unity in globalization essay

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Unity with diversity: The challenge of globalization

• By: Alberto M. Piedra
• October 21, 2005

Introduction

There is no doubt that the world of today is, in many ways, radically different from the years that preceded the First World War. The so-called “Pax Britanica”, which basically prevailed from the Congress of Vienna until the summer of 1914, came to an abrupt end with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand the fateful morning of June 28 in Sarajevo. A century of relative peace and tranquility had concluded only to be followed by one that witnessed one of the greatest man-made calamities that the civilized world had ever known.

Most, if not all, of the basic unwritten codes of behaviour and chivalry, which prevailed in the pre World I decades, were ignored or openly rejected by the new generation of statesmen and politicians who, in general, were guided by unprecedented selfish motivations that relied heavily on whipped up mass emotions. The wave of optimism that prevailed in the nineteenth century set in motion a series of idealistic concepts that, it was believed, would guarantee peace, prosperity and ever increasing standards of living for humanity. The sought for fruits of the Enlightenment, with its stress on the power of reason, experimental knowledge and man’s unlimited capacity for continual progress, seemed to have been realized as Europe and the North America continents advanced rapidly in technological and scientific development.

As professor David Fromkin stated in his book Europe’s Last Summer: “At the start of the twentieth century Europe was at the peak of human accomplishment.In industry, technology, and science it had advanced beyond all previous societies. In wealth, knowledge and power it exceeded any civilization that ever had existed”.[1] The roaring guns of August 1914 shattered the optimistic forecasts of the overly confident Europeans.Suddenly it became apparent that a European diplomacy based on the balance of power, elaborated by the British and which had lasted for 200 years, had been dismantled and, as Kissinger wrote in his book Diplomacy was reshaped “into a cold-blooded game of power politics”.[2]

As a result, the most devastating fratricidal war that the world had ever known ravaged for four years not only the peaceful fields of Europe but also the far off lands of other continents. President Woodrow Wilson, one of the main Big Four signatories of the Treaty of Versailles, was convinced that the European balance-of-power system was, to a large degree, responsible for the Great War.[3] He firmly believed that the international order that preceded the war was a system of organized rivalries. The American President proposed that there should be: “…not a balance of power, but a community of power; not organized rivalries but, but an organized common peace”.[4] This new concept later became known as “collective security”.

To institutionalize this idea, Wilson put forward the League of Nations, a quintessentially American institution. As Kissinger reminds us: “America disdained the concept of the balance of power and considered the practice of Realpolitik immoral. America’s criteria for international order were democracy, collective security, and self determination – none of which had undergirded any previous European settlement”.[5] The Wilsonian dream that the interests of all peace loving democracies, united under the patronage of the League of Nations, would never conflict with the legitimate goals of humanity, proved to be totally unrealistic. Lloyd George went along with Wilson’s idea of the League of Nations but the League never caught his imagination.

Perhaps, according to Margaret Macmillan, professor of History at the University of Toronto: “…because he doubted whether it could ever be truly effective”.[6] General Smuts, the South African foreign minister, although an admirer of Wilson’s idealism and plans for universal freedom and justice, had other motivations in his outspoken support of the American President. As Macmillan comments: “What Smuts said less loudly was that the League of Nations could also be useful to the British Empire”.[7]

In spite of the optimistic expectations of many of the “peacemakers”, who participated in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the stormy clouds of conflict were gathering anew as the rumors of war increased in intensity during the decade of the thirties. The League of Nations, which was supposed to put an end to all wars and bring peace and justice to all nations, proved to be totally ineffectual in the face of the rising power of Hitler’s Germany and the brutal regime of Soviet Russia, not to mention Japan’s imperial objectives in Asia.

The League of Nations had a short life. Before the decade of the thirties had ended three of the major powers, Germany, Italy and Japan, had abandoned the conference halls of Geneva and, for all practical purposes, the international institution so dear to Wilson, had ceased to exist. The first of September 1939, Hitler’s Wehrmacht ruthlessly invaded Poland, causing the start of the Second World War. Millions of people were slaughtered around the world, both military and civilian, during the lengthy and horrendous conflagration.

With the end of the war, the victorious allies began to make plans for the future; a future which would include the formation of a new international organization that would, among other things, keep the peace, promote democratic agendas and foster human rights and the right to self determination. The Declaration on Human Rights that took place in San Francisco in 1944 paved the way for the creation of the United Nations (UN), an international organization which was supposed to avoid the pitfalls of the former League of Nations and carry out the high ideals of its original Charter. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had already promised on December 8, 1941 that the United States was going not only to win the war but also the peace that was to follow. Many were convinced that international cooperation, the self-determination of peoples and collective security would guarantee the future peace of the victorious “democratic” nations of the world. However, even though America entered the war with the expectation that the defeat of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan would usher in a new world order of peace and justice, events proved otherwise.It was a renewed form of a Wilsonian dream that did not materialize.

The threat of totalitarianism, under the banner of Soviet Communism, was basically ignored by the allies, including the United States. The world had entered into a new era, better known as the Cold War. It was soon realized that Roosevelt’s promise that the Western alliance was going to win the peace was not materializing. To meet the new challenge of Soviet power, a policy of containment was introduced. It was supposed to do what the UN was unable to do: meet the communist threat without the need for war.[8]

America undoubtedly had become the major world power. This became even more evident after the collapse of the Soviet empire. The policy of containment was no longer relevant. Thus, America moved towards one of “messianic globalism” which simply stated meant that America had a major goal to play in world affairs: reach out to help other nations share in the American dream. A policy of “messianic globalism” went much farther than Wilson’s ideal that the world should be made safe for democracy. The aim was and still is “to make the world democracy”.[9]

The world is rapidly changing. The technological and scientific changes that occurred since the end of the Second World War surprised even the most innovative minds at the turn of the twenty-first century. The new millennium ushered in innovative measures that in many ways simplified the lives of the average person but, at the same time, created challenges that cannot be left unanswered. Perhaps the most immediate one is the challenge of “globalization”. The world has become “smaller”, and distances “shorter” in what appears to be a shrinking planet. The innovative advances in the area of communications are revolutionizing the relationships between nations and peoples of different cultures and values. A new world order is in the making in which developed and less developed countries are becoming more and more politically and economically integrated under, what some experts believe, might well turn out to be a supra-national state.[10]

This paper will discuss a few crucial issues related to “globalization”. We shall try to determine whether the process of “globalization”, as some experts claim, will redound to the benefit of the world at large or, on the contrary, will do more harm than good. The author fully understands the complexity of these issues and the fact that they require a much deeper analysis than the brief comments that are included in this paper. Much has already been written on these subjects so I will limit myself to a brief comment on the impact “globalization” may have on each of the following important issues: 1) the spread of free market economies, 2) the establishment of stable and prosperous democracies, 3) the founding of a new world order with powerful supra-national institutions, 4) the spiritual and cultural traditions of the individual communities and 5) the future of the less developed countries, especially in Latin America.

1. The spread of free market economies

Without going into a full fledged analysis of the free market system which is not the object of this paper, would it be fair to say that a world integrated through the market would be highly beneficial for the vast majority of the world’s inhabitants?

No one will deny that this is a very controversial issue which has been vehemently discussed since the time of Adam Smith and the British Classical School.[11] In more recent times, the reaction of the defenders of socialism and of those who favour protectionist policies, sometimes under the guise of “import substitution for industrialization purposes”, is also well known. However, since the fall of the Soviet Empire and the realization of the disastrous economic failure of socialism, the belief in the advantages of a free economic system has been gaining ground. It is often claimed that a type of “globalization” that fosters free market economies is an excellent tool for the prosperity of the countries in the process of development. Martin Wolf, former economist at the World Bank, believes this to be true. According to him: “The problem today is not that there is too much globalization, but that there is far too little. We can do better with the right mix of more liberal markets and more co-operative global governance.”[12]

Defenders of the free market system have also expressed their reservation as to how “globalization” and economic liberalism can be used by the more powerful nations for purposes which do not necessarily benefit the less developed countries of the world. Joseph Stiglitz, professor of economics at Columbia University, is a firm defender of the free market system and the basic tenets of globalization. However, he has also reservations as to how “globalization” can be used for purposes that do not necessarily foster the development and well being on a world wide scale. “Globalization”, he claims, may be used by the industrialized countries to promote their own economic interests at the expense of the weaker members of the world community. International institutions very often are dominated “…not just by the wealthiest industrial countries but by commercial and financial interests in those countries, and the policies of the institutions naturally reflect this”.[13] Stiglitz has no hesitation in stating the following: “…even when not guilty of hypocrisy, the West has driven the globalization agenda, ensuring that it garners a disproportionate share of the benefits, at the expense of the developing world”.[14]

2. The establishment of stable and prosperous democracies

Another controversial point that is worth considering is the relationship between “globalization” and democracy. Does “globalization” promote democracy through the mediating effect of economic and social development or, on the contrary, does it destabilize the country, producing chaos rather than democracy? Is “globalization” being used by powerful trans-national corporations, primarily, to promote their own selfish interests and constrain the exercise of national sovereignties? There is no doubt that the process of “globalization” implies that an action by one nation will most certainly have consequences that will affect the status-quo of other states with which they have close relationships. Not all economists, as in the case of Stiglitz, are of the opinion that the process of “globalization” and the establishment of liberal economic systems will necessarily have a positive effect on other nations and accelerate the process of democratization. Contrary to the views of Stiglitz, the Indian economist Jagdish Bhagwati rejects the potential negative effects of globalization and insists that evidence supports the fact that: “…globalization leads to prosperity, and prosperity in turn leads to democratization of politics with the rise of the middle class”.[15]

The well known author Francis Fukuyama maintained in his book The End of History and the Last Man that the gradual collapse of totalitarian states of both right and left led to the establishment of prosperous and stable liberal democracies.[16] He even proclaimed “the end of history”: liberalism had triumphed over the forces of evil. For Fukuyama, liberal democracy was the only way to run an advanced economy and society. The benefits of liberal democracies and free market economies were to be spread more widely. Does this imply that global economic integration and the spread of democratic and free market principles around the globe (globalism) can serve as a blueprint for a new world order? Do these ideas reflect an idealism that in many ways resembles the Wilsonian dream of a League of Nations, an organization that would guarantee a peaceful and prosperous world free of national wars? Is globalism another form of optimistic idealism, such as the one held by Roosevelt towards the end of World War II?

The American President again placed great confidence in the formation of new international organizations devoted to the creation of a new “world order of democratic nations”. The principles of self determination, collective security, economic growth and development, and the defense of human rights were to be protected and promoted by international institutions, such as what later became known as the United Nations, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and other “global” or worldwide associations. The economic aspects of “globalization” acquired new significance after the debacle of World War II. In Europe the early European Economic Community (EEC) was supported by many European statesmen in their hopes of reaching, in the longer run, a greater continental political union.[17] Something similar, but with a lesser degree of success, occurred in other continents, especially in Latin America.

3. The founding of a new world order with powerful supra-national institutions

It is amply recognized that international or supra-national organizations are playing an increasing role in this new era of globalization. The creation of the International Court of Justice is only one example of this trend in international affairs. The problem, as we shall mention later, is to determine how these institutions will affect the sovereignties of the participating nations.

It is a two-edged sword that sovereign nations will have to reckon with because once they place their trust in the supra-national institutions they will have to surrender some of their traditional rights. Perhaps one of the best examples of a regional attempt toward unification is the European Union (EU) with its centralized power structure in Brussels.One of the major hurdles that the EU still has to overcome – if it can be done at all – is the reduction of all decision making, now concentrated in a heavily bureaucratic leadership (the Commission) in Brussels, to a level which is more in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity. The views and opinions of the different integrating nationalities should have a greater voice in the decision making process. As we shall see later, this should apply in a very special way with respect to the religious and cultural traditions of the member states.

In spite of its common Judeo-Christian heritage, the EU has traveled a bumpy road in its path towards the creation of a united Europe. Little mention – if at all – is made of Christianity’s great and unique contribution to European civilization. Furthermore, at present there is still no definitive agreement in areas as important as monetary and agricultural policies not to mention, among others, fiscal issues, including the delicate question of migratory policies. A point of discord that has not been resolved concerns the approval and ratification of the future constitution. The Europeans, and rightly so, seem to have grave reservations as to the position Brussels holds with respect to important social and cultural issues.

The success of the union will depend not only on the righteousness and good intentions of the participating member states but also, and above all, on the good faith of the EU leaders. The national sovereignty of the independent states and their cultural, social and religious backgrounds are assets that should not be abandoned or changed easily. The cultural and religious diversity of the member countries must be respected by the centralized powers in Brussels.[18] Otherwise, all attempts toward greater unification will probably fail but, what is even more serious, will violate the basic rights of each person or group to preserve their own particular identities. The idea of Europe implies the recognition of such a common heritage. Its rejection will destroy the only hope for a moral and spiritual integration of the various European nationalities.

The trend toward increased integration and “globalization” is a reality that cannot be ignored. But the notion of the need for the creation of a new world order with its own supra-national institutions is gaining in strength. During the last two centuries strong movements have developed that support the idea of creating a new world order which would integrate different nationalities and cultures into a powerful centralized state. According to the proponents of such an idea world peace and justice would be better preserved if the future were placed in the hands of powerful states.[19]

Socialism, by its very nature, tends toward the centralization of power. Thus, it can prepare more easily the way toward a totalitarian state, not infrequently under the guise of democratic ideals. Let us not forget that for Marx and Engels, the glorification of power is a goal in itself. As Hayek reminds us when referring to collectivism: “…in order to achieve their end, collectivists must create power- power over men wielded by other men – of a magnitude never before known, and that their success will depend on the extent to which they achieve their power.”[20]

But the danger of an excessive centralization of power and its consequent abuses is not limited to socialism. It can also be found among powerful monopolistic business and trade union groups that have no hesitation in manipulating the laws of supply and demand when it favours their own egotistic interests.

The idea of creating a world state, as the well known German economist Roepke tells us, is “not merely a Utopia, nor even a harmless one at that, it also contains some false reasoning. It derives from the oversimplified idea that the degree of political and economic unity mankind needs is entirely incompatible with national sovereignty.” Even today, many years after Roepke wrote this statement at the height of the Cold War, it is difficult to conceive of a one world order when there still remain wide and conflicting philosophical and religious divisions that separate the so called Western World not only from other civilizations but also from the inner divisions that plague it from the inside; divisions that have given ground to the belief in the inevitability of a clash of civilizations and/or the demise and final collapse of Western civilization as it is commonly understood.

4.The spiritual and cultural traditions of the individual countries

The process of “globalization”, if it is to be successful should not be limited to the economy. As borders tend to disappear and the mobility of the factors of production become more flexible, the trend towards “globalization” brings with it also a gradual but progressive unification of society, both socially and culturally.[21] This trend is not bad in itself but it carries with it two main risks: the potential loss of cultural diversity and the danger of a disproportionate centralization of power. The cry for unity, which is often heard in academic circles and international organizations, should not overshadow the notion of diversity. This applies in a particular way to the area of culture.

The legitimate social and cultural traditions of the diverse nationalities should be preserved. Thomas L. Friedman, the Pulitzer Prize-winning foreign affairs columnist for the New York Times has warned about the dangers of globalization uprooting cultures. He says the following: “the more I observed the system of globalization at work, the more obvious it was that it had unleashed forest-crushing forces of development and Disney round the clock homogenization, which, if left unchecked, had the potential to destroy the environment and uproot cultures at a pace never before seen in human history”.[22]

Culture, as professor Sophia Aguirre insists, “is not an addition to the individual’s right but it is intrinsically united to the freedom of each person. At the same time, it is not right to suppress an individual’s right with the aim of protecting the cultural identity of a group”.[23] Problems related to cultural identity are being faced by governments and international organizations in many parts of the world. In Europe, the United States and other developed countries the task of integrating people from different cultures and backgrounds into more unified entities is not an easy one. This is especially true in the area of immigration as recent events in the developed countries have demonstrated. Increased efforts, geared toward a greater level of respect for the large variety of existing nationalities and cultures, are needed. These, in their turn, must be aware and recognize the advantages that, if properly carried out, can be derived from integration. Integrating or globalization policies that are not tailored to these realities can do more harm than good.

A healthy cultural diversity must be respected if the process of “globalization” is to succeed. The biggest threat to cultural diversity is likely to come “from all the anonymous, transnational, homogenizing, standardizing market forces and technologies that make up today’s globalizing economic system”.[24] This threat is aggravated with the rise and under the aegis of powerful international organizations. The trend toward an ever increasing and overwhelming centralization can only make things worse. It can easily contribute to the destruction of the remaining vestiges of individual culture and identity. The positive effects of a healthy diversity would be lost. The process of “massification” so much feared by Ortega y Gasset and Roepke would become a distinct reality.

5. “Globalization”: the case of Latin America

It is firmly believed by some experts that only the transnational corporations and the already super-rich will reap the benefits of “globalization” and, in a particular way, of free trade arrangements. They claim that the gap between rich and poor has been increasing rather than decreasing.[25] They further claim that the industrialized countries are trying to introduce “a uniform world wide development model that faithfully reflect the Western corporate vision and serves corporate interests”.[26]

They go as far as claiming that the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) and the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) are mere instruments of American foreign policy.[27] They are used, so these critics claim, as useful means to subjugate, exploit and “colonize” the less developed countries of the southern hemisphere. It is only fair to accept constructive criticism of free trade arrangements. It is perfectly understandable that, under certain circumstances, free trade may not be the most appropriate policy to be carried out by countries in the process of development. Protectionist measures may have to be implemented at the early stages of development.

The United States, among other countries, practiced protectionism in the nineteenth century, when it was building up its powerful industrial base. As mentioned earlier, the British also defended protectionist policies – i.e. the Corn Laws – when they believed they favoured the nation’s economic interests. However, overall, few people will not deny the multiple advantages that can be derived from the implementation of well thought out free trade policies. Countries in the early stages of development have also enjoyed the benefits of free trade. By opening their markets in an orderly way they have been able to attain rates of economic growth that a few years earlier would have seemed impossible. South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore can be taken as examples.

Something totally different to a healthy criticism of “globalization” and free trade policies is the attitude taken by countries such as Cuba and Venezuela.Both of these countries have attacked violently the very concept of “globalization”, especially with respect to the American sponsored FTAA. Nevertheless, their criticism of neo-liberalism and in particular of the FTAA is more political than economic. Their prime objective is the rejection of Western traditional moral values that emphasize political and economic freedom. To use critical arguments against the FTAA exclusively for political purposes is not only unfair but, in the long run, harmful to the interests of the Latin American communities. Scholarly criticism is one thing but a political vendetta against a neighbouring country is another matter which needs to be analyzed more carefully.

Venezuela’s President Hugo Chavez, in accordance with Cuba’s Fidel Castro, apparently has taken the initiative in a campaign to discredit the FTAA and accuse the United States of old fashioned imperialism. He proclaims the ongoing talks as dead and “condemns the FTAA as an imperialist plot headed by the United States in order to dominate all of Latin America”.[28]Chavez has described the FTAA as a great threat and, as a result, the Chavez-Castro alliance was formalized in 2004 by the signing of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas (BAA).

This arrangement cannot be dismissed lightly. It is an event of geopolitical importance with significant ramifications for the United States and the whole of the Western Hemisphere. The objective of the BAA, the antithesis of a world integrated through the market place to revitalize the economies of both countries and create a common barter zone throughout Latin America and the Caribbean – in accordance with their own interpretation of “globalization”. This way they can advance “the principles of socialism throughout the region and counterbalance the United States as the super power of historic dominance in the hemisphere with a new correlation of forces comprised of China, India, Russia and Brazil, where the Peoples Republic of China predominates”.[29] Chavez furthermore claims that he has forged an alliance with Argentina, Brazil and Havana in their struggle against neo-liberalism and the U.S. led imperialistic agenda.[30]

It is ironic that Cuba, a country that has suffered so acutely under socialist policies, should place herself at the side of a populist regime such as the one sponsored by Chavez whose regime most surely will also end in political and economic catastrophe. What Cuba and other Latin American countries need are socially adjusted economic policies which stress political and economic freedoms that will redound to the benefit of all sectors of society. This, in our opinion, is the only way for economic growth to take place. Latin America is at a critical crossroads. The impact of globalization in the case of Latin America will depend more upon the course taken by its political leaders, as to the alternative economic models chosen.[31]

The future free economic system that hopefully will be established in Cuba must be based on a solid juridical and ethical foundation, if corruption, the plague of many political regimes particularly in the developing nations, is to be avoided. It is important to emphasize that corruption – the Achilles heel of the less developed countries – is not going to be solved by more government intervention.

As Dr. Samuel Gregg, Director of Research at the Acton Institute tells us: “If the grip of corruption is to be broken, it does not require the creation of more state officials to police (and perhaps exacerbate) the problem. It requires genuine change in the hearts of people and the moral culture of entire societies”.[32]

Conclusions

The new millennium that has just started has placed renewed faith in the bounties to be derived from “globalization” and the creation of ever more powerful supra-national institutions. A new world order is in the making which, it is believed, will put an end to the old national rivalries, even if it is done at the expense of the “old fashioned” national sovereignties. The goal of many an “expert” is to reach a higher level of unification among the various countries and regions of the world under the aegis of competent technocrats supported by a large number of bureaucrats. A greater level of political and economic unity is desired with the expectation that, as a result, a new era of peace and tranquility will follow.

Once again, man has a tendency to be carried away by unattainable goals of universal peace and tranquility disregarding his own frailties and the reality that surrounds him. It is useless to build utopian ideals with false promises or at least false expectations of a better world when the soul of each individual is negatively affected by unrelenting selfishness, greed and love of power. The moral, intellectual, political, economic and social disorder of our contemporary society is not conducive toward the creation of an ideal international order, whether we call it a “new world order” or otherwise.

To ignore the disorders that permeate modern society instead of trying to remedy them will only aggravate the crisis and make futile any attempt to create healthy international order. As Roepke keeps reminding us: “Is it not starting to build the house with the roof if we subscribe to a falsely understood internationalism, and should not the foundations come first? What can be expected from international conferences and conventions under such circumstances? Is it not the same old paper-rustling and clap-trap that the world has grown sick of during the last two decades?”[33] Once again the United Nations and other international organizations such as, for example, the International Court of Justice can be given as examples of institutions that have failed to meet the trust placed in them by the public in general. As purveyors of peace and general well-being, as well as protectors of the most elementary human rights, they have not been very successful. Examples abound.[34] The lack of consensus as to the basic principles that should serve as a guide to their activities makes it very difficult, if not impossible, to reach solutions that meet the standards of justice and equity. The very concept of human rights, for example, has a very different meaning in various parts of the world.

The term itself lends itself to diverse interpretations, depending on different cultural backgrounds but even more often on dissimilar political systems. If difficulties such as these permeate international organizations in our contemporary world, what can we expect from a powerful supra-national organization which lacks a basic common denominator which recognizes not only in theory but in practice the most elemental principle related to the dignity of the human person. A world order, which does not recognize the existence of a natural law and falls into a relativism that does not distinguish between good and evil, is necessarily destined to failure.

The utopian ideals of well meaning statesmen and intellectuals keep appearing in all stages of history. Man in his search for perfection does not cease to rely on unrealistic dreams that fall by the wayside and end up in the dustbin of history. To rely on collectivist policies and the centralization of power in supra-national organizations can only bring future disappointments. If the concept of globalization is used as a pretext for greater centralization and the development of supra-national institutions that in their zeal for unity disregard the value of diversity, then it can truthfully be said that freedom and respect for cultural diversity are in jeopardy. Such an outcome would be a tragedy for all well intentioned peoples who do not wish to abandon or sacrifice their legitimate and traditional cultural values.

However, let us be clear about this, “globalization” is not necessarily a bad thing. On the contrary, it can bring many benefits to society as a whole. If it contributes to the creation of a more unified world where the principles of subsidiarity, solidarity, justice and the traditional moral values are respected, “globalization” can be a welcomed counter balance to the false nationalism of the past; a nationalism which did so much harm during the twentieth century. But as Otto von Habsburg, a former European parliamentarian,said many years ago with reference to the unification of Europe: ” l’Europe doit croitre comme un arbre, pas comme un grate-ciel”.[35]

In the case of Europe, if its spiritual and cultural roots are not preserved, the continent will grow – if it does at all – as an anonymous entity that will lose its past greatness and even its “raison d’etre”. The main concern is to better define and foster the European spirit that expresses the universality of its civilization whilst, at the same time recognizing the wide range of its cultural contributions, its unity and diversity.[36] This same argument can be applied to other integrating movements around the world. Unity yes but it must come together with diversity: this is the only path that will lead towards a healthy unity but always respecting a legitimate diversity. Any attempt to reach a greater level of international unification, whether through social or economic integrating movements, must respect the cultural and spiritual traditions of the participating members.

A false concept of globalization that limits itself to criticism of older international organizations whilst, at the same time, denying or ignoring the reality of human nature can only lead to future disappointments. The lessons learned from the failure of the League of Nations would have served for no purpose whatsoever. It would be pretentious to blame past international organizations and erroneous diplomatic and economic endeavours for the ills of our contemporary societies. The real problem lies not in deficient national and international institutions but in refusing to identify the evils that are rotting the roots of our modern society and are the cause of its political and social disintegration. The cure cannot be found in legislative actions amending past institutions or creating new ones. The crisis is much deeper.

What we are witnessing at the beginning of this new millenium is a renewed crisis of values. Modern man tends to reject or at least ignore the basic tenants of our Judeo-Christian heritage. Exclusive reliance on man’s capabilities to build new societies free of antinomies can only lead to future disappointments. Utopian dreams of new world orders – including those based on democratic principles and free economies – can lead humanity astray. The peacemakers of 1919 were convinced that by modifying and/or building new political and economic structures peace and tranquility would follow. They were wrong, because they forgot the true nature of the human person and his tendency towards evil, whether manifested in the form of excessive political power and/or economic greed. Only by recognizing the truth that man, as Aristotle insisted, must lead a virtuous life if the city-state is to prosper. Otherwise, all sorts of man-devised plans for a better world can meet the same fate of the early Greek city-states and more recently of the premature “happy” expectations which arose from the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and the Conference of San Francisco in 1949.

Thus, let us hope that “globalization”, whether in the form of a new world order or other types of integrating models, will not end in failure. The reality of Scripture’s Tower of Bable put an end to man’s ambition, not to mention his arrogance, pretending to build a “perfect society” and reach a “heaven on earth” without divine assistance. Modern man should not fall into the same arrogance of his ancient predecessors. For man to work arduously towards the construction of a better world is praiseworthy but, at the same time, he must have sufficient humility to recognize his own frailties and insufficiencies. Let me conclude with a quote from the brilliant German scholar Dietrich von Hildebrand when he warned the modern world with these wise words: “The mark of the present crisis is man’s attempt to free himself from his condition as a created being, to deny his metaphysical situation, to disengage himself from all bonds with anything greater than himself. Man endeavours to build a new Tower of Babel”[37] To disregard Hildebrand’s warning will only bring about further disillusionments and ultimate failures to the men and women of the new millennium.

Ambassador Alberto Martinez Piedra is the Donald E. Bently Professor of Political Economy at the Institute of World Politics.

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[1] David Fromkin, Europe’s Last Summer. ( New York: Alfred A Knopf, 2004 ) p. 17 [2] According to Kissinger: “In the nineteenth century, Metternich’s Austria reconstructed the Concert of Europe and Bismarck’s Germany dismantled it”. See Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy. ( New York: A Touchstone Book, Published by Simon and Schuster, 1994). p.17 [3] The other Big Four signatories of the Treaty of Versailles were Lloyd George, the prime minister of Britain and Georges Clemenceau and Vittorio Orlando, prime ministers of France and Italy respectively.For an excellent book on the Paris Conference of 1919 and its attempt to end all wars see: Margaret Macmillan, PeaceMakers. (London: John Murray, 2002) [4] Woodrow Wilson, Address, January 22, 1917 in Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol.40, pp. 536-537 [5] Kissinger, op.cit., p.221 [6] Macmillan, op.cit., p. 95 [7] Ibid., p. 98. Margaret Macmillan is the great-grand daughter of David Lloyd George. [8] This policy was associated with the name of George F. Kennan. [9] For an excellent review of American Foreign Policy see: Joshua Muravchik, Exporting Democracy. (Washington D.C.: The AEI Press, 1991). [10] Alberto M. Piedra, Natural Law. (Lanham, MD, Lexington Books, 2004) p. 168 [11] The conflict between the believers in free trade and the defenders of protectionism in XIXth century England is well documented.It gave ground to the debate between Peel and Disraeli with respect to the Corn Lawswhich permitted the import of cheap foodstuffs for the poorer sectors of British society. They were opposedby the agricultural interests. [12] It is true that Wolf does not argue for the replacement of states.He is arguing “for a better understanding by states of their long-run interest in a co-operative global economic order”. See: Martin Wolf, Why Globalization Works. (New Haven:Yale Nota Bene, Yale University Press, 2005) p. xvii. [13] Joseph E. Stiglitz, Globalization and its Discontents. ( New York:W.W. Norton & Company, 2003) p. 19 [14] Ibid., p.7 [15] Jagdish Bhagwati, In Defense of Globalization. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004) pp. 93-94 [16] Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man.(New York; The Free Press, 1992) p.12 [17] The British government was never enthusiastic with the idea of creating the EEC.They favoured the creation of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) or a simple free trade area, much less centralized than its rival the EEC. [18] The former German Chancellor Helmut Kohl once said: “L’unite culturelle de l’Europe, dans toute sa diversite , est le vrai fondement de l’unification europeenne”. [19] According to the French political philosopher Elie Halevy as quoted by Friedrich Hayek: “‘The independence of small nations might mean something to the liberal individualist.It means nothing to collectivists like …the two Webbs and their friend Bernard Shaw.I can still hear Sidney Webb explaining to me that the future belonged to the great administrative nations, where the officials govern and the police keep order’.And elsewhere Halevy quotes George Bernard Shaw, arguing about the same time, that ‘the world is to the big and powerful states by necessity; and the little ones must come within their bordersor be crushed out of existence.'” See: Friedrich von Hayek, The Road to Serfdom. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,1944) p.143 [20] Ibid., p. 144 [21] Piedra, op.cit., p. 168 [22] Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree. (New York: Anchor Books, 2000) p. 23. For Friedman, “world affairs today can only be explained as the interaction between what is as new as an Internet Web site and what is as old as a gnarled olive tree on the banks of the river Jordan”. (pp.29-30. He continues: “one reason that the nation state will never disappear, even if it does weaken, is because it is the ultimate olive tree – the ultimate expression of whom we belong to – linguistically, geographically and historically”. (p. 31) Lexus, on the other hand “represents an equally fundamental age-old drive – the drive for sustenance, improvement, prosperity and modernization – as it is played out in today’s globalization system “. (pp. 32-33) [23] Maria Sophia Aguirre, “Multiculturalism in a labour market with integrated economies” in Management Decision (West Yorkshire, England,. MCB University Press, Volume 35, Number 7, 1997) p. 493 [24]Friedman, op.cit., , p. 34 [25] According to two prominent Colombian economists, as a result of globalization, income distribution has improvedworldwide during the last 25 years. However, this is due to the weight carried by China and India.See: Armando Montenegro and Rafael Rivas, Las Piezas del Rompecabezas, desigualdad, pobreza y crecimiento.(Bogota, Colombia: Editora Aguilar, Altea, Taurur, Alfaguara, 2005) p. 32 [26] For a harsh and, very often, biased criticism of globalization see: Jerry Mander, “Facing the Rising Tide” in The Case Against the Global Economy. (Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, 1996. p. 5. The global homogernization of culture, Mander believes, is one of the main principles underlying the global economy. It includes”the idea that all countries – even those whose cultures have been as diverse as, say, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Sweden, and Brazil – must sign on to the same global economic model and row their (rising) boats in unison. The net result is monoculture – the global humanization of culture, life style, and level of technological immersion, with the corresponding dismantlement of local traditions and economics. Soon, everyplace will look and feel like everyplace else, with the same restaurants and hotels, the same clothes, the same malls and superstores, and the same streets crowded with cars. There’ll be scarcely a reason to leave home”. Ibid., p.5 [27] Cuba is not a party to the 34 nation FTAA. [28] Ralph J. Galliano, Editor, U.S.-Cuba Policy Report. (Washington DC: Institute for U.S. Cuba Relations.2004) Vol. 11, No.4, April 30, 2004, p.8 [29]Ralph J. Galliano, Editor, U.S. Cuba Policy Report. (Washington DC: Institute for U.S. Cuba Relations, 2004) Special Edition, December 21, 2004, p. 1. Article 2 of BAA states: “Given that the Bolivarian process has placed itself on a much firmer footing after the decisive victories in the revocatory referendum of 15 August 2004 and the regional elections of October 31, 2004 and since Cuba and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela will be based from this date forward not only on principles of solidarity, which will always be present, but also, and to the highest possible degree, on the exchange of goods and services which best correspond to the social and economic necessities of both countries”. Ibid., p. 1 [30] The FTAA is opposed by trade blocs such as Mercosur – Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay – and by many of the Guyana based CARICOM countries. [31] Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Western Hemisphere Affairs Rogelio Pardo-Maurer IV, who is the senior advisor to Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, offered an insight into the alternative proposed by the United States in his July 2005 speech before the Washington-based Hudson Institute. He said the following: “there are alternatives to the model that we champion…which is the model of the democratic, market based liberal society, liberal in the old-fashioned sense of the word…There are less benign (alternatives). There are even malicious and I would not be afraid to say, downright evil alternatives. One of them, as we know, is the Bolivarian Alternative…this is the model championed by Hugo Chavez in Venezuela, and supported or even directed by Fidel Castro in Cuba. That is an alternative”. See Ralph J. Galliano, Editor, U.S.-CubaPolicy Report. (Washington DC: Institute for U.S. Cuba Relations, 2005) Special Edition, July 26, 2005, p.4. [32] Osvaldo H. Schenone and Samuel Gregg, A Theory of Corruption, The Theology of Sin. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Christian Social Thought Series Number 7, 2003 ) p. 48 [33] Wilhelm Roepke, International Order and Economic Integration. ( Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1959) p.13. First published in Switzerland by Eugen Rentsch Verlag AG, Erlenbach-Zurich, Switzerland. [34] Sudan and Rwuanda-Burundi are only two exampless among many. [35] See: Jacques Groothaert, L’Europe aux miroirs ( Bruxelles: Editions LABOR, 1996) p.90 [36] Jacques Groothaert expresses this truth in a very poetic but real way when he writes: “Nous ne pouvons qu’evoquer les rapports entre primitives flamends et peinture italienne, les cathedrals gothiques de France, d’Angleterre ou d’Allemagne, les chateaux au classicism a la francaise, le baroque triumphant et multiforme de l’Espagne a la Baviere, l’ecole de peinture de Paris ou se retrouvent les Espagnols Picasso et Miro, le Russe Chagall, l’Italien Modigliani, le Bulgare Soutine”. [37] Dietrich von Hildebrand, The New Tower of Babel.(New York: P.J. Kennedy & Sons, 1953) p. 1

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Globalisation: factors of unity or division, depending on the circumstances

There are many dimensions to globalisation and they are constantly changing and varying in their composition: the trade in goods, capital flows (both of these are currently in decline), information flows (on the increase) and the movement of people (also rising, with huge problems). There is also cultural exchange and even hybridisation, among other phenomena. As Lionel Barber , editor of the Financial Times (now owned by the Japanese Nikkei corporation, another change) argues, we have lived through ‘Globalisation 1.0’. And we are now in Globalisation 2.0, which means ‘the interdependence of several identities or cultures characterised by new forms of non-western modernity’. The part about non-western is important, not only for this new brand of globalisation, but also for global governance and the world order, which the West can no longer impose. In any event, recent years have shown that Thomas Friedman was wrong to propose that the world was flat. Far from it: it is highly contoured, even if the world economy has lately shown the tendency to flat-line.

This was one of the subjects under debate at the Second Foro de Foros Intergenerational Encounter held in La Granja, running from 3 to 5 March. Is the choice between globalisation and more regionalisation? Or, as a recent excellent report from Credit Suisse put it, are we moving towards the end of globalisation or a multipolar world (not necessarily the same thing as multilateral, or even close)? Certain factors are identified as potential game changers, with three in particular standing out (the analysis adds a fourth: food and obesity).

First there is the digital world . Services, products and even money are becoming increasingly digital. And digitalisation is one of the elements that drives globalisation, although products and services are now more on the move than workers, despite the growth of migration in absolute terms. But we still do not inhabit a truly globalised digital realm.

Globalisation’s second game changer, although this may come as something of a surprise, is the growing automation and robotisation of many tasks . This may lead to a more connected world, but may also trigger more fissures, since not all countries can or will be able to develop competitive robotic and robotised industries. Currently there are three large manufacturers of robots: the US, Germany and Japan. Although China is the country that installs most robots in its factories, they are very often made in Japan or elsewhere. Added to this is the likely impact of increasingly sophisticated 3D printers (or ‘additive manufacturing’), which could lead to a slowdown in the international trade in components and even finished products. They could, in other words, disrupt the famous value chains that underlie globalisation. This automation (as well as the rising labour costs in China and elsewhere) accounts in part for the reindustrialisation that the US, for example, is currently witnessing.

There is a third factor that could end up going one way or the other: Internet security . As indicated above, the Internet makes the world more interconnected, although some countries and regimes, such as the Chinese, have their walls to prevent their citizens from having excessive and uncontrolled access to external sources. On the Internet, geography, and therefore geopolitics, continues to matter. It is not for nothing that Google has its servers located essentially on US and to a lesser extent European soil: in other words, in reliable jurisdictions, although it is now extending to others.

In 2007, in a book of the same title, I wrote about ‘ la fuerza de los pocos ’ (‘the power of the few’), in reference to how the new means of communication, the Internet and mobile telephones, were enabling individuals and small groups to obtain a global reach, sometimes with radical messages, as in the case of al-Qaeda or, currently, the Islamic State , simultaneously connecting and fragmenting the world. Daesh and Facebook use the same communication technologies. These trends have become stronger. And the next war could start not with a missile being launched, but rather with a cyber-attack.

When people talk about the lack of global governance, however, it should be remembered that there are systems that work, such as the postal system, the management of the Internet, air and sea traffic control and the International Organization for Standardization, the ISO, which is essential for the standardisation of robots, for example. It might even be said, citing as examples the way the UN’s new Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 were reached, or the Paris COP21 agreement on the fight against climate change, that we are in the presence of a new type of ‘bottom-up’ or ‘ inductive ’ global governance, emanating not just from States, but also from their citizens, think tanks, NGOs and even philanthropy, Bill Gates-style.

The report mentioned above includes a ‘globalisation clock’, according to which we could be in a situation that is both more globalised and more multipolar, although the slowdown in the emerging economies and the stagnation among the developed ones could be changing this situation. It sets out three scenarios:

(1) a globalisation that thrives; (2) the emergence of a multipolar world at the economic, political and social levels, including regional corporate champions that would supplant global multinationals; and (3) the end of globalisation, in a similar way to what happened after 1913, with less cooperation between States.

To a large extent it depends on how the factors mentioned above materialise, or how the tennis ball, as in Woody Allen’s Match Point , lands or is made to land.

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Unity in Diversity:The Integrative Approach to Intercultural Relations

About the author, hans köchler.

September 2012, No. 3 Vol. XLIX 2012, Dialogue among Civilizations

I n the history of institutionalized relations between states, the preservation of peace and stability has always been a predominant concern—an ideal that is also enunciated in the Preamble to the Charter of the United Nations. The gap between the idea of peace and the reality of tension and conflict, however, has proven to be a major challenge to the world organization ever since its foundation after World War II—and that challenge was not only due to conflicting political and economic interests. Situations of conflict often arise in a complex setting of historical, social, cultural and political interaction between communities; accordingly, they must be dealt with in a multifaceted and integrative manner. In order to "practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours", as the peoples of the United Nations proclaim in the Preamble to the Charter, we first have to understand each other, or appreciate each other's way of life and socio-cultural identity. This is only possible if we are knowledgeable about our distinct cultures, traditions and value systems. This truth is also reflected in the Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) according to which "ignorance of each other's ways and lives has been a common cause, throughout the history of mankind", of suspicion and mistrust through which their differences have "all too often broken into war".

As an important element of a durable order of peace among nations and peoples, cultural relations have rightly become a preoccupation of modern foreign policy. However, under the conditions of today's global village, with the simultaneity and constant interaction among distant and distinct traditions, social identities and value systems, cultural foreign policy in the conventional diplomatic sense is not enough anymore. With the geopolitical changes that unfolded after the end of the Cold War, and in particular since the fateful events at the beginning of the new millennium, the promotion of intercultural understanding has become more than just an ingredient, as important as it may be, of "peaceful coexistence" among nations. After the end of the bipolar world order, which had divided the world along ideological lines, dialogue among cultures and civilizations has indeed become an existential issue for the international community, a goal which the United Nations General Assembly has identified as such in its resolution in 2001 as the "United Nations Year of Dialogue Among Civilizations"—a decision notably adopted before the events of 11 September of that year.

The new orientation suggested here requires a systemic approach that takes into account the interdependence between the realms of culture, politics and the economy, and makes intercultural relations a defining element of foreign policy, something which the International Progress Organization has been advocating since 1974 in its first international conference on "The Cultural Self-comprehension of Nations". Our concerns were echoed, at the time, in the words of UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim, who, in a special message to the conference, emphasized that there is "no future for mankind unless tolerance and understanding between cultures and nations . become the rule rather than the exception".

In our era of global interconnectedness, the assertion of cultural identity can only be envisioned on the basis of mutual respect and the acceptance of diversity. The conventional, often patronizing and propaganda-like approach in the domain of cultural cooperation, a legacy of the colonial era with its unilateral mindset, has essentially failed in the increasingly multi-polar framework of globalization. A culture can only realize itself and reach a state of maturity if it is able to relate to other cultures and life-worlds in a comprehensive and interactive sense, a process one might also characterize by reference to what we have termed the "dialectics of cultural self-comprehension". The strength of a people or nation indeed depends on the ability to interact with other communities in a complex, multidimensional manner, something that also includes the capacity to see oneself through the eyes of the other. Without such interaction, a community will lack the skills it needs to compete and be successful in today's fast-changing global environment. Dealing with differences in a realistic manner -- neither repulsing "the other" nor denying his being different—is in a nation's well understood self-interest. In that regard, political leaders might take advice from Yale Law School Professor Amy Chua's masterful analysis of the history of empires and how their success depended on an inclusive approach and on tolerance for ethnic, cultural and religious differences.

Along those lines, intercultural dialogue must be than a mere corollary of a state's compartmentalized cultural policy. In order to be credible and sustainable, dialogue must be redefined in a comprehensive and integrative sense. It should cover the entire spectrum of the life of a community, and not only aspects of high culture. If dialogue is to be relevant, it cannot be conducted in an abstract manner—in a kind of l'art pour l'art attitude that isolates issues of cultural and civilizational identity from the realms of politics and the economy.

There are three fundamental maxims that highlight the integrative approach; the first two are also implicit in the Millennium Declaration which the UN General Assembly adopted on 8 September 2000:

• Dialogue without addressing issues of social justice is artificial and ultimately meaningless.
• Dialogue without a commitment to peace is a contradiction in itself. In particular, civilizations cannot be allied if the exponents of one civilization wage war against exponents of another civilization. Furthermore, in the twenty-first century, there must be no wars with civilizational undertones. Such conflicts poison the intercultural climate not only globally but at the regional and domestic levels as well, thereby eroding the very foundations of multicultural societies and threatening the long-term stability of states.
• One cannot preach cultural dialogue internationally and reject the very notion of multiculturalism domestically. Consistency in the implementation of a policy of dialogue is absolutely essential for the integrative approach.

In view of the experiences in the 10 years since the UN initially highlighted the goal of a dialogue among civilizations, a number of practical measures may be considered in the fields of education, politics, diplomacy, sports and tourism that follow from a comprehensive and integrative approach, and that will be required to make dialogue a meaningful and relevant factor of international relations. We can mention here only a few such measures:

In education: under the auspices of UNESCO, the adaptation of domestic curricula and school textbooks to today's multicultural realities should continue in a coordinated manner, and cultural stereotyping should be completely eliminated from national curricula. Educational systems should, as far as possible, reflect the actual diversity in terms of cultures and religions. Wherever possible, studies abroad should be facilitated and integrated into standard curricula by way of academic exchange programmes.

In the field of sports: the transnational dimension of modern mass spectator sports such as football should be properly reflected and made use of in terms of the potential for overcoming a narrow-minded perception of "the other" as adversary. It is strangely inconsistent and totally unacceptable that, while a national team comprises players of different cultures, ethnicities or races, the national fans of that very team indulge in nationalist enemy stereotypes and differences. One cannot be a cosmopolitan in the worldwide engage in chauvinistic acts.

In international tourism: the potential of today's global travel industry, an essential factor of income for many countries especially in the developing world, should be fully used in terms of the opportunity it provides for intercultural encounters and knowledge. In that regard, the impact of certain practices of mass tourism should be carefully assessed—such as exporting one's local conditions to distant places without due consideration of the compatibility of lifestyles. Tourism should not create animosities and nurture mutual prejudices, but should help to overcome them.

In domestic politics: countries whose leaders have begun to question, or even reject outright, the rationale of multiculturalism may find it useful to study the actual experience with multicultural societies in other parts of the world, especially in post-colonial countries. Traditionally monocultural societies in the industrialized world that have become multicultural due to migration and economic globalization can learn from societies in states that were originally established on a multicultural basis. Such an exchange of intercultural experiences could play a constructive role in today's increasingly interconnected world, especially as regards the reduction of tensions within countries. The phasing out of racial, religious or ethnic profiling by immigration authorities will be another important contribution from the domestic side to an integrative approach to intercultural dialogue.

In the field of international law: the 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions should be implemented systematically and in all its aspects. It is to be hoped that those major industrialized states that have not yet acceded to or ratified the convention will do so in the near future. According to the integrative approach which we are advocating here, support for a global dialogue among civilizations cannot be delinked from the commitment to interculturality as defined in Article 4(8) of the Convention—in the sense of "existence and equitable interaction of diverse cultures and the possibility of generating shared cultural expressions through dialogue and mutual respect".

In the domain of the internet and new social media: the last decades' rapid development of information technology that has enabled entirely new forms of interactive communication has also transformed, or is about to transform, societies and state systems. One may fairly assume that the interconnectivity and interactivity within today's global information village—not to speak of the wealth of information and educational material that has become available to users almost instantly—will gradually contribute to the normalization of cultural diversity in the eyes of the global public, and foster a more mature and lasting acceptance of differences. One cannot be a cosmopolitan in the worldwide web and a chauvinist at home.

The rationale behind measures to promote intercultural dialogue is that a sustainable order of peace requires a holistic approach that integrates all areas of global interaction, a purpose for which the UN, due to its universal and inclusive character, is ideally suited. In this era of ever increasing interdependence among people, and peoples of distinct cultural and religious identities, dealing with differences has itself become a cultural technique and, more than that, a skill that is indispensable for the prosperity and success of each and every community. The nations that are publicly committed to partnership and dialogue among civilizations must live up to this challenge. They should make clear that no state or people, as influential or powerful as they may be, can use the paradigm of dialogue to justify a strategy or policy of cultural superiority. The threat of culture wars and conflicts due to civilizational exceptionalism must be ended once and for all. The unity of mankind can only be preserved, and peace can only be maintained through the recognition of the diversity of the human race with all that this entails in terms of an integrated policy of economic, social and cultural cooperation.

The UN Chronicle  is not an official record. It is privileged to host senior United Nations officials as well as distinguished contributors from outside the United Nations system whose views are not necessarily those of the United Nations. Similarly, the boundaries and names shown, and the designations used, in maps or articles do not necessarily imply endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

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The Bonn Handbook of Globality pp 19–33 Cite as

Globality: Concept and Impact

• Ludger Kühnhardt 3  
• First Online: 22 February 2019

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Globality is considered a concept to symbolize the unity of the world, not the factual process of advancing globalization. It recognizes the unity of the earth and of mankind, but does not force the factual diversity in space and time under the parameters of one single theory. Globality is a starting point for the relational reflection about the effects of unprecedented interdependencies and contrasts, which constitute the world in the twenty-first century. In considering the world, the notion of globality offers space and perspective to accommodate the manifold implications of this “global turn.” Reconceptualizing key concepts and symbolizations of human interaction is the best possible approach to enhance our understanding about globality and its effects.

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See also: Manfred Riedel, Die Universalität der europäischen Wissenschaft als begriffs- und wissenschaftsgeschichtliches Problem, in: Zeitschrift für allgemeine Wissenschaftstheorie Vol. 10, No. 2 (1979), pp. 267–287; Reiner Wimmer, Universalisierung, in: Marcus Düwell et al. (eds.), Handbuch Ethik, Stuttgart/Weimar: J.B. Metzler, 2002, pp. 517–521.

Jürgen Osterhammel/Niels P. Petersson, Globalization: A Short History, Princeton University Press, 2005, p. 4; Stefan A. Schirm, Globalization. State of the Art and Perspectives, New York: Routledge, 2006.

See: Roland Robertson, Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneity, in: Featherstone, Mike et. al. (eds.), Global Modernities, London: Sage 1995, p. 25–44. Bernd Wagner, Kulturelle Globalisierung: Weltkultur, Glokalität und Hybridisierung, in: Idem. (ed.), Kulturelle Globalisierung. Zwischen Weltkultur und kultureller Fragmentierung. Essen: Klartext, 2002, pp. 9–38.

See: Dietmar Loch/Wilhelm Heitmeyer ( eds.), Schattenseiten der Globalisierung , Frankfurt/M: Suhrkamp, 2001; Fernand Kreff/Eva-Maria Knoll/Andre Gingrich (eds.), Lexikon der Globalisierung, Bielefeld: transcript Verlag, 2011.

See: Emile Durkheim, Emile Durkheim, The division of labour in society, London: Free Press, 1997 (French original 1893).

See:Rudolf Stichweh, Die Weltgesellschaft. Soziologische Analysen, Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 2000; Rudolf Stichweh, The Eigenstructures of World Society and the Regional Cultures of the World, in: Ino Rossi (ed.), Frontiers of Globalization Research. Theoretical and Methodological Approaches. New York: Springer 2007, pp. 133–149; Rudolf Stichweh, Comparing Systems Theory and Sociological Neo-Institutionalism: Explaining Functional Differentiation. in: Boris Holzer et.al. (eds.), From Globalization to World Society. Neo-Institutional and Systems-Theoretical Perspectives. New York: Routledge 2014, pp. 23–36.; Bettina Heintz / Richard Münch / Hartmann Tyrell (eds.), Weltgesellschaft. Theoretische und empirische Problemlagen, Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius, 2005.

See: Tilman Mayer, Skizzen zum Begriff der Globalität, in: Ludger Kühnhardt / Tilman Mayer (eds.), Die Gestaltung der Globalität. Annäherungen an Begriff, Deutungen und Methodik, ZEI Discussion Paper C 198, Bonn: Zentrum für Europäische Integrationsforschung, 2010, pp. 3–9.

See: David Yergin, The Age of Globality?, Newsweek, May 18, 1998, www.newsweek.com/id/924862tid=relatedcl  (last accessed 28.11.2017); David Yergin / Joseph Stanislaw, The Commanding Heights. The Battle for the World Economy, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002; Harold L. Sirkin / Hemerling, James W./ Bhattacharya, Arindam K., (eds.), Globality. Competing with Everyone from Everywhere for Everything, New York: Business Plan, 2008.

Ulrich Beck, Ulrich Beck, What is globalization? Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001 (2nd edition), p.11 (German original: Was ist Globalisierung? Irrtümer des Globalismus—Antworten auf Globalisierung, Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1997, p. 30).

Ibid., p. 12.

Martin Albrow, The Global Age: State and society beyond modernity, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996.

Jürgen Osterhammel / Niels P. Petersson, Globalization: a short history, op.cit, p. 9.

Karl Jaspers, The Origin and Goal of History, New York. Routledge, 2010, p. 140.

Martin Albrow, The Global Age, op. cit, p. 75.

Ibid., p. 4.

Jens Badura, Einleitung, in: Jens Badura (ed.), Mondialisierungen. ‚Globalisierung‘ im Lichte transdisziplinärer Reflexionen, Bielefeld: transcript Verlag, 2006, p. 12.

Ibid.; see also Gérard Dussouy, Les théories de la mondialité: Traité de Relations internationales, Tome 3, Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009; Dussouy, Gérard, Systemic Geopolitics: A Global Interpretation Method of the World Article in: Geopolitics 15(1) 2010: 133–150. 

Martin Albrow, The Global Age, op. cit., p. 109.

Karl Dietrich Bracher, Age of Ideologies: A History of political thought in the 20th centuries, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1984. Karl Dietrich Bracher was the founder of the discipline of political science at Bonn University in 1959. His historical study on the dissolution of the Weimar Republic has been lauded as one of the most important books ever published in Germany.

See: Shmuel N. Eisenstadt, Multiple Modernities, Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2002.

See: Roland Axtmann, (ed.), Globalization and Europe: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations, London/Washington D.C.: Pinter, 1998; Paul Ariès, et al. (eds.), L’Europe Globalisée: la fin des illusions, Paris: L’Harmattan 2002; Ludger Kühnhardt, Implications of Globalization on the Raison d’Etre of European Integration, Working Paper No. 32, Oslo: ARENA, 2002; Simon Sweeney, Europe, the State, and Globalisation, Harlow: Pearsons, 2005; Ulrich Beck / Edgar Grande, Das kosmopolitische Europa. Gesellschaft und Politik der Zweiten Moderne, Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 2007.

See: Martin Ortega (ed.), Building the Future: The EU’s Contribution to Global Governance, Paris: European Union Institute for Security Studies, 2005; Charlotte Bretherton/John Vogler (eds.), The European Union as a Global Actor, London: Routledge, 2006 (2 nd edition).

Ralf Elm (ed.), Europäische Identität: Paradigmen und Methodenfragen, Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2002; Julian Nida-Rümelin / Werner Weidenfeld (eds.), Europäische Identität. Voraussetzungen und Strategien, Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2007; Ludger Kühnhardt, Region-Building, Volume I: The Global Proliferation of Regional Integration, Oxford/New York: Berghahn Books, 2010.

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Kühnhardt, L. (2019). Globality: Concept and Impact. In: Kühnhardt, L., Mayer, T. (eds) The Bonn Handbook of Globality. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90377-4_2

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2. Global Unity Among Nations

The people of all nations, religions and cultures have dispersed and spread around the world giving multiculturalism and diversity a whole new meaning. With this globalization, so is required the unification of world leaders, to connect on a fundamental key to peace –  the need for Global Unity Among Nations.

In this contemporary global village, every nation is reliant on one another. International trade is a perfect example – countries rely on one another by trading natural resources as a result fostering economic development. But what happens when one nation tries to usurp the rights of another and is vehemently cruel? Then we find the spread of restlessness, anxiety and crippling of society, which weakens our global village and disturbs the notion of international peace and security.

In the words of the World Head of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama`at, the Caliph, His Holiness, Hazrat Mirza Masroor Ahmad:

“The cruelties must be stopped, because if they are allowed to spread, then the flames of hatred will surely engulf the entire world to such an extent, that people will soon forget about the troubles caused by the current economic crisis.”

In regards to international harmony, the religion of Islam further teaches that where retribution is required, it must be proportionate to the act of transgression. However, if forgiveness can lead to reformation then the option to forgive should be taken. The true and overarching objectives should always be reformation, reconciliation and the development of everlasting peace.

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Recently, my organization adopted the world's gold-standard for sustainability reporting – the Global Reporting Initiative – or GRI. 

Although developed with the support of the United Nations, this is a model designed for the corporate world.

We are the first UN organization who has tried to measure itself against the same international standards as the private sector, in this way.

Why, you may ask. Let me explain.

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is a rare – and all the more welcome – show of global unity. It is also a huge global undertaking.

I believe that the United Nations, with its unique set of values, expertise and global perspective, has an important role to play in helping developing countries achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

In today's world, a larger group of actors, including international and local NGOs and the private sector, are now able to do a lot of the work previously reserved for the UN development agencies.

To be of use in the work that lies ahead, the UN cannot rely on its good name alone. We need to prove that we can be of value. We need to measure our operations and performance by internationally recognized standards that reinforce the exceptional quality of our work on the ground.

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That consistency needs to be matched across public and private sectors. The UN must reaffirm itself as a results-oriented partner.

To broaden public and private-sector participation in working towards a sustainable future, we must commit to a common model to understand our contributions.

By adopting internally recognized best practices, the UN system can help ensure that its internal processes actively increase the effectiveness of its work on the ground, making development budgets go further, while making its operations attractive to like-minded players on the development stage.

Given the enormity of these challenges and the increasing scale and complexity of natural disasters, it is important that the UN measures its results on the ground in a cohesive way.

We owe to our Member States – and to the people we serve – to prove that we bring to the table the very best in standards, high quality and efficiency, along with a commitment to getting the job done right.

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✍️Essay on Globalisation: Samples in 100, 150 and 200 Words

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• Oct 25, 2023

Globalisation means the combination of economies and societies with the help of information, ideas, technology, finance, goods, services, and people. It is a process where multinational companies work on their international standing and conduct operations internationally or overseas. Over the years, Globalisation has had a profound impact on various aspects of society. Today we will be discussing what globalisation is and how it came into existence with the essay on globalisation listed below.

This Blog Includes:

How globalisation came into existence, essay on globalisation in 100 words, essay on globalisation in 150 words, essay on globalisation in 200 words.

For all those unaware, the concepts of globalisation first emerged in the 20th century. Here are some of the key events which led to the development of globalisation in today’s digital world.

• The ancient Silk Route as well as the maritime routes led to the exchange of goods, ideas and culture in several countries. Although these were just trade routes, but later became important centres for cultural exchange.
• Other than this, the European colonial expansion which took place from the 15th to the 20th century led to the setting up of global markets where both knowledge and people were transferred to several developing countries. 
• The evolution and exchange of mass media, cinema and the internet further led to the widespread dissemination of cultures and ideas.

Also Read: Essay on the Importance of the English Language for Students

Globalization, the interconnectedness of nations through trade, technology, and cultural exchange, has reshaped the world. It has enabled the free flow of goods and information, fostering economic growth and cultural diversity. However, it also raises challenges such as income inequality and cultural homogenization. 

In a globalized world, businesses expand internationally, but local industries can suffer. Moreover, while globalization promotes shared knowledge, it can erode local traditions. Striking a balance between the benefits and drawbacks of globalization is essential to ensure a more equitable and culturally diverse global community, where economies thrive without leaving anyone behind.

Also Read: Essay on Save Environment: Samples in 100, 200, 300 Words

Globalization is the process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence among countries, economies, and cultures. It has transformed the world in various ways.

Economically, globalization has facilitated the flow of goods, services, and capital across borders. This has boosted economic growth and reduced poverty in many developing nations. However, it has also led to income inequality and job displacement in some regions.

Culturally, globalization has resulted in the spread of ideas, values, and cultural products worldwide. While this fosters cultural exchange and diversity, it also raises concerns about cultural homogenization.

Technologically, globalization has been driven by advances in communication and transportation. The internet and smartphones have connected people across the globe, allowing for rapid information dissemination and collaboration.

In conclusion, globalization is a complex phenomenon with both benefits and challenges. It has reshaped the world, bringing people closer together, but also highlighting the need for responsible governance and policies to address its downsides.

Also Read: Essay on Unity in Diversity in 100 to 200 Words

Globalization, a multifaceted phenomenon, has reshaped the world over the past few decades. It involves the interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and societies across the globe. In this essay, we will briefly discuss its key aspects and impacts.

Economically, globalization has led to increased international trade and investment. It has allowed companies to expand operations globally, leading to economic growth in many countries. However, it has also resulted in income inequality and job displacement in some regions.

Culturally, globalization has facilitated the exchange of ideas, values, and traditions. This has led to a more diverse and interconnected world where cultures blend, but it can also challenge local traditions and languages.

Socially, globalization has improved access to information and technology. It has connected people across borders, enabling global activism and awareness of worldwide issues. Nonetheless, it has also created challenges like cybercrime and privacy concerns.

In conclusion, globalization is a double-edged sword. It offers economic opportunities, cultural exchange, and global connectivity, but it also brings about disparities, cultural tensions, and new global challenges. To navigate this complex landscape, the world must strive for responsible globalization that balances the interests of all stakeholders and promotes inclusivity and sustainability.

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The movement of goods, technologies, information, and jobs between countries is referred to as globalisation. 

Globalization as a phenomenon began with the earliest human migratory routes, or with Genghis Khan’s invasions, or travel across the Silk Road.

Globalisation allows wealthy nations to access cheaper labour and resources, while also providing opportunity for developing and underdeveloped nations with the jobs and investment capital they require.

For more information on such interesting topics, visit our essay-writing page and follow Leverage Edu ! 

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Malvika is a content writer cum news freak who comes with a strong background in Journalism and has worked with renowned news websites such as News 9 and The Financial Express to name a few. When not writing, she can be found bringing life to the canvasses by painting on them.

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Beyond Unity in Diversity: Cosmopolitanizing Identities in a Globalizing World

The greater interconnectivity and interdependence unleashed by globalization are not creating a more harmonious, cosmopolitan humanity. On the contrary, the more global the world becomes, the more insistent particular differences, especially of the nationalist kind, are being articulated around the world, often leading to tension and conflict. This seeming paradox cannot be reconciled through simple mantras of ‘unity in diversity’. Rhetorical references to ‘a single humanity’ to overcome structurally entrenched divisions (as institutionalized in the world system of nation-states) are not sufficient for the attainment of greater pan-human solidarity. In response to this predicament this paper argues for a cosmopolitan perspective, in which a humanistic universalism should not be seen as a static moral ideal, but as a social and political horizon that must be worked towards, but probably never achieved, through a painstaking and continuing process of cosmopolitanization against the grain of powerful modes of particularist closure.

Related Papers

Christoph Antweiler

How can we conceive of global culture as an entity without playing unity and diversity off one another? The diversity of interconnected cultures on a bounded planet requires shared orientations. Thus, the conceptualization of a cosmopolitan humanism is an urgent project for humanity. Particularly, it is of urgent necessity that we determine what a version of cosmopolitan humanism looks like that does not rush to universalize the views and historical experiences of the European or American world? The need for unity is juxtaposed against the ubiquitous tendency to differentiate. All are alike, yet all are different, and above all, everyone wants to distinguish him or herself from an other. People are not content to define cultures predominantly in terms of their differences, nor do individuals map neatly onto a single "identity." A central question in the pursuit of a new and non-Western-centric humanism goes as follows: What do we owe strangers by virtue of our shared human...

Critical Horizons

James Ingram

Cosmopolitanism is attractive as a normative orientation, but the historical record of actual cosmopolitanisms, like that of practical universalisms more generally, is not encouraging. When they have not been merely empty, cosmo-politanisms' ostensibly universal values have too been often co-opted by dominant powers, making them into ideologies of domination. My question here is not whether but how to embrace cosmopolitanism so as to avoid these perversions. The key, I argue, is to focus on the processes through which their ostensibly universal values are challenged and appropriated from below, in struggles against exclusion, domination and exploitation. This means understanding cosmopolitanism not as a plan, project or design, but as a process and practice of contestation. In order to be truly universalistic and inclusive, cosmopo-litanism must be political and its politics must be contestatory. Since the early 1990s there has been an enormous revival of interest in the ancient idea of cosmopolitanism. Across the humanities and social sciences, but especially in philosophy and political theory, the ancient call to be a " citizen of the world " has struck many theorists as the best response to a rapidly globalizing post-Cold War world. With states and national forms of belonging weakening, while other, often broader, structures, authorities and bonds proliferate, cosmopolitans reason that we increasingly need to think and even act on a global level. The many cosmopolitanisms floating around academic discourse in the last two decades thus can be seen as converging around the idea that, to the extent humanity is becoming closer and more interdependent than ever before, we are obliged to recognize our connection and responsibility to all our fellow humans in a way we were not required to in the past. Debates in political theory and philosophy have tended to pit cosmopolitanism against its contraries – challengers like nationalism or localism. In my view this creates a dichotomy that is neither illuminating nor helpful. To be sure, practically speaking, a division of labour must be worked out so that people can be entrusted

carmen ilizarbe

Irish Journal of Sociology

Tracey Skillington

The Dartmouth Journal

Keely Badger

"However uncertain I may be and may remain as to whether we can hope for anything better for mankind, this uncertainty cannot detract from the maxim I have adopted, or from the necessity of assuming for practical purposes that human progress is possible. This hope for better times to come, without which an earnest desire to do something useful for the common good would never have inspired the human heart, has always influenced the activities of right-thinking people."-Immanuel Kant, Theory and Practice, p. 89 The moral imagination of global civil society extends beyond the parochialism of the bordered nation-state. It manifests itself as the face of a new cosmopolitanism. Does it have the potential to transform the third millen-nium? Indeed, the acceleration of globalization's revolutionizing of space and time, and the "intensification of worldwide social relations, which link distant localities"(Giddens, 64) has established a global network of information and exchange unlike that of any other era. "We have come to a point where each of us can realistically imagine contacting any other of our six billion conspecifics and sending that person something worth having ; a radio, an antibiotic, a good idea"(Appiah, xii). Conversations across boundaries of identity-whether national, religious, or other, allows for an evolving cosmopolitan worldview, where human plurality is valued. Through a multiplicity of differences we find a shared language of principle and hope, or at the least, toleration for the beliefs of others that we may fail to understand. Thus, in cosmopolitanism we find seeds of equality and peace, as well as an ethical paradigm of global distributive justice that contests the prevailing realities of this twenty-first century's poverty, war, oppression, and radical religious fundamentalism.

Vihren Bouzov

This paper discusses certain major challenges to the justification of ethical and political cosmopolitanism. They can be understood in the context of effects of the global economy on human life and values, due its social imbalances and inequalities. The foremost guiding idea of cosmopolitanism maintains that all humans must be considered to be equal. However, this postulate is questioned in the globalization era. Keywords: globalization, cosmopolitanism, communitarianism, inequality. BOUZOV, V. 2015, Globalization and Cosmopolitanism: Some Challenges – in: Dialogue and Universalism N 2, Journal of the International Society for Universal Dialogue, pp.236-243;

George Dunn

A paper presented on September 23, 2017 in Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China, at the International Symposium on the Theoretical and Practical Issues of Faith in the Construction of a Community of Common Destiny for All Mankind

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8.6.1: Checking for Unity and Clarity

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Creating Unity and Coherence

Following your outline closely offers you a reasonable guarantee that your writing will stay on purpose and not drift away from the controlling idea. However, when writers are rushed, are tired, or cannot find the right words, their writing may become less than they want it to be. Their writing may no longer be clear and concise, and they may be adding information that is not needed to develop the main idea. When you reread your writing to find revisions to make, look for each type of problem in a separate sweep. Read it straight through once to locate any problems with unity. Read it straight through a second time to find problems with coherence. You may follow this same practice during many stages of the writing process. Reading your writing aloud will often help you find problems. Listen for the clarity and flow of your ideas. Identify places where you find yourself confused, and write a note to yourself about possible fixes.

When a piece of writing has unity, all the ideas in each paragraph and in the entire essay clearly belong and are arranged in an order that makes logical sense. The wording clearly indicates how one idea leads to another within a paragraph and from paragraph to paragraph. Sometimes writers get caught up in the moment and cannot resist a good digression. Even though you might enjoy such detours when you chat with friends, unplanned digressions usually harm a piece of writing.

When the writing has coherence, the ideas flow smoothly. Careful writers use transitions to clarify how the ideas in their sentences and paragraphs are related. These words and phrases help the writing flow smoothly. Adding transitions is not the only way to improve coherence, but they are often useful and give a mature feel to your essays. The following table groups many common transitions according to their purpose.

Writing Clearly and Concisely

Some writers are very methodical and painstaking when they write a first draft. Other writers unleash a lot of words in order to get out all that they feel they need to say. Do either of these composing styles match your style? Or is your composing style somewhere in between? No matter which description best fits you, the first draft of almost every piece of writing, no matter its author, can be made clearer and more concise.

If you have a tendency to write too much, you will need to look for unnecessary words. If you have a tendency to be vague or imprecise in your wording, you will need to find specific words to replace any overly general language.

Identifying Wordiness

Sometimes writers use too many words when fewer words will appeal more to their audience and better fit their purpose. Here are some common examples of wordiness to look for in your draft. Eliminating wordiness helps all readers, because it makes your ideas clear, direct, and straightforward.

• Sentences that begin with There is or There are.

Example: Wordy: There are two major experiments that the Biology Department sponsors. Revised: The Biology Department sponsors two major experiments.

• Sentences with unnecessary modifiers.

Example: Wordy: Two extremely famous and well-known consumer advocates spoke eloquently in favor of the proposed important legislation. Revised: Two well-known consumer advocates spoke in favor of the proposed legislation.

• Sentences with deadwood phrases that add little to the meaning such as in terms of , with a mind to , on the subject of , as to whether or not , more or less , as far as…is concerned , and similar expressions. You can usually find a more straightforward way to state your point.

Example: Wordy: As a world leader in the field of green technology, the company plans to focus its efforts in the area of geothermal energy. A report as to whether or not to use geysers as an energy source is in the process of preparation. Revised: As a world leader in green technology, the company plans to focus on geothermal energy. A report about using geysers as an energy source is in preparation.

• Sentences in the passive voice or with forms of the verb to be . Sentences with passive-voice verbs often create confusion, because the subject of the sentence does not perform an action. Sentences are clearer when the subject of the sentence performs the action and is followed by a strong verb. Use strong active-voice verbs in place of forms of to be , which can lead to wordiness. Avoid passive voice when you can.

Example: Wordy: It might perhaps be said that using a GPS device is something that is a benefit to drivers who have a poor sense of direction. Revised: Using a GPS device benefits drivers who have a poor sense of direction.

• Sentences with constructions that can be shortened.

Example: Wordy: The e-book reader, which is a recent invention, may become as commonplace as the cell phone. My over-sixty uncle bought an e-book reader, and his wife bought an e-book reader, too. Revised: The e-book reader, a recent invention, may become as commonplace as the cell phone. My over-sixty uncle and his wife both bought e-book readers.

Choosing Specific, Appropriate Words

College essays should be written in formal English suitable for an academic situation. Avoid slang terms, such as "guys" instead of "people," or clichés such as "better late than never." Avoid general words such as "thing," "nice," or "interesting" when more specific terms apply.

LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS

Cc licensed content.

This chapter contains an adaptation of English Composition 2 (opens in new window) : by Lumen Learning, and is used under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) (opens in new window) license.

Pasco-Hernando State College

• Unity and Coherence in Essays
• The Writing Process
• Paragraphs and Essays
• Proving the Thesis/Critical Thinking
• Appropriate Language

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• Proving the Thesis

Unity is the idea that all parts of the writing work to achieve the same goal: proving the thesis. Just as the content of a paragraph should focus on a topic sentence, the content of an essay must focus on the thesis.  The introduction paragraph introduces the thesis, the body paragraphs each have a proof point (topic sentence) with content that proves the thesis, and the concluding paragraph sums up the proof and restates the thesis. Extraneous information in any part of the essay which is not related to the thesis is distracting and takes away from the strength of proving the thesis.

An essay must have coherence. The sentences must flow smoothly and logically from one to the next as they support the purpose of  each paragraph in proving the thesis. .

Just as the last sentence in a paragraph must connect back to the topic sentence of the paragraph, the last paragraph of the essay should connect back to the thesis by reviewing the proof and restating the thesis.

Example of Essay with Problems of Unity and Coherence

Here is an example of a brief essay that includes a paragraph that  does not  support the thesis “Many people are changing their diets to be healthier.”

     People are concerned about pesticides, steroids, and antibiotics in the food they eat.  Many now shop for organic foods since they don’t have the pesticides used in conventionally grown food.  Meat from chicken and cows that are not given steroids or antibiotics are gaining in popularity even though they are much more expensive. More and more, people are eliminating pesticides, steroids, and antibiotics from their diets.

    Eating healthier also is beneficial to the environment since there are less pesticides poisoning the earth. Pesticides getting into the waterways is creating a problem with drinking water.  Historically, safe drinking water has been a problem. It is believed the Ancient Egyptians drank beer since the water was not safe to drink.  Brewing beer killed the harmful organisms and bacteria in the water from the Nile.

     There is a growing concern about eating genetically modified foods, and people are opting for non-GMO diets.  Some people say there are more allergic reactions and other health problems resulting from these foods.  Others are concerned because there are no long-term studies which clearly show no adverse health effects such as cancers or other illnesses. Avoiding GMO food is another way people are eating healthier food.

See how just one paragraph  can take away from the effectiveness of the essay in showing how people are changing to healthier food since the unity and coherence are affected.  There is no longer unity among all the paragraphs.  The thought pattern is disjointed and the essay loses its coherence.

Transitions and Logical Flow of Ideas

Transitions are words, groups of words, or sentences that connect one sentence to another or one paragraph to another.

They promote a logical flow from one idea to the next and overall unity and coherence.

While transitions are not needed in every sentence or at the end of every paragraph, they are missed when they are omitted since the flow of thoughts becomes disjointed or even confusing.

There are different types of transitions:

Time – before, after, during, in the meantime, nowadays

Space – over, around, under

Examples – for instance, one example is

Comparison – on the other hand, the opposing view

Consequence – as a result, subsequently

These are just a few examples.  The idea is to paint a clear, logical connection between sentences and between paragraphs.

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Unity in Diversity

Unity in diversity is a phrase that signifies the unity among people with diverse cultural, religious beliefs, social status and other demographic differences.

This phrase has its origins, since ancient times, it is used by various political and social groups to demonstrate unity among the individuals or communities.

This is an ancient phrase was previously used by some societies in North America and China, around 500 BC.

Unity in India is the best example of ‘unity in diversity because people living with different religions and cultures follow the same laws as laid down by the Constitution of India.

Important of Unity in Diversity:

Unity in Diversity is very important for any country in the following ways as mentioned below:

For National Integration:

Unity in Diversity is very important for a country because it is very easy to disintegrate people with different views and ideologies.

If there is unity among the people despite their differences, it will always be impossible for a force to disintegrate the nation.

The unity of citizens plays a very important role in maintaining peace and prosperity in a country.

For development and growth: 

Unity in diversity plays an important role in the development of the country because the country which is integrated will always move on the path of development.

It will face fewer internal issues than a country that is socially unstable and divided on different terms.

For Global recognition: 

A country that is diverse, but still united, not only adds value to the nation but is also respected on international platforms.

It sets an example globally by displaying the values and morals of the citizens of a country who respect and support each other despite being from different backgrounds and cultures.

For peaceful co-existence: 

Diversity can also be the cause of internal conflicts but unity in diversity plays a very important role in maintaining peaceful co-existence with people with diverse culture and backgrounds.

It helps them stay united despite their disagreements.

Difference between Unity and Diversity:

There is a feeling of togetherness and integration in unity. It is the spirit that holds people together and a bond that connotes a sense of fairness.

 Unity stands for relations between different groups that bind them into a single unit.

 It can also be defined as the absence of differences between people belonging to diverse classes based on religious, linguistic or racial aspects.

 In dissimilarity, diversity refers to difference or differentiation. It can be defined as the collective differences of different groups based on religion, race or language etc.

 It is a diversity of classes and groups living in different regions, with different cultures, traditions and backgrounds.

 Diversity is a natural phenomenon that helps to bring different views, experiences and acceptance among people.

 Unity is a state of being while diversity is a state of being separate or different.

 A family may have people with different views, interests or preferences who show their diversity in many aspects, but as a family, they demonstrate a sense of unity among them.

Advantages of Unity in Diversity:

• Unity in diversity increases the morale of people in the workplace, organization and community.
• It helps to increase coordination, relationships, teamwork among people, thus improving performance, work quality, productivity and lifestyle.
• This makes communication effective even in poor conditions.
• Keeps people away from social problems and helps in managing conflicts easily.
• Improves healthy human relationships and protects equal human rights for all.
• Unity in diversity provides a source of tourism in India. People from diverse cultures, traditions, cuisines, religions and clothing attract more visitors and tourists from all over the world.
• This, despite being diverse in various ways, leads to the habit of national unity among the people of the country.
• It strengthens and enriches the country’s rich heritage as well as India’s cultural heritage.
• It helps to enrich the agricultural sector through various crops and thus the growth of the economy.
• Source of skilled and advance professionals in various areas of the country.

Disadvantages of Unity in Diversity:

• This can give rise to various social tensions between different states and people of linguistic origin.
• It causes corruption and illiteracy in many areas of the country.
• Due to underdeveloped infrastructure, power shortage, roads etc. it can be the cause of poor lifestyle in various rural areas.

History of Unity in Diversity:

The prehistory of India, according to the available evidence, can trace the second interglacial period between 4 lakh and 2 lakh BC, when the use of stone tools is recorded.

Other archaeological evidence includes cave paintings, burial sites, skeletal remains, jeweller, pottery and bone tools and megalithic remains with the use of iron, even gold as well as their skeletons with spiritual views of the ancient and Contains relics found around habitat sites.

Proto-History of India:

The Indus Valley Civilization in the western border market is the beginning of India’s proto-historical cultures.

It was an advance of civilization that flourished between 2,500– 1,500 BC.

The Indus Valley Civilization is known for its town planning, dockyards, agricultural practice, training of animal implements and textile weaving, jeweller, use of metals, use of wheel utensils etc.

The Vedic period:

The advent of the Vedic Era began with orientations in India. They were nomadic villagers who also practice agriculture to meet their basic needs.

They did not bring any civilization with them, but owned a strong culture rooted in their beliefs, practices and crops and had a penchant for poetry philosophy and art.

He composed in praise of his gods, was racist and considered himself superior to other indigenous inhabitants of India.

To whom they refer by derogatory names, they practised endogamy and brought the concept of purity and pollution to India for the first time.

This led to the rise of Varna and caste system in India and laid the foundation for the first structural and practical social system in India.

Indian history of unity in diversity the influence of other cultures on the Indian population can be seen in the following

A long history of migration, ecological diversity, cultural philosophy.

Also, read 1. Women empowerment 2. National Integration 3. Value education

factors that lead to Unity in Diversity:

1. Geographical unity: It means unity around the geographical boundaries of the country.

  2. Religious Unity: It means unity among various religious groups, such as Hindu, Muslim, Christian etc.

 All these religions have the same principles like kindness, honesty, the value of life, belief in invisible power etc.

 3. Language Integration: If there are many languages across the country, having a link language solves the plurality of languages.

 4. Cultural unity: It means unity among various castes, sub-castes and communities. Despite the vastness, most ancient cultures have unity.

  5. Political unity: A democratic system of politics that calls for political alliances at all its levels.

  6. Emotional unity: This means that there should be an emotional bond and they should be close to each other. 

Unity in Diversity in Indian Society:

India has been the best example to prove this concept for many years.

 More than 1,000,650 languages and tongues are spoken in India. People from different religious cultures and traditions live here.

 They follow different religions of their choice because India is a secular country.

 Being related to different cultures, languages and religions, people here respect each other and live with a feeling of love and brotherhood.

India, 5000 years old civilization is a land of diversities, be it religion, caste, race, culture or language, there are many variations in the country.

 There are about 29 states and each state has its own culture, tradition and language.

 Every year more than 30 grand festivals of various communities are celebrated in the country.

 Despite such a difference, the people of India demonstrate a genuine sense of unity among themselves which reflects the concept of unity in diversity.

 Unity in India’s diversity culture is considered unique in the world which surprises the global community.

 This is due to the age-old tradition of India which has taught people the importance of morality, values, respect and tolerance.

Although people belonging to diverse cultures and communities, they share the bond of humanity, love, respect and are bound by the same strand of nationalism.

People in all parts of this country join with the faith of brotherhood.

Unity in diversity is a great feature of our nation because people of different religions have been in a bond of humanity for many years.

If we are not united then we will surely fall which means “ united we stand and divided we fall ”.

 The Constitution of India has also given every citizen the right and freedom to live their life with dignity and respect, without any interference. 

The main reasons for Unity in Diversity in India:

India has witnessed a history of experimenting cultures giving rise to new forms, whose diversity can be felt in the number of cultural groups, religions, languages, occupational units and social-political groups.

This diversity can be readily attributed to the past comprising of years of migration, intermixing, inventions and compared to isolation through the natural geographical boundaries.

The period of change and in the current scenario standing with a total population of 1.33 billion.

India presents the scope of different cultures and traditions, we see the rise of faith, going from the pre-historic period to the Vedic period.

Although it was in the recipient of the form, it differed from one region to another, then with the arrival of the Aryans, different tribal communities had different values and different legacies of organized values giving rise to similar heritage fewer generations.

 Hierarchical systems were common everywhere, it differed from region to region.

Therefore Hinduism emerged but not as a religion, but as a single ideology of different practices.

Along with the immigration of other strong religious communities in India, especially Islam and Christianity which persisted for a long time in India.

The merger of customs and the development of teachings, the development of tolerance and solidarity in which the land of India is.

Religions like Judaism which came from other countries of the world confined themselves to small pockets of the Indian subcontinent.

While other religions such as Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism developed in India restricted themselves to heal the region and did not make much difference.

The same effect of migration was seen when people belonging to different ethnic groups immigrated to India.

They mix it up, adopting their social biological characters with local population exchanges and expressing new forms of customs and social designs, resulting in diverse physical forms and lifestyles.

 People’s involvement with such a diverse language family proves to be the strength of India’s cultural roots. Equal distribution is still prevalent in India’s tribal diversity.

 Some of which are still far from the present world of urbanization and modernization.

 Our country goes through phases of cultural development following their ancient traditional values.

 Hence it exceeds the spirit of nature and the ancestors worship one of the following religious teachings.

 Despite the difference in our social structural formulation, the complexity of the caste system has led to the pain of preaching.

 We need acceptance, tolerance and adjustment at its core.

 Our Constitution also gives us the status of a sovereign, secular, socialist and democratic republic, which we all enjoy with pride and joy.

Unity in Diversity Examples:

Once in the beautiful lake of different fish, all the fish were proud of their beauty, so they did not talk to each other.

And once a shark came to the lake in search of food and he started eating fishes, some survived for their lives.

They later learn that they have to unite and when the shark returns, the fish join hands against the shark.

Due to the unity of the fishes, the shark did not return to the river. To be united, we must respect each other’s unity in diversity.

Also read, 1. Globalization Essay 2. Cashless Economy Essay 3. Demonetisation Essay

Conclusion of Unity in Diversity:

Unity in diversity teaches us that although we are from different caste, creed or race, these differences cannot keep us apart and we are always united for the betterment of our nation.

This is the most unique event which is shown in our country, It not only makes the nation unified and strengthened but it also keeps us alive in the old centuries, the tradition of co-existence with love, peace, honour and respect.

The difference in culture, customs, festivals, music and dance makes the country of vibrancy and makes an incredible country in the world.

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Essay on Globalization for Students and Children

500+ words essay on globalization.

Globalization refers to integration between people, companies, and governments. Most noteworthy, this integration occurs on a global scale. Furthermore, it is the process of expanding the business all over the world. In Globalization, many businesses expand globally and assume an international image. Consequently, there is a requirement for huge investment to develop international companies.

How Globalization Came into Existence?

First of all, people have been trading goods since civilization began. In the 1st century BC, there was the transportation of goods from China to Europe. The goods transportation took place along the Silk Road. The Silk Road route was very long in distance. This was a remarkable development in the history of Globalization. This is because, for the first time ever, goods were sold across continents.

Globalization kept on growing gradually since 1st BC. Another significant development took place in the 7th century AD. This was the time when the religion of Islam spread. Most noteworthy, Arab merchants led to a rapid expansion of international trade . By the 9th century, there was the domination of Muslim traders on international trade. Furthermore, the focus of trade at this time was spices.

True Global trade began in the Age of Discovery in the 15th century. The Eastern and Western continents were connected by European merchants. There was the discovery of America in this period. Consequently, global trade reached America from Europe.

From the 19th century, there was a domination of Great Britain all over the world. There was a rapid spread of international trade. The British developed powerful ships and trains. Consequently, the speed of transportation greatly increased. The rate of production of goods also significantly increased. Communication also got faster which was better for Global trade .

Finally, in 20th and 21st -Century Globalization took its ultimate form. Above all, the development of technology and the internet took place. This was a massive aid for Globalization. Hence, E-commerce plays a huge role in Globalization.

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Impact of Globalization

First of all, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) increases at a great rate. This certainly is a huge contribution of Globalization. Due to FDI, there is industrial development. Furthermore, there is the growth of global companies. Also, many third world countries would also benefit from FDI.

Technological Innovation is another notable contribution of Globalization. Most noteworthy, there is a huge emphasis on technology development in Globalization. Furthermore, there is also technology transfer due to Globalization. The technology would certainly benefit the common people.

The quality of products improves due to Globalization. This is because manufacturers try to make products of high-quality. This is due to the pressure of intense competition. If the product is inferior, people can easily switch to another high-quality product.

To sum it up, Globalization is a very visible phenomenon currently. Most noteworthy, it is continuously increasing. Above all, it is a great blessing to trade. This is because it brings a lot of economic and social benefits to it.

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Essay on Globalisation

List of essays on globalisation, essay on globalisation – definition, existence and impact (essay 1 – 250 words), essay on globalisation (essay 2 – 250 words), essay on globalisation – in india (essay 3 – 400 words), essay on globalisation – objectives, advantages, disadvantages and conclusion (essay 4 – 500 words), essay on globalisation – for school students (class 6,7,8,9 and 10) (essay 5 – 600 words), essay on globalisation (essay 6 – 750 words), essay on globalisation – for college and university students (essay 7 – 1000 words), essay on globalisation – for ias, civil services, ips, upsc and other competitive exams (essay 8 – 1500 words).

The worldwide integration of people, services and interests is what globalisation is all about. Since the last decade, there has been a tremendous focus on globalisation with everyone trying to have a reach at even the remotest locations of the world. This has probably been possible due to the advancement in technology and communication.

Audience: The below given essays are especially written for school, college and university students. Furthermore, those students preparing for IAS, IPS, UPSC, Civil Services and other competitive exams can also increase their knowledge by studying these essays.

The word ‘Globalization’ is often heard in the business world, in corporate meetings, in trade markets, at international conferences, in schools, colleges and many other places. So what does globalization symbolize? Is it a new concept or did it exist earlier? Let’s see.

Definition:

Globalization refers to the integration of the world nations by means of its people, goods, and services. The statement – ‘ globalization has made the world a small village ’ is very true.

Countries inviting foreign investment, free trade and relaxation in the visa rules to allow seamless movement of people from one country to another are all part of globalization.

In a nutshell, globalization has reduced the distance between nations and its people.

Many among us refer to the current period that we live in as ‘The Era of Globalization’ and think that the process of globalization has started only recently. But the real fact is that globalization is not a new phenomenon . The world was moving towards globalization from a very long time. The term globalization was in existence since mid-1980s. But it was only from the early 21 st century that globalization picked up momentum due to the advancements in technology and communication.

Impact of Globalization:

Globalization has more positive outcomes than the negative ones. The impact of globalization on the developing countries such as India, China and some African countries are overwhelming. Foreign investments have created a lot of employment opportunities in the developing countries and have boosted their economy. Globalization has also enabled people to interchange their knowledge and culture.

Conclusion:

Although the world is not completely globalized, we can very well say that globalization is the best way to achieve equality among nations.

In simple words, globalization means the spreading of a business, culture, or any technology on an international level. When the boundaries of countries and continents matter no more, and the whole world becomes one global village in itself. Globalization is an effort to reduce the geographical and political barriers for the smooth functioning of any business.

There are four main factors that form the four pillars of globalization. These are the free flow of goods, capitals, technology, and labors, all across the world. Although, many of the experts that support globalization clearly refuse to acknowledge the free flow of labor as their work culture.

The international phenomenon of global culture presents many implications and requires a specific environment to flourish. For instance, it needs the other countries to come to a mutual agreement in terms of political, cultural, and economic policies. There is greater sharing of ideas and knowledge and liberalization has gained a huge importance.

Undoubtedly, globalization helps in improving the economic growth rate of the developing countries . The advanced global policies also inspire businesses to work in a cost-effective way. As a result, the production quality is enhanced and employment opportunities are also rising in the domestic countries.

However, there are still some negative consequences of globalization that are yet to be dealt with. It leads to greater economic and socio-cultural disparities between the developed and the developing countries. Due to the MNC culture, the small-scale industries are losing their place in the market.

Exchanges and integration of social aspect of people along with their cultural and economic prospects is what we term as Globalization. It is considered as a relatively new term, which has been in discussion since the nineties.

Initial Steps towards Globalization:

India has been an exporter of various goods to other countries since the earlier times. Hence Globalization, for India, is not something new. However, it was only around in the early nineties that India opened up its economy for the world as it faced a major crisis of severe crunch of foreign exchange. Since then, there has been a major shift in the government’s strategies while dealing with the PSUs along with a reduction in the monopoly of the government organisations perfectly blended with the introduction of the private companies so as to achieve a sustainable growth and recognition across the world.

The Measurement of Success:

The success of such measures can be measured in the form of the GDP of India which hovered around 5.6% during the year 1990-91 and has been now around 8.9% during the first quarter of 2018-19. In fact, in the year 1996-97, it was said to have peaked up to as high as 77.8%. India’s global position is improved tremendously due to the steady growth in the GDP thus furthering the impact of globalization on India. As on date, India is ranked as the sixth biggest economy in the world. This globalization leading to the integration and trade has been instrumental in reducing the poverty rate as well.

However, given the fact that India is the second most populated country of the world, after China, this growth cannot be considered as sufficient enough as other countries such as China have increased their growth rates at much faster pace than India. For instance, the average flow of FDI in India, over the past few years has been around 0.5% of the GDP while for countries such as China it has been around 5% and Brazil has had a flow of around 5.5%. In fact, India is considered among the least globalized economy among the major countries.

Summarily, there has been a tremendous increase in the competition and interdependence that India faces due to Globalization, but a lot is yet to be done. It is not possible for a country to ignore the developments and globalization occurring in the rest of the world and one need to keep the pace of growth at a steady rate or else you may be left far behind.

The twentieth century witnessed a revolutionary global policy aiming to turn the entire globe into a single market. The motive of globalization can broadly define to bring substantial improvement in the living condition of people all around the world, education, and shelter to everybody, elimination of poverty, equal justice without any race or gender consideration, etc. Globalization also aims to lessen government involvement in various development activities, allowing more direct investors/peoples’ participation cutting across border restrictions thus expected to reap reasonable prosperity to human beings.

Main Objectives of Globalization:

The four main aspects of globalization are; Capital and Investment movements, Trade and Transactions, Education and Spread of knowledge, along with Migration and Unrestricted Movement of People.

In simpler terms, globalization visualizes that one can purchase and sell goods from any part of the world, communicate and interact with anyone, anywhere in the world and also enables cultural exchange among the global population. It is operational at three levels namely, economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization. Right from its inception, the impact of globalization has both advantages and disadvantages worldwide.

Advantages of Globalization:

As the word itself suggests, this policy involves all the nations across the globe. The lifting of trade barriers can have a huge impact especially in developing countries. It augments the flow of technology, education, medicines, etc., to these countries which are a real blessing.

Globalization expects to create ample job opportunities as more and more companies can extend their presence to different parts of the world. Multinational companies can establish their presence in developing countries. Globalization gives educational aspirants from developing and underdeveloped countries more quality learning opportunities. It leads not only to the pursuit of best higher education but also to cultural and language exchanges.

Globalization also enhances a faster flow of information and quick transportation of goods and services. Moreover one can order any item from anywhere merely sitting at home. Another plus point of globalization is the diminishing cultural barriers between nations as it offers free access and cultural interactions . Also, it has been observed that there is a considerable reduction of poverty worldwide due to globalization . In addition to this, it also enables the effective use of resources.

Disadvantages of Globalization:

Globalization turned out to be a significant threat to the cottage and small-scale industries as they have to compete with the products of multi-national companies. Another dangerous effect of globalization is the condition of weak sections of the society, as they are getting poorer and the rich are getting richer. The situation leads to the domination of economically rich countries over emerging countries and the increase of disparity.

The actions of multi-national companies are deplorable and always facing criticism from various social, government and world bodies as they are incompetent in offering decent working conditions for the workers. Irrational tapping of natural resources which are instrumental in causing ecological imbalance is another major accusation against multi-national companies.

Globalization is also blamed to have paved the way for human trafficking, labor exploitation and spread of infectious diseases too. In addition to all these, if any economic disaster hit a country and if they subsequently suffer from economic depression, its ripples are felt deeply in other countries as well.

Despite all its disadvantages, globalization has transformed the entire globe into a single market irrespective of its region, religion, language, culture, and diversity differences. It also leads to an increase in demand for goods, which in turn calls for more production and industrialization. Our focus should be to minimize the risks and maximize the positive outcome of global policy, which in turn can help for a sustainable long-standing development for people all around the world.

Introduction:

Globalization is the procedure of global political, economic, as well as cultural incorporation of countries . It lets the producers and manufacturers of the goