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Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

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This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

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The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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What is a research paper?

A research paper is a paper that makes an argument about a topic based on research and analysis.

Any paper requiring the writer to research a particular topic is a research paper. Unlike essays, which are often based largely on opinion and are written from the author's point of view, research papers are based in fact.

A research paper requires you to form an opinion on a topic, research and gain expert knowledge on that topic, and then back up your own opinions and assertions with facts found through your thorough research.

➡️ Read more about  different types of research papers .

What is the difference between a research paper and a thesis?

A thesis is a large paper, or multi-chapter work, based on a topic relating to your field of study.

A thesis is a document students of higher education write to obtain an academic degree or qualification. Usually, it is longer than a research paper and takes multiple years to complete.

Generally associated with graduate/postgraduate studies, it is carried out under the supervision of a professor or other academic of the university.

A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that:

• a research paper presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others
• a thesis starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings

This means that a thesis requires the author to input original work and their own findings in a certain field, whereas the research paper can be completed with extensive research only.

➡️ Getting ready to start a research paper or thesis? Take a look at our guides on how to start a research paper or how to come up with a topic for your thesis .

Frequently Asked Questions about research papers

Take a look at this list of the top 21 Free Online Journal and Research Databases , such as ScienceOpen , Directory of Open Access Journals , ERIC , and many more.

Mason Porter, Professor at UCLA, explains in this forum post the main reasons to write a research paper:

• To create new knowledge and disseminate it.
• To teach science and how to write about it in an academic style.
• Some practical benefits: prestige, establishing credentials, requirements for grants or to help one get a future grant proposal, and so on.

Generally, people involved in the academia. Research papers are mostly written by higher education students and professional researchers.

Yes, a research paper is the same as a scientific paper. Both papers have the same purpose and format.

A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that the former presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others, whereas the latter starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings.

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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

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Writing up a Research Report

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A research report is one big argument how and why you came up with your conclusions. To make it a convincing argument, a typical guiding structure has developed. In the different chapters, distinct issues need to be addressed to explain to the reader why your conclusions are valid. The governing principle for writing the report is full disclosure: to explain everything and ensure replicability by another researcher.

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Field, A. (2020). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE.

Früh, M., Keimer, I., & Blankenagel, M. (2019). The impact of Balanced Scorecard excellence on shareholder returns. IFZ Working Paper No. 0003/2019. Retrieved June 09, 2021, from https://zenodo.org/record/2571603#.YMDUafkzZaQ .

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Hunziker, S., Blankenagel, M. (2021). Writing up a Research Report. In: Research Design in Business and Management. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-34357-6_4

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

50 Useful Academic Words & Phrases for Research

Like all good writing, writing an academic paper takes a certain level of skill to express your ideas and arguments in a way that is natural and that meets a level of academic sophistication. The terms, expressions, and phrases you use in your research paper must be of an appropriate level to be submitted to academic journals.

Therefore, authors need to know which verbs , nouns , and phrases to apply to create a paper that is not only easy to understand, but which conveys an understanding of academic conventions. Using the correct terminology and usage shows journal editors and fellow researchers that you are a competent writer and thinker, while using non-academic language might make them question your writing ability, as well as your critical reasoning skills.

What are academic words and phrases?

One way to understand what constitutes good academic writing is to read a lot of published research to find patterns of usage in different contexts. However, it may take an author countless hours of reading and might not be the most helpful advice when faced with an upcoming deadline on a manuscript draft.

Briefly, “academic” language includes terms, phrases, expressions, transitions, and sometimes symbols and abbreviations that help the pieces of an academic text fit together. When writing an academic text–whether it is a book report, annotated bibliography, research paper, research poster, lab report, research proposal, thesis, or manuscript for publication–authors must follow academic writing conventions. You can often find handy academic writing tips and guidelines by consulting the style manual of the text you are writing (i.e., APA Style , MLA Style , or Chicago Style ).

However, sometimes it can be helpful to have a list of academic words and expressions like the ones in this article to use as a “cheat sheet” for substituting the better term in a given context.

How to Choose the Best Academic Terms

You can think of writing “academically” as writing in a way that conveys one’s meaning effectively but concisely. For instance, while the term “take a look at” is a perfectly fine way to express an action in everyday English, a term like “analyze” would certainly be more suitable in most academic contexts. It takes up fewer words on the page and is used much more often in published academic papers.

You can use one handy guideline when choosing the most academic term: When faced with a choice between two different terms, use the Latinate version of the term. Here is a brief list of common verbs versus their academic counterparts:

Although this can be a useful tip to help academic authors, it can be difficult to memorize dozens of Latinate verbs. Using an AI paraphrasing tool or proofreading tool can help you instantly find more appropriate academic terms, so consider using such revision tools while you draft to improve your writing.

Top 50 Words and Phrases for Different Sections in a Research Paper

The “Latinate verb rule” is just one tool in your arsenal of academic writing, and there are many more out there. But to make the process of finding academic language a bit easier for you, we have compiled a list of 50 vital academic words and phrases, divided into specific categories and use cases, each with an explanation and contextual example.

Best Words and Phrases to use in an Introduction section

1. historically.

An adverb used to indicate a time perspective, especially when describing the background of a given topic.

2. In recent years

A temporal marker emphasizing recent developments, often used at the very beginning of your Introduction section.

3. It is widely acknowledged that

A “form phrase” indicating a broad consensus among researchers and/or the general public. Often used in the literature review section to build upon a foundation of established scientific knowledge.

4. There has been growing interest in

Highlights increasing attention to a topic and tells the reader why your study might be important to this field of research.

5. Preliminary observations indicate

Shares early insights or findings while hedging on making any definitive conclusions. Modal verbs like may , might , and could are often used with this expression.

6. This study aims to

Describes the goal of the research and is a form phrase very often used in the research objective or even the hypothesis of a research paper .

7. Despite its significance

Highlights the importance of a matter that might be overlooked. It is also frequently used in the rationale of the study section to show how your study’s aim and scope build on previous studies.

8. While numerous studies have focused on

Indicates the existing body of work on a topic while pointing to the shortcomings of certain aspects of that research. Helps focus the reader on the question, “What is missing from our knowledge of this topic?” This is often used alongside the statement of the problem in research papers.

9. The purpose of this research is

A form phrase that directly states the aim of the study.

10. The question arises (about/whether)

Poses a query or research problem statement for the reader to acknowledge.

Best Words and Phrases for Clarifying Information

11. in other words.

Introduces a synopsis or the rephrasing of a statement for clarity. This is often used in the Discussion section statement to explain the implications of the study .

12. That is to say

Provides clarification, similar to “in other words.”

13. To put it simply

Simplifies a complex idea, often for a more general readership.

14. To clarify

Specifically indicates to the reader a direct elaboration of a previous point.

15. More specifically

Narrows down a general statement from a broader one. Often used in the Discussion section to clarify the meaning of a specific result.

16. To elaborate

Expands on a point made previously.

17. In detail

Indicates a deeper dive into information.

Points out specifics. Similar meaning to “specifically” or “especially.”

19. This means that

Explains implications and/or interprets the meaning of the Results section .

20. Moreover

Expands a prior point to a broader one that shows the greater context or wider argument.

Best Words and Phrases for Giving Examples

21. for instance.

Provides a specific case that fits into the point being made.

22. As an illustration

Demonstrates a point in full or in part.

23. To illustrate

Shows a clear picture of the point being made.

24. For example

Presents a particular instance. Same meaning as “for instance.”

25. Such as

Lists specifics that comprise a broader category or assertion being made.

26. Including

Offers examples as part of a larger list.

27. Notably

Adverb highlighting an important example. Similar meaning to “especially.”

28. Especially

Adverb that emphasizes a significant instance.

29. In particular

Draws attention to a specific point.

30. To name a few

Indicates examples than previously mentioned are about to be named.

Best Words and Phrases for Comparing and Contrasting

31. however.

Introduces a contrasting idea.

32. On the other hand

Highlights an alternative view or fact.

33. Conversely

Indicates an opposing or reversed idea to the one just mentioned.

34. Similarly

Shows likeness or parallels between two ideas, objects, or situations.

35. Likewise

Indicates agreement with a previous point.

36. In contrast

Draws a distinction between two points.

37. Nevertheless

Introduces a contrasting point, despite what has been said.

38. Whereas

Compares two distinct entities or ideas.

Indicates a contrast between two points.

Signals an unexpected contrast.

Best Words and Phrases to use in a Conclusion section

41. in conclusion.

Signifies the beginning of the closing argument.

42. To sum up

Offers a brief summary.

43. In summary

Signals a concise recap.

44. Ultimately

Reflects the final or main point.

45. Overall

Gives a general concluding statement.

Indicates a resulting conclusion.

Demonstrates a logical conclusion.

48. Therefore

Connects a cause and its effect.

49. It can be concluded that

Clearly states a conclusion derived from the data.

50. Taking everything into consideration

Reflects on all the discussed points before concluding.

Edit Your Research Terms and Phrases Before Submission

Using these phrases in the proper places in your research papers can enhance the clarity, flow, and persuasiveness of your writing, especially in the Introduction section and Discussion section, which together make up the majority of your paper’s text in most academic domains.

However, it's vital to ensure each phrase is contextually appropriate to avoid redundancy or misinterpretation. As mentioned at the top of this article, the best way to do this is to 1) use an AI text editor , free AI paraphrasing tool or AI proofreading tool while you draft to enhance your writing, and 2) consult a professional proofreading service like Wordvice, which has human editors well versed in the terminology and conventions of the specific subject area of your academic documents.

For more detailed information on using AI tools to write a research paper and the best AI tools for research , check out the Wordvice AI Blog .

Writing Center

Research papers, develop a research question and thesis, do the research.

• Establishes your credibility as a researcher/scholar by showing you’re familiar with debates and current opinions
• Helps your readers come to trust your judgment by allowing them to find and read your sources for themselves
• Guides others who may want to learn about the same topic
• Acknowledges the ideas and words of others.

Information you must record

• Titles (of both articles and the journals they appear, as well as books)
• Pages for articles (all the pages of the article, including the one you are citing if it’s a particular page)
• Date of publication
• For books, a place of publication and publisher
• Direct quotes, word for word with no typos. Note the page numbers carefully. If the page changes in the middle of a quote, make a note of that. If the quote contains a typo, copy it exactly and make a note. (Often the Latin word [ sic ] in square brackets is used to indicate that an error appears in the original source.) If you omit any words when you copy, indicate that with an ellipsis (three dots . . . ).
• Paraphrases. In your own words, restate what the source says. Note the page numbers carefully. Be as original as possible in writing your paraphrase, but without changing the meaning. Don’t use the same word order as the original. And don’t simply replace a few words with synonyms: that can constitute plagiarism. Instead, read the original carefully twice and then set it aside and write what you remember. Then re-check the original to be sure you were accurate.
• Summaries. What is the gist of the source, not referring to any particular page or section? Again, be sure to use your own words.

Methods of organizing research notes

• End Notes and RefWorks. These are electronic ways to organize notes supported by University Libraries. From the University Libraries homepage, go to “Citing Your Sources” under the “Class Resources” heading.
• Index cards . For every source, record the full citation for the Works Cited or Reference page (author name, titles, dates, page numbers, etc.) on one card, and label it with a letter. When you take notes from that source, put the letter of the source at the top of the card. Use a new card for every note.
• Word files . For every source, create a Word file and record the full citation for the Works Cited or Reference pages (author name, titles, dates, page numbers, etc.) at the top. Name it with a short reminder of the source, such as the first author’s name. When you take notes, use the file for that source.
• Photocopies . Photocopy the title pages and all publication information you will need as well as any pages you will cite.
• Matrices . Create a matrix, where you can record both the source information and relevant citation (direct, paraphrase, or summary). Matrices are useful if you already have a basic thesis and a few main points in mind. Label the columns across the top with a letter or number you’ve used to identify your work. Use the columns to record your notes. Use quotation marks to show if you quoted directly.

Read the Research Critically

• What is the main idea or thesis? How is the main idea supported and developed?
• What content is new to you? What concepts does the text introduce? (e.g., new vocabulary, a new theory, a new perspective on an established concept)
• What questions, issues, or problems does this text address? Does it create or bring up additional questions?
• How is the text organized? (e.g., categorically, chronologically, compare/contrast, scientific method)
• What type of writing is the text? (e.g., narrative, research study, critical analysis, review)

Critical Reading Tips

• Read the text several times if needed.
• Highlight key phrases, sentences, or words, but don’t highlight too much. Otherwise, nothing will stick out from the text.
• Look for words or headings that signal organization or that might lead to main points.
• Mark unfamiliar terms and difficult sections to reread, look up, or discuss with your professor.
• Take notes or outline the text’s organization and content. Review what you write.
• Annotate and comment, or respond to the text in writing. Writing allows you to think deeply about the content and make connections with the ideas in the text.
• Read complicated sections out loud. Slowing down and using two senses (hearing and seeing) helps you understand and retain the information more effectively. It also helps you pay attention instead of letting your eyes superficially sweep over the words.
• Allow plenty of time to read; skimming isn’t the best method for reading critically.

Organize Content

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Writing and Publishing Your Research Findings

Charles t. quinn.

* Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, TX

† Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, TX

A. John Rush

‡ Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, TX

§ Clinical Sciences, Duke-National University of Singapore, Singapore

Writing clearly is critical to the success of your scientific career. Unfortunately, this skill is not taught in medical school or postgraduate training. This article summarizes our approach to the writing and publication of your research. Here we focus on empirical or experimental reports of translational and clinically oriented research. We review the process of choosing what to write, how to write it clearly, and how to navigate the process of submission and publication.

INTRODUCTION

Articulate writing is critical to scientific success.

This article summarizes material presented in a course that we have taught at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas. The material is a synthesis of material from a variety of sources (see References), to which we have added our own, sometimes idiosyncratic, suggestions for developing peer-reviewed journal reports of clinical and translational research. We particularly want to acknowledge Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers by Mimi Zeiger 1 at the University of California at San Francisco, whose book we highly recommend.

Writing clearly and accurately is critical to the success of your scientific career. If you do not write clearly, your article will not be cited. If you are not cited, you will not get promoted. If you do not get promoted, you will not have a job. Writing clearly to maximize your likelihood of being cited by others is key to your scientific survival. Published research is your only final product. A poorly written report could mean that you have wasted years conducting your study, because what you have done will not be cited or known. As such, it will not impact the field. The threat of career failure should be a powerful motivator for writing clearly, as is doing the very best science that one can.

Each article tells a story, but there is no “one true path” to writing. We each learn how to use our talents, overcome our deficiencies, and develop our skills differently. Each article we write is less difficult, but none is ever easy. To avoid feeling overwhelmed by the effort, we suggest that you approach writing as a series of questions to be clearly answered. What was the research question? Why does the answer matter? What was done? What was found? Has anyone else found that (or not)? What might it mean? What limitations or qualifications apply to the findings?

Define What to Report

What are you going to write? Obviously, the primary paper focuses on the main hypotheses that you tested. But there may be several secondary hypotheses and maybe a couple of tertiary papers that are hypothesis generating. But be careful. Do not write trivial papers (third-rate papers with too small samples). They take too much time, are not cited, and have minimal to no payoff.

So, consider at the outset what aspects of the project are to be submitted, where, and in what order. What is the primary paper? Are there secondary papers? Clinical investigation often requires many people, so consider which colleagues might like to take the lead on a secondary paper. That is, depending on the size of the study and the contributions, needs, and expertise of your multidisciplinary research team, think about additional papers for others than yourself.

Getting Started

How often have you heard, “I have writer’s block”? What does that mean? Everybody who has attended medical, dental, or nursing school can write. Thus, “writer’s block” is a fiction— an excuse. The underlying fear may be that either one cannot think clearly enough to be able to say what was done (in which case, a career change is indicated!) or one is afraid that the product will not be “good enough” and therefore procrastinates.

To overcome “writer’s block,” simply realize at the outset that most of the words in the first draft will not make it to the final draft. Once you have something on paper, however, you can edit it—repeatedly. To get it on paper, dictate, type, or handwrite it (whatever is fastest for you). We recommend that you start with an outline. The outline is straightforward: title, abstract, introduction, methods, results (with tables and figures), discussion, conclusions, references, acknowledgements, and disclosures. Then write a topic sentence for each paragraph in each section. The outline and the topic sentences should take you about an hour-and-a-half to write. Then start to write each paragraph in the 4 key sections (introduction, methods, results, and discussion).

One place to begin is with the protocol that you followed to conduct the study. The protocol contains the aims, hypotheses/questions, rationale, and methods. Thus, the protocol is the basis for the first drafts of the introduction and methods. You may need to update the significance (to beef up the introduction) and to cite the newest relevant literature. Borrow from what you have done to begin.

Recall that journals limit articles to 3000 to 4000 words. If each paragraph has 200 words, you have to write 18 to 20 paragraphs ( Table 1 ). The introduction has 3 to 4 paragraphs (never longer than 2 manuscript pages); discussion has 5; results typically has 4 to 6, depending on the number of questions; leaving 5 to 6 for methods. Once you break it down this way, it does not seem so bad.

The Main Elements of a Manuscript

Prepare to Spend Time

Realize that writing takes a lot of time. You must set aside uninterrupted time, which in our view is best inserted between other activities that do not involve writing. Write for a while, then stop and leave it alone. When you go back later, you will be more objective and be better able to edit your prior work. Too many people frustrate themselves by expecting to write up 4 years of work in 4 weeks. That is not realistic, especially if you have not written many prior papers, if you have other duties, or both. So think about what you want to produce and divide the work into “doable” pieces (eg, the major sections noted above). Allocate a fixed amount of uninterrupted time each day to work on 1 section at a time to assemble these pieces without regard to how well it is written and without thinking about references. Simply tell the story.

Tell the Story

Look at the big picture first. Recall that you know more about what you have done than anybody else, so do not get nervous. You know the story—what you did and why you did it. Writing the first draft should not be a big thing. Polishing your drafts is where the time is.

The most important thing is to tell the story. Most people get stuck in the details and lose track of the story. Readers want to know what the issues were, why they matter, and what questions were asked (introduction). Then how were the issues addressed, questions answered, and hypotheses tested (methods)? Next, what were the answers (results)? The results section is divided into subheadings, often based on the questions or hypotheses at the end of the introduction. A table or figure should accompany each question. Finally, what do you make of the results (discussion)? These are the major sections of each empirical report for scientific journals ( Tables 1 and ​ and2 2 ).

Elements of the Story Line

Recall for Whom You Are Writing

Do not write your paper for scientists, colleagues, the promotion and tenure committee, or your department chair. Tell the story as if you were talking to somebody who is not an expert in your area. If you make the article that simple and straightforward, readers will be able to understand what you did and be able to cite the paper. If you use a lot of jargon, compound sentences, or obscure wording, only you and your coauthors will actually know what you are saying.

Table 3 highlights the most common reasons for rejection/revision. Most of these issues can be addressed by being pithy (succinct but full of substance and meaning) and consistent. Sentences should be simple: subject, verb, object, period. Whenever possible, avoid compound sentences. Do not change terminology throughout the paper (eg, do not interchangeably use subjects, participants, patients, or volunteers). Readers will wonder why you changed the names. Whatever word or phrase you use to describe something, keep using the same term. This is not an English essay or creative-writing class. A scientific article uses an expository writing style—it simply tells the facts. The reader needs specificity, clarity, and brevity—not engaging phraseology. Be very specific. Avoid general statements such as, “The patients improved.” What does that mean? Better to say something like “Patients in group A had a greater reduction in X than did patients in group B; test, P value (Table X).” Finally, physicians tend to be pompous in their style of writing. Avoid this; it prevents clear communication. Invest in a guide to clear medical writing to help. 2

Common Reasons for Rejection or Revision

Let us now consider each element in a manuscript.

THE MANUSCRIPT

The title should have 12 words or fewer (pithy). Notice that movies do not have long titles. The Fugitive . Not Escaping Jail Following an Unfair Conviction in Chicago . Just The Fugitive .

Do not say: “A study of X.” Of course it is a study. That wastes words. Begin the title with a key word. Be to the point. Grab the reader’s attention. Table 4 lists characteristics of a good title.

Characteristics of a Good Title

There are 2 kinds of abstracts: structured and unstructured. Structured abstracts have distinct subsections: objectives, methods, results, and conclusions (these may vary by journal). Unstructured abstracts contain the same information, but are just 1 long paragraph.

Most people do not read an entire article. Everyone reads the abstract. So whatever is in the abstract is what everyone thinks is in the article. Therefore, it is critical to edit, polish, and perfect the abstract, because it is almost the only information that readers will take home.

What is the state of knowledge? What was the question (background)? What did you do and how did you do it (methods)? What did you find (results)? What is the bottom line (conclusion)? That’s it!

We like to write the abstract first because it forces us to give the 10-second version of the paper. Then we polish it repeatedly after we write the article. The abstract will change a lot—often not substantively, but especially in terms of clarifying and simplifying the presentation. If you write your abstract first, you must ensure that it matches the final manuscript.

Introduction

At the beginning, tell the readers the problem ( Table 5 ). What do we know and what do we not know? Why does this matter? Then, what are the questions or hypotheses to be addressed or tested? What, in brief, was the approach?

The Introduction: Start Broadly, Then Narrow

The introduction should hook the reader. Paragraph no. 1: What is known? For example, “Diabetes is bad news, especially when it is associated with fatty liver.” Paragraph no. 2: What is unknown? For example, “We do not know how to treat patients with this complication.”

Paragraph no. 3: What is the question or hypothesis? “This study was conducted to determine whether A is better than B in improving fatty liver in patients with diabetes.” What was done? “We addressed this question by conducting a randomized controlled trial of A versus B in diabetic patients with fatty liver.” Be sure the introduction states your questions or hypotheses. End the introduction with a statement of your hypothesis: “We hypothesized that A was significantly better than B at decreasing fatty liver because….” Bingo, the introduction is done.

The introduction is NOT a literature review. Do not over-reference. Seven to 10 references are plenty. Less experienced writers seem to feel the need to cite the entire literature before getting to the methods. Do not. Everybody will trust that you can read. What they want to know is what was the issue. Why is it important? How did you approach the problem?

A poorly written methods section is a major reason for rejection. Be specific. Give details. Readers must know what you did. Remember, someone may try to replicate what you did! If the replication fails, your credibility is questioned. Give enough detail to ensure that another scientist can replicate exactly what you did. Give no more detail than is necessary, but give all the details that are required for replication.

The methods section is typically in chronological order. What did you do first? Then what did you do? Methods can be dense. Use subheadings in the text to guide the reader. Table 6 lists common elements (subheadings) of methods.

Common Elements of the Methods

First, provide the study overview. What was the design? When was the study done? Where was it done? For example, “We conducted a multicenter randomized clinical trial of drug A versus placebo for 6 months in participants with type 2 diabetes and fatty liver.” This brief, 30,000-ft overview primes the reader for the dense (but clear) text that follows.

Then provide the details ( Table 6 ). How did you recruit the sample? Consecutive? When you felt like it? How did you define who is eligible? When did the study start and stop? And so on. Do not include results in the methods section. The rules for obtaining the sample are in methods. The sample that you obtained by using these rules is described in the first paragraph of results. 3 , 4 It is very important to say how the current sample relates to other reports of the same or related samples. Be very clear about whether patients in your study were or were not included in any prior reports. People doing meta-analyses or literature reviews, for example, must know whether the present sample is distinct or not from other samples. Surprisingly, you often cannot tell whether 2 reported samples are partially overlapping, the same, or distinct.

Describe where the study was conducted. Define all the variables used in the report, but none of the variables not in the report. Sometimes you might collect variables not included in this report. If they are in another report, you do not have to put them in this report.

What was the rationale for the randomization? Was it stratified? Was it computer based or did you use a table? Did you randomize in blocks? What was the informed consent process? Was there institutional review board or data safety monitoring board oversight? Were measurements blinded? Who was blinded and how?

How did you deliver the treatment of interest? How often were they treated? Who provided the treatment? How else were they managed? Could there be home visits? Could there be extra visits? Be very specific.

Did you assess whether patients adhered to treatment? If so, how? Did you ask them, count pills, or use MEMS caps?

How did you ensure that the people who delivered the study treatment did what they were supposed to do? Was there a manual? Was there quality control?

How were concomitant medicines managed? What rescue treatments or other efforts were used when patients worsened?

What were your outcomes or end points? Which was your primary outcome? Which were secondary? Who measured or obtained the end points? How? When? Was there quality control for these measures? Who did it? How? How often?

What sample size did you use? What kind of difference did you expect? What difference was expected? Did you power the study to detect this difference? What is the power? Why did you choose the statistical tests you did? Who did the analyses? Finally, it is very important that your coauthors see the data and have some discussion with the statistician so they really understand how the study was analyzed. You have to assume that your coauthors are going to make slides from this study and present it somewhere. If they do not understand the analysis, the audience will not. And they will be misinformed, unfairly judge your study, or both.

When writing the results, we first build the tables and figures. Then we write the text to tell the story, answering the study questions, around the tables and figures. The text of results is often brief because the tables and figures provide the findings. Be pithy. The less you elaborate, the clearer you will be. You want the bottom line to be very, very clear. Remember, results is for the results. The introduction tells readers why you did the study. How you arrived at the results is in methods. What the results mean is in discussion.

Start with the results of the most important question, then the second most important, and so on. Or organize the section chronologically. Use subheadings to denote each question or section. There should be no interpretation of findings in results. Make the results exciting, but do not hype. Table 7 lists important points to consider when writing this section.

The Results

If your patient sample is not extremely simple in composition, use a CONSORT chart. 3 , 4 This chart explicitly and clearly shows how you obtained the evaluable sample. It will save you many words. Journals may require this chart, especially for clinical trials. If 2 (or more) groups were compared, describe and compare these groups at baseline. Serious adverse events, tolerability, attrition, and dosing may be in subsequent tables. Describe patients sensitively. People are not schizophrenics or diabetics. They are patients with schizophrenia or diabetes. They are participants, not subjects. Why participants? Because they chose to participate by giving consent. Subjects, such as rats, do not give consent. 5

It is critical that the tables and figures carry the message. Do not repeat in the text what is in the tables and figures. Why? People can read the tables and figures. Use the text to direct the reader to the tables and figures. A sentence or 2 in the text to draw attention to a few key findings might be useful in the results section, but do not comment on every item in each table.

Tables and Figures

Figures and tables should stand alone. That is, each should be understood without reference to the text. The text simply alerts the reader when to look for them. So, if you use abbreviations or acronyms here, spell them out in the footnotes and legends. A figure has a title and legend that explains it; a table has a title and footnotes, if necessary, but no legend. Each figure or table should be on a separate sheet of paper. Remember, readers may use your tables and figures as slides. Make them clear and self-contained so that the slide has meaning.

Provide clear names for each column of your table. The study variables (eg, age, sex, severe adverse events, remission rates) are typically in the leftmost column, and each defines a row. The data are in the columns to the right. Avoid vertical lines in tables. The rows should have few to no horizontal lines.

Whenever you use a percentage in tables (and elsewhere), give the numerator and denominator so the reader can see how you derived it. We like to put significant P values in bold, but always follow journal style. Give the actual P value, not “NS” or “<0.05.” Only use decimal places that are informative. For example, nobody knows what 48.134 years of age means. Report 48.1 years. Keep it simple.

Good figures are worth a thousand words and probably several tables. Figures should show your primary comparisons. The reader should be able to look at the figures and tables and know what the questions and answers are without reading the text. Avoid 3-dimensional figures and gratuitous color and shading. Most of the ink used to print your table should represent your data, not explanatory or decorative material. Creating clear and meaningful figures is a skill one learns. Practice it. Texts by Tufte 6 and Goodman and Edwards 2 can aid you in good design.

Next to the abstract, we find the discussion to be the most difficult part to write. We may be excited about what we have found and have lots to say about it. This may make the discussion wander. Here is a way to organize the discussion ( Table 8 ).

Elements of the Discussion

The first paragraph summarizes what you found. “This study was designed to determine whether A is better than B with regard to X. We found A was better than B in terms of tolerability, side effects, and remission rates, but not in terms of Y.” If there was a second question, then the findings follow in the same first paragraph. You told them the questions (hypotheses) at the end of the introduction. Now, you summarize the answers. Avoid repeating the results; you just stated them.

The second paragraph of discussion addresses the question: “Has anybody else found anything like or different from what you found?” That is, how does it compare to the literature? If your findings are different, why? Is it the method, the sample, or measurement differences?

The third paragraph addresses the theoretical or clinical implications of the findings. What do these results mean about the utility or mechanisms of the study treatment or the pathophysiology of the disease being studied?

The fourth paragraph highlights limitations (and strengths). Limitations commonly include design, methods, generalizability, and internal validity. How certain are you about the results? A small study cannot be generalized. Measurements may have been too infrequent or too insensitive to detect an effect. Attrition may have been high. How does that affect certainty? Do not overstate the certainty of your findings. If you do not acknowledge the limitations of your report, the reviewers will make you. This is low-hanging fruit. Do not give reviewers the opportunity. Be honest, but this is your chance to frame the limitations in the best light. Remember, all studies have weaknesses. Do not feel embarrassed to list and discuss them. If your study has particular strengths, you may also highlight them here. This may soften the blow of the limitations.

Conclusions are pithy. Three sentences are enough—only 1 paragraph. A conclusion is: “A is better than B for these kinds of patients. This conclusion is limited by X and Y.” Some journals like you to suggest policy, economic, or practice implications—this is your final sentence: “Since X is better than Y and we have no other treatment for these patients, we recommend despite the limitations of this first trial that X might be a better treatment, but confirmatory studies are needed.” A common phrase that ends the conclusion is “more studies are needed.” Do not use it. More studies are always needed. Instead, state what studies you think are needed.

Leave the insertion of citations for the end. Where do references come up in the article? Largely in the introduction (7–10), methods (6–9), and discussion (15–20) (maximum, 30–40). The few references in the introduction should help lay out the problem and say why it is important. An introduction is NOT a literature review. The references in methods refer to measurements or techniques described in detail elsewhere. You do not have to describe them again; reference them.

If you use someone else’s idea, give appropriate credit. Remember, that person could be a reviewer. You do not have to cite everything, just that which is immediately relevant to support your point. Rely on peer-reviewed literature, reports, and reviews.

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements are undervalued by authors but highly valued by colleagues. Be generous. Cite those people who substantially assisted in the project (eg, research assistants, key staff). Remember all the people who truly contributed to the success of the study, but who are not authors, and recognize them here.

Disclosures

Journals have different but increasingly strict rules about disclosure. Follow them closely. If you are in doubt about a relationship, disclose it. Only underdisclosing, not overdisclosing, will embarrass you.

GETTING IT PUBLISHED

This is a thorny issue. If you are the principal investigator, we strongly advise that you meet with your study team when you launch a study to talk about authorship. Consider who will write up the primary question and key secondary questions. Talk it through early, so everybody knows the expectations from the beginning. This is especially important for junior faculty who need to know, after spending a couple of years on the study, what are they going to get out of it.

Who is supposed to be an author? Most journals have specific requirements. Those who have contributed to the design and execution of the project and helped in developing the manuscript are logical possible coauthors. Just raising funds or being the chairman of the department does not qualify (use the acknowledgements for these individuals).

Typically, hired or support staff are not authors, but there may be exceptions, depending on their contributions. Students or fellows can certainly qualify if they make a substantive contribution either at the beginning, during the data analysis, or with the writing.

For large or multisite studies, it is extremely important to have a publication committee. Try to get on the publication committee. Some studies base authorship on enrollment, scientific expertise, execution of the study, and leadership. Have these discussions early and be up-front about authorship. Most people do not like to talk about authorship (as they do not like to talk about their salary). But you cannot be shy. Younger faculty need to be first, second, or third author. Beyond third author, you are “et al.” Last is for senior authors.

Rewrites are critical. There are many reasons to rewrite ( Table 9 ). We suggest that you go after specific targets with each rewrite. If you have coauthors, use them. The first author should not have to write everything if coauthors are to merit the recognition. Once you get a draft, share it with coauthors and direct each one to a task. “X, please revise the introduction.” “Y, please revise the methods.” You distribute the work and have it come back to you. You have final editorial say as the first author. It also helps you to see how your coauthors interpret what you have written, what questions they have, and what changes they suggest.

Reasons to Rewrite

When you ask coauthors to rewrite, set the time frame and tell them exactly what you want them to do. “Please give me feedback on the results section. Please review and revise within 7 days.” Everybody has a large pile of things to do. Without a scheduled time limit, the article goes to the bottom of the pile. Rewrite 1 section at a time. Sequence the writers, so somebody does one section and someone else does another. But remember, the manuscript should not read as if there was a different author for each section. So, you have to ensure that the entire text “flows” and is stylistically consistent.

Table 9 shows areas of attention for rewrites. Shorten the introduction. Polish the abstract. Shorten the discussion. Double-check the methods to be sure the words are totally explicit, specific, and detailed. Delete jargon. Delete words. Make sure your tables and figures, if read alone, tell the results all by themselves.

Outside Readers

Once you and coauthors have written the article to its “final version,” send it to 2 people who have no idea what you do, but who are intelligent and can communicate. They do not have to be experts in your area. Ask them to proofread the paper. Then ask them to tell you in their own words what you found. That way you will know whether they got the message.

Choosing a Journal

In choosing a journal, select one that is highly regarded with a high citation index. The journal content should match what you are reporting, so the readership will be interested in what you have to say. Some journals restrict length a lot—some less so, which might be a consideration in choosing a journal. Pick a journal as your first target that is bit of a long shot (sort of a stretch), but have in mind a second choice if the first rejects the paper. It is helpful if your second choice has similar requirements as the first. For example, you do not want to be limited to 4000 words for the first journal but to 2500 words for the second.

Rejections and Resubmissions

Rejections and negative reviews can be very frustrating. You may even feel angry or defeated. This is normal. Read the reviews through once, then put them aside for a while. If you are given the opportunity to resubmit, do not formulate your responses yet. Return several days later and read the reviews again. You will have a clearer mind then, and you will be less likely to respond angrily or with condescension. Some rejections are valid. Some are due to misunderstanding, which means that you were not clear. The reviewers took the time to read your article. If they did not “get it,” it is your writing.

Sometimes the editorial response highlights the problem and seems to say either “Please fix this and resubmit” or “It’s a long shot, but we’ll re-review it if you want to try—no guarantee though.” Always respond item-by-item to each of the reviewers’ comments in a detailed letter. Be careful with your tone. A negative tone in your responses will work against you. We like to write the response letter before revising the paper. Think through everything you want to do, then revise the paper and show your changes. Always include your coauthors in this process, because they are signing off on what you are resubmitting.

We hope this synopsis is helpful. It took 15 drafts. It could still be better. So, writing is never easy. But what you want to get back from the reviewers is “This is a clearly written, succinct report of X. I have some remaining questions….” No report is perfect. Recall that the reviewers are your helpers, but they cannot help improve your manuscript (or science) if you have not been clear in telling the story, specific in describing what you’ve done, and to the point throughout the paper. Good luck!

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How to Write a Research Paper

Undergrads often write research papers each semester, causing stress. Yet, it’s simpler than believing if you know how to write a research paper . Divide the task, get tips, a plan, and tools for an outstanding paper. Simplify research, writing, topic choice, and illustration use!

A research paper is an academic document that involves deep, independent research to offer analysis, interpretation, and argument. Unlike academic essays, research papers are lengthier and more detailed, aiming to evaluate your writing and scholarly research abilities. To write one, you must showcase expertise in your subject, interact with diverse sources, and provide a unique perspective to the discussion. 

Research papers are a foundational element of contemporary science and the most efficient means of disseminating knowledge throughout a broad network. Nonetheless, individuals usually encounter research papers during their education; they are frequently employed in college courses to assess a student’s grasp of a specific field or their aptitude for research. 

Given their significance, research papers adopt a research paper format – a formal, unadorned style that eliminates any subjective influence from the writing. Scientists present their discoveries straightforwardly, accompanied by relevant supporting proof, enabling other researchers to integrate the paper into their investigations.

This guide leads you through every steps to write a research paper , from grasping your task to refining your ultimate draft and will teach you how to write a research paper.

Understanding The Research Paper

A research paper is a meticulously structured document that showcases the outcomes of an inquiry, exploration, or scrutiny undertaken on a specific subject. It embodies a formal piece of academic prose that adds novel information, perspectives, or interpretations to a particular domain of study. Typically authored by scholars, researchers, scientists, or students as part of their academic or professional pursuits, these papers adhere to a well-defined format. This research paper format encompasses an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. 

The introduction provides context and outlines the study’s significance, while the literature review encapsulates existing research and situates the study within the broader academic discourse. The methodology section elucidates the research process, encompassing data collection and analysis techniques. Findings are presented in the results section, often complemented by graphical and statistical representations. Interpretation of findings, implications, and connection to existing knowledge transpire in the discussion section. 

Ultimately, the conclusion encapsulates pivotal discoveries and their wider import.

Research papers wield immense significance in advancing knowledge across diverse disciplines, enabling researchers to disseminate findings, theories, and revelations to a broader audience. Before publication in academic journals or presentations at conferences, these papers undergo a stringent peer review process conducted by domain experts, ensuring their integrity, precision, and worth.

Academic and non-academic research papers diverge across several dimensions. Academic papers are crafted for scholarly circles to expand domain knowledge and theories. They maintain a formal, objective tone and heavily rely on peer-reviewed sources for credibility. In contrast, non-academic papers, employing a more flexible writing style, target a broader audience or specific practical goals. These papers might incorporate persuasive language, anecdotes, and various sources beyond academia. While academic papers rigorously adhere to structured formats and established citation styles, non-academic papers prioritize practicality, adapting their structure and citation methods to suit the intended readership.

The purpose of a research paper revolves around offering fresh insights, knowledge, or interpretations within a specific field. This formal document serves as a conduit for scholars, researchers, scientists, and students to communicate their investigative findings and actively contribute to the ongoing academic discourse.

Research Paper Writing Process – How To Write a Good Research Paper

Selecting a suitable research topic .

Your initial task is to thoroughly review the assignment and carefully absorb the writing prompt’s details. Pay particular attention to technical specifications like length, formatting prerequisites (such as single- vs. double-spacing, indentation, etc.), and the required citation style. Also, pay attention to specifics, including an abstract or a cover page.

Once you’ve a clear understanding of the assignment, the subsequent steps to write a research paper are aligned with the conventional writing process. However, remember that research papers have rules, adding some extra considerations to the process.

When given some assignment freedom, the crucial task of choosing a topic rests on you. Despite its apparent simplicity, this choice sets the foundation for your entire research paper, shaping its direction. The primary factor in picking a research paper topic is ensuring it has enough material to support it. Your chosen topic should provide ample data and complexity for a thorough discussion. However, it’s important to avoid overly broad subjects and focus on specific ones that cover all relevant information without gaps. Yet, approach topic selection more slowly; choosing something that genuinely interests you is still valuable. Aim for a topic that meets both criteria—delivering substantial content while maintaining engagement.

Conducting Thorough Research 

Commence by delving into your research early to refine your topic and shape your thesis statement. Swift engagement with available research aids in dispelling misconceptions and unveils optimal paths and strategies to gather more material. Typically, research sources can be located either online or within libraries. When navigating online sources, exercise caution and opt for reputable outlets such as scientific journals or academic papers. Specific search engines, outlined below in the Tools and Resources section, exclusively enable exploring accredited sources and academic databases.

While pursuing information, it’s essential to differentiate between primary and secondary sources. Primary sources entail firsthand accounts, encompassing published articles or autobiographies, while secondary sources, such as critical reviews or secondary biographies, are more distanced. Skimming sources instead of reading each part proves more efficient during the research phase. If a source shows promise, set it aside for more in-depth reading later. Doing so prevents you from investing excessive time in sources that won’t contribute substantively to your work. You should present a literature review detailing your references and submit them for validation in certain instances. 

Organizing And Structuring The Research Paper

According to the research paper format , an outline for a research paper is a catalogue of essential topics, arguments, and evidence you intend to incorporate. These elements are divided into sections with headings, offering a preliminary overview of the paper’s structure before commencing the writing process. Formulating a structural outline can significantly enhance writing efficiency, warranting an investment of time to establish one.

Start by generating a list encompassing crucial categories and subtopics—a preliminary outline. Reflect on the amassed information while gathering supporting evidence, pondering the most effective means of segregation and categorization.

Once a discussion list is compiled, deliberate on the optimal information presentation sequence and identify related subtopics that should be placed adjacent. Consider if any subtopic loses coherence when presented out of order. Adopting a chronological arrangement can be suitable if the information follows a straightforward trajectory.

Given the potential complexity of research papers, consider breaking down the outline into paragraphs. This aids in maintaining organization when dealing with copious information and provides better control over the paper’s progression. Rectifying structural issues during the outline phase is preferable to addressing them after writing.

Remember to incorporate supporting evidence within the outline. Since there’s likely a substantial amount to include, outlining helps prevent overlooking crucial elements.

Writing The Introduction

According to the research paper format , the introduction of a research paper must address three fundamental inquiries: What, why, and how? Upon completing the introduction, the reader should clearly understand the paper’s subject matter, its relevance, and the approach you’ll use to construct your arguments.

What? Offer precise details regarding the paper’s topic, provide context, and elucidate essential terminology or concepts.

Why? This constitutes the most crucial yet challenging aspect of the introduction. Endeavour to furnish concise responses to the subsequent queries: What novel information or insights do you present? Which significant matters does your essay assist in defining or resolving?

How? To provide the reader with a preview of the paper’s forthcoming content, the introduction should incorporate a “guide” outlining the upcoming discussions. This entails briefly outlining the paper’s principal components in chronological sequence.

Developing The Main Body 

One of the primary challenges that many writers grapple with is effectively organizing the wealth of information they wish to present in their papers. This is precisely why an outline can be an invaluable tool. However, it’s essential to recognize that while an outline provides a roadmap, the writing process allows flexibility in determining the order in which information and arguments are introduced.

Maintaining cohesiveness throughout the paper involves anchoring your writing to the thesis statement and topic sentences. Here’s how to ensure a well-structured paper:

• Alignment with Thesis Statement: Regularly assess whether your topic sentences correspond with the central thesis statement. This ensures that your arguments remain on track and directly contribute to the overarching message you intend to convey.
• Consistency and Logical Flow: Review your topic sentences concerning one another. Do they follow a logical order that guides the reader through a coherent narrative? Ensuring a seamless flow from one topic to another helps maintain engagement and comprehension.
• Supporting Sentence Alignment: Each sentence within a paragraph should align with the topic sentence of that paragraph. This alignment reinforces the central idea, preventing tangential or disjointed discussions.

Additionally, identify paragraphs that cover similar content. While some overlap might be inevitable, it’s essential to approach shared topics from different angles, offering fresh insights and perspectives. Creating these nuanced differences helps present a well-rounded exploration of the subject matter.

An often-overlooked aspect of effective organization is the art of crafting smooth transitions. Transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and larger sections are the glue that holds your paper together. They guide the reader through the progression of ideas, enhancing clarity and creating a seamless reading experience.

Ultimately, while the struggle to organize information is accurate, employing these strategies not only aids in addressing the challenge but also contributes to the overall quality and impact of your writing.

Crafting A Strong Conclusion 

The purpose of the research paper’s conclusion is to guide your reader out of the realm of the paper’s argument, leaving them with a sense of closure.

Trace the paper’s trajectory, underscoring how all the elements converge to validate your thesis statement. Impart a sense of completion by ensuring the reader comprehends the resolution of the issues introduced in the paper’s introduction.

In addition, you can explore the broader implications of your argument, outline your paper’s contributions to future students studying the subject, and propose questions that your argument raises—ones that might not be addressed in the paper itself. However, it’s important to avoid:

• Introducing new arguments or crucial information that wasn’t covered earlier.
• Extending the conclusion unnecessarily.
• Employing common phrases that signal the decision (e.g., “In conclusion”).

By adhering to these guidelines, your conclusion can serve as a fitting and impactful conclusion to your research paper, leaving a lasting impression on your readers.

Refining The Research Paper

• Editing And Proofreading 

Eliminate unnecessary verbiage and extraneous content. In tandem with the comprehensive structure of your paper, focus on individual words, ensuring your language is robust. Verify the utilization of active voice rather than passive voice, and confirm that your word selection is precise and tangible.

The passive voice, exemplified by phrases like “I opened the door,” tends to convey hesitation and verbosity. In contrast, the active voice, as in “I opened the door,” imparts strength and brevity.

Each word employed in your paper should serve a distinct purpose. Strive to eschew the inclusion of surplus words solely to occupy space or exhibit sophistication.

For instance, the statement “The author uses pathos to appeal to readers’ emotions” is superior to the alternative “The author utilizes pathos to appeal to the emotional core of those who read the passage.”

Engage in thorough proofreading to rectify spelling, grammatical, and formatting inconsistencies. Once you’ve refined the structure and content of your paper, address any typographical and grammatical inaccuracies. Taking a break from your paper before proofreading can offer a new perspective.

Enhance error detection by reading your essay aloud. This not only aids in identifying mistakes but also assists in evaluating the flow. If you encounter sections that seem awkward during this reading, consider making necessary adjustments to enhance the overall coherence.

• Formatting And Referencing 

Citations are pivotal in distinguishing research papers from informal nonfiction pieces like personal essays. They serve the dual purpose of substantiating your data and establishing a connection between your research paper and the broader scientific community. Given their significance, citations are subject to precise formatting regulations; however, the challenge lies in the existence of multiple sets of rules.

