regards to the location of the crime during the crime phase, Chopin et al. [ 21 ] discovered that rape cases occurring in a residence are more likely to be solved. Instead, if a rape occurs in a deserted area, outdoors, or in a parking lot, the chances of it being solved decrease. Similar findings have been reported by Regoeczi et al. [ 73 ], whereby homicides that took place in residences were more likely to be cleared. These findings could be explained by a more significant presence of potential eyewitnesses and CCTV footage within residential areas. Chiu and Leclerc and Chopin et al. discovered that if the entire offense (including contact with the victim) took place in a single location, the offender's chances of going undetected, and therefore the case not being solved, significantly increased [ [19] , [20] , [21] ]. With regards to strategies used by offenders to avoid police detection, it was discovered that, while the same number of strategies were employed by offenders for both solved and unsolved cases, cases where offenders used a condom, wore a mask, or gloves, were more likely to remain unsolved [ 21 ]. Instead, offenders who threatened the victim or disabled the victim's phone were more likely to be identified and see their cases solved.

In an exploratory study, Brolan et al. [ 13 ] examined the locations of contract killings executed by professional hitmen. They gathered articles about ‘hits’ from global newspapers, analyzed the locations of said hits, and conducted a series of semi-structured interview with an informant; an ex-offender with convictions relating to firearm offenses. They concluded that a specific modus operandi (MO; the method used) of a highly experienced hitman includes a hit taking place at the victim's doorsteps, with only a few bullets fired at close range. If a gun is left at the scene, it will not contain any useful evidence for investigators. When this pattern emerges, it is suggested that, due to the lack of forensic evidence officers will find at the scene, they will need to rely on other efforts, such as monitoring cars and other modes of travel to and from the location of the crime, and national databases [ 13 ]. Therefore, a pattern as outlined in this study could be recognized earlier, whereby forensic efforts should be redistributed to more successful avenues to prevent similar contract murder cases from going cold.

Last, with respect to the post-crime phase, cases where semen was left at the crime scene were more likely to be solved [ 21 ]. An understandable finding, as it provides officers with a DNA sample of the offender [ 6 ]. With regards to the location of the body, it was found that offenders who were in a relationship were more likely to transport the victim's body post-homicide, to ensure that their partners do not suspect their involvement in the crime [ 7 ]. Additionally, Chai et al. [ 17 ] demonstrated differences between solved and unsolved cases through factors regarding the found body. Factors such as whether the victim's body was concealed, lying faced down, found outdoors, or there was an attempt to destroy evidence, were all associated with the offender being detected rather than the case remaining unsolved. Such findings can inform police investigators to pay attention to the presence (or absence) of these behaviors when assessing a body disposal crime scene.

3.1.2. Victim characteristics

Along with crime characteristics, the articles in this section of the review additionally explored whether victim characteristics were associated with case solvability. Chopin et al. [ 21 ] discovered that cases involving female rape victims were less likely to be solved. In contrast to this finding, Regoeczi et al. [ 73 ] saw that female homicide victims were associated with a faster case clearance. This difference in findings could potentially be ascribed to the different nature of the crimes, one being a sexual crime and one a homicide. Rape cases have notoriously low clearance rates to begin with [ 68 ]. One of the challenges to solving rape cases is that they often lack witnesses or physical evidence [ 82 ]. Instead, female homicides are more likely to result from intimate partner violence or are committed by a family member, in a residence, leading to a limited number of suspects in an investigation [ 55 , 56 ].

With regards to the age of the victim, cases involving younger victims seemed to be positively related to solvability [ 21 , 73 ]. Instead, cases with older victims were associated with lower solve rates [ 73 ]. This difference might be attributed to younger people more likely to be victimized by relatives or people they know, following the pattern of leaving the police with a limited number of suspects [ 1 , 73 ]. Furthermore, Chopin et al. [ 21 ] found that within rape crimes with white victims, victims who are in a relationship, and who are physically disabled, have better chances to see their cases solved.

