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Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

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Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

• Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
• Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
• Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
• Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

• Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
• Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
• Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
• Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
• Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

• Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
• Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
• Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
• Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
• Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
• Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

• Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
• Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
• Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
• Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

• Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
• Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
• Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
• Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
• Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
• Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

• Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
• Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
• Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

• Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
• Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
• Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
• Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Home Market Research

Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them

Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies.

Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively.

What are Research Reports?

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods .

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.

The various sections of a research report are:

• Background/Introduction
• Implemented Methods
• Results based on Analysis
• Deliberation

Learn more: Quantitative Research

Components of Research Reports

Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands.

The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:

• Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary.  It should be interesting enough to capture all the key elements of the report.
• Research Introduction: There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to achieve through a report. In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to this goal and establish a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail.  This section should answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?”.  After the research design was conducted, did the organization conclude the goal successfully or they are still a work in progress –  provide such details in the introduction part of the research report.
• Research Methodology: This is the most important section of the report where all the important information lies. The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the quality of provided content and the research can also be approved by other market researchers . Thus, this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research discussed in detail.  Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to its priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained information from existing techniques.
• Research Results: A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to achieve the goal will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis is carried out in the discussion part of the report.

Learn more: Quantitative Data

• Research Discussion: The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with a comparative analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any abnormality uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section.  While writing research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results will be applicable in the real world.
• Research References and Conclusion: Conclude all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author, article or any content piece from where references were taken.

Learn more: Qualitative Observation

15 Tips for Writing Research Reports

Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are 15 tips for writing impactful research reports:

• Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics:  This was always taught to us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order of survey questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research reports. The idea is to start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and focus on a conclusion or support, which a research should support with the facts.  The most difficult thing to do in reporting, without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the introduction, then document the first discoveries and continue from that. Once the marketers have the information well documented, they can write a general conclusion.
• Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and obvious to them:  Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other researchers? What are the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care and diligence. A researcher will need a significant amount of information to start writing the research report. Be consistent with the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so on. Follow the approved format of the company for the delivery of research reports and demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives of the company.
• Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and make sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the beginning. Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a researcher speculates, they directly question their own research.
• Establish a working model:  Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be required to write research reports and realize that key questions were not included.

Learn more: Quantitative Observation

• Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our customers? Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the language of the industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports from reading further.
• Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the reader will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long and they must change it so that the idea is clear to everyone.
• Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the report. Use verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the results sound more immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun with the language whenever possible.
• Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant, do not mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within research reports.

Learn more: Qualitative Data

• Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed “were worried” about an research issue , when there are different degrees of concern.
• The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs lead the reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the sample, and the correct wording of the question.
• Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with an accuracy of details and language.
• Be creative with titles – Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life to research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation.
• Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult to write, but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes it helps to start the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important part of the study, and finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions.
• Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their own mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved by colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out.

Learn more: Market Research and Analysis

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Research report guide: Definition, types, and tips

Last updated

5 March 2024

Reviewed by

From successful product launches or software releases to planning major business decisions, research reports serve many vital functions. They can summarize evidence and deliver insights and recommendations to save companies time and resources. They can reveal the most value-adding actions a company should take.

However, poorly constructed reports can have the opposite effect! Taking the time to learn established research-reporting rules and approaches will equip you with in-demand skills. You’ll be able to capture and communicate information applicable to numerous situations and industries, adding another string to your resume bow.

• What are research reports?

A research report is a collection of contextual data, gathered through organized research, that provides new insights into a particular challenge (which, for this article, is business-related). Research reports are a time-tested method for distilling large amounts of data into a narrow band of focus.

Their effectiveness often hinges on whether the report provides:

Strong, well-researched evidence

Comprehensive analysis

Well-considered conclusions and recommendations

Though the topic possibilities are endless, an effective research report keeps a laser-like focus on the specific questions or objectives the researcher believes are key to achieving success. Many research reports begin as research proposals, which usually include the need for a report to capture the findings of the study and recommend a course of action.

A description of the research method used, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or other

Statistical analysis

Causal (or explanatory) research (i.e., research identifying relationships between two variables)

Inductive research, also known as ‘theory-building’

Deductive research, such as that used to test theories

Action research, where the research is actively used to drive change

• Importance of a research report

Research reports can unify and direct a company's focus toward the most appropriate strategic action. Of course, spending resources on a report takes up some of the company's human and financial resources. Choosing when a report is called for is a matter of judgment and experience.

Some development models used heavily in the engineering world, such as Waterfall development, are notorious for over-relying on research reports. With Waterfall development, there is a linear progression through each step of a project, and each stage is precisely documented and reported on before moving to the next.

The pace of the business world is faster than the speed at which your authors can produce and disseminate reports. So how do companies strike the right balance between creating and acting on research reports?

The answer lies, again, in the report's defined objectives. By paring down your most pressing interests and those of your stakeholders, your research and reporting skills will be the lenses that keep your company's priorities in constant focus.

Honing your company's primary objectives can save significant amounts of time and align research and reporting efforts with ever-greater precision.

Some examples of well-designed research objectives are:

Proving whether or not a product or service meets customer expectations

Demonstrating the value of a service, product, or business process to your stakeholders and investors

Improving business decision-making when faced with a lack of time or other constraints

Clarifying the relationship between a critical cause and effect for problematic business processes

Prioritizing the development of a backlog of products or product features

Comparing business or production strategies

Evaluating past decisions and predicting future outcomes

• Features of a research report

Research reports generally require a research design phase, where the report author(s) determine the most important elements the report must contain.

Just as there are various kinds of research, there are many types of reports.

Here are the standard elements of almost any research-reporting format:

Report summary. A broad but comprehensive overview of what readers will learn in the full report. Summaries are usually no more than one or two paragraphs and address all key elements of the report. Think of the key takeaways your primary stakeholders will want to know if they don’t have time to read the full document.

Introduction. Include a brief background of the topic, the type of research, and the research sample. Consider the primary goal of the report, who is most affected, and how far along the company is in meeting its objectives.

Methods. A description of how the researcher carried out data collection, analysis, and final interpretations of the data. Include the reasons for choosing a particular method. The methods section should strike a balance between clearly presenting the approach taken to gather data and discussing how it is designed to achieve the report's objectives.

Data analysis. This section contains interpretations that lead readers through the results relevant to the report's thesis. If there were unexpected results, include here a discussion on why that might be. Charts, calculations, statistics, and other supporting information also belong here (or, if lengthy, as an appendix). This should be the most detailed section of the research report, with references for further study. Present the information in a logical order, whether chronologically or in order of importance to the report's objectives.

Conclusion. This should be written with sound reasoning, often containing useful recommendations. The conclusion must be backed by a continuous thread of logic throughout the report.

• How to write a research paper

With a clear outline and robust pool of research, a research paper can start to write itself, but what's a good way to start a research report?

Research report examples are often the quickest way to gain inspiration for your report. Look for the types of research reports most relevant to your industry and consider which makes the most sense for your data and goals.

The research report outline will help you organize the elements of your report. One of the most time-tested report outlines is the IMRaD structure:

Introduction

...and Discussion

Pay close attention to the most well-established research reporting format in your industry, and consider your tone and language from your audience's perspective. Learn the key terms inside and out; incorrect jargon could easily harm the perceived authority of your research paper.

Along with a foundation in high-quality research and razor-sharp analysis, the most effective research reports will also demonstrate well-developed:

Internal logic

Narrative flow

Conclusions and recommendations

Readability, striking a balance between simple phrasing and technical insight

How to gather research data for your report

The validity of research data is critical. Because the research phase usually occurs well before the writing phase, you normally have plenty of time to vet your data.

However, research reports could involve ongoing research, where report authors (sometimes the researchers themselves) write portions of the report alongside ongoing research.

One such research-report example would be an R&D department that knows its primary stakeholders are eager to learn about a lengthy work in progress and any potentially important outcomes.

However you choose to manage the research and reporting, your data must meet robust quality standards before you can rely on it. Vet any research with the following questions in mind:

Does it use statistically valid analysis methods?

Do the researchers clearly explain their research, analysis, and sampling methods?

Did the researchers provide any caveats or advice on how to interpret their data?

Have you gathered the data yourself or were you in close contact with those who did?

Is the source biased?

Usually, flawed research methods become more apparent the further you get through a research report.

It's perfectly natural for good research to raise new questions, but the reader should have no uncertainty about what the data represents. There should be no doubt about matters such as:

Whether the sampling or analysis methods were based on sound and consistent logic

What the research samples are and where they came from

The accuracy of any statistical functions or equations

Validation of testing and measuring processes

When does a report require design validation?

A robust design validation process is often a gold standard in highly technical research reports. Design validation ensures the objects of a study are measured accurately, which lends more weight to your report and makes it valuable to more specialized industries.

Product development and engineering projects are the most common research-report examples that typically involve a design validation process. Depending on the scope and complexity of your research, you might face additional steps to validate your data and research procedures.

If you’re including design validation in the report (or report proposal), explain and justify your data-collection processes. Good design validation builds greater trust in a research report and lends more weight to its conclusions.

Choosing the right analysis method

Just as the quality of your report depends on properly validated research, a useful conclusion requires the most contextually relevant analysis method. This means comparing different statistical methods and choosing the one that makes the most sense for your research.

Most broadly, research analysis comes down to quantitative or qualitative methods (respectively: measurable by a number vs subjectively qualified values). There are also mixed research methods, which bridge the need for merging hard data with qualified assessments and still reach a cohesive set of conclusions.

Some of the most common analysis methods in research reports include:

Significance testing (aka hypothesis analysis), which compares test and control groups to determine how likely the data was the result of random chance.

Regression analysis , to establish relationships between variables, control for extraneous variables , and support correlation analysis.

Correlation analysis (aka bivariate testing), a method to identify and determine the strength of linear relationships between variables. It’s effective for detecting patterns from complex data, but care must be exercised to not confuse correlation with causation.

With any analysis method, it's important to justify which method you chose in the report. You should also provide estimates of the statistical accuracy (e.g., the p-value or confidence level of quantifiable data) of any data analysis.

This requires a commitment to the report's primary aim. For instance, this may be achieving a certain level of customer satisfaction by analyzing the cause and effect of changes to how service is delivered. Even better, use statistical analysis to calculate which change is most positively correlated with improved levels of customer satisfaction.

• Tips for writing research reports

There's endless good advice for writing effective research reports, and it almost all depends on the subjective aims of the people behind the report. Due to the wide variety of research reports, the best tips will be unique to each author's purpose.

Consider the following research report tips in any order, and take note of the ones most relevant to you:

No matter how in depth or detailed your report might be, provide a well-considered, succinct summary. At the very least, give your readers a quick and effective way to get up to speed.

Pare down your target audience (e.g., other researchers, employees, laypersons, etc.), and adjust your voice for their background knowledge and interest levels

For all but the most open-ended research, clarify your objectives, both for yourself and within the report.

Leverage your team members’ talents to fill in any knowledge gaps you might have. Your team is only as good as the sum of its parts.

Justify why your research proposal’s topic will endure long enough to derive value from the finished report.

Consolidate all research and analysis functions onto a single user-friendly platform. There's no reason to settle for less than developer-grade tools suitable for non-developers.

What's the format of a research report?

The research-reporting format is how the report is structured—a framework the authors use to organize their data, conclusions, arguments, and recommendations. The format heavily determines how the report's outline develops, because the format dictates the overall structure and order of information (based on the report's goals and research objectives).

What's the purpose of a research-report outline?

A good report outline gives form and substance to the report's objectives, presenting the results in a readable, engaging way. For any research-report format, the outline should create momentum along a chain of logic that builds up to a conclusion or interpretation.

What's the difference between a research essay and a research report?

There are several key differences between research reports and essays:

Research report:

Ordered into separate sections

More commercial in nature

Often includes infographics

Heavily descriptive

More self-referential

Usually provides recommendations

Research essay

Does not rely on research report formatting

More academically minded

Normally text-only

Less detailed

Omits discussion of methods

Usually non-prescriptive 

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• Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]

One of the reasons for carrying out research is to add to the existing body of knowledge. Therefore, when conducting research, you need to document your processes and findings in a research report. 

With a research report, it is easy to outline the findings of your systematic investigation and any gaps needing further inquiry. Knowing how to create a detailed research report will prove useful when you need to conduct research.  

What is a Research Report?

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process.

Features of a Research Report 

So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a research report. 

• It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and graphs. 
• It is written in a formal language.
• A research report is usually written in the third person.
• It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
• It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
• It always includes recommendations for future actions. 

Types of Research Report 

The research report is classified based on two things; nature of research and target audience.

Nature of Research

• Qualitative Research Report

This is the type of report written for qualitative research . It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of systematic investigation. In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an opportunity for one to apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative research projects.

A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting details of the research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the information.

• Quantitative Research Report

A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative research. Quantitative research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical values in a bid to find answers to research questions. 

In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the research process and findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive, a quantitative research report works with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature. 

Target Audience

Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If you’re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and if you’re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report. 

• Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study. 

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly specialized and filled with jargon. 

Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports. 

• Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible to everyone. 

It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and magazines. 

Importance of a Research Report 

• Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report. A research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic investigation to all and sundry.  
• Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you’d be able to identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas needing systematic investigation. 
• In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and peculiarities at a glance. 
• A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner. 
• It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via email and have stakeholders look at it. 

Guide to Writing a Research Report

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure and Example of a Research Report

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report. 

• Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner. 

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How. 

• Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.

In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.  

• Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation. 

It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study. 

• An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the data collection and analysis procedures. 

In a quantitative research report, you’d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews and focus groups. 

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation. 

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.

• Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study. 

• References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources. 

Tips for Writing a Research Report

• Define the Context for the Report

As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research report would help you create a detailed yet concise document. This is why you need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss out on anything. 

• Define your Audience

Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the report. If you’re writing for a general audience, you would want to present the information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized audience, you would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms. 

• Include Significant Findings

The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your systematic investigation. In your report, you should exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only important data and findings. 

• Include Illustrations

Your research report should include illustrations and other visual representations of your data. Graphs, pie charts, and relevant images lend additional credibility to your systematic investigation.

• Choose the Right Title

A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your research. It should provide a clear idea of your systematic investigation so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title. 

• Proofread the Report

Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to authenticate the information. If you can, get someone else to go through the report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing software. 

How to Gather Research Data for Your Report  

• Understand the Problem

Every research aims at solving a specific problem or set of problems, and this should be at the back of your mind when writing your research report. Understanding the problem would help you to filter the information you have and include only important data in your report. 

• Know what your report seeks to achieve

This is somewhat similar to the point above because, in some way, the aim of your research report is intertwined with the objectives of your systematic investigation. Identifying the primary purpose of writing a research report would help you to identify and present the required information accordingly. 

• Identify your audience

Knowing your target audience plays a crucial role in data collection for a research report. If your research report is specifically for an organization, you would want to present industry-specific information or show how the research findings are relevant to the work that the company does. 

• Create Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to gather data from a specific group of people through a set of questions. It can be either quantitative or qualitative. 

A survey is usually made up of structured questions, and it can be administered online or offline. However, an online survey is a more effective method of research data collection because it helps you save time and gather data with ease. 

You can seamlessly create an online questionnaire for your research on Formplus . With the multiple sharing options available in the builder, you would be able to administer your survey to respondents in little or no time. 

Formplus also has a report summary too l that you can use to create custom visual reports for your research.

Step-by-step guide on how to create an online questionnaire using Formplus  

• Sign into Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different online questionnaires for your research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on Create new form to begin. 

• Edit Form Title : Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Research Questionnaire.”
• Edit Form : Click on the edit icon to edit the form.
• Add Fields : Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 
• Edit fields
• Click on “Save”
• Form Customization: With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the outlook of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images, and even change the font according to your needs. 
• Multiple Sharing Options: Formplus offers various form-sharing options, which enables you to share your questionnaire with respondents easily. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages.  You can also send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access. 

Conclusion  

Always remember that a research report is just as important as the actual systematic investigation because it plays a vital role in communicating research findings to everyone else. This is why you must take care to create a concise document summarizing the process of conducting any research. 

In this article, we’ve outlined essential tips to help you create a research report. When writing your report, you should always have the audience at the back of your mind, as this would set the tone for the document. 

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How to produce a research report

A research report is a document in which a researcher presents the results of an original study. In the past, research reports were published as PDFs. But as you will see from the examples in this guide, the best research reports today are published as highly visual, interactive web pages.

Indeed — over the last five years, we’ve seen an explosion of research reports and white papers from businesses and NGOs.

Take, for example, this recent report on Green Mortgages from IMLA, made with the assistance of digital agency Rostrum. It’s a beautifully designed report, rich with infographics and data visualisations .

The biggest SaaS companies are also investing in reports, including Slack , Twilio , and Atlassian .

It's not only businesses publishing reports. The white paper below, from the Publishers Association, dives into an initiative on the future role of artificial intelligence in the publishing industry.

Join the BBC, Penguin, and the University of Cambridge. Craft stunning, interactive web content with Shorthand. Publish your first story for free — no code or web design skills required. Sign up now.

What is a research report?

A research report is an in-depth document that contains the results of a research project. It includes information about the research topic, the research question, the methodology used to collect data from respondents, the results of the research, and the conclusion of the researcher.

The report also includes information about the funding source or partnerships for the project, if applicable. The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of research studies to a wider audience. The report should be clear, concise, and well-organised so that readers can easily understand the information presented.

Many research reports are formally structured, with headings and — for PDFs — page numbers,

As mentioned above, research reports have traditionally been published as PDFs , but are increasingly moving to interactive content .

The rise of the research report

Why are these organisations investing in research reports and white papers? 

Most of these teams aren’t filled with scientists or academics, and their readers aren’t usually trawling research databases for help with their work. 

The reason is — let’s be blunt — most content published on the web underwhelms. 

Even on the most well-attended blogs, organic traffic and dwell-time generally remains flat. CTAs are stubbornly un-clicked. The common fate of most content is to gather dust almost immediately after publication. 

There are many reasons for this. Search has clearly become much more competitive. It’s difficult for most organisations to get their ordinary blog content ranked anywhere near the first page.

Social media, too, has long been a ‘pay-to-play’ environment, with only extremely brave (or foolish) content teams banking on their posts going viral.

The move to quality over quantity

To meet these challenges, the most successful content teams have committed to producing high-quality content. Rather than pumping out content-for-content’s-sake — which, to be frank, few humans actually want to read — these teams produce content that helps, informs, and delights their readers.

High quality content takes a range of forms, including ebooks, longform content , all-encompassing ‘skyscraper’ guides, and feature stories . It's often highly visual, immersive, and multimedia, and can include elements like audio, video, and interactive infographics .

Because this content is produced to genuinely help the reader, it’s much more likely to be read, shared, and — critically for SEO — linked. Readers tend to stay on the page for longer, another key metric for SEO. They’re also more likely to click calls-to-action.

This is borne out by our customers at Shorthand. After nine months using Shorthand as an investment in producing high quality content, Imperial College London’s feature stories saw 142% higher average unique pageviews and 50% higher average time on page.

Honda, too, saw the average site dwell time increase by 85% after transitioning to publishing immersive, high quality digital stories (again, built with Shorthand).

Clearly, quality content gets better results. But it isn’t easy to make. It requires investment, dedication, and clear goals. 

In this guide, we focus on one of the best-performing genres of quality content — the research report, which has become the not-so-secret weapon for the world’s leading content teams.  

What should a research report include? 

For most organisations, research reports will sit somewhere between marketing and academia. 

On the one hand, they need to be as rigorous, scientific, and statistically literate as any published research paper. There's no point — and real reputational risk — in publishing a sloppy, factually inaccurate report.

On the other hand, most research reports outside of academia are published to support sales and marketing efforts. For some companies, such as market research firms, these reports  are  the product itself. Research reports need to be beautifully produced, clearly written, and have clear takeaways for the reader.

But unlike academia, there's also no one-size-fits-all structure. With that in mind, here are some common sections to keep in mind when writing a research report. 

Navigation . For print reports and PDFs, it's common to include a table of contents after the title page. But if you're producing your report natively for the web — which we highly recommend — then it's worth giving your reader a way to jump back and forth. At Shorthand, we make it simple to create a custom top navigation, which allows readers to easily browse through longer content. 

Introduction section . For research reports, your introduction is a good opportunity to outline the scope of your work; note your research questions, research design, and research methods; establish context and significance; and add any background information you think might be relevant.

Literature review . These take a specific form in academic research, but outside of academia, it might pay to show some awareness of other research that has been conducted in your space. 

Research Methodology . Again, this doesn't need to have all the rigour of an academic journal article. But to establish credibility, it pays to outline how you produced and analysed the qualitative or quantitative data at the heart of your report. For example, if you collected your data from an online questionnaire, it pays to point this out. 

Research findings . The most important part of your report will be your results section, covering of your findings. As we discuss below, for quantitative research, this section should be rich with data visualisations and infographics . This will likely be the most compelling part of the report for your readers. 

Discussion section . This is where you can contextualise the results, and offer an argument about the significance of the data. In many research reports for brands, this section and the 'research findings' sections are merged.

Conclusion. This is where you can pull the various threads of your research report together. This will also allow you to carefully advance an argument about the significance of the research, and what it suggests about the future.

Craft stunning, interactive research reports with Shorthand. Publish your first story for free — no code or web design skills required. Sign up now.

Trust the process

More than any other genre of content, research reports require consistent — and persistent — project management. Unlike blog posts or case studies, a research report can't be turned around in a week or two.

This can be daunting for teams that haven't published research before — and daunting projects have a way of getting postponed.

As with any large project, the best thing to do is create a realistic plan. This plan will need to include all the different stakeholders — including writers, designers, and management — and factor in their likely contribution. Part of this will involve taking a realistic look at their future commitments. 

Plan time for data collection, drafting, data visualisation, design, editing , and writing. This will all take longer than you think.

Once you've established your plan — and once it's been signed off by all relevant stakeholders — stick to it. Trust it. Try not to deviate too much from the process.

Produce fresh data

Data is the core of any research report. It will be the stuff that gets quoted and highlighted, and it will be what earns your report any backlinks or extra addition. 

Without fresh data, your report is just another bunch of unsupported assertions — and there’s more than enough of those on the web already.

The way you get fresh data will depend on what exactly you’re researching. You might be analysing usage patterns in software. You might be interviewing your customers or a professional cohort. 

It could be anything — but whatever it is, make sure it’s fresh and unique to your report. 

If you're looking for more examples and inspiration, check out our guide on how to get started with data storytelling , as well as our post on  8 examples of powerful data stories .

Don't cut corners with the data

(or anything else).

Odds are, your research report isn’t going to be peer reviewed, and it won’t be published in a scientific journal. But this doesn't give you an excuse to cut corners. 

A research report is a form of ‘anchor’ content. It is specifically produced to earn attention for your brand. 

But attention can swing both ways. If people notice mistakes or major errors in your report, then this will impact the reputation of your organisation.

What are the most common mistakes for research reports? 

The most common areas where research reports fall down are in data collection, data analysis, and data visualisation. Make sure you have someone sufficiently numerate to double-check your process and results. 

Establish the reputation of your brand

A research report is an invaluable way to establish your brand as a leader in your field. This is important for SEO and engagement. But it’s also important for the buying process — whatever it is your organisation is trying to sell.

Simply put, potential leads are much more likely to take action with organisations that they trust. This is true for businesses — but it is also true for NGOs, universities, and government agencies.

You can read more in our guide to brand storytelling .

The most effective research reports are presented as a neutral interpretation of data — without any embellishment or sales flourishes.

Ideally, you want your readers to engage with your report as an accurate representation of the world. You want them to trust it — and trust you. Anything that betrays your agenda will weaken this trust, and make the report less effective.

Obviously, your report isn’t neutral. It’s an investment in a piece of content. And, like all content you publish, you have an end goal in mind. 

But, done well, a professionally produced report will accomplish those goals — including better engagement, reputational gain, and lead generation — without you needing to aggressively sell your product or service.

Visualise your data

After collecting data and analysing your findings, you need to consider your data visualisations. This includes any relevant charts, graphs, and maps. 

Your data visualisations will be the centrepiece of your report. They will likely be the parts of your report that readers skip to. They’re also likely to be the information readers retain and share. 

With this in mind, they're worth doing right. There are many different data visualisation tools out there, and there's no single best approach. 

Read more about data visualisation in our guide to effective data journalism .

Some reports will benefit from a chart or map that readers can click and interrogate in the browser. Others will benefit from scroll-based animation, as used in this story from the Council of the European Union.

One constant across the best research reports on the web, though, is the use of interactive data visualisation. While it was common in the past to use static images of charts and graphs — usually recycling visual assets used in the PDF version of the report — this approach is gradually being supplanted by more advanced techniques. 

Some of these data visualisation techniques will require web design and developer resource. Others — like Shorthand itself — will be easier to use out-of-the-box. 

PDFs are an extraordinarily common method of publishing research reports — even today. Indeed, some organisations publish their reports as ‘PDF-first,’ with any web publication treated as a poor cousin.

This is the wrong approach. And with the rise of new web technologies and more powerful web browsers, it’s also extremely outdated. For better results, we recommend producing reports first and foremost for the web. 

Web-based reports have many distinct advantages over the PDF, including:

• They can be read on all screen sizes, including phones. No pinching or zooming required. 
• They can be easily indexed and optimised for search. 
• They can include interactive data visualisations and animations, video, and high resolution images. Even the most beautiful PDF can't compete with a visually-immersive digital story.
• They are easier to share. A high-resolution PDF is simply too clunky to share on all channels (including social media).

If you want you to read more about the problems with the PDF, check out our guide on why the PDF is falling out of favour .

Get inspired by the best

With the rise of digital storytelling platforms, the calibre of published research reports on the web has improved markedly. That means that there are plenty of excellent reports to check out for inspiration. 

At Shorthand, we’ve collected some of the best reports — including thought-leadership reports, annual reports for businesses and NGOs, and original research — in our collection of featured stories .

Publish your first story free with Shorthand

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• Mission and history
• Platform features
• Library Advisory Group
• What’s in JSTOR
• For Librarians
• For Publishers

Open research reports

JSTOR hosts a growing curated collection of more than 50,000 open research reports from 187 think tanks and research institutes from around the world. These publications are freely accessible to everyone on JSTOR and discoverable as their own content type alongside journals, books, and primary sources. We update research reports on our platform each month as they become available through contributing institutes.

Download the list (xlsx) of contributing policy institutes.

Research reports provide current analysis on many of today’s most discussed and debated issues from a diversity of ideological and international perspectives representing 40 countries and 29 languages. A sample of topics would include: climate change, border security, fake news, cybersecurity, electric vehicles, artificial intelligence, energy policy, gender issues, terrorism, remote learning, recent trends in business and economics, and various public health issues, including COVID-19.

Although the briefs, papers, and reports published by these institutes are not peer-reviewed, they are written by policy experts and members of the academic community who are fellows in residence. This is content that impacts policy, both foreign and domestic. It is also increasingly used by faculty in their classrooms for its currency, breadth, and accessibility.

JSTOR’s research reports cover seven Areas of Focus: Business & Economics, Critical Race & Ethnic Studies, Education, Gender & Sexuality, Public Health, Security Studies, and Sustainability.

Browse research reports

Why research reports on JSTOR?

Input from faculty and librarians revealed that although research reports were for the most part freely available outside of JSTOR, they were hard to find and not easily discoverable alongside relevant material. It was also difficult for students to differentiate between the most credible research reports and a growing corpus of questionable sources on the Web.

JSTOR has attempted to redress these issues by centralizing a curated collection of think tank research reports on a single platform, making this content freely available to all JSTOR users, and enhancing its discoverability through comprehensive searching and the application of rich metadata.

• Academic Skills
• Reading, writing and referencing

Research reports

This resource will help you identify the common elements and basic format of a research report.

Research reports generally follow a similar structure and have common elements, each with a particular purpose. Learn more about each of these elements below.

Common elements of reports

Your title should be brief, topic-specific, and informative, clearly indicating the purpose and scope of your study. Include key words in your title so that search engines can easily access your work. For example:  Measurement of water around Station Pier.

An abstract is a concise summary that helps readers to quickly assess the content and direction of your paper. It should be brief, written in a single paragraph and cover: the scope and purpose of your report; an overview of methodology; a summary of the main findings or results; principal conclusions or significance of the findings; and recommendations made.

The information in the abstract must be presented in the same order as it is in your report. The abstract is usually written last when you have developed your arguments and synthesised the results.

The introduction creates the context for your research. It should provide sufficient background to allow the reader to understand and evaluate your study without needing to refer to previous publications. After reading the introduction your reader should understand exactly what your research is about, what you plan to do, why you are undertaking this research and which methods you have used. Introductions generally include:

• The rationale for the present study. Why are you interested in this topic? Why is this topic worth investigating?
• Key terms and definitions.
• An outline of the research questions and hypotheses; the assumptions or propositions that your research will test.

Not all research reports have a separate literature review section. In shorter research reports, the review is usually part of the Introduction.

A literature review is a critical survey of recent relevant research in a particular field. The review should be a selection of carefully organised, focused and relevant literature that develops a narrative ‘story’ about your topic. Your review should answer key questions about the literature:

• What is the current state of knowledge on the topic?
• What differences in approaches / methodologies are there?
• Where are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
• What further research is needed? The review may identify a gap in the literature which provides a rationale for your study and supports your research questions and methodology.

The review is not just a summary of all you have read. Rather, it must develop an argument or a point of view that supports your chosen methodology and research questions.

The purpose of this section is to detail how you conducted your research so that others can understand and replicate your approach.

You need to briefly describe the subjects (if appropriate), any equipment or materials used and the approach taken. If the research method or method of data analysis is commonly used within your field of study, then simply reference the procedure. If, however, your methods are new or controversial then you need to describe them in more detail and provide a rationale for your approach. The methodology is written in the past tense and should be as concise as possible.

This section is a concise, factual summary of your findings, listed under headings appropriate to your research questions. It’s common to use tables and graphics. Raw data or details about the method of statistical analysis used should be included in the Appendices.

Present your results in a consistent manner. For example, if you present the first group of results as percentages, it will be confusing for the reader and difficult to make comparisons of data if later results are presented as fractions or as decimal values.

In general, you won’t discuss your results here. Any analysis of your results usually occurs in the Discussion section.

Notes on visual data representation:

• Graphs and tables may be used to reveal trends in your data, but they must be explained and referred to in adjacent accompanying text.
• Figures and tables do not simply repeat information given in the text: they summarise, amplify or complement it.
• Graphs are always referred to as ‘Figures’, and both axes must be clearly labelled.
• Tables must be numbered, and they must be able to stand-alone or make sense without your reader needing to read all of the accompanying text.

The Discussion responds to the hypothesis or research question. This section is where you interpret your results, account for your findings and explain their significance within the context of other research. Consider the adequacy of your sampling techniques, the scope and long-term implications of your study, any problems with data collection or analysis and any assumptions on which your study was based. This is also the place to discuss any disappointing results and address limitations.

Checklist for the discussion

• To what extent was each hypothesis supported?
• To what extent are your findings validated or supported by other research?
• Were there unexpected variables that affected your results?
• On reflection, was your research method appropriate?
• Can you account for any differences between your results and other studies?

Conclusions in research reports are generally fairly short and should follow on naturally from points raised in the Discussion. In this section you should discuss the significance of your findings. To what extent and in what ways are your findings useful or conclusive? Is further research required? If so, based on your research experience, what suggestions could you make about improvements to the scope or methodology of future studies?

Also, consider the practical implications of your results and any recommendations you could make. For example, if your research is on reading strategies in the primary school classroom, what are the implications of your results for the classroom teacher? What recommendations could you make for teachers?

A Reference List contains all the resources you have cited in your work, while a Bibliography is a wider list containing all the resources you have consulted (but not necessarily cited) in the preparation of your work. It is important to check which of these is required, and the preferred format, style of references and presentation requirements of your own department.

Appendices (singular ‘Appendix’) provide supporting material to your project. Examples of such materials include:

• Relevant letters to participants and organisations (e.g. regarding the ethics or conduct of the project).
• Background reports.
• Detailed calculations.

Different types of data are presented in separate appendices. Each appendix must be titled, labelled with a number or letter, and referred to in the body of the report.

Appendices are placed at the end of a report, and the contents are generally not included in the word count.

Fi nal ti p

While there are many common elements to research reports, it’s always best to double check the exact requirements for your task. You may find that you don’t need some sections, can combine others or have specific requirements about referencing, formatting or word limits.

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Uncomplicated Reviews of Educational Research Methods

• Writing a Research Report

.pdf version of this page

This review covers the basic elements of a research report. This is a general guide for what you will see in journal articles or dissertations. This format assumes a mixed methods study, but you can leave out either quantitative or qualitative sections if you only used a single methodology.

This review is divided into sections for easy reference. There are five MAJOR parts of a Research Report:

1.    Introduction 2.    Review of Literature 3.    Methods 4.    Results 5.    Discussion

As a general guide, the Introduction, Review of Literature, and Methods should be about 1/3 of your paper, Discussion 1/3, then Results 1/3.

Section 1 : Cover Sheet (APA format cover sheet) optional, if required.

Section 2: Abstract (a basic summary of the report, including sample, treatment, design, results, and implications) (≤ 150 words) optional, if required.

Section 3 : Introduction (1-3 paragraphs) •    Basic introduction •    Supportive statistics (can be from periodicals) •    Statement of Purpose •    Statement of Significance

Section 4 : Research question(s) or hypotheses •    An overall research question (optional) •    A quantitative-based (hypotheses) •    A qualitative-based (research questions) Note: You will generally have more than one, especially if using hypotheses.

Section 5: Review of Literature ▪    Should be organized by subheadings ▪    Should adequately support your study using supporting, related, and/or refuting evidence ▪    Is a synthesis, not a collection of individual summaries

Section 6: Methods ▪    Procedure: Describe data gathering or participant recruitment, including IRB approval ▪    Sample: Describe the sample or dataset, including basic demographics ▪    Setting: Describe the setting, if applicable (generally only in qualitative designs) ▪    Treatment: If applicable, describe, in detail, how you implemented the treatment ▪    Instrument: Describe, in detail, how you implemented the instrument; Describe the reliability and validity associated with the instrument ▪    Data Analysis: Describe type of procedure (t-test, interviews, etc.) and software (if used)

Section 7: Results ▪    Restate Research Question 1 (Quantitative) ▪    Describe results ▪    Restate Research Question 2 (Qualitative) ▪    Describe results

Section 8: Discussion ▪    Restate Overall Research Question ▪    Describe how the results, when taken together, answer the overall question ▪    ***Describe how the results confirm or contrast the literature you reviewed

Section 9: Recommendations (if applicable, generally related to practice)

Section 10: Limitations ▪    Discuss, in several sentences, the limitations of this study. ▪    Research Design (overall, then info about the limitations of each separately) ▪    Sample ▪    Instrument/s ▪    Other limitations

Section 11: Conclusion (A brief closing summary)

Section 12: References (APA format)

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About research rundowns.

Research Rundowns was made possible by support from the Dewar College of Education at Valdosta State University .

• Experimental Design
• What is Educational Research?
• Writing Research Questions
• Mixed Methods Research Designs
• Qualitative Coding & Analysis
• Qualitative Research Design
• Correlation
• Effect Size
• Instrument, Validity, Reliability
• Mean & Standard Deviation
• Significance Testing (t-tests)
• Steps 1-4: Finding Research
• Steps 5-6: Analyzing & Organizing
• Steps 7-9: Citing & Writing

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How to Write Effective Research Reports

Frankline kibuacha | dec. 02, 2022 | 3 min. read.

A research report is a document that summarizes and provides an analysis of the findings of a research project. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, data, and findings of a research study, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

There are a few questions a research report should answer:

• What are you researching?
• What is the goal of your research?
• What are your methods for researching?
• What did you find in your research?
• How does this compare to other findings?
• And what is the impact of this finding on the world?

A research report is normally organized into three broad sections. First, an introduction provides a brief background on the topic and introduces the reader to your perspective. The second section is the body of the report, which should include the research findings and supporting evidence. Finally, the conclusion, which summarizes your arguments and the implications of your study for future research.

Every year, GeoPoll carries out hundreds of research studies and produces reports on several topics, both for clients and internally commissioned studies. In this article, we highlight some tips for writing great reports from our experience.

