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Difference between speech, language and communication

• 25 September 2020
• Science outreach

In our day-to-day language, the terms speech, language, and communication are often used interchangeably. However, are these words synonyms? As it turns out, no, they are not! 

Here is how to better distinguish these terms:

Speech refers to the way we produce and perceive the consonants and vowels that form all the languages in the world. It can be considered the perceptual and motor components of oral language. More specifically, it includes the following elements:

• Voice. This refers to the way we use our vocal folds (sometimes called cords), in the larynx, and our respiration (especially the expiration) to produce speech sounds. Our voice varies in intensity and pitch – that is, it can be more or less loud and have a higher or lower pitch. These parameters are determined by the contraction and extension of the vocal folds.
• Articulation. It is the way we use our articulators, including our lips and our tongue, to produce speech sounds. For example, our lips are rounded to produce the vowel /o/, while they are stretched to produce the vowel /i/.
• Resonance. This refers to the modification of the sound generated by the vocal folds as it travels through the cavities formed by the pharynx as well as the inside of our nose and mouth. Resonance influences the quality of speech sounds (a nasal vowel such as “an” vs an oral vowel such as “a”) and depends mostly on our capacity to control the amount of air that is expelled from our nose when we speak. To block air from going through the nose, we lift soft palate (also called velopharynx); to allow air going into the nose, we drop the soft palate (see figure 1). For example, too much airflow through the nose results in a nasal voice (Kummer). It should be noted that damage to resonance or to the respiratory system is likely to make speech less natural and intelligible (ASHA). 
• Fluency. This concerns the rhythm of our speech and is characterized by the number of hesitations and repetitions of sounds when we speak. Non fluent speech is associated with communication disorders such as stuttering.
• Perception. The ability to detect and perceive fine variations in the acoustic signal of speech, including variations in intensity and frequency in a locutor’s voice or variations in their speech rate, are also key elements of speech at the receptive level.

Language refers to the comprehension and production of words and sentences to share ideas or information. Language can be oral, written, or signed (e.g. Quebec Sign Language). Below are the different spheres of language (ASHA; Bishop et al, 2017): 

• Phonology. At the interface between speech and language, phonology refers to the ability to identify and use speech sounds to distinguish the words of a language. For example, in English, it is important to distinguish the sounds associated with the letters “b” and “p” since words such as “bay” and “pay” do not have the same meaning.
• Morphology. This refers to the rules that regulate the use of morphemes, the smallest units of language that carry meaning. For example, in oral and written English, the plural is often indicated by adding the morpheme “-s” to a noun (eg. anemones). Some morphemes can be added at the beginning or at the end of a word to slightly modify the meaning. For example, the morpheme ‘’-est’’ in English is used to express the superlative. For example, when we add “est” to the adjective  tall, we  create the word  tallest , meaning the person who is the most tall.
• Lexicology and semantics. These components refer to vocabulary as well as the knowledge of the word meaning (e.g., knowing the word  anemone  and that it refers not only to a marine animal, but also to a colorful perennial plant).
• Syntax. This refers to the rules to combine words to create sentences in a language. For example, the sentence ‘’I love anemones’’ is composed of a subject (I) and a predicate (formed by the verb  love  and the noun  anemones ); the two obligatory components in an English sentence.
• Pragmatics. This refers to the rules about the use of language in a specific communication context. These rules include the respect of the turn-taking or the adjustment of the language level or content based on the interlocutor. It also includes the ability to detect humour, irony and sarcasm.

Communication

Communication refers to the process of exchanging information, including emotions and thoughts (Bishop and al., 2016), with others using speaking, writing, signs, facial expressions and body language. Communication thus incorporates speech and language, but also prosody (linguistic and emotional). Prosody refers to the ability to vary the intonation, rate and voice intensity to either emphasize certain syllables or words when we speak or to draw the attention of our interlocutor to a particular piece of information (linguistic prosody), or to convey our emotions, voluntarily or not (emotional prosody; Wilson & Wharton, 2005). 

Although the words  speech ,  language  and  communication  are often used interchangeably, these words have distinct meanings when used in scientific or clinical contexts. While  communication  is a broad concept,  speech  and  language  have very specific meaning. This is important because communication difficulties can affect speech and language independently. For example, a person with a speech impairment may have difficulty articulating correctly without having any language difficulty. Likewise, a person with a language disorder may have difficulty understanding the meaning of words, forming grammatically sentences, respecting speaking turns during a conversation, etc., while having no difficulty related to speech (normal voice, normal articulation).

Suggested readings:

• The cocktail party explained
• Comic strip about speech
• Speech perception: a complex ability
• What is the most important element of communication?

Speech analysis

What is prosody.