Chai et al. [ 17 ] explored whether victim characteristics could predict body disposal patterns. They found that in both solved and unsolved cases, there were two victim characteristics that were significantly related to whether the body was moved: (1) the victim was a prostitute, (2) the victim was a street person or homeless person. However more importantly, they found that the pre-crime phase had the most value for predicting body movement for unsolved cases, and the post-crime phase had the most predictive value in solved cases. This suggests that the victim characteristics, i.e., whether they were a sex worker or homeless, was more likely to lead to body movement patterns congruent with unsolved crimes, and that the offender has likely taken additional steps to remain undetected.

The rational choice perspective present in the offender pre-crime phase to target sex workers, homeless people, and other marginalized groups is not new. According to this perspective, individuals are active and rational decisionmakers, identifying the risks and benefits of committing a crime before deciding to act upon it [ 23 ]. Members of marginalized communities, such as female sex workers are particularly vulnerable, due to the nature of the services they provide and locations they provide them in [ 76 ]. Following the rational choice perspective, targeting sex workers, homeless people, and other marginalized groups might pose less risk for the offender to get caught by law enforcement. According to the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime [ 84 ], female sex workers have the highest homicide victimization rates out of all female groups. In fact, female sex workers are 18 times more likely to become a homicide victim compared to women not engaged in sex work [ 71 ]. Despite their high risk of victimization, social attitudes and stigmas surrounding sex work create the narrative of sex workers being less than an ‘ideal’ victim [ 90 , 92 ]. The term 'ideal victim' refers to a victim who is seen as completely blameless for their victimization, outlined by a set of characteristics which includes acting virtuously, being weaker than the offender, and not knowing the offender [ 22 ]. When meeting these criteria, this victim will then be granted true victim status and supported with the appropriate resources by law enforcement and the public [ 11 ]. While most of society has since evolved from this point of view, some remnants of this belief remain. For example, police and public response towards sex workers reflect their status as a non-ideal victim. Sex workers experience greater victim-blaming when reporting a crime than people not involved in sex work [ 15 , 81 ]. Perhaps more notably, male officers tend to be more lenient towards the offender if their victim is a sex worker [ 92 ]. Previous research has also found that sex workers are less likely to be believed when reporting a rape [ 33 ], and are thus questioned on their victimhood.

With marginalized groups such as sex workers, but also people with an ethnic minority background or without homes, considered ‘lower status’ in society and not meeting the criteria of an ideal victim, police decision-makers may allocate more resources towards cases with high-status victims [ 28 , 30 , 80 ]. This could be due to own biases or pressure from the media and public, where sex workers, homeless people, and others from various marginalized groups receive a lack of attention in the public eye [ 72 ]. Inversely, the above findings by Chopin et al. [ 21 ] whereby younger victims, white victims, victims who are in a relationship, and who are physically disabled, are more likely to see their cases solved, can cautiously be attributed to the ideal victim narrative as well. Young victims and physically disabled victims are more likely to be seen as weak and virtuous [ 53 ]. Additionally, Black individuals are more likely to be attributed offender-status, directly opposed to white victimhood [ 41 , 60 ]. White victims are, for example, considered more newsworthy in traditional media than Black victims in western countries, and is reflective of the institutional racism seen in the media [ 41 , 47 ].

While cases involving victims from marginalized groups are less likely to be solved or given the attention that similar cases with non-marginalized victims receive, Chopin et al. [ 21 ] interestingly had a different finding involving rape victims who were involved in sex work. They found that rape cases involving sex workers were more likely to be solved. This discrepancy can be explained by the outcome of the crimes in the two studies contrasted in this review. Chai et al.[ 17 ] examined body disposal patterns, meaning the victims were already deceased. Instead, Chopin et al. [ 21 ] studied rape cases, whereby rape victims are alive after the crime occurred, and are able to provide any information they might hold. Additionally, sex workers may be familiar with the offender, as they are often their own clients [ 4 ].