Tips for writing excellent research reports

• Start from the basics – with an outline – It is a good idea to outline the research context and findings before taking the plunge, as it helps with the flow and structure of the research report. Once you have the broader information well documented, filling the gaps with the content and findings becomes more straightforward and sets the tone for the report.
• Consider the target audience – To guide the report, always keep the target audience in mind and then select a format that is clear, logical and obvious to the audience. A report meant for top decision-makers, for example, could be more concise than one meant for other researchers. Writing for the audience ensures that the research findings help the cause, so consider writing in their language to make it easy to understand at their level.
• Answer the research questions – Every effective research starts with a clear objective. In writing the report, make sure that the data provided contribute to the goal, which is, in reality, the real purpose for conducting the research in the first place.
• Be simple and clear – Research reports need not be complicated. Aim to write the report with an accuracy of details and language that is simplest and clearest to the reader. Use clear titles that clearly describe the following section in a way that readers will want to get into.
• Provide the methodology implemented – Researchers should also include a summary of the methods used to conduct the research, which provides the overall approaches and perspectives of the research process. The methodology details aspects such as the research objectives, the sample used , broken down into demographics such as gender, location, age, and other sample characteristics, data collection modes used, and data analysis methods. Sharing your methodology gives legitimacy to your research.
• Choose graphs correctly – Research reports often feature graphs to bring out data clearly. To fulfill this purpose, the graphs you use in your report must be clear enough so that the readers understand them themselves. Use clear titles, try and include the original question, and choose the best chart types to represent the data.
• Remain relevant – Not everything is genuinely essential to a research report, and you should aim at prioritizing only the significant discoveries. The idea of a research report is to present an abridged yet impactful version of your research, and it’s OK to exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only essential data and findings.
• Grammar and spelling are imperative – Even more important than most writings, research reports need to be written following the best language practices to help to understand the report and not unconsciously water down the seriousness of the information. Read aloud while writing to put yourself in the shoes of the reader. Use grammar and spell-checking tools and engage other people to proofread the report to ensure it reads well for the target audience.
• Choose an impactful title – A good research report title is brief, precise, and provides a clear idea of the underlying research so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title.
• Shoot for a strong conclusion – The conclusion in the research reports is primarily important because it summarizes the information and recommendations, and often, some readers skim through to the conclusion. Make a precise summary, highlight the findings that stand out, and provide the implications or courses of action derived from the research findings.

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Ten simple rules for writing a Registered Report

Emma l. henderson.

1 School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom

Christopher D. Chambers

2 Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre, School of Psychology, Cardiff, United Kingdom

Associated Data

Introduction.

Registered Reports are an increasingly popular publishing format that is currently offered in more than 300 journals. Because the process of writing and submitting a Registered Report is different to that of standard manuscripts, we felt it important to create this “10 Simple Rules” guide for writing a more open and useful manuscript.

What are Registered Reports?

Registered Reports are a form of research article where the study protocol is reviewed before the study is undertaken. They are designed to reduce publication bias and various forms of reporting bias by using a 2-stage writing and peer review process. Before the research is conducted, authors submit a Stage 1 manuscript that includes an introduction (with hypotheses where relevant) and detailed methods and analysis plans. Following peer review and revision, the decision to publish is made based on evaluation of the research question and the rigour of the methods, and is therefore results-agnostic. If the article is accepted, authors receive an “in-principle acceptance” that commits the journal or platform to publishing the final research regardless of the outcome . Authors then conduct their research as outlined in their Stage 1 and complete a Stage 2 manuscript in which the results and discussion sections are added to the approved Stage 1 protocol. The completed manuscript undergoes a second round of peer review focusing on compliance with the Stage 1 plans and assessing whether the conclusions are valid given the results. Following possible revisions, the Registered Report is published.

Benefits of Registered Reports

Registered Reports bring a wealth of benefits both for the research community and for the individual researcher. A key benefit is that they provide a powerful antidote for publication bias, see [ 1 , 2 ]: The decision to publish is results-agnostic because it is taken pre-study and results-blind. This principle not only ensures that both “positive” and “negative” results are equally likely to be published, but also guarantees publication independent of outcome (as long as you follow your Stage 1 plans, see rule 8 ) while releasing the pressure on authors to present “positive,” ground-breaking, or novel results [ 3 ]. Thus, this format not only alleviates the aforementioned biases, but also the stress on researchers navigating their way through a “publish or perish” culture.

Receiving the commitment to publish your research before the study is run (in-principle acceptance at Stage 1) means that you can add the paper to your CV as a concrete output (i.e., you can include the in-principle acceptance date and journal/platform) much earlier than for a standard article where you have to wait until the study is completed and accepted. This is particularly vital for early career researchers (ECRs) applying for their first jobs and grants and is perhaps among the reasons why the majority of published Registered Reports are first authored by ECRs [ 3 ].

A further salient benefit for the individual researcher is that Stage 1 peer review occurs when it matters most—before any primary research is conducted (in some cases, pilot work may have been completed) and at a time when the authors can improve the quality of their research by adjusting their plans.

Types of Registered Reports

To date, the majority of the over 700 (at time of publication) published Registered Reports report confirmatory, experimental work. However, as the format develops, Registered Reports are increasingly being used for more diverse types of research. The following formats currently exist (note not all journals that offer Registered Reports support all formats, so check your target journal early, see rule 3 ):

Confirmatory: So called “primary Registered Reports” report hypothesis-testing (confirmatory) research using newly generated data and currently make up the bulk of published Registered Reports. These papers may include a single study (e.g., [ 4 ]) or several prespecified studies (e.g., [ 5 ]).

Existing data: So called “secondary Registered Reports” use data that already exist to answer a research question (e.g., [ 6 ]). If there is a potential risk of bias because the data have already been observed, you will need to address this risk (see here for further information, including a level-based taxonomy of bias control for Registered Reports involving existing data).

Meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and systematic maps: Protocols for research synthesis studies are often publicly registered, but the Registered Reports format has the added benefits of protocol peer review and in-principle acceptance (e.g., systematic review and meta-analysis: [ 7 ]; systematic map: [ 8 ]).

Qualitative : Many aspects of qualitative research can be specified a priori (e.g., [ 9 ]). Authors can refer to guidance on qualitative preregistration [ 10 ].

Incremental: You can add a new study to an accepted Registered Report. This option is appropriate where studies are interdependent, for example, the results of study 1 inform the design of study 2, or where an important exploratory finding warrants a second study within the same article (more information here , no examples at the time of publication).

Programmatic: For larger or longer-term projects, programmatic Registered Reports offer the option to publish several Stage 2 manuscripts from a single approved Stage 1 (e.g., [ 11 ]).

The rules below detail practical recommendations to help researchers with both experimental and non-experimental research. Rules 1 to 6 relate to the steps leading up to Stage 1 in-principle acceptance and 7 to 10 to post acceptance.

Rule 1: Learn on the job

Use the period of writing your Stage 1 manuscript to learn before you conduct your study, so that when you come to run it, you have already anticipated potential pitfalls and know how you will handle, analyse, and interpret your data. Starting work on your Registered Report from as early a stage as possible will help guide your focus and learning. Most journals or platforms that offer Registered Reports have clear guidelines on their statistical (e.g., conducting a statistical sampling plan) and methodological requirements, some of which you may not be familiar with. Knowing the parameters against which your work will be judged before you design it allows you to learn the right things at the right time or to seek out collaborators with appropriate expertise as necessary. Ensure your collaborators are familiar with the Registered Reports format. All coauthors should understand the primary aim of Registered Reports to reduce bias, which requires critical design and analysis decisions to be made before conducting the research, and the Stage 1 manuscript to remain largely unchanged in the final paper. For introductory guides to Registered Reports, see [ 3 , 12 ].

The format also front-loads important decisions to the start of the research project, when you’re motivated and excited about the study. You will receive reviewer feedback when it’s most useful—before you start your research—allowing you to improve the design in ways that would be impossible had the study already been run as with traditional peer review. So when you start data collection (or analysis in the case of secondary data), you will have everything ready to complete your study, including a detailed, peer-reviewed study protocol.

Rule 2: Develop an empirically valid question and a sound, feasible study design that can answer that question

Without an empirically valid question, you do not have the basis of a Registered Report: The philosophy behind Registered Reports is that what gives research its value is the question being asked and the quality of the methods used, not the results. Valid research questions are usually derived from theory, applications, or gaps in knowledge. At Stage 1 peer review, the editor and reviewers will evaluate the empirical validity of your research question(s), and some journals may also assess its subjective importance. You should use your introduction to explain why the question needs to be answered and how the study will be informative regardless of the outcome (e.g., whether the hypothesis is supported or not). To do this, you should describe the logic and rationale for your research question(s); your hypotheses (where applicable) should follow directly from your research question(s), be precisely stated, and translate theoretical predictions into observable outcomes.

The second key criteria reviewers assess at Stage 1 is the soundness and feasibility of your methodology and analysis plan to test your questions. In terms of soundness, you should consider design features that maximise the rigour and informativeness of your study (regardless of outcome) such as sample size, blinding, randomisation, participant recruitment criteria, prespecification and justification of inclusion and exclusion criteria, validity (see [ 13 ]), generalisability (see [ 14 ]), and outcome-neutral checks (also known as “control checks,” “positive controls,” “manipulation checks,” “tests of intervention fidelity,” or “sanity checks”) that confirm that the study is sufficiently well designed to be capable of answering the research questions. Outcome-neutral checks test the auxiliary assumptions in your design, for example that your independent variable manipulates what it intends to, by targeting a variable (other than the dependent variable of interest) that the independent variable would be expected to influence. Such checks show you and reviewers that the study worked as intended, and a “negative” result therefore cannot be ascribed to a failed manipulation. For more information, see [ 15 ].

In the event of a failed outcome-neutral check, the study may still be informative in showing that a procedure does not perform as intended, perhaps even challenging the status of an assumed reality check [ 15 ]. In such cases, the commitment to publishing the Stage 2 manuscript is likely to be maintained provided there are additional indicators that the study was undertaken to a sufficiently high standard. In rare, severe cases, where outcome-neutral checks and all other critical quality checks fail, the article may be rejected at Stage 2. However, a more likely outcome in that case is that authors would be given the opportunity to redesign the study. This would be treated as an incremental registration in which the authors add a study to the approved submission, and the new study undergoes Stage 1 peer review.

For Registered Reports involving hypothesis testing, reviewers are evaluating the extent to which your study minimises false positives (i.e., incorrectly concluding that an effect exists) and false negatives (i.e., incorrectly concluding that there is no effect). Again, these factors maximise the informativeness of the study regardless of outcome. Prespecifying your analysis plan constrains researcher degrees of freedom and helps minimise false positives. You should prespecify your sampling plan (e.g., statistical power analysis) for each hypothesis including the reasoning for your effect size, the rationale for any specified statistical priors, cut offs, collapsing analyses across groups, etc. You should also consider designing your analysis plan to maximise the informativeness of null results by using equivalence testing [ 16 ] or Bayesian analyses to support claims of invariance between conditions [ 17 ].

Pilot data, though not a requirement of Registered Reports, is especially useful to test and show reviewers that your planned design is feasible (pilot data is not typically useful for calculating power analyses as it introduces bias; see [ 18 ] for an explanation and [ 19 ] for recommendations). As well as allowing you to check feasibility, pilot data may reveal unanticipated exclusion criteria for example, and will give you data to plan your data analysis steps in order to write your Stage 1 protocol and code (code is preferable to narrative explanations because it is more precise). If you are writing a meta-analysis, systematic review, or systematic map, you should pilot your searches to ensure that you will have sufficient studies included to provide a meaningful answer to your research question(s). This level of planning is one of the benefits of Registered Reports over vanilla preregistration; you do not just specify the topline design, but also detail all the processes and steps behind that design, so you won’t end up wedded to a design that is infeasible in practice. Any research conducted prior to your Stage 1 submission should be noted as such (e.g., “All steps in this search term identification section were completed prior to submitting the Stage 1 Registered Report”).

The template in S1 Appendix provides further information on the criteria necessary for designing a rigorous Registered Report.

Rule 3: Select your journal (or don’t) and understand the journal requirements while planning your study

While developing your study, plan where you’re going to submit your work. There are 2 main options: submit to a single journal that offers Registered Reports or to the supra-journal platform Peer Community In Registered Reports (PCI RR).

For the former option, refer to the current list of journals that offer Registered Reports . Beyond checking the disciplinary scope of your target journal, also check that the journal accepts the type of study that you’re designing. All journals that currently offer Registered Reports accept confirmatory hypothesis testing research and a subset accept qualitative studies, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses as Registered Reports.

The alternative option is submitting to the free, supra-journal platform PCI RR ( https://rr.peercommunityin.org/ ), where Registered Reports from any research field are reviewed and accepted as preprints. Once accepted, the reviews and editorial recommendation are published on the PCI RR website and authors have the choice to keep their Stage 2 article as a peer-reviewed Registered Report preprint (with DOI) or to submit it as a Registered Report to one of several “ PCI RR-friendly journals ” that have committed to publishing Registered Reports accepted by PCI RR without further peer review. That is, when you receive in-principle acceptance from PCI RR, you automatically receive in-principle acceptance from all eligible journals. PCI RR accepts a wide range of Registered Reports including quantitative and qualitative studies, systematic reviews, systematic maps, scoping reviews, and meta-analyses.

Check the author guidelines of your intended outlet for more details. Identify submission requirements (e.g., any minimum requirements for power or Bayes Factors, requirements to openly share data) and ensure that you can adhere to them with your design and resources. If you’re initially submitting to PCI RR but ultimately have a journal planned for publication, you’ll need to make sure you comply with your intended journal’s conditions for Registered Reports submissions. These do differ among PCI RR-friendly journals, so make sure you plan ahead.

As with standard manuscripts, you may wish to send the editor a pre-submission enquiry to check the suitability of your manuscript for the journal. However, unlike standard manuscripts, you could also use this enquiry to discuss any study-specific concerns, for example, any constraints you have on the timing of data collection.

Rule 4: Consider when to apply for ethics

If your research requires ethical approval from your institution, you will need to consider when to apply for it (see Fig 1 ). Check both your target outlet’s policy regarding ethical approval and also your institution’s policy on accepting amendments or allowing flexibility for minor deviations. If the journal or platform requires ethical approval at Stage 1 submission and your institution allows some flexibility, obtain ethical approval prior to Stage 1 submission and then once you have received in-principle acceptance, check with your review board that any changes are within the limits of their flexibility. If no flexibility is allowed, and your study plans have changed as a result of the peer review process, you’ll need to resubmit your ethics once you have your in-principle acceptance and a firm study plan.

EC, ethics committee; IPA, in-principle acceptance; IRB, institutional review board.

When you submit your Stage 1 Registered Report, you will typically be asked to provide an anticipated timescale for your Stage 2 submission. If you need to seek ethical approval after in-principle acceptance, don’t forget to factor this into your timescale.

Rule 5: Map from research question through to interpretation

In your Stage 1 Registered Report, provide clear links between your research question(s), hypotheses (if applicable), sampling plan (if applicable), analyses, through to interpretation. This linking ensures that any predictions made in the introduction are transparently connected to the analysis in the results section and the conclusions inferred from the pattern of results. There are a couple of ways that you can make sure that these elements are explicitly connected. First, number each research question (Q1, Q2 …) and/or hypothesis (H1, H2 …) and add this suffix to corresponding analyses and interpretations (for an example, see [ 4 ]).

Second, an unambiguous way to report this critical information (and this also helps with planning the study) is to create a design summary table listing each research question, hypothesis, sampling plan, the analyses that will test those hypotheses and the results that will confirm or disconfirm each prediction. See S1 Appendix for a blank design summary table and S2 Appendix for examples of completed tables that have been published in peer-reviewed Stage 1 preprints and awarded in-principle acceptance by PCI RR. If your analysis plan depends on the results (e.g., parametric versus nonparametric tests), then specify the contingencies for making different choices using IF-THEN statements.

Rule 6: Specify what you’ll do and what you won’t do

Registered Reports aim to reduce various forms of reporting bias by eliminating undisclosed flexibility in the procedures and analyses. Your Stage 1 manuscript should therefore be precise and comprehensive in its level of detail; an independent researcher in your field should be able to replicate your research without seeking additional information [ 12 ]. This level of clarity demands an attention to detail beyond that of standard papers, requiring the inclusion of every procedural specific no matter how mundane or apparently inconsequential [ 12 ]. In practice this means, for example, listing the order in which exclusion criteria will be applied, as well as details of the exclusions themselves. Pilot data may prove useful here, see rule 2 . In addition to specifying what you will do (e.g., “We will contact authors and request details of unpublished studies.”), you should also specify what you will not do (e.g., “If after 2 attempts to contact the authors there is no response, we will not contact them again.”).

To meet the requirement to provide precise and exhaustive detail, the method section of Registered Reports is often longer than those of traditional papers. Journals sometimes avoid imposing word limits for Registered Reports, but where space is limited, use appendices to supplement the main text. Using a design summary table (see rule 5 ) will help improve the clarity of your analysis plans. Authors of meta-analyses, systematic reviews, or systematic maps should also consult guidelines such as PRISMA [ 20 ] and NIRO [ 21 ] for the type and level of detail to be included in the Stage 1 manuscript (see https://www.equator-network.org/ for a list of reporting guidelines by study type).

Rule 7: Preregister your Stage 1 manuscript and conduct your study

At the point you receive in-principle acceptance of your Stage 1 manuscript, you should preregister it, either under embargo (you may wish to embargo your Stage 1 manuscript, for example, to avoid potential participants reading your plans and hypotheses) or publicly, in a public repository like the Open Science Framework. Select “Registered Report Protocol Preregistration”, this is very brief and designed specifically for Registered Reports (you do not need to write a separate new preregistration). It asks for details of the in-principle acceptance date, journal, and a PDF of your Stage 1 Registered Report and associated materials. You should also include everything that forms part of your approved Stage 1, such as any pilot data and/or simulations and related analyses, and all your materials and code. At some journals/platforms, such as Cortex and PCI RR, the editorial team will preregister the accepted Stage 1 manuscript for you.

Once you have received in-principle acceptance and preregistered, you can conduct your study in the knowledge that it will be published regardless of the outcome. Ensure that you run your study in line with the Stage 1 protocol.

Rule 8: After Stage 1 approval: Manage any deviations from your Stage 1 manuscript and communicate with the editor

Unanticipated developments or events outside your control may necessitate a change to your methods post-Stage 1 approval (e.g., an additional exclusion criteria, procedural deviation, or technical error). Any such change must be recorded and transparently reported in the Stage 2 manuscript as a deviation from the approved protocol (for example, see Table 2 in [ 4 ], where non-preregistered exclusion criteria are marked with an asterisk). If the change is substantial (i.e., has the potential to change the type or validity of inferences that can be drawn), you should immediately seek the approval of the editor, who may obtain input from the Stage 1 reviewers. What is deemed substantial will vary based on your research design. Examples include a change to equipment, materials, participant population, inferential analyses, or coding scheme. If you are unsure whether or not to contact the editor, it is better to err on the side of caution and seek editorial approval rather than risk Stage 2 rejection due an unauthorised deviation from protocol. Failure to do so could result in the Stage 2 manuscript being rejected (when reviewers are focused on assessing adherence to the Stage 1 plans). Remind the editor of any approved changes in your Stage 2 cover letter.

You can also transparently document any such changes as they occur , either by noting them in a time-stamped, open lab book (for an example see https://osf.io/jcvue/ ), or in the case of substantial changes, by updating your preregistration. In the Open Science Framework repository, unexpected changes can be appended to the original preregistration by selecting “update” on your original registration.

Rule 9: Prepare your Stage 2 manuscript

Your introduction and method sections in your Stage 2 paper should not deviate unnecessarily from your approved Stage 1 manuscript, other than changing from future to past tense (e.g., “we will test” changes to “we tested”) or correcting any factual errors or misunderstandings. If pertinent new research is published in the meantime, this should not be added to your introduction because it did not motivate the research. Instead, it can be included in your discussion. Equally should your understanding of the topic evolve post Stage 1 acceptance, this can be added to the discussion. If having such information upfront is essential to the understanding of the paper, it can be added to the introduction as a footnote that explicitly states the additional information is a deviation from the accepted Stage 1. You should explain why having this information upfront is essential.

Registered Reports constrain the space for post hoc decisions, therefore for hypothesis-driven studies, all confirmatory (i.e., hypothesis testing) analyses should be included in the analysis plan in the Stage 1 manuscript and must be reported in the final paper (unless, for example, a fatal flaw is detected in the analysis and the omission is agreed with the editor and reviewers: In such cases, the omission should be noted in the final manuscript). At Stage 2, additional exploratory, data-dependent (i.e., hypothesis generating) analyses are welcome provided that they are justified in the text and clearly distinguished as exploratory (i.e., in a section labelled “Exploratory Analyses”). The distinction is critical because the unbounded nature of exploratory research makes it susceptible to undesirable outcomes such as the effects of bias, inflated alpha levels, and low power. Results based on exploratory analyses should be considered tentative and in need of verification via further confirmatory research. When interpreting such results in your discussion, make it clear that your exploratory analyses are generating hypotheses, not testing them.

For non-hypothesis testing research, such as qualitative research, systematic reviews, or systematic maps, all research questions should be defined in the Stage 1 manuscript. Additional questions that arise from the data should be explicitly noted as such.

Rule 10: Make your Stage 1 Registered Report and study assets open

Like other forms of open research, Registered Reports are about transparency. When your Stage 2 manuscript is accepted, you should make your Stage 1 preregistered manuscript publicly available (many journals/platforms will require you to do so anyway). This will allow readers of your published Stage 2 manuscript to compare the 2 versions. At the same time, you should make your data, code, and materials as open as possible within ethical and legal constraints; indeed, many journals make such transparency a mandatory requirement.

Registered Reports encourage methodological rigour (see [ 22 ]) and transparent planning and reporting, while reducing biases and likely representing a less distorted and selective picture of research than standard papers (see [ 2 , 3 ]). These 10 simple rules provide guidance for writing and submitting a Registered Report. The authors of this paper are also happy to answer questions directly. For more information on Registered Reports, see the central Registered Report hub ( https://www.cos.io/initiatives/registered-reports ).

Supporting information

S1 appendix, s2 appendix, funding statement.

The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Argonne National Laboratory

Guide to formatting research reports.

Research reports are a way to communicate the story of your experiment.  You want to explain why the experiment was done, how it was done, the results, interpretation of the results, and why the experiment matters.  

The reports have a particular style so that information is presented in a very clear, concise, and logical manner.  It is very important that you follow the SULI or CCI guidelines for your report (see appropriate sections of the Communicating Science webpage).  The information below highlights details of how to appropriately prepare each section.

• Abstract : This is a summary of the research paper.  Its purpose is to allow the reader to quickly review the important aspects of the paper. 
• Introduction : The purpose of this section is to introduce the reader to the research question and provide rationale for the study that was done. 
• Methods : This section outlines all of the methods used during the study. 
• Results : All experimental data should be included here.  Do not include any interpretation of data.   The purpose of this section is to show the data in such a way that the reader can interpret it for him/herself.
• Discussion : The purpose of this section is to bring all parts of the paper into perspective. 
• References : All material obtained from outside sources should be properly referenced in the text and listed at the end of the paper.

Format of Each Section

All included items should be as brief as possible – word limits are usually around 300-500 words.  SULI guidelines are 500 words.  The following components are important:

• A brief background as to why the experiment was done,
• A clear statement of the purpose of the experiment – the research question,
• A brief summary of important methods,
• A summary of the experimental data,
• A concise statement of conclusions,
• A statement about why the experiment was important.

Introduction

To put the research into perspective and provide rationale for the experiments, the following components should be included:

• Background information from the literature that puts the current experiments into perspective,
• A statement of the general hypothesis for how the system functions,
• A clear statement of the specific research question that is being asked,
• A brief description of the experiment performed.  Do NOT include results or conclusions.

This is not intended to be a laboratory manual, so ​ “ cookbook” type of material is not necessary.  However, enough information should be provided so that a reasonably competent person could replicate the study by reading the description and doing a small amount of further checking.  The following should be included:

• Chemicals and other materials used and their sources,
• Experimental manipulations, control groups, number of replications, etc,
• All research methods used with references where appropriate,
• Data collection techniques,
• Analysis techniques,
• Statistical analysis

All experimental data including charts, graphs, tables, photographs, etc should be put in this section.  All charts, etc. should be referred to and explained in the text.  Do not include any interpretation of data.   The purpose of this section is to show the data in such a way that the reader can interpret it for him/herself.  When formatting this section, there are some important things to keep in mind.

1. Significant Digits: Pay attention to how many digits you use when reporting numerical data, particularly after a calculation.  It is not desirable or accurate to report all the digits just because your calculator or Excel reports them.  Report only as many digits as accurately measured by the instrument used.  After a calculation (for example, a mean calculation) it is acceptable to report one additional digit.  Do not report any more digits than is acceptable.   Doing so would suggest more accuracy than was actually measured.

2. Describing Data: Make every effort to be precise in your descriptions – do not use ambiguous words.  When statistical analysis is done, be careful in how it is used.  If two data sets are not significantly different from each other, then they are the same even if the numerical values are different. 

• It is incorrect to say, ​ “ The rate of secretion of VEGF was greater in Group 1 when compared to Group 2, although they were not significantly different from each other.”  The correct statement would be ​ “ Groups 1 and 2 secreted VEGF at the same rate.”

3. Figures: Label all pictures and graphs as ​ “ Figure” and number sequentially.  Place the label below the figure and include a descriptive title for the figure.  Additional information can be included in the figure legend for a clearer understanding the figure.  DO NOT place excessive descriptions in the legend.

4. Tables: Label as ​ “ Table’ and number sequentially.  Place the label above the table with a title for the table.  Place clarifying information below the table.

5. Data Labeling: Make sure that words are used to identify experimental groups, tubes, etc on all figures and tables.  DO NOT LABEL SIMPLY AS ​ “ TUBE 1” OR ​ “ GROUP 1” etc.