References:

American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA). (2020, September 1 rst ). What Is Speech? What Is Language? https://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/speech-and-language/

American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA). (2020, September 1 rst ). Language in brief. https://www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Clinical-Topics/Spoken-Language-Disorders/Language-In–Brief/

American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA). (2020, September 23). Dysarthria in Adults. https://www.asha.org/PRPSpecificTopic.aspx?folderid=8589943481&section=Signs_and_Symptoms

Bishop, D.V.M., Snowling, M.J., Thompson, P.A., Greenhalgh, T., & CATALISE consortium. (2016). CATALISE: A Multinational and Multidisciplinary Delphi Consensus Study. Identifying Language Impairments in Children. PLOS ONE 11 (12): e0168066.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168066

Kummer, A.W. (2020, September 23). Resonance Disorders and Velopharyngeal Dysfunction.  https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/- /media/cincinnati%20childrens/home/service/s/speech/patients/handouts/resonance-disorders-and-vpd.pdf?la=en

Wilson, D., & Wharton, T. (2006). Relevance and prosody. Journal of Pragmatics 38 , 1559–1579. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2005.04.012

The peripheral auditory system

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Language Development

Speech and Language Definitions, What Is The difference between them?

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Last Updated on December 20, 2021 by Bilingual Kidspot

What is the Difference between Speech and Language?

Speech and Language can sometimes be confused and their definitions are often confused as the same thing.

However, there are many differences between Speech and Language.

Christina Evangelou, Speech Therapist who specializes in Bilingualism explains the Speech definition and Language definition, and the difference between the two:

Speech and Language – Is there a difference?

This is a question that many parents ask when I introduce myself as a Speech & Language Pathologist. They ask: “But aren’t speech and language the same thing?”

The answer is that they both fall under the umbrella of communication, but both language and speech are different communication tools.

Language can be conveyed/communicated through different modes, it can be spoken, written or signed!

All of these modes can be broken down to sentences, words, syllables and ultimately the smallest units- sounds.

Sounds combined make up speech and speech refers only to the spoken mode of communication .

The Iceberg of Speech and Language

This is best viewed as an iceberg analogy, where communication forms the entire iceberg.

Language Definition

Definition of Language: Language forms the base or submerged part of the iceberg. Language is composed of language:

• content/meaning which is also referred to as Semantics of language. For example “ rose ” refers to a flower but is also the past tense of the verb rise . This shows that the same word can have different meanings.
• form/structure which is also referred to as Syntax and morphology. For example: “ give ” “ gave ” and “ given ” all refer to the same action, but the meaning of sentence will change according to which form of the verb is used.
• use which is also referred to as Pragmatics. This is how language is used socially; asking and responding to questions, following a conversation and staying on topic

Speech definition

Definition of speech: Speech constitutes the surface or visible structure of the iceberg. Speech is the production of sounds that make up words and sentences.

These sound units are combined so that they make up words and sentences.

Speech involves the co-ordination of our breathing, vocal cords, vocal tract, nasal tract tongue, jaw, tongue and lips; it is comprised of three main components:

• Voice ( the use of our breath and vocal cords to make sounds)
• Articulation (the way sounds are produced by the structures in our vocal tract)
• Fluency ( the rhythm that is required so that we speak without hesitation or repetition of sounds, syllables, words or sentences)

So far we have talked of speech and language as different skills; and they are two different skills that work together so that a message is clearly communicated.

So what happens when things go wrong?

If one of the two is not fully developed it can have an impact on the other.

A child who might have trouble with speech sounds might be difficult to understand; on the other hand a child that might be experiencing problems with language might be able to pronounce words clearly, but understanding the meaning of what they are saying might be difficult.

Clearly there is a lot of overlap among the definition of language and speech!

Recommended: Speech and Language Milestones Late Talkers

What about a bilingual child?

Many parents also ask how this iceberg analogy applies to their bilingual child.

The answer is that bilingual language development is best viewed as two separate icebergs that are joined at the base where languages and ideas come from a common source;

This means that the surface structures of the two icebergs are speech systems of two different languages, which often have different sound systems.

Speech and Language Development

If you are interested in learning more about speech and language development check out our Expert Advice section with a range of articles written by Speech Therapists and Speech Pathologists who specialise in bilingualism.  

Subscribe  for related articles. Follow Bilingual KidSpot on  Facebook  and join our  online community and support group .

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The power of language: How words shape people, culture

Speaking, writing and reading are integral to everyday life, where language is the primary tool for expression and communication. Studying how people use language – what words and phrases they unconsciously choose and combine – can help us better understand ourselves and why we behave the way we do.

Linguistics scholars seek to determine what is unique and universal about the language we use, how it is acquired and the ways it changes over time. They consider language as a cultural, social and psychological phenomenon.

“Understanding why and how languages differ tells about the range of what is human,” said Dan Jurafsky , the Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor in Humanities and chair of the Department of Linguistics in the School of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford . “Discovering what’s universal about languages can help us understand the core of our humanity.”