The victim's behavior before and during a rape crime seems to be associated with its solvability as well. Results from Chopin et al. [ 21 ] indicate that when victims were engaged in domestic activities, sleeping, visiting friends, playing, or sex work at the time of the offense, these cases were more likely to be solved. Cases were more likely to remain unsolved when instead, victims were jogging or walking when the offense occurred. Chiu and Leclerc [ 20 ] replicated these findings in the context of sexual offenses. They further found that if the victim physically resisted, the chances of the offender responding by fleeing and/or desisting increased, which in turn was related to the crime remaining unsolved [ 19 , 20 ].

Given the above information, identifying factors relating to ‘solvability’ can aid police investigators in determining which cases are more likely to be solved and which ones require additional resources. Together, these studies, and the wider literature examining crime and victim characteristics, can be useful as a method to inform investigative decision-making and attempt to uncover new lines of enquiry. Identifying relevant crime characteristics and modus operandi can therefore be promising in developing leads in investigations. Additionally, more understanding of the relationship between factors that predict whether a crime is solved can be valuable in directing resources to diminish the chances of a case going cold. The articles discussed identified crime and victim characteristics associated with crimes remaining unsolved, such as the victim walking or jogging at the time of the offense, the offense taking place outdoors, or only one location used for the encounter and the crime. If researchers are able to identify crime characteristics associated with a higher chance of solving a crime, evidence-based guidelines could be developed to meaningfully inform law enforcement officers where to put additional efforts, in turn, lowering the chances of a case going cold in the first place.

3.2. Investigative tools and techniques

Six studies examined ‘what works’ in already long-term and cold cases. One article within this theme provided a useful exploration of factors which led to successful cold case clearances, and the remaining articles examined the utility of media and expert collaboration in the solving of cold cases. Table 2 summarizes the key features of the studies included within the systematic review categorized as investigation tools and techniques.

Summary of key points from articles categorized within investigative tools and techniques.

3.2.1. Case clearance

A study conducted by Davis et al. [ 30 ] investigated cold case solvability using cases from the Washington Metropolitan Police Department (MPD). At the MPD the general homicide review timeline is as follows: 1 day, 15 days, 30 days, and 60 days, at which points there is an emphasis on determining what actions are needed from investigators. In this jurisdiction, cases are considered cold when they have remained unsolved for 36 months. Davis et al. [ 30 ] compared cold cases, cleared cases (solved either by arrest or by exceptional means) and unsolved cases. In total they sampled 189 homicides and found that new information from existing witnesses or information from new witnesses was the most prevalent reason for case clearance. Additionally, they identified factors from the initial investigation that would improve the solvability of a cold case, for instance, if a prime suspect or a disclosed motivation was present. The odds of case clearance were also affected by the reason by which the cold case was reopened, where it was found that if it was initiated due to family request or routine protocol the odds of clearance were significantly reduced. Davis et al. [ 30 ] clearly highlight the importance of finding new, tangible leads or perspectives as being the most prevalent reason for cold case clearance. The following papers provide interesting tools and techniques to discuss alongside these findings.

3.2.2. Media

Bennett [ 8 ] used qualitative analysis to identify themes relating to media in cold case investigations. The study reports the results of a seven-month observation period with a two-force collaborative cold-case team in England and was supplemented with interviews with 12 experienced cold-case detectives. In general, participants agreed that media involvement had proven to be useful in obtaining information, especially when paired with memory cues such as strategically employing media on anniversaries of cold cases [ 8 ]. Providing media coverage of anniversaries relating to the case demonstrates law enforcement's dedication to solving the case and reminds members of the public that the case remains unsolved [ 8 ]. Additionally, media usage can incentivize witnesses who may otherwise be reluctant to disclose information. It may provide a level of anonymity and therefore the confidence necessary to come forward and share potentially important details. In the case of drug or gang related crimes, using media several years later to encourage witnesses can be especially useful, as alliances may have changed since the occurrence of the crime.

However, media usage must be strategic, as negative, or inappropriate portrayals of the crime or victim can at best discourage members of the public with information and at worst hinder investigation efforts. For example, one participant described a media appeal emphasizing victims' drug abuse, which led to members of the public viewing them as a ‘glue-sniffer’, resulting in a lack of interest and response [ 8 ]. Unfortunately, psychological literature has shown time and time again that bias can be a detrimental factor in police investigations, especially cognitive biases within law enforcement. For example, confirmation bias, whereby an officer will search for evidence to support their favored theory [ 86 ] or the availability heuristic [ 42 ] whereby an officer may use a recent example to inform their decision-making (e.g., they recently arrested a young black male for drug offenses, therefore the next drug offense is likely to be committed by a young black male). Without strategic use of media, it is easy to see how these biases could permeate public dialogue and opinion, to affect not just an investigation but also a trial [ 70 ]. With this is mind, another risk is that it can be difficult to control the extent of coverage a case receives. In some cases, a victim's family members have learned about their passing through media coverage of the case, so participants emphasized that a victim's family should be consulted or at least informed before media involvement [ 8 ].

Last, media could be an important tool for use of largescale memory retrieval. The wider investigative psychological literature has shown the importance of selective and context-based retrieval [ 5 ], i.e., that selective memory retrieval can reactivate the retrieved memory's temporal context during the event, facilitating recall of other items with a similar context. Therefore, strategic use of media could potentially facilitate multiple people's memory retrieval and possible new witnesses for cold cases. It is abundantly clear that used correctly, media can be an incredibly useful tool to promote information elicitation both throughout ongoing cases and in long-term and cold cases. This systematic review also outlined one other clear investigative technique, collaboration with experts in different fields.

3.2.3. Interdisciplinary collaboration

Four papers in this review highlighted the importance of the collaboration between law enforcement and experts in other relevant fields of the criminal justice process [ 10 , 14 , 34 , 91 ].

Yaksic [ 91 ] introduced the Investigative Journalist/Expert Field Micro Task Force (IJ/EF MTF) model in order to improve evidence-based practice in the offender profiling process in unresolved serial homicides. Offender ‘profiling’ has been met with resistance over recent years due to its tendency for exaggeration and inconsistent accuracy. However, Yaksic states that this model is not intended to deliver a suspect, but instead to describe the possible offender, and that expectations as to ‘who’ should be tapered as soon as possible. Similar to Bennett [ 8 ], Yaksic recognizes the importance of media in an investigation. They state that joint cooperation with journalists is critical as they provide an invaluable service, broadcasting necessary information to the public in order to garner a response and keep an investigation moving forward. There are three stages to the model: (1) an investigative journalist takes on a particular cold case, interviews relevant parties for information and contacts the Atypical Homicide Research Group (AHRG), (2) the AHRG then reviews and agrees to help, and finally, (3) law enforcement organizations are contacted, and a relationship is built among the two teams. The model was tested in 17 instances, and it was found that profiling alone does not result in the capture of a serial homicide offender but can help to narrow down a suspect pool and that the collaborative efforts between journalists and officers is a positive contributing factor. The model is based on the efforts of investigative journalists to locate and research cases which have the highest likelihood of solvability if reopened, and then to employ a behavioral analyst to assist with research. Therefore, we can see that this model not only helps find new avenues with which to progress a cold case but can help with the limited resources law enforcement organizations themselves experience. Finally, the paper advocates for educating law enforcement officers on what can be gained from collaborating with not just investigative journalists, but also academics which is a key factor in the other three identified papers.

The following three papers have all explored the value of strategic interdisciplinary collaborations between law enforcement investigators and academic partners. For example, Byers and DuBois [ 14 ] report the outcome of three projects involving students working on cold case investigations in collaboration with Crime Stoppers and multiple law enforcement agencies. Students were taught the relevant aspects of a cold case investigation, such as the importance of confidentiality, interpreting previous video footage, management of case files, open-source intelligence training (e.g., searching newspaper articles and use of online platforms), etc., after which they were tasked with producing a cold case report. There were multiple obstacles throughout these projects, most notable was how to manage the expectations of both the victims' survivors and the students. Many loved ones of victims experience a negative ‘Halo Effect’, a cognitive bias whereby in some cases they've felt disheartened at the progress made by law enforcement thus far and therefore have negative expectations of what progress could be made with expert collaboration, even forming the impression their loved one isn't a ‘worthy’ victim [ 64 , 83 ]. This can increase frustration and reduce cooperation with criminal justice officials, a common issue especially in cold cases. They also had to manage students' own ‘unbridled enthusiasm’. Often students thought they would be able to solve the case throughout their 15-week project, in part due to the media effect of major crimes, whereby a crime is solved within 40 min of television. Where this happened, students were reminded that cases were ‘cold’ because of a reason and that the intention is not to solve, but to assist investigators by amalgamating information and showing commonalities, and searching for new leads. Despite these challenges, it was found that producing detailed cold case reports (1) helped survivors of cold cases by alleviating previous frustrations and showing attention to their case, (2) assisted law enforcement by giving summaries of the cases which officers may not have had the time or resources to complete and (3) in one case led to the arrest of the responsible individual.

Fox et al. [ 34 ] also highlighted the benefits of police collaboration with academic partners in relevant fields; in this instance forensic anthropologists, forensic psychologists, and criminologists. They advocated that by engaging relationships with these experts, it would be possible to use cutting-edge scientific research to inform practice and gain unique perspectives to aid in the development of new leads. Fox et al. [ 34 ] report a case study whereby criminology students carefully reviewed all cold case materials in a real-life case and identified what turned out to be a highly significant lead, eventually leading to the addition of new evidence critical to the investigation. Once again, we see the importance of interdisciplinary perspectives on crime, and the gift of additional resources to a struggling area of the public sector.

Most recently, Bettels et al. [ 10 ] outlined how the collaboration technique between academics and law enforcement can increase the quality of investigation and competency of those involved. This study focused on international academics and police who participated in the International Cold Case Analysis Project (ICCAP), and their experiences completing the program. The ICCAP was designed with the cooperation of several British, Australian, and German universities and the charity Locate International and has three main objectives: (1) to collect necessary information about the victim, (2) reconstruct the crime, and (3) investigative trace control (evaluate all investigative leads). An additional benefit to this project compared to the previous papers is the international aspect, where it was hoped that individuals from various cultural, institutional, and disciplinary backgrounds would enrich and expand investigative opportunities. ICCAP focused on locating or identifying missing persons and encouraged students to contemplate beyond the boundaries of their own specialism. Participants reported increased competency in their ability to understand case facts and apply their own academic knowledge in the evaluation of existing leads to give a new perspective, thus demonstrating the benefits of academic and police collaboration with the ICCAP.

The advantages to the academic field are evident in all four of these papers, students and experts have gained experience in which to apply their knowledge and gain insight into real-world practice. Additionally, it is suggested that the cold cases analyzed in these publications generated new lines of enquiry from the collaborative efforts between students and investigators. This is in part due to the production of structured summaries and presentations with comprehensive reviews of the victim, pre-crime phase, main-crime phase and post-crime phase, and an evaluation of all leads up until the present. This facilitates further advancement of the case via the highlighting of contradictions, commonalities, and the ability to cross reference [ 10 ]. Similarly, a recent literature review sought to identify and synthesize available theories and methods for cold case homicide evaluation and solvability to guide future research [ 69 ]. Their review outlines suggestions for cold case investigation that directly support the work of all four of the interdisciplinary papers discussed [ 10 , 14 , 34 , 91 ]. It is reported that cold case investigations should be regarded as a team effort involving a mix of investigators, civilians, and forensic specialists. Furthermore, psychological literature has shown that working in multidisciplinary teams, identifying the type of collaboration required and building interpersonal relationships with those teams is important for successful collaboration and outcomes [ 27 ].