It’s crucial to consult the assignment’s instructions to determine the required formatting style. Generally, academic research papers adhere to either of two formatting styles for source citations:

• MLA (Modern Language Association)
• APA (American Psychological Association)

Moreover, aside from MLA and APA styles, occasional demands might call for adherence to CMOS (The Chicago Manual of Style), AMA (American Medical Association), and IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) formats.

Initially, citations might appear intricate due to their numerous regulations and specific details. However, once you become adept at them, citing sources accurately becomes almost second nature. It’s important to note that each formatting style provides detailed guidelines for citing various sources, including photographs, websites, speeches, and YouTube videos.

Tips For Writing An Effective Research Paper 

By following these research paper writing tips , you’ll be well-equipped to create a well-structured, well-researched, and impactful research paper:

• Select a Clear and Manageable Topic: Choose a topic that is specific and focused enough to be thoroughly explored within the scope of your paper.
• Conduct In-Depth Research: Gather information from reputable sources such as academic journals, books, and credible websites. Take thorough notes to keep track of your sources.
• Create a Strong Thesis Statement: Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or purpose of your paper.
• Develop a Well-Structured Outline: Organize your ideas into a logical order by creating an outline that outlines the main sections and their supporting points.
• Compose a Captivating Introduction: Hook the reader with an engaging introduction that provides background information and introduces the thesis statement.
• Provide Clear and Relevant Evidence: Support your arguments with reliable and relevant evidence, such as statistics, examples, and expert opinions.
• Maintain Consistent Tone and Style: Keep a consistent tone and writing style throughout the paper, adhering to the formatting guidelines of your chosen citation style.
• Craft Coherent Paragraphs: Each paragraph should focus on a single idea or point, and transitions should smoothly guide the reader from one idea to the next.
• Use Active Voice: Write in the active voice to make your writing more direct and engaging.
• Revise and Edit Thoroughly: Proofread your paper for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and sentence structure. Revise for clarity and coherence.
• Seek Peer Feedback: Have a peer or instructor review your paper for feedback and suggestions.
• Cite Sources Properly: Accurately cite all sources using the required citation style (e.g., MLA, APA) to avoid plagiarism and give credit to original authors.
• Be Concise and Avoid Redundancy: Strive for clarity by eliminating unnecessary words and redundancies.
• Conclude Effectively: Summarize your main points and restate your thesis in the conclusion. Provide a sense of closure without introducing new ideas.
• Stay Organized: Keep track of your sources, notes, and drafts to ensure a structured and organized approach to the writing process.
• Proofread with Fresh Eyes: Take a break before final proofreading to review your paper with a fresh perspective, helping you catch any overlooked errors.
• Edit for Clarity: Ensure that your ideas are conveyed clearly and that your arguments are easy to follow.
• Ask for Feedback: Don’t hesitate to ask for feedback from peers, instructors, or writing centers to improve your paper further.

In conclusion, we’ve explored the essential steps to write a research paper . From selecting a focused topic to mastering the intricacies of citations, we’ve navigated through the key elements of this process.

It’s vital to recognize that adhering to the research paper writing tips is not merely a suggestion, but a roadmap to success. Each stage contributes to the overall quality and impact of your paper. By meticulously following these steps, you ensure a robust foundation for your research, bolster your arguments, and present your findings with clarity and conviction.

As you embark on your own research paper journey, I urge you to put into practice the techniques and insights shared in this guide. Don’t shy away from investing time in organization, thorough research, and precise writing. Embrace the challenge, for it’s through this process that your ideas take shape and your voice is heard within the academic discourse.

Remember, every exceptional research paper begins with a single step. And with each step you take, your ability to articulate complex ideas and contribute to your field of study grows. So, go ahead – apply these tips, refine your skills, and witness your research papers evolve into compelling narratives that inspire, inform, and captivate.

In the grand tapestry of academia, your research paper becomes a thread of insight, woven into the larger narrative of human knowledge. By embracing the writing process and nurturing your unique perspective, you become an integral part of this ever-expanding tapestry.

Happy writing, and may your research papers shine brightly, leaving a lasting mark on both your readers and the world of scholarship.

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Research Paper or Term Paper: What’s the Difference?

Research papers and term papers are common assignments for students in a variety of academic disciplines, yet they can often be difficult to distinguish from one another. This article seeks to provide insight into the differences between research papers and term papers while exploring their purpose, structure, content, referencing styles, citation formats and more. It further examines how research paper topics are selected and outlines a process for selecting an appropriate topic if one is given by instructors or peers. In addition, it explains how proper use of resources enhances quality writing within both types of documents. Ultimately this article will aid readers in better understanding the distinctions between these two academic tasks so that they may produce higher-quality results with confidence.

I. Introduction

Ii. definition of a research paper, iii. definition of a term paper, iv. similarities between research and term papers, v. differences between research and term papers, vi. benefits of writing each type of paper, vii conclusion.

The Key Difference: Research Paper vs Term Paper Writing an academic paper can be daunting for some. It involves extensive research, brainstorming ideas and organizing the information you have gathered. One of the most important decisions a student has to make when writing a paper is whether it should be written as a research or term paper. Although these two types of papers share similarities, they also contain key differences which must be taken into account in order to deliver an excellent piece of work tailored towards specific requirements and objectives.

A research paper aims at investigating scientific topics by collecting evidence through conducting experiments and analysis. A typical format includes introduction, literature review, methods section (which could include data collection & sampling procedures), results with interpretation followed by discussion and conclusion sections.

• The purpose is typically exploratory – uncovering what researchers already know about the topic
• Content is usually backed up with solid references from reliable sources such as journals.

. In comparison to this ,a term paper does not require any experimentation but instead relies on researching already existing knowledge regarding its subject matter.. As opposed to simply reporting on findings like in case of a research project; here students are required to express their opinion based on facts presented throughout their argumentation. Common elements often found within term papers are abstracts, introductions, problem/purpose statements along with relevant conclusions detailing how your ideas fit together in terms of answering initial question(s).

A Comprehensive Understanding The research paper is a comprehensive document that not only contains various pieces of evidence to support its claims, but also develops and presents an argument based on the available data. It requires considerable effort to collect all pertinent information related to the subject under investigation, analyze it in order to find meaningful patterns or connections among them, and finally synthesize these findings into a logical structure which demonstrates your conclusion about the topic.

When compared with a term paper, one major difference lies within their scope; whereas a research paper may be much longer than 10-15 pages required for most term papers due to its broader nature and complexity in presenting arguments from multiple sources. Moreover, while writing this type of academic work involves extensive background study in scholarly resources such as books and journals covering your field of interest as well as interpreting primary sources like interviews or surveys you have conducted yourself if necessary. In addition, given its strict formality with regards referencing style throughout the body text following APA guidelines for example will need careful attention during proofreading at each stage when producing this kind of written assignment.

• Research Paper:

Thorough analysis based on existing literature along with primary source material where applicable over an extended period resulting in an essay that clearly supports original ideas related to specific theme.

• Term Paper:

More limited amountof time generally restricted around certain parameters set by lecturer leading towards concisely summarizing facts obtained through study already covered within module without necessarily providing individual opinion regarding matter investigated

A term paper is a lengthy academic document that demonstrates the student’s research and writing skills. It requires extensive analysis of available information, thorough study of relevant sources, and meaningful arguments that are backed up by evidence-based facts. In contrast to a research paper , which is typically longer in length and more complex in scope, a term paper centers around an argument or issue related to its assigned topic rather than simply describing what has been previously established on said subject.

When preparing their term papers, students must take into account not only the format requirements but also any expectations set forth by their professors regarding content quality. This means taking great care when selecting sources—credible journals published by well-known publishing houses should be given precedence over online articles or blog posts written without much editorial oversight—and researching as deeply as possible into the assigned area so as to provide readers with new insights or perspectives on the discussed topics. Moreover, it is essential for students’ work to include fresh points of view accompanied with logical deductions based on critical thinking and sound reasoning throughout; anything less would weaken one’s argument instead of reinforcing it.

Research papers and term papers are quite similar, as they both require the student to do in-depth research into a subject. They share many characteristics, although there are distinct differences between them.

• Both types of academic writing involve researching and summarizing facts from credible sources.
• They also rely heavily on analyzing existing data or theories about a particular topic.

Though both research papers and term papers are commonly assigned writing tasks for college students, the two projects have distinct characteristics that set them apart. Here we will explore some of the differences between these assignments.

• Scope: Research papers typically require a much wider scope of investigation than term papers as they delve into topics more deeply and aim to uncover new knowledge or innovative solutions rather than just summarizing existing materials. Term paper assignments tend to cover information in greater depth but within a narrower range of source material.
• Goals: While research paper objectives may be quite varied depending on the topic, their ultimate purpose is generally to contribute something original to an area of study or share significant findings about it. On the other hand, though also subject-specific, term paper goals usually include proving mastery over core concepts by presenting ideas from various sources such as class notes and readings with cogency.

Different Writing for Different Purposes While all forms of writing can be beneficial in some way, each type has its own set of advantages. When it comes to research papers and term papers, here are some great benefits that can come from tackling these assignments:

• Research Papers : These more lengthy projects give you the opportunity to delve deeper into a subject than a shorter assignment would allow. You’ll have time to read multiple sources, conduct interviews if necessary, and look at different points of view before developing your thesis statement and proving your argument with evidence.
• Term Papers : A good term paper will help summarize what you’ve learned during the semester or course by bringing together important concepts discussed throughout class lectures or discussions. It is an excellent chance for professors to assess how much information their students actually retained.

In this research paper, the differences between a research paper and a term paper have been highlighted. It has been demonstrated that while both of these pieces of written work can be effective tools for understanding an academic subject in depth, they are actually quite different from one another.

• Research papers , as the name suggests, involve extensive research on a particular topic. The goal is to explore every aspect of the chosen theme before providing your own thoughtful conclusions about it.
• Term papers ,on the other hand, often require students to focus more narrowly on studying existing theories or information presented by teachers during class time. Generally speaking, less independent research is involved when writing term papers than with researching and drafting full-length research projects.

The content of each type should therefore differ accordingly – where there may be multiple topics covered within a single research project due to its wide scope; such breadth would not normally be expected in shorter assignments like term papers which will usually address only one area of study at most. Ultimately then, depending upon their purpose and respective requirements , these two types remain distinct entities worthy of comparison yet also easily differentiated .

In conclusion, it is clear that research papers and term papers are two distinct types of assignments. Research papers focus on a specific topic or subject and require the author to conduct their own research and analysis in order to present an argument with evidence to support it. Term papers generally cover course material from a particular semester or quarter, often making use of existing literature rather than requiring original content from the student. Understanding the differences between these forms of writing can help students better prepare for each assignment they undertake while increasing their overall academic performance.

Report Writing And Its Significance In Your Career

You reach the office at around 9.00 AM, switch on your system, and start working. It’s a usual workday for…

You reach the office at around 9.00 AM, switch on your system, and start working. It’s a usual workday for you until your manager comes to your desk and asks you to create a sales report. That’s the first time you’ve got such a task, and find yourself struggling with basic questions such as, “What’s a report?” and “How do I write one?”

What Is Report Writing?

Elements of report writing, importance of report writing.

You must have heard the term ‘report writing’ before.

According to the commonly known definition of report writing, a report is a formal document that elaborates on a topic using facts, charts, and graphs to support its arguments and findings.

Any report—whether it’s about a business event or one that describes the processes of various departments in a company—is meant for a particular type of audience.

But why do you think your manager wants you to create a report?

One simple answer is: an elaborate report prepared with evaluated facts helps solve complex problems. When managers come across certain business situations, they ask for comprehensive and well-thought-out reports that can help them design business plans.

Once you have an idea about what a report is, the next step is to understand how you can write one.

There are different types of reports, and each has a specific structure, usually known as ‘elements of the report’.

While we tell you what the elements of report writing are, if you want detailed guidance, you can go for Harappa Education’s Writing Proficiently course that talks about the popular PREP (Point of starting, Reason, Evidence, and Point of ending) model of report writing.

Every report starts with a title page and a table of contents, after which come the main sections–the executive summary, introduction, discussion, and conclusion.

Executive Summary:

Do you remember summary writing for English class during school days? You were asked to read a story or passage and write a summary, including the important takeaways. ( ambien )

That’s exactly what you are expected to do in a report’s executive summary section. This section presents a brief overview of the report’s contents. You should present the key points of the report in this section.

But why is it important to write an executive summary at the start of the report?

Firstly, the summary will help readers better understand the purpose, key points, and evidence you are going to present in the report. Secondly, readers who are in a hurry can read the summary for a preview of the report.

Here are some specifics that will help you write a clear and concise summary:

Include the purpose of your report and emphasize conclusions or recommendations.

Include only the essential or most significant information to support your theories and conclusions.

Follow the same sequence of information that you have used in the report.

Keep the summary length to 10-15% of the complete report.

Try not to introduce any new information or point in summary that you haven’t covered in the report.

The summary should communicate the message clearly and independently.

Introduction:  

The introduction section should:

Briefly describe the background and context of the research you have done.

Describe the change, problem, or issue related to the topic.

Define the relevant objectives and purpose of the report

Give hints about the overall answer to the problem covered in the report.

Comment on the limitations and any assumptions you have made to get to the conclusion.

Discussion:

This section serves two purposes:

It justifies the recommendations.

It explains the conclusions.

While you are writing the discussion section, make sure you do the following:

Present your analysis logically.

If needed, divide the information under appropriate headings to improving readability and ease of understanding.

Explain your points and back up your claims with strong and evaluated evidence.

Connect your theory with real-life scenarios

Conclusion:

The last key element of report writing is the conclusion section. Present the conclusion as follows:

• The primary conclusion should come first.

Identify and interpret the major problems related to the case your report is based on.

Relate to the objectives that you have mentioned in the introduction.

Keep the conclusion brief and specific.

Before you start writing a report, it’s important to understand the significance of the report. It’s also crucial to research independently instead of relying on data and trends available on the internet, besides structuring the report properly. Here’s why:

Decision-Making Tool

Organizations require a considerable amount of data and information on specific topics, scenarios, and situations. Managers and decision-makers often use business reports and research papers as information sources to make important business decisions and reach solutions.

Another reason that adds to the significance of report writing is that it is a collection of evaluated information.

Different types of activities by different departments define an organization. Think of the departments your organization has–development, sales, distribution, marketing, HR, and more. Each department follows defined processes and protocols that require many small and large activities on a daily basis.

It is impossible for the management to keep an eye on the different activities in each department.

That’s where the reports can help. With every department writing and maintaining periodic reports, keeping a tab of ongoing activities becomes easier for the management.

Professional Improvements

During the annual appraisal cycle, your manager will ask you to write reports to explain your position, level of work, and performance.

If you have ever wondered how your manager decided to promote your colleague and not you, the answer may lie in his well-presented report.

Quick Source For Problem-Solving

There’s no denying that managers require accurate information on various topics to make quick decisions. Often due to urgency, managers only rely on business reports as an authentic source of information. Almost every employee would have witnessed a situation that needed the manager’s attention urgently. Reports come in handy during such situations.

Report writing is a significant exercise in many ways for your professional life. If you are not well-versed with it already, you must start working on your report writing skills now. For more help or guidance to learn this new skill, sign up for Harappa’s Writing Proficiently course.

Make the most of your time at home and master this new skill. Work on many assignments, improve your skills, and become a pro at report writing.

Explore our Harappa Diaries section to learn more about topics related to the Communicate habit such as the Importance of Writing Skills and the Cycle of Communication .