It is very important that data is described in two places – both in the written text and in the figures and tables.

6. Text vs. Figures/Tables: Do not simply place charts, graphs, etc in the results section without explanation.  ALL data should be described in written form.  If data is placed in a table or figure it MUST ALSO BE found in the text of the document.  The text description of the data should specifically refer to the figure or table containing the data.  See specific examples for how that is done below.

For the figures, note the figure legend and the text description below the legend.

As shown in Figure 1, students 19 and 22 were heterozygous for D1S80 alleles while students 18, 21, 23, 24 and 25 were homozygous.  Amplification of the D1S80 region in students 17 and 20 failed.

Flagella re-grew after deflagellation in untreated (medium I) cultures to approximately 50% of total length after 100 minutes. This re-growth was slowed in both the cyclohexamide and colchicine treated cultures with colchicine treated cultures showing no growth at all (Figure 2).

For the table, note the title at the top, descriptive information on the bottom, and the text description of the data.

Table 1: Normalized Relative Expression of mRNA for Paracrine Factors

The normalized relative expression of mRNA in mesenchymal stem cells for the various paracrine factors was determined using RT-qPCR (Table 1).  Serum reduction to 5% caused a significant drop in the relative expression of VEGF mRNA compared to 20% in normoxic (p<0.05) but not in hypoxic conditions.  Hypoxia resulted in a significant elevation of VEGF expression levels for cells grown in 5% serum (p<0.05%) but not in 20%.  Expression of MCP-1 …

This section should draw conclusions from the data presented and put it into a larger perspective in terms of how these fits in with other research that has been done.  The following should be included:

• A clear and concise statement of the major conclusions of the study at the beginning of this section.  This should show how the experiments answer the research question and relate to the hypothesis posed in the introduction.  The statement should be supported by a summary of key data presented found in the results section.
• A statement about how this research is different from other work done,
• A review of the pertinent literature putting the current study into a larger perspective.  Reference to previous studies that support or contradict the experimental conclusions should be done.  If there are contradictions, an explanation as to why that may have happened is needed.
• A discussion of why this study is important,

All material obtained from outside sources should be properly referenced in the text.  The method used for this varies depending on where the paper is published.  The following are SULI guidelines for research reports which requires the use of the American Institute of Physics ( AIP ) Style Manual, 4 th edition.  The examples are taken from the SULI guide.  More detailed instructions can be found in the guidelines (pages 8-10 of the SULI guidelines and page 9 of the AIP Style Manual).

• As pointed out by Bray, 6 these calculations are in agreement with other experimental values. 7,8
• 1 Gale Young and R. E. Funderlic, ​ “ Positron decay in Na,” J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5151- 5153 (1973).
• 2 M. D. Levinson, ​ “ Rate of decay of auditory sensation,” Phys. Today 30 (5), 44-49 (1977).
• 3 L. S. Berks, Electron Probe Microanalysis, 2 nd ed. (Wiley, New York, 1971), p. 40.
• 4 D. K. Edwards, in Proceedings of Ihe 1972 Heat Transfer Institute, edited by R. B. Landis (Stanford University, Stanford, CA , 1972), pp. 71-72.

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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Writing up a Research Report

• First Online: 10 November 2021

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• Michael Blankenagel 3  

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A research report is one big argument how and why you came up with your conclusions. To make it a convincing argument, a typical guiding structure has developed. In the different chapters, distinct issues need to be addressed to explain to the reader why your conclusions are valid. The governing principle for writing the report is full disclosure: to explain everything and ensure replicability by another researcher.

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Field, A. (2016). An adventure in statistics. The reality enigma . SAGE.

Field, A. (2020). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE.

Früh, M., Keimer, I., & Blankenagel, M. (2019). The impact of Balanced Scorecard excellence on shareholder returns. IFZ Working Paper No. 0003/2019. Retrieved June 09, 2021, from https://zenodo.org/record/2571603#.YMDUafkzZaQ .

Yin, R. K. (2013). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). SAGE.

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Hunziker, S., Blankenagel, M. (2021). Writing up a Research Report. In: Research Design in Business and Management. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-34357-6_4

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• Research Report
• Post last modified: 11 January 2022
• Reading time: 25 mins read
• Post category: Research Methodology

What is Research Report?

Research reporting is the oral or written presentation of the findings in such detail and form as to be readily understood and assessed by the society, economy or particularly by the researchers.

As earlier said that it is the final stage of the research process and its purpose is to convey to interested persons the whole result of the study. Report writing is common to both academic and managerial situations. In academics, a research report is prepared for comprehensive and application-oriented learning. In businesses or organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making.

Table of Content

• 1 What is Research Report?
• 2 Research Report Definition
• 3.1 Preliminary Part
• 3.2 Introduction of the Report
• 3.3 Review of Literature
• 3.4 The Research Methodology
• 3.5 Results
• 3.6 Concluding Remarks
• 3.7 Bibliography
• 4 Significance of Report Writing
• 5 Qualities of Good Report
• 6.1 Analysis of the subject matter
• 6.2 Research outline
• 6.3 Preparation of rough draft
• 6.4 Rewriting and polishing
• 6.5 Writing the final draft
• 7 Precautions for Writing Research Reports
• 8.1.1 Technical Report
• 8.1.2 Popular Report
• 8.2.1 Written Report
• 8.2.2 Oral Report

Research Report Definition

According to C. A. Brown , “A report is a communication from someone who has information to someone who wants to use that information.”

According to Goode and Hatt , “The preparation of report is the final stage of research, and it’s purpose is to convey to the interested persons the whole result of the study, in sufficient detail and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and to determine for himself the validity of the conclusions.”

It is clear from the above definitions of a research report, it is a brief account of the problem of investigation, the justification of its selection and the procedure of analysis and interpretation. It is only a summary of the entire research proceedings.

In other words, it can be defined as written documents, which presents information in a specialized and concise manner.

Contents of Research Report

Although no hard and fast rules can be laid down, the report must contain the following points.

• Acknowledgement
• Table of contents
• List of tables
• List of graphs
• Introduction
• Background of the research study
• Statement of the problem
• Brief outline of the chapters
• Books review
• Review of articles published in books, journals, periodicals, etc
• Review of articles published in leading newspapers
• Working papers / discusssion paper / study reports
• Articles on authorised websites
• A broad conclusion and indications for further research
• The theoretical framework (variables)
• Model / hypothesis
• Instruments for data collection
• Data collection
• Pilot study
• Processing of data
• Hypothesis / model testing
• Data analysis and interpretation
• Tables and figures
• Conclusions
• Shortcomings
• Suggestions to the problems
• Direction for further research

Preliminary Part

The preliminary part may have seven major components – cover, title, preface, acknowledgement, table of contents, list of tables, list of graphs. Long reports presented in book form have a cover made up of a card sheet. The cover contains title of the research report, the authority to whom the report is submitted, name of the author, etc.

The preface introduces the report to the readers. It gives a very brief introduction of the report. In the acknowledgements author mention names of persons and organisations that have extended co-operation and helped in the various stages of research. Table of contents is essential. It gives the title and page number of each chapter.

Introduction of the Report

The introduction of the research report should clearly and logically bring out the background of the problem addressed in the research. The purpose of the introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. A clear statement of the problem with specific questions to be answered is presented in the introduction. It contains a brief outline of the chapters.

Review of Literature

The third section reviews the important literature related to the study. A comprehensive review of the research literature referred to must be made. Previous research studies and the important writings in the area under study should be reviewed. Review of literature is helpful to provide a background for the development of the present study.

The researcher may review concerned books, articles published in edited books, journals and periodicals. Researcher may also take review of articles published in leading newspapers. A researcher should study working papers/discussion papers/study reports. It is essential for a broad conclusion and indications for further research.

The Research Methodology

Research methodology is an integral part of the research. It should clearly indicate the universe and the selection of samples, techniques of data collection, analysis and interpretation, statistical techniques, etc.

Results contain pilot study, processing of data, hypothesis/model testing, data analysis and interpretation, tables and figures, etc. This is the heart of the research report. If a pilot study is planned to be used, it’s purpose should be given in the research methodology.

The collected data and the information should be edited, coded, tabulated and analysed with a view to arriving at a valid and authentic conclusion. Tables and figures are used to clarify the significant relationship. The results obtained through tables, graphs should be critically interpreted.

Concluding Remarks

The concluding remarks should discuss the results obtained in the earlier sections, as well as their usefulness and implications. It contains findings, conclusions, shortcomings, suggestions to the problem and direction for future research. Findings are statements of factual information based upon the data analysis.

Conclusions must clearly explain whether the hypothesis have been established and rejected. This part requires great expertise and preciseness. A report should also refer to the limitations of the applicability of the research inferences. It is essential to suggest the theoretical, practical and policy implications of the research. The suggestions should be supported by scientific and logical arguments. The future direction of research based on the work completed should also be outlined.

Bibliography

The bibliography is an alphabetic list of books, journal articles, reports, etc, published or unpublished, read, referred to, examined by the researcher in preparing the report. The bibliography should follow standard formats for books, journal articles, research reports.

The end of the research report may consist of appendices, listed in respect of all technical data. Appendices are for the purpose of providing detailed data or information that would be too cumbersome within the main body of the research report.

Significance of Report Writing

Report writing is an important communication medium in organisations. The most crucial findings might have come out through a research report. Report is common to academics and managers also. Reports are used for comprehensive and application oriented learning in academics. In organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making. The importance of report writing can be discussed as under.

Through research reports, a manager or an executive can quickly get an idea of a current scenario which improves his information base for making sound decisions affecting future operations of the company or enterprise. The research report acts as a means of communication of various research findings to the interested parties, organisations and general public.

Good report writing play, a significant role of conveying unknown facts about the phenomenon to the concerned parties. This may provide new insights and new opportunities to the people. Research report plays a key role in making effective decisions in marketing, production, banking, materials, human resource development and government also. Good report writing is used for economic planning and optimum utilisation of resources for the development of a nation.

Report writing facilitates the validation of generalisation. A research report is an end product of research. As earlier said that report writing provides useful information in arriving at rational decisions that may reform the business and society. The findings, conclusions, suggestions and recommendations are useful to academicians, scholars and policymakers. Report writing provides reference material for further research in the same or similar areas of research to the concerned parties.

While preparing a research report, a researcher should take some proper precautions. Report writing should be simple, lucid and systematic. Report writing should be written speedily without interrupting the continuity of thought. The report writing should sustain the interest of readers.

Qualities of Good Report

Report writing is a highly skilled job. It is a process of analysing, understanding and consolidating the findings and projecting a meaningful view of the phenomenon studied. A good report writing is essential for effective communication.

Following are the essential qualities of good report:

• A research report is essentially a scientific documentation. It should have a suggestive title, headings and sub-headings, paragraphs arranged in a logical sequence.
• Good research report should include everything that is relevant and exclude everything that is irrelevant. It means that it should contain the facts rather than opinion.
• The language of the report should be simple and unambiguous. It means that it should be free from biases of the researchers derived from the past experience. Confusion, pretentiousness and pomposity should be carefully guarded against. It means that the language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words, idioms and expressions.
• The report must be free from grammatical mistakes. It must be grammatically accurate. Faulty construction of sentences makes the meaning of the narrative obscure and ambiguous.
• The report has to take into consideration two facts. Firstly, for whom the report is meant and secondly, what is his level of knowledge. The report has to look to the subject matter of the report and the fact as to the level of knowledge of the person for whom it is meant. Because all reports are not meant for research scholars.

Steps in Writing Research Report

Report writing is a time consuming and expensive exercise. Therefore, reports have to be very sharply focused in purpose content and readership. There is no single universally acceptable method of writing a research report.

Following are the general steps in writing a research report:

Analysis of the subject matter

Research outline, preparation of rough draft, rewriting and polishing, writing the final draft.

This is the first and important step in writing a research report. It is concerned with the development of a subject. Subject matter should be written in a clear, logical and concise manner. The style adopted should be open, straightforward and dignified and folk style language should be avoided.

The data, the reliability and validity of the results of the statistical analysis should be in the form of tables, figures and equations. All redundancy in the data or results presented should be eliminated.

The research outline is an organisational framework prepared by the researcher well in advance. It is an aid to logical organisation of material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report. In the process of writing, if need be, outline may be revised accordingly.

Time and place of the study, scope and limitations of the study, study design, summary of pilot study, methods of data collection, analysis interpretation, etc., may be included in a research outline.