A final example of multidisciplinary success in cold cases comes from the work of the previously mentioned charity Locate International. It operates in partnership with law enforcement agencies, police forces, universities, and the families of those that have gone missing, and is comprised of expert volunteers from many relevant fields. Their aim is to consider unsolved cases collectively, to better understand how missing persons investigations can be advanced. In recent months this has involved a partnership with psychologists to investigate ways in which to obtain new leads and witnesses by developing information elicitation tools that could be applied in cold case investigations. For example, tools such as The Self-Administered Interview [ 35 ], which was originally designed to obtain statements from cooperative witnesses following a critical incident and is used by police forces throughout the UK, have recently been modified for use in cold case investigations. Moving forward, if multidisciplinary teams of experts can begin to develop evidence-based tools that can be applied for use in cold case investigations, we are much more likely to find new leads, increasing the odds of solvability [ 30 ].

3.3. Implications for future research

One of the most important findings of this review is the notable lack of currently available psychological research examining how best to prevent, solve, and inform best practice in cold case investigations. Psychological research has been integral to the development of other areas of evidence-based investigative practice (e.g., cognitive and interpersonal techniques to enhance information elicitation); therefore, it is imperative that more psychological research is conducted with specific reference to long-term and cold cases. For example, we have touched upon how memory retrieval facilitation could be used to help with witness long-term memory retrieval in cold cases, however it may also be useful to look at the field of research within delayed allegation cases. In recent years, we have seen an influx of delayed allegations, especially accusations of sexual assault, which come with distinct challenges, for example, lack of hard evidence and less witness credibility [ 54 ]. Similarly, the nature of a cold case means that there was likely a lack of hard evidence at the time of the original investigation and there has not been enough evidence obtained since to reopen the case. Recently developed techniques, such as the ‘Timeline Toolkit’ [ 51 ] have sought to address this very issue by finding new ways to analyze investigative data. Therefore, perhaps comparing methods of evidence re-evaluation within delayed allegation research could be helpful towards improved solvability in cold cases. Furthermore, the issue of witness credibility could be explored both within memory and delayed allegation research. Previous literature has debated how we retrieve memory (e.g., recovered) and its influence on how witnesses are perceived in delayed cases and suggests there is a need to bridge the gap between scientific research and its use in the courtroom [ [93] , [94] ]. There are many avenues of research that could be called upon to test their application in the field of cold case investigation, and it is impossible to predict which will have the most positive outcome. However, what is evidently clear, is that further research is required to understand how to best elicit information gathering, memory retrieval, witness credibility, many other unique challenges that emerge in long-term and cold cases.

Third, as an initial step in understanding the literature, studies in this review were limited to the field of cold case investigation, whereas the wider literature might also be useful to consider. For example, research in memory has highlighted the importance of context retrieval in selective memory retrieval [ 5 ] and has suggested promising techniques providing environmental support to improve episodic performance in a criminal justice context, such as, the Self-Administered Interview [ 35 , 46 ] and the Sketch Reinstatement of Context [ 29 ]. It is likely these techniques, and those from other relevant fields can be modified and applied to the field of cold-case investigations.

3.4. Limitations

Conducting a systematic review has enabled us to thoroughly analyze the extant literature on ‘what works’ in cold case investigations with reference to psychologically informed methods. However, it is important to acknowledge that other relevant articles may have been missed or overlooked because of the variations in terminology and the lack of a clear universal time-point when a case becomes cold. Furthermore, the studies included in this review were all conducted in the United States, the United Kingdom, or Western Europe, and therefore represent western educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) countries. As such, the findings presented are culturally specific and further research is necessary in other non-WEIRD countries.

Furthermore, although our search has presented some promising ideas, and has provided a clear structure upon how to interpret and categorize the different methods, tools, and techniques (i.e., into preventative methods which generally center around crime and victim characteristics and investigative tools and techniques which generally focus on the use of media and collaboration between experts), our review was limited by the scarcity of psychological research. With only twelve articles, we have highlighted an evident gap in the literature, showing that this is an area in desperate need of more research and replication. Additionally, most of the articles investigating crime and victim characteristics focused on sexual crimes and homicide, but as previously highlighted in this review, many other crimes can fall under the category of cold cases. Therefore, there is insufficient research to offer conclusive evidence-based recommendations at present.

4. Conclusion

This systematic review, although limited, has highlighted encouraging avenues of research to build upon: (i) preventative methods sourced from crime and victim characteristics [ [13] , [17] , [19] , [20] , [21] , [73] ] and, (ii) effective investigative tools and techniques for use in cases already categorized as ‘cold’ [ [8] , [10] , [14] , [30] , [34] , [91] ]. From the available research on crime and victim characteristics, it appears promising to examine how such case characteristics can help inform new potential leads or predict the likelihood of solving a case. One of the ways the systematic review aimed to inform ‘what works’ in cold case investigations from a psychological perspective, was to gain an understanding on certain characteristics that are associated with solved and unsolved cases, such as location, gender of the victim, and type of weapon used. Research comparing solved and unsolved cases is a sensible place to begin examining the task of case clearance by highlighting the ‘risk’ factors of a case going cold. Such knowledge can in turn inform police decision-making, for instance, by allocating additional resources to the cases with a higher probability of remaining unsolved.

Moreover, while cold case approaches and strategies differ widely, the results of the systematic review also reveal common features which have been found to be effective. Collaborative efforts, such as between academics and police, or between a number of specialists from different domains, including media, have been found to be particularly effective in increasing internal competency through exchange of academic and practical information and experience, and also case clearance [ 8 , 10 , 30 , 69 ]. This is a promising model for Cold Case Investigation Units, and one that has already been adopted by Locate International.

Declaration of competing interest

Confirm there are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgement

This work was completed by the Cold Case Investigation Team at Goldsmiths, University of London. The authors would also like to thank fellow members, Ena Bajic, Celine Brouillard and Emmanuella Fadire for their contribution.

1 In the context of this article, ‘preventative methods’ solely refer to the category of studies that highlight reasons as to why a case may have gone cold.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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The effect of self-congruity on tourists’ emotions and sharing cultural tourism experiences on social networking platforms: a case study of Lingnan Impression Park

• Published: 01 April 2024

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• Jijuan Cao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6061-4333 1 &
• Ivan Ka Wai Lai   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4865-1860 2  

This study attempts to investigate how self-congruity motivates tourists’ intention to share their cultural destination travel experiences on social networking platforms through their emotional and affective states. There are four types of self-congruence: actual self-congruity, social self-congruity, ideal self-congruity, and ideal social self-congruity. The survey data were collected from 336 samples after visiting Lingnan Impression Park. The results indicated that four types of self-congruence except for social self-congruity positively affect evoked pleasure (emotional state). Moreover, four types of self-congruence and evoked pleasure positively affect destination emotional attachment (affective state). Evoked pleasure and emotional attachment mediate the effect of self-congruity on the intention to share cultural destination travel experiences on social networking platforms. This study expands the application of the theory of self-congruity to cultural tourism in explaining the sharing behaviour of tourists on social networking platforms. This study also provides implications for assisting cultural destinations in formulating appropriate social networking marketing strategies to promote their destinations.

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This research was supported by the “Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Cultural and Tourism Research Base” under Grant “2023WZJD019”, “Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area Digital Trade Research Platform” under Grant “2024KYPT05”, “Ministry of Education of the P. R. of China” under Grant “22YJA760005”, and “National Natural Science Foundation of China” under Grant “71972137”.

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Cao, J., Lai, I.K.W. The effect of self-congruity on tourists’ emotions and sharing cultural tourism experiences on social networking platforms: a case study of Lingnan Impression Park. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05890-0

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