The stories below represent some of the ways linguists have investigated many aspects of language, including its semantics and syntax, phonetics and phonology, and its social, psychological and computational aspects.

Understanding stereotypes

Stanford linguists and psychologists study how language is interpreted by people. Even the slightest differences in language use can correspond with biased beliefs of the speakers, according to research.

One study showed that a relatively harmless sentence, such as “girls are as good as boys at math,” can subtly perpetuate sexist stereotypes. Because of the statement’s grammatical structure, it implies that being good at math is more common or natural for boys than girls, the researchers said.

Language can play a big role in how we and others perceive the world, and linguists work to discover what words and phrases can influence us, unknowingly.

How well-meaning statements can spread stereotypes unintentionally

New Stanford research shows that sentences that frame one gender as the standard for the other can unintentionally perpetuate biases.

Algorithms reveal changes in stereotypes

New Stanford research shows that, over the past century, linguistic changes in gender and ethnic stereotypes correlated with major social movements and demographic changes in the U.S. Census data.

Exploring what an interruption is in conversation

Stanford doctoral candidate Katherine Hilton found that people perceive interruptions in conversation differently, and those perceptions differ depending on the listener’s own conversational style as well as gender.

Cops speak less respectfully to black community members

Professors Jennifer Eberhardt and Dan Jurafsky, along with other Stanford researchers, detected racial disparities in police officers’ speech after analyzing more than 100 hours of body camera footage from Oakland Police.

How other languages inform our own

People speak roughly 7,000 languages worldwide. Although there is a lot in common among languages, each one is unique, both in its structure and in the way it reflects the culture of the people who speak it.

Jurafsky said it’s important to study languages other than our own and how they develop over time because it can help scholars understand what lies at the foundation of humans’ unique way of communicating with one another.

“All this research can help us discover what it means to be human,” Jurafsky said.

Stanford PhD student documents indigenous language of Papua New Guinea

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Stanford research explores novel perspectives on the evolution of Spanish

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Language as a lens into behavior

Linguists analyze how certain speech patterns correspond to particular behaviors, including how language can impact people’s buying decisions or influence their social media use.

For example, in one research paper, a group of Stanford researchers examined the differences in how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online to better understand how a polarization of beliefs can occur on social media.

“We live in a very polarized time,” Jurafsky said. “Understanding what different groups of people say and why is the first step in determining how we can help bring people together.”

Analyzing the tweets of Republicans and Democrats

New research by Dora Demszky and colleagues examined how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online in an attempt to understand how polarization of beliefs occurs on social media.

Examining bilingual behavior of children at Texas preschool

A Stanford senior studied a group of bilingual children at a Spanish immersion preschool in Texas to understand how they distinguished between their two languages.

Predicting sales of online products from advertising language

Stanford linguist Dan Jurafsky and colleagues have found that products in Japan sell better if their advertising includes polite language and words that invoke cultural traditions or authority.

Language can help the elderly cope with the challenges of aging, says Stanford professor

By examining conversations of elderly Japanese women, linguist Yoshiko Matsumoto uncovers language techniques that help people move past traumatic events and regain a sense of normalcy.

Speech and Language Development

What is speech and language development.

Speech and language are the skills we use to communicate with others. We form these skills during the first years of life. By age 6, most children learn the basics. Try to talk and read to your child often to boost these skills.

Speech is making the sounds that become words—the physical act of talking.

Language is our system of using words to communicate. It includes using words and gestures to say what we mean, and understanding what others say.

When does speech and language development begin?

Infants start learning in the womb, where they hear and respond to familiar voices. The fastest learning occurs from ages 2 to 5 years.

Speech and language milestones help tell whether a child is developing as expected. Milestones are certain skills, such as babbling, saying "mama" or "dada," or putting two words together. Usually, a child needs to master one milestone before reaching the next.

Babies usually start cooing at around 2 months and are babbling by about 6 months. Most children speak by one year, but it may still be hard to understand what they're saying. At 15 to 18 months, a typical toddler understands much more than they are able to put into words. Starting around 18 months, many children have a burst in talking. By 24 months, children tend to use at least 50 words and are also starting to use two-word phrases.

Keep in mind that the age at which children reach milestones varies from child to child. Some children are advanced. Others develop more slowly.

Why do speech and language problems develop in some children?

Speech and language problems mean your child has trouble speaking or saying words. Or your child may find it hard to understand or explain ideas.

Hearing problems can cause speech and language delays in children. All children with speech and language delays should have their hearing tested. Certain disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder, can also cause a delay. Speech and language problems may also run in families.

A child can overcome many speech and language problems with treatment such as speech therapy. Speech therapy helps your child learn speech and language skills. Treatment works best when problems are caught early.

• What You Can Expect

Birth to age 1

Here are some of the things babies may do at each age milestone.

Less than 1 month old

• Listen to the rhythm and melodies of speech.
• Pick out their mother's voice.
• Learn the rhythm of two languages when both are spoken at home.
• Use crying that sounds the same no matter what they need.

Ages 1 to 4 months

• Prefer "baby talk" and voices with a high pitch.
• Blink or widen eyes when noticing sounds.
• Become startled or turn toward a sound to look for its source.
• Become quiet to their mother's voice.
• Make cooing sounds, such as "ah-ah-ah" or "ooh-ooh-ooh." Babies may also make cooing sounds back to someone who is talking to them.

Ages 5 to 6 months

• Recognize their own name.
• Make sounds like "goo" and blow bubbles at the same time.
• Start to babble or repeat sounds, such as "ma-ma-ma" or "bah-bah-bah" to get attention or express feeling.
• Vary their cries to signal specific needs.

Ages 7 to 9 months

• Hear words as distinct sounds.
• Recognize the meaning of some facial expressions and tone of voice, such as when a parent says "No!"
• Repeat sounds that they hear.
• Mimic the rhythm of the way others talk.
• May say words like "mama" and "dada."
• May wave "bye-bye" when asked.

Ages 10 to 12 months

• Start to follow simple commands like "Give me the toy."
• Usually understand "mama" and "dada."
• Correctly refer to each parent as "mama" or "dada."
• Point to things they want or need.
• Say a few single words besides "mama" or "dada."

Ages 1 to 3

Here are some of the things children may do at each age milestone.

Ages 1 to 2 years

• Understand that words have meaning.
• Know the names of family members and familiar objects. Start to know the names of other people, body parts, and objects.
• Make simple statements and understand simple requests, such as "All gone" and "Give daddy the ball."
• Use gestures, such as pointing.
• Make one- or two-syllable sounds that stand for items they want, such as "baba" for "bottle."
• Use their own language that is a mix of made-up words and real words.
• Say 20 to 50 words that family understands.

Ages 2 to 3 years

• Recognize the names of at least seven body parts, and can name some of these.
• Increase their understanding of the names of things.
• Follow simple requests, such as "Put the book on the table."
• When asked, point to a picture of something named, such as "Where is the cow?"
• Continue to learn and use gestures.
• Develop a way to communicate using gestures and facial expressions if they are quiet and don't talk much.
• Name favorite toys and familiar objects.
• Use pronouns like "me" and "you," but may get them mixed up.
• Make phrases, such as "No bottle" or "Want cookie."
• Say 150 to 200 words by age 3. Strangers may be able to understand them about 75% of the time.

Ages 3 to 5

Age 3 years.

• Follow two-part requests, such as "Put your pajamas in the hamper and your slippers in the closet."
• Learn new words quickly.
• Know the names of most common objects.
• Understand the concept of "two."
• Understand the differences between girls and boys.
• Know their own full name.
• Begin correctly using plurals, pronouns, and prepositions more consistently.
• Frequently ask "why" and "what."
• Often use complete sentences of 3 to 4 words.

Age 4 years

• Know the names of colors.
• Understand the difference between things that are the same and things that are different, such as the difference between children and grown-ups.
• Follow three-step instructions, such as "Go to the sink, wash your hands, and dry them on the towel."
• Use the past tense of words.
• Use sentences of 5 to 6 words.
• Describe something that has happened to them or tell a story.
• Speak clearly enough so that strangers can understand them almost all of the time.

Age 5 years

• Understand relationships between things, such as "the girl who is playing ball" and "the boy who is jumping rope."
• Carry on a conversation with another person.
• Call people or things by their relationship to others, such as "Bobby's mom" instead of "Mrs. Smith."
• Define words such as "spoon" and "cat."
• Infant Crying
• Common Concerns

It's common for parents to have questions about their child's speech and language development.

Speech and language delays

Many different things affect a child's speech development. Some of these things may cause a child to start speaking a little later than others of the same age. For example:

• Children who have older siblings may start to talk slightly later than their older brothers or sisters did.
• Children raised in bilingual homes may have a slight delay in starting to speak. But they don't have more trouble learning to talk, read, and write than those who learn only one language. In fact, learning two or more languages may boost a child's overall ability to learn.

True delays are related to developmental or health issues, such as some types of hearing loss or a family history of speech and language delay.

Signs of speech or language delays are generally based on standard speech and language milestones. For example, if your child is not babbling by 9 months or not saying any words by 15 months, talk with your doctor. The first step may be a hearing test.

Talk to your child's doctor anytime you have concerns. It's important to find speech and language delays early and rule out other conditions. Early treatment can help prevent long-term problems.

Behavioral issues

While they learn and master new language skills, children sometimes talk in ways that are demanding or impolite. For example, a child may say "Give me!" when they want a toy. Often this behavior is because children can't find the words that fit their feelings. Or they may simply repeat what is being said around them. Gently remind your child to use an appropriate voice and manners. And always model polite speech and behavior.

Some parents think that their child is constantly talking or chattering. This is a child's way of practicing. Parents don't have to listen and respond to everything a talkative child says. But don't completely tune out your chatterer either. Singing and dancing with your child and playing music or reading stories geared toward children will help your child learn to listen and to express themself.

Common mistakes

Most children make "mistakes" when they first learn to talk. This is a natural part of language development. For example, children commonly mispronounce words, such as saying "pasghetti" for "spaghetti." As children listen to other people, they often correct their mistakes. They learn to say words clearly and use grammar correctly through practice.

• Speech and Language Delays: Common Misconceptions
• Speech and Language Development: Signs of Possible Problems
• Routine Checkups

Regularly scheduled checkups begin shortly after birth and last through the teen years. They are often called well-child visits.

These visits let your doctor keep a close watch on your child's general health and development. Finding possible problems early gives your child the best chance for proper and successful treatment. Also, any concerns you have about your child can be discussed at these visits.

During the visits, the doctor examines your child. The doctor also asks you questions about your child's development and behavior. And immunizations and screenings are either given or scheduled at this time.

Your child's doctor will recommend a schedule for well-child visits.

Checking for speech and language delays

Mild and temporary speech delays can happen. And some children learn to communicate faster than others do.

Your doctor will check your child's speech and language skills during regular well-child visits. But call your doctor anytime you have concerns about how your child is developing. A child can overcome many speech and language problems with treatment, especially when you catch problems early.

Screening for hearing problems

Almost all 50 states require newborn hearing tests for all babies born in hospitals. Hearing should be checked by a doctor at each well-child visit and anytime you or your child may notice changes. Some hearing problems can delay your child's speech and language development. Be sure your child has regular hearing exams.

• Screening for Hearing Problems
• Well-Child Visits

• When to Call a Doctor

Call your doctor anytime you or another caregiver has concerns about your child's speech and language development. Be aware of signs that point to a possible developmental delay , such as when your child does not make sounds that are expected for your child's age.

Your doctor will do a physical exam and ask questions about your child's medical history. This information can help your doctor identify developmental patterns and assess whether any other conditions, such as hearing loss, are interfering with development.

Your doctor may also recommend other tests to:

• Rule out other conditions. For example, hearing tests done by an audiologist may be recommended to rule out hearing loss.
• Assess speech and language developmental progress. Questionnaires and evaluations by a speech-language pathologist can help define where your child's abilities are in relation to other children of the same age.
• Find out whether other problems, such as behavioral difficulties or developmental delays in other areas, are also occurring.
• Building Skills at Home

To help your child develop speech and language skills, make sure to talk and read to your baby. Later, encourage conversation with your child. The size of a 2-year-old's vocabulary is directly related to how much parents and other caregivers have spoken to that child since the child was born.

Newborn babies are programmed to learn. And parents are naturally excellent language teachers. The kinds of interactions and conversations parents normally have with their children, from "baby talk" to repeating words, are perfect language lessons. Talking, reading, listening, and responding to babies and young children usually are all that they need to help them learn to talk.

Teaching sign language to babies 6 months or older could also help them in several ways. Signing gives babies a way to express their wants and needs when they can't talk. And it gives you another way to bond with your child.

Start reading to your child before he or she is 6 months old. Read to your child each day. Reading to your young child is a very important learning activity for several reasons. While reading, you and your child share a comforting closeness. You also both focus on the same picture and the same concept. Your child can ask you questions, and you can reinforce his or her observations. Reading gives children a chance to learn new words that they wouldn't normally hear in everyday conversation. If you often read to your child, you may help with his or her speech development. It may also help your child's later reading abilities and school performance.

If you have concerns about your own reading skills, seek out an adult reading program at your local library or public school system. You can also go to America's Literacy Directory at www.literacydirectory.org to find reading programs in your area.

Helping your baby, birth to age 1

These are some things you can do to help your baby develop speech and language.

Interacting with your baby and sharing a loving environment will help make your baby more curious, build confidence, and help your baby get familiar with language. These traits will provide a strong foundation for speech and language development.

When you play or read with your child, leave the TV off. Even a show playing in the background can distract you and your baby.

Helping your child, ages 1 to 2

There are things you can do to encourage and support your child's speech and language development.

• Involve your child in conversations.
• Talk about the names of favorite toys and other common objects around the house.
• Speak slowly and clearly, and praise your child's attempts to speak.

To help your child's brain develop, play and read together instead of letting your child watch TV, watch movies, or play games on a screen.

When you play or read with your child, leave the TV off. Even a show playing in the background can distract you and your child. For children younger than 18 months, the American Academy of Pediatrics advises parents to avoid screen time.

Helping your child, ages 2 to 4

These are some things you can do to help your 2- to 4-year-old learn new words and say sentences.

When you can, gently encourage your child to talk to others, including other children near the same age.

When your child makes a language mistake, gently rephrase, repeat, or relabel.

• Read to your child every day.

The American Academy of Pediatrics advises parents to limit screen time to an hour or less each day of high-quality programs.

Helping your child, ages 3 to 5

The best way to help your child learn is to talk and read to your child. Doing these things will help your child learn language skills faster. Try these ideas:

• Read books to your child that tell stories with a beginning, middle, and end.
• Choose stories about your child's interests. Stories about facing fears and solving problems are also good.
• As you read, talk with your child about the story. Ask questions like "What's going to happen next?" and "Why do you think the character did that?"
• Listen to and talk with your child every day.
• Play games that require listening and following instructions.
• Speak clearly and correctly. Avoid "baby talk."
• Encouraging Language Development in Your Preschooler
• Speech and Language Development: Helping Your 1- to 2-Year-Old
• Related Information
• Growth and Development, Ages 1 to 12 Months
• Growth and Development, Ages 12 to 24 Months
• Growth and Development, Ages 2 to 5 Years
• Growth and Development, Newborn
• Hearing Loss

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What is speech, language and communication.

Speech: When we use the term ‘speech’, we are referring to the production of sounds to form words.  

Language: In the simplest sense, we think of language as being the understanding and use of words, sentences and grammar. This involves both receptive language (understanding) and expressive language (use of language).

Communication: Communication involves conveying thoughts, needs, wants and ideas to another person or people. We communicate using language but also non-verbal means such as gesture, facial expression, body language, eye contact etc. Speech is not essential.

Children develop their Speech, Language and Communication skills at different rates and ages. Typically, children will do this through the development of the skills represented in the Communication Pyramid below.

The skills at the bottom of the pyramid act as the foundations for the skills at the top. 

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Medway Community Healthcare (MCH) provides a wide range of high quality community health services for Medway residents; from health visitors and district nurses to speech and language therapists and out of hours urgent care.

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Voice, Speech, and Language

• Developmental Language Disorder

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• Apraxia of Speech
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Voice, Speech, and Language in the News: NIDCD-Supported Research

• March 19, 2024 Brain recordings in people before surgery reveal how all minds plan what to say before speaking
• February 15, 2024 How our brains' beta waves predict stuttering
• February 13, 2024 How the brain produces speech - NIH Research Matters

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• Nearly 1 in 12 Children Ages 3–17 Has a Disorder Related to Voice, Speech, Lang…
• Prevent Voice Problems: Stay Hydrated (Multimedia content)
• Statistics and Epidemiology
• Developmental Milestones in Children Through Age 5 - Centers for Disease Contro…

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From sound to meaning: hearing, speech and language

Introduction.

This course looks at how language is understood, which includes hearing and how sounds and words are interpreted by the brain. It takes an interdisciplinary approach and should be of wide general interest.

This OpenLearn course is an adapted extract from the Open University course : SDK228 The science of the mind: investigating mental health [ Tip: hold Ctrl and click a link to open it in a new tab. ( Hide tip ) ] .

Telehealth versus face-to-face delivery of speech language pathology services: a systematic review and meta-analysis

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Background There is an increasing demand for the provision of speech language pathology (SLP) services via telehealth. Therefore, we systematically reviewed randomized controlled trials comparing telehealth to face-to-face provision of SLP services. Methods We searched Medline, Embase, and Cochrane, clinical trial registries, and conducted a citation analysis to identify trials. We included randomized trials comparing similar care delivered live via telehealth (phone or video), to face-to-face. Primary outcomes included: % syllables stuttered (%SS) (for individuals who stutter); change in sound pressure levels monologue (for individuals with Parkinson's disease); and key function scores (for other areas). Where data were sufficient, mean differences were calculated. Results Nine randomized controlled trials were included; 8 evaluated video and 1 evaluated phone telehealth. Risk of bias was generally low or unclear, excepting blinding. There were no significant differences at any time-point up to 18 months for %SS (mean difference, MD 0.1, 95% CI -0.4 to 0.6, p=0.70). For people with Parkinson's disease, there was no difference between groups in change in sound pressure levels (monologue) (MD 0.6, 95% CI -1.2 to 2.5, p=0.49). Four trials investigated interventions for speech sound disorder, voice disorder, and post-stroke dysphagia and aphasia; they found no differences between telehealth service delivery and face-to-face delivery. Conclusions Evidence suggests that the telehealth provision of SLP services may be a viable alternative to their provision face-to-face, particularly to people who stutter and people with Parkinson's disease. The key limitation is the small number of randomized controlled trials, as well as evidence on the quality of life, well-being and satisfaction, and economic outcomes.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funding Statement

This systematic review was commissioned by the Department of Health and Aged Care, Canberra, Australia, as part of a series of systematic reviews on the effectiveness of telehealth within primary care in 2020-21 and their update in 2023. The funder was involved in establishing the parameters of the study question (PICO). The funder was not involved in the conduct, analysis, or interpretation of the systematic review, or in the decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

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I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

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All data produced in the present work are contained in the manuscript

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Trump’s bizarre, vindictive incoherence has to be heard in full to be believed

Excerpts from his speeches do not do justice to Trump’s smorgasbord of vendettas, non sequiturs and comparisons to famous people

Donald Trump’s speeches on the 2024 campaign trail so far have been focused on a laundry list of complaints, largely personal, and an increasingly menacing tone.

He’s on the campaign trail less these days than he was in previous cycles – and less than you’d expect from a guy with dedicated superfans who brags about the size of his crowds every chance he gets. But when he has held rallies, he speaks in dark, dehumanizing terms about migrants, promising to vanquish people crossing the border. He rails about the legal battles he faces and how they’re a sign he’s winning, actually. He tells lies and invents fictions. He calls his opponent a threat to democracy and claims this election could be the last one.

Trump’s tone, as many have noted, is decidedly more vengeful this time around, as he seeks to reclaim the White House after a bruising loss that he insists was a steal. This alone is a cause for concern, foreshadowing what the Trump presidency redux could look like. But he’s also, quite frequently, rambling and incoherent, running off on tangents that would grab headlines for their oddness should any other candidate say them.

Journalists rightly chose not to broadcast Trump’s entire speeches after 2016, believing that the free coverage helped boost the former president and spread lies unchecked. But now there’s the possibility that stories about his speeches often make his ideas appear more cogent than they are – making the case that, this time around, people should hear the full speeches to understand how Trump would govern again.

Watching a Trump speech in full better shows what it’s like inside his head: a smorgasbord of falsehoods, personal and professional vendettas, frequent comparisons to other famous people, a couple of handfuls of simple policy ideas, and a lot of non sequiturs that veer into barely intelligible stories.

Curiously, Trump tucks the most tangible policy implications in at the end. His speeches often finish with a rundown of what his second term in office could bring, in a meditation-like recitation the New York Times recently compared to a sermon. Since these policies could become reality, here’s a few of those ideas:

Instituting the death penalty for drug dealers.

Creating the “Trump Reciprocal Trade Act”: “If China or any other country makes us pay 100% or 200% tariff, which they do, we will make them pay a reciprocal tariff of 100% or 200%. In other words, you screw us and we’ll screw you.”

Indemnifying all police officers and law enforcement officials.

Rebuilding cities and taking over Washington DC, where, he said in a recent speech, there are “beautiful columns” put together “through force of will” because there were no “Caterpillar tractors” and now those columns have graffiti on them.

Issuing an executive order to cut federal funding for any school pushing critical race theory, transgender and other inappropriate racial, sexual or political content.

Moving to one-day voting with paper ballots and voter ID.

This conclusion is the most straightforward part of a Trump speech and is typically the extent of what a candidate for office would say on the campaign trail, perhaps with some personal storytelling or mild joking added in.

But it’s also often the shortest part.

Trump’s tangents aren’t new, nor is Trump’s penchant for elevating baseless ideas that most other presidential candidates wouldn’t, like his promotion of injecting bleach during the pandemic.

But in a presidential race among two old men that’s often focused on the age of the one who’s slightly older, these campaign trail antics shed light on Trump’s mental acuity, even if people tend to characterize them differently than Joe Biden’s. While Biden’s gaffes elicit serious scrutiny, as writers in the New Yorker and the New York Times recently noted, we’ve seemingly become inured to Trump’s brand of speaking, either skimming over it or giving him leeway because this has always been his shtick.

Trump, like Biden, has confused names of world leaders (but then claims it’s on purpose ). He has also stumbled and slurred his words. But beyond that, Trump’s can take a different turn. Trump has described using an “iron dome” missile defense system as “ding, ding, ding, ding, ding, ding. They’ve only got 17 seconds to figure this whole thing out. Boom. OK. Missile launch. Whoosh. Boom.”

These tangents can be part of a tirade, or they can be what one can only describe as complete nonsense.

During this week’s Wisconsin speech, which was more coherent than usual, Trump pulled out a few frequent refrains: comparing himself, incorrectly , to Al Capone, saying he was indicted more than the notorious gangster; making fun of the Georgia prosecutor Fani Willis’s first name (“It’s spelled fanny like your ass, right? Fanny. But when she became DA, she decided to add a little French, a little fancy”).

He made fun of Biden’s golfing game, miming how Biden golfs, perhaps a ding back at Biden for poking Trump about his golf game. Later, he called Biden a “lost soul” and lamented that he gets to sit at the president’s desk. “Can you imagine him sitting at the Resolute Desk? What a great desk,” Trump said.

One muddled addition in Wisconsin involved squatters’ rights, a hot topic related to immigration now: “If you have illegal aliens invading your home, we will deport you,” presumably meaning the migrant would be deported instead of the homeowner. He wanted to create a federal taskforce to end squatting, he said.

“Sounds like a little bit of a weird topic but it’s not, it’s a very bad thing,” he said.

These half-cocked remarks aren’t new; they are a feature of who Trump is and how he communicates that to the public, and that’s key to understanding how he is as a leader.

The New York Times opinion writer Jamelle Bouie described it as “something akin to the soft bigotry of low expectations”, whereby no one expected him to behave in an orderly fashion or communicate well.

Some of these bizarre asides are best seen in full, like this one about Biden at the beach in Trump’s Georgia response to the State of the Union:

“Somebody said he looks great in a bathing suit, right? And you know, when he was in the sand and he was having a hard time lifting his feet through the sand, because you know sand is heavy, they figured three solid ounces per foot, but sand is a little heavy, and he’s sitting in a bathing suit. Look, at 81, do you remember Cary Grant? How good was Cary Grant, right? I don’t think Cary Grant, he was good. I don’t know what happened to movie stars today. We used to have Cary Grant and Clark Gable and all these people. Today we have, I won’t say names, because I don’t need enemies. I don’t need enemies. I got enough enemies. But Cary Grant was, like – Michael Jackson once told me, ‘The most handsome man, Trump, in the world.’ ‘Who?’ ‘Cary Grant.’ Well, we don’t have that any more, but Cary Grant at 81 or 82, going on 100. This guy, he’s 81, going on 100. Cary Grant wouldn’t look too good in a bathing suit, either. And he was pretty good-looking, right?”

Or another Hollywood-related bop, inspired by a rant about Willis and special prosecutor Nathan Wade’s romantic relationship:

“It’s a magnificent love story, like Gone With the Wind. You know Gone With the Wind, you’re not allowed to watch it any more. You know that, right? It’s politically incorrect to watch Gone With the Wind. They have a list. What were the greatest movies ever made? Well, Gone With the Wind is usually number one or two or three. And then they have another list you’re not allowed to watch any more, Gone With the Wind. You tell me, is our country screwed up?”

He still claims to have “done more for Black people than any president other than Abraham Lincoln” and also now says he’s being persecuted more than Lincoln and Andrew Jackson:

“ All my life you’ve heard of Andrew Jackson, he was actually a great general and a very good president. They say that he was persecuted as president more than anybody else, second was Abraham Lincoln. This is just what they said. This is in the history books. They were brutal, Andrew Jackson’s wife actually died over it.”

You not only see the truly bizarre nature of Trump’s speeches when viewing them in full, but you see the sheer breadth of his menace and animus toward those who disagree with him.

His comments especially toward migrants have grown more dehumanizing. He has said they are “poisoning the blood” of the US – a nod at Great Replacement Theory, the far-right conspiracy that the left is orchestrating migration to replace white people. Trump claimed the people coming in were “prisoners, murderers, drug dealers, mental patients and terrorists, the worst they have”. He has repeatedly called migrants “animals”.

“Democrats said please don’t call them ‘animals’. I said, no, they’re not humans, they’re animals,” he said during a speech in Michigan this week.

“In some cases they’re not people, in my opinion,” he said during his March appearance in Ohio. “But I’m not allowed to say that because the radical left says that’s a terrible thing to say. “These are animals, OK, and we have to stop it,” he said.

And he has turned more authoritarian in his language, saying he would be a “dictator on day one” but then later said it would only be for a day. He’s called his political enemies “vermin”: “We pledge to you that we will root out the communists, Marxists, fascists and the radical left thugs that live like vermin within the confines of our country,” he said in New Hampshire in late 2023.

At a speech in March in Ohio about the US auto industry he claimed there would be a “bloodbath” if he lost, which some interpreted as him claiming there would be violence if he loses the election.

Trump’s campaign said later that he meant the comment to be specific to the auto industry, but now the former president has started saying Biden created a “border bloodbath” and the Republican National Committee created a website to that effect as well.

It’s tempting to find a coherent line of attack in Trump speeches to try to distill the meaning of a rambling story. And it’s sometimes hard to even figure out the full context of what he’s saying, either in text or subtext and perhaps by design, like the “bloodbath” comment or him saying there wouldn’t be another election if he doesn’t win this one.

But it’s only in seeing the full breadth of the 2024 Trump speech that one can truly understand what kind of president he could become if he won the election.

“It’s easiest to understand the threat that Trump poses to American democracy most clearly when you see it for yourself,” Susan B Glasser wrote in the New Yorker. “Small clips of his craziness can be too easily dismissed as the background noise of our times.”

If you ask Trump himself, of course, these are just examples that Trump is smart.

“The fake news will say, ‘Oh, he goes from subject to subject.’ No, you have to be very smart to do that. You got to be very smart. You know what it is? It’s called spot-checking. You’re thinking about something when you’re talking about something else, and then you get back to the original. And they go, ‘Holy shit. Did you see what he did?’ It’s called intelligence.”

• Donald Trump
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• US politics

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