Having prepared the primary and secondary data, the researcher has to prepare a rough draft. While preparing the rough draft, the researcher should keep the objectives of the research in mind, and focus on one objective at a time. The researcher should make a checklist of the important points that are necessary to be covered in the manuscript. A researcher should use dictionary and relevant reference materials as and when required.

This is an important step in writing a research report. It takes more time than a rough draft. While rewriting and polishing, a researcher should check the report for weakness in logical development or presentation. He should take breaks in between rewriting and polishing since this gives the time to incubate the ideas.

The last and important step is writing the final draft. The language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words and expressions and should avoid vague expressions such as ‘it seems’ and ‘there may be’ etc.

It should not used personal pronouns, such as I, We, My, Us, etc and should substitute these by such expressions as a researcher, investigator, etc. Before the final drafting of the report, it is advisable that the researcher should prepare a first draft for critical considerations and possible improvements. It will be helpful in writing the final draft. Finally, the report should be logically outlined with the future directions of the research based on the work completed.

Precautions for Writing Research Reports

A research report is a means of conveying the research study to a specific target audience. The following precautions should be taken while preparing a research report:

• Its hould belong enough to cover the subject and short enough to preserve interest.
• It should not be dull and complicated.
• It should be simple, without the usage of abstract terms and technical jargons.
• It should offer ready availability of findings with the help of charts, tables and graphs, as readers prefer quick knowledge of main findings.
• The layout of the report should be in accordance with the objectives of the research study.
• There should be no grammatical errors and writing should adhere to the techniques of report writing in case of quotations, footnotes and documentations.
• It should be original, intellectual and contribute to the solution of a problem or add knowledge to the concerned field.
• Appendices should been listed with respect to all the technical data in the report.
• It should be attractive, neat and clean, whether handwritten or typed.
• The report writer should refrain from confusing the possessive form of the word ‘it’ is with ‘it’s.’ The accurate possessive form of ‘it is’ is ‘its.’ The use of ‘it’s’ is the contractive form of ‘it is.
• A report should not have contractions. Examples are ‘didn’t’ or ‘it’s.’ In report writing, it is best to use the non-contractive form. Therefore, the examples would be replaced by ‘did not’ and ‘it is.’ Using ‘Figure’ instead of ‘Fig.’ and ‘Table’ instead of ‘Tab.’ will spare the reader of having to translate the abbreviations, while reading. If abbreviations are used, use them consistently throughout the report. For example, do not switch among ‘versus,’ and ‘vs’.
• It is advisable to avoid using the word ‘very’ and other such words that try to embellish a description. They do not add any extra meaning and, therefore, should be dropped.
• Repetition hampers lucidity. Report writers must avoid repeating the same word more than once within a sentence.
• When you use the word ‘this’ or ‘these’ make sure you indicate to what you are referring. This reduces the ambiguity in your writing and helps to tie sentences together.
• Do not use the word ‘they’ to refer to a singular person. You can either rewrite the sentence to avoid needing such a reference or use the singular ‘he or she.’

Types of Research Report

Research reports are designed in order to convey and record the information that will be of practical use to the reader. It is organized into distinct units of specific and highly visible information. The kind of audience addressed in the research report decides the type of report.

Research reports can be categorized on the following basis:

Classification on the Basis of Information

Classification on the basis of representation.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of information contained:

Technical Report

A technical report is written for other researchers. In writing the technical reports, the importance is mainly given to the methods that have been used to collect the information and data, the presumptions that are made and finally, the various presentation techniques that are used to present the findings and data.

Following are main features of a technical report:

• Summary: It covers a brief analysis of the findings of the research in a very few pages. 
• Nature: It contains the reasons for which the research is undertaken, the analysis and the data that is required in order to prepare a report. 
• Methods employed: It contains a description of the methods that were employed in order to collect the data. 
• Data: It covers a brief analysis of the various sources from which the data has been collected with their features and drawbacks 
• Analysis of data and presentation of the findings: It contains the various forms through which the data that has been analysed can be presented. 
• Conclusions: It contains a brief explanation of findings of the research. 
• Bibliography: It contains a detailed analysis of the various bibliographies that have been used in order to conduct a research. 
• Technical appendices: It contains the appendices for the technical matters and for questionnaires and mathematical derivations. 
• Index: The index of the technical report must be provided at the end of the report.

Popular Report

A popular report is formulated when there is a need to draw conclusions of the findings of the research report. One of the main points of consideration that should be kept in mind while formulating a research report is that it must be simple and attractive. It must be written in a very simple manner that is understandable to all. It must also be made attractive by using large prints, various sub-headings and by giving cartoons occasionally.

Following are the main points that must be kept in mind while preparing a popular report:

• Findings and their implications : While preparing a popular report, main importance is given to the findings of the information and the conclusions that can be drawn out of these findings.
• Recommendations for action : If there are any deviations in the report then recommendations are made for taking corrective action in order to rectify the errors.
• Objective of the study : In a popular report, the specific objective for which the research has been undertaken is presented.
• Methods employed : The report must contain the various methods that has been employed in order to conduct a research.
• Results : The results of the research findings must be presented in a suitable and appropriate manner by taking the help of charts and diagrams.
• Technical appendices : The report must contain an in-depth information used to collect the data in the form of appendices.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of representation:

• Writtenreport
• Oral report

Written Report

A written report plays a vital role in every business operation. The manner in which an organization writes business letters and business reports creates an impression of its standard. Therefore, the organization should emphasize on the improvement of the writing skills of the employees in order to maintain effective relations with their customers.

Writing effective written reports requires a lot of hard work. Therefore, before you begin writing, it is important to know the objective, i.e., the purpose of writing, collection and organization of required data.

Oral Report

At times, oral presentation of the results that are drawn out of research is considered effective, particularly in cases where policy recommendations are to be made. This approach proves beneficial because it provides a medium of interaction between a listener and a speaker. This leads to a better understanding of the findings and their implications.

However, the main drawback of oral presentation is the lack of any permanent records related to the research. Oral presentation of the report is also effective when it is supported with various visual devices, such as slides, wall charts and whiteboards that help in better understanding of the research reports.

Business Ethics

( Click on Topic to Read )

• What is Ethics?
• What is Business Ethics?
• Values, Norms, Beliefs and Standards in Business Ethics
• Indian Ethos in Management
• Ethical Issues in Marketing
• Ethical Issues in HRM
• Ethical Issues in IT
• Ethical Issues in Production and Operations Management
• Ethical Issues in Finance and Accounting
• What is Corporate Governance?
• What is Ownership Concentration?
• What is Ownership Composition?
• Types of Companies in India
• Internal Corporate Governance
• External Corporate Governance
• Corporate Governance in India
• What is Enterprise Risk Management (ERM)?
• What is Assessment of Risk?
• What is Risk Register?
• Risk Management Committee

Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

• Theories of CSR
• Arguments Against CSR
• Business Case for CSR
• Importance of CSR in India
• Drivers of Corporate Social Responsibility
• Developing a CSR Strategy
• Implement CSR Commitments
• CSR Marketplace
• CSR at Workplace
• Environmental CSR
• CSR with Communities and in Supply Chain
• Community Interventions
• CSR Monitoring
• CSR Reporting
• Voluntary Codes in CSR
• What is Corporate Ethics?

Lean Six Sigma

• What is Six Sigma?
• What is Lean Six Sigma?
• Value and Waste in Lean Six Sigma
• Six Sigma Team
• MAIC Six Sigma
• Six Sigma in Supply Chains
• What is Binomial, Poisson, Normal Distribution?
• What is Sigma Level?
• What is DMAIC in Six Sigma?
• What is DMADV in Six Sigma?
• Six Sigma Project Charter
• Project Decomposition in Six Sigma
• Critical to Quality (CTQ) Six Sigma
• Process Mapping Six Sigma
• Flowchart and SIPOC
• Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility
• Statistical Diagram
• Lean Techniques for Optimisation Flow
• Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
• What is Process Audits?
• Six Sigma Implementation at Ford
• IBM Uses Six Sigma to Drive Behaviour Change
• Research Methodology
• What is Research?
• What is Hypothesis?
• Sampling Method
• Research Methods

Data Collection in Research

• Methods of Collecting Data
• Application of Business Research
• Levels of Measurement
• What is Sampling?
• Hypothesis Testing
• What is Management?
• Planning in Management
• Decision Making in Management
• What is Controlling?
• What is Coordination?
• What is Staffing?
• Organization Structure
• What is Departmentation?
• Span of Control
• What is Authority?
• Centralization vs Decentralization
• Organizing in Management
• Schools of Management Thought
• Classical Management Approach
• Is Management an Art or Science?
• Who is a Manager?

Operations Research

• What is Operations Research?
• Operation Research Models
• Linear Programming
• Linear Programming Graphic Solution
• Linear Programming Simplex Method
• Linear Programming Artificial Variable Technique
• Duality in Linear Programming
• Transportation Problem Initial Basic Feasible Solution
• Transportation Problem Finding Optimal Solution
• Project Network Analysis with Critical Path Method
• Project Network Analysis Methods
• Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
• Simulation in Operation Research
• Replacement Models in Operation Research

Operation Management

• What is Strategy?
• What is Operations Strategy?
• Operations Competitive Dimensions
• Operations Strategy Formulation Process
• What is Strategic Fit?
• Strategic Design Process
• Focused Operations Strategy
• Corporate Level Strategy
• Expansion Strategies
• Stability Strategies
• Retrenchment Strategies
• Competitive Advantage
• Strategic Choice and Strategic Alternatives
• What is Production Process?
• What is Process Technology?
• What is Process Improvement?
• Strategic Capacity Management
• Production and Logistics Strategy
• Taxonomy of Supply Chain Strategies
• Factors Considered in Supply Chain Planning
• Operational and Strategic Issues in Global Logistics
• Logistics Outsourcing Strategy
• What is Supply Chain Mapping?
• Supply Chain Process Restructuring
• Points of Differentiation
• Re-engineering Improvement in SCM
• What is Supply Chain Drivers?
• Supply Chain Operations Reference (SCOR) Model
• Customer Service and Cost Trade Off
• Internal and External Performance Measures
• Linking Supply Chain and Business Performance
• Netflix’s Niche Focused Strategy
• Disney and Pixar Merger
• Process Planning at Mcdonald’s

Service Operations Management

• What is Service?
• What is Service Operations Management?
• What is Service Design?
• Service Design Process
• Service Delivery
• What is Service Quality?
• Gap Model of Service Quality
• Juran Trilogy
• Service Performance Measurement
• Service Decoupling
• IT Service Operation
• Service Operations Management in Different Sector

Procurement Management

• What is Procurement Management?
• Procurement Negotiation
• Types of Requisition
• RFX in Procurement
• What is Purchasing Cycle?
• Vendor Managed Inventory
• Internal Conflict During Purchasing Operation
• Spend Analysis in Procurement
• Sourcing in Procurement
• Supplier Evaluation and Selection in Procurement
• Blacklisting of Suppliers in Procurement
• Total Cost of Ownership in Procurement
• Incoterms in Procurement
• Documents Used in International Procurement
• Transportation and Logistics Strategy
• What is Capital Equipment?
• Procurement Process of Capital Equipment
• Acquisition of Technology in Procurement
• What is E-Procurement?
• E-marketplace and Online Catalogues
• Fixed Price and Cost Reimbursement Contracts
• Contract Cancellation in Procurement
• Ethics in Procurement
• Legal Aspects of Procurement
• Global Sourcing in Procurement
• Intermediaries and Countertrade in Procurement

Strategic Management

• What is Strategic Management?
• What is Value Chain Analysis?
• Mission Statement
• Business Level Strategy
• What is SWOT Analysis?
• What is Competitive Advantage?
• What is Vision?
• What is Ansoff Matrix?
• Prahalad and Gary Hammel
• Strategic Management In Global Environment
• Competitor Analysis Framework
• Competitive Rivalry Analysis
• Competitive Dynamics
• What is Competitive Rivalry?
• Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy
• What is PESTLE Analysis?
• Fragmentation and Consolidation Of Industries
• What is Technology Life Cycle?
• What is Diversification Strategy?
• What is Corporate Restructuring Strategy?
• Resources and Capabilities of Organization
• Role of Leaders In Functional-Level Strategic Management
• Functional Structure In Functional Level Strategy Formulation
• Information And Control System
• What is Strategy Gap Analysis?
• Issues In Strategy Implementation
• Matrix Organizational Structure
• What is Strategic Management Process?

Supply Chain

• What is Supply Chain Management?
• Supply Chain Planning and Measuring Strategy Performance
• What is Warehousing?
• What is Packaging?
• What is Inventory Management?
• What is Material Handling?
• What is Order Picking?
• Receiving and Dispatch, Processes
• What is Warehouse Design?
• What is Warehousing Costs?

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AI Index Report

The AI Index Report tracks, collates, distills, and visualizes data related to artificial intelligence. Our mission is to provide unbiased, rigorously vetted, broadly sourced data in order for policymakers, researchers, executives, journalists, and the general public to develop a more thorough and nuanced understanding of the complex field of AI. The report aims to be the world’s most credible and authoritative source for data and insights about AI.

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Steering Committee Co-Directors

Ray Perrault

Steering committee members.

Erik Brynjolfsson

John Etchemendy

Katrina Ligett

Terah Lyons

James Manyika

Juan Carlos Niebles

Vanessa Parli

Yoav Shoham

Russell Wald

Staff members.

Loredana Fattorini

Nestor Maslej

Letter from the co-directors.

AI has moved into its era of deployment; throughout 2022 and the beginning of 2023, new large-scale AI models have been released every month. These models, such as ChatGPT, Stable Diffusion, Whisper, and DALL-E 2, are capable of an increasingly broad range of tasks, from text manipulation and analysis, to image generation, to unprecedentedly good speech recognition. These systems demonstrate capabilities in question answering, and the generation of text, image, and code unimagined a decade ago, and they outperform the state of the art on many benchmarks, old and new. However, they are prone to hallucination, routinely biased, and can be tricked into serving nefarious aims, highlighting the complicated ethical challenges associated with their deployment.

Although 2022 was the first year in a decade where private AI investment decreased, AI is still a topic of great interest to policymakers, industry leaders, researchers, and the public. Policymakers are talking about AI more than ever before. Industry leaders that have integrated AI into their businesses are seeing tangible cost and revenue benefits. The number of AI publications and collaborations continues to increase. And the public is forming sharper opinions about AI and which elements they like or dislike.

AI will continue to improve and, as such, become a greater part of all our lives. Given the increased presence of this technology and its potential for massive disruption, we should all begin thinking more critically about how exactly we want AI to be developed and deployed. We should also ask questions about who is deploying it—as our analysis shows, AI is increasingly defined by the actions of a small set of private sector actors, rather than a broader range of societal actors. This year’s AI Index paints a picture of where we are so far with AI, in order to highlight what might await us in the future.

- Jack Clark and Ray Perrault

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Read our research on: Gun Policy | International Conflict | Election 2024

Regions & Countries

Changing partisan coalitions in a politically divided nation, party identification among registered voters, 1994-2023.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to explore partisan identification among U.S. registered voters across major demographic groups and how voters’ partisan affiliation has shifted over time. It also explores the changing composition of voters overall and the partisan coalitions.

For this analysis, we used annual totals of data from Pew Research Center telephone surveys (1994-2018) and online surveys (2019-2023) among registered voters. All telephone survey data was adjusted to account for differences in how people respond to surveys on the telephone compared with online surveys (refer to Appendix A for details).

All online survey data is from the Center’s nationally representative American Trends Panel . The surveys were conducted in both English and Spanish. Each survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, age, education, race and ethnicity and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology , as well as how Pew Research Center measures many of the demographic categories used in this report .

The contours of the 2024 political landscape are the result of long-standing patterns of partisanship, combined with the profound demographic changes that have reshaped the United States over the past three decades.

Many of the factors long associated with voters’ partisanship remain firmly in place. For decades, gender, race and ethnicity, and religious affiliation have been important dividing lines in politics. This continues to be the case today.

Yet there also have been profound changes – in some cases as a result of demographic change, in others because of dramatic shifts in the partisan allegiances of key groups.

The combined effects of change and continuity have left the country’s two major parties at virtual parity: About half of registered voters (49%) identify as Democrats or lean toward the Democratic Party, while 48% identify as Republicans or lean Republican.

In recent decades, neither party has had a sizable advantage, but the Democratic Party has lost the edge it maintained from 2017 to 2021. (Explore this further in Chapter 1 . )

Pew Research Center’s comprehensive analysis of party identification among registered voters – based on hundreds of thousands of interviews conducted over the past three decades – tracks the changes in the country and the parties since 1994. Among the major findings:

The partisan coalitions are increasingly different. Both parties are more racially and ethnically diverse than in the past. However, this has had a far greater impact on the composition of the Democratic Party than the Republican Party.

The share of voters who are Hispanic has roughly tripled since the mid-1990s; the share who are Asian has increased sixfold over the same period. Today, 44% of Democratic and Democratic-leaning voters are Hispanic, Black, Asian, another race or multiracial, compared with 20% of Republicans and Republican leaners. However, the Democratic Party’s advantages among Black and Hispanic voters, in particular, have narrowed somewhat in recent years. (Explore this further in Chapter 8 .)

Education and partisanship: The share of voters with a four-year bachelor’s degree keeps increasing, reaching 40% in 2023. And the gap in partisanship between voters with and without a college degree continues to grow, especially among White voters. More than six-in-ten White voters who do not have a four-year degree (63%) associate with the Republican Party, which is up substantially over the past 15 years. White college graduates are closely divided; this was not the case in the 1990s and early 2000s, when they mostly aligned with the GOP. (Explore this further in Chapter 2 .)

Beyond the gender gap: By a modest margin, women voters continue to align with the Democratic Party (by 51% to 44%), while nearly the reverse is true among men (52% align with the Republican Party, 46% with the Democratic Party). The gender gap is about as wide among married men and women. The gap is wider among men and women who have never married; while both groups are majority Democratic, 37% of never-married men identify as Republicans or lean toward the GOP, compared with 24% of never-married women. (Explore this further in Chapter 3 .)

A divide between old and young: Today, each younger age cohort is somewhat more Democratic-oriented than the one before it. The youngest voters (those ages 18 to 24) align with the Democrats by nearly two-to-one (66% to 34% Republican or lean GOP); majorities of older voters (those in their mid-60s and older) identify as Republicans or lean Republican. While there have been wide age divides in American politics over the last two decades, this wasn’t always the case; in the 1990s there were only very modest age differences in partisanship. (Explore this further in Chapter 4 .)

Education and family income: Voters without a college degree differ substantially by income in their party affiliation. Those with middle, upper-middle and upper family incomes tend to align with the GOP. A majority with lower and lower-middle incomes identify as Democrats or lean Democratic. There are no meaningful differences in partisanship among voters with at least a four-year bachelor’s degree; across income categories, majorities of college graduate voters align with the Democratic Party. (Explore this further in Chapter 6 .)

Rural voters move toward the GOP, while the suburbs remain divided: In 2008, when Barack Obama sought his first term as president, voters in rural counties were evenly split in their partisan loyalties. Today, Republicans hold a 25 percentage point advantage among rural residents (60% to 35%). There has been less change among voters in urban counties, who are mostly Democratic by a nearly identical margin (60% to 37%). The suburbs – perennially a political battleground – remain about evenly divided. (Explore this further in Chapter 7 . )

Growing differences among religious groups: Mirroring movement in the population overall, the share of voters who are religiously unaffiliated has grown dramatically over the past 15 years. These voters, who have long aligned with the Democratic Party, have become even more Democratic over time: Today 70% identify as Democrats or lean Democratic. In contrast, Republicans have made gains among several groups of religiously affiliated voters, particularly White Catholics and White evangelical Protestants. White evangelical Protestants now align with the Republican Party by about a 70-point margin (85% to 14%). (Explore this further in Chapter 5 .)

What this report tells us – and what it doesn’t

In most cases, the partisan allegiances of voters do not change a great deal from year to year. Yet as this study shows, the long-term shifts in party identification are substantial and say a great deal about how the country – and its political parties – have changed since the 1990s.

The steadily growing alignment between demographics and partisanship reveals an important aspect of steadily growing partisan polarization. Republicans and Democrats do not just hold different beliefs and opinions about major issues , they are much more different racially, ethnically, geographically and in educational attainment than they used to be.

Yet over this period, there have been only modest shifts in overall partisan identification. Voters remain evenly divided, even as the two parties have grown further apart. The continuing close division in partisan identification among voters is consistent with the relatively narrow margins in the popular votes in most national elections over the past three decades.

Partisan identification provides a broad portrait of voters’ affinities and loyalties. But while it is indicative of voters’ preferences, it does not perfectly predict how people intend to vote in elections, or whether they will vote. In the coming months, Pew Research Center will release reports analyzing voters’ preferences in the presidential election, their engagement with the election and the factors behind candidate support.

Next year, we will release a detailed study of the 2024 election, based on validated voters from the Center’s American Trends Panel. It will examine the demographic composition and vote choices of the 2024 electorate and will provide comparisons to the 2020 and 2016 validated voter studies.

The partisan identification study is based on annual totals from surveys conducted on the Center’s American Trends Panel from 2019 to 2023 and telephone surveys conducted from 1994 to 2018. The survey data was adjusted to account for differences in how the surveys were conducted. For more information, refer to Appendix A .

Previous Pew Research Center analyses of voters’ party identification relied on telephone survey data. This report, for the first time, combines data collected in telephone surveys with data from online surveys conducted on the Center’s nationally representative American Trends Panel.

Directly comparing answers from online and telephone surveys is complex because there are differences in how questions are asked of respondents and in how respondents answer those questions. Together these differences are known as “mode effects.”

As a result of mode effects, it was necessary to adjust telephone trends for leaned party identification in order to allow for direct comparisons over time.

In this report, telephone survey data from 1994 to 2018 is adjusted to align it with online survey responses. In 2014, Pew Research Center randomly assigned respondents to answer a survey by telephone or online. The party identification data from this survey was used to calculate an adjustment for differences between survey mode, which is applied to all telephone survey data in this report.

Please refer to Appendix A for more details.

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Table of contents, behind biden’s 2020 victory, a voter data resource: detailed demographic tables about verified voters in 2016, 2018, what the 2020 electorate looks like by party, race and ethnicity, age, education and religion, interactive map: the changing racial and ethnic makeup of the u.s. electorate, in changing u.s. electorate, race and education remain stark dividing lines, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

US News & World Report Releases 2024 Rankings Of America’s Best Grad Schools

Texas A&M University is one of the nation’s leaders in graduate education, according to the latest rankings from U.S. News & World Report.

The university has 33 programs in the Top 50 spanning across agriculture, business, computer science, education, health, law, political science, public affairs, psychology, science, and veterinary medicine. U.S. News announced this week that the release of rankings for engineering, medical and clinical psychology will be delayed.

In its Best Graduate Schools ranking, the publication placed 10 of Texas A&M’s graduate programs in the Top 20; among those, six are Top 10:

College of Arts and Sciences

• Industrial and organizational psychology, No. 7 (No. 6 public)
• Inorganic chemistry, No. 5 (No. 2 public, No. 1 in Texas)
• Nuclear physics, No. 7 (No. 6 public, No. 1 in Texas)

School of Law, overall No. 26

• Dispute resolution, No. 5 (No. 3 public, No. 1 in Texas)
• Intellectual property, No. 6 (No. 2 public, No. 1 in Texas)

School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, overall No. 10 (No. 9 public, No. 1 in Texas)

According to U.S. News , the rankings are based on expert opinion on program excellence and statistical indicators that measure the quality of a school’s faculty, research and students. Texas A&M currently enrolls 16,762 graduate and professional students (fall 2023), in more than 170 master’s, 94 doctoral and five professional degree programs.

“I’m so proud of our graduate students, the world-class faculty who mentor them and the outstanding programs that set them on a path to success in their chosen fields,” said Gen. (Ret.) Mark A. Welsh III, president of Texas A&M University. “Post-graduate education at Texas A&M contributes immeasurably to our research enterprise and our teaching and service missions. Congratulations to the students, faculty and staff whose work is reflected not just in rankings, but each and every day on our campuses and in the world at large.”

Texas A&M School of Law in Fort Worth, which has seen a remarkable rise in the U.S. News rankings, this year rose three spots overall, an increase of 57 spots in five years.

The Bush School of Government and Public Service, which ranks No. 26 overall in public affairs, has seen gains this round in non-profit management, up six places to No. 21. “The Bush School continues to make strides as a world-class Public Affairs school,” said Frank B. Ashley III, interim dean. “Employers know that graduates of our Public Service and Administration program are career-ready leaders with a passion for public service.”

Other notable rankings include:

• Analytical chemistry, No. 11 (No. 10 public)
• Applied mathematics, No. 13 (No. 6 public)
• Legal writing, No. 11 (No. 7 public, No. 1 in Texas)
• Marketing, No. 29 (No. 9 public)
• Management, No. 27 (No. 11 public)
• Statistics, No. 13 (No. 7 public, No. 1 in Texas)

View the full rankings for Texas A&M here and review the U.S. News methodology here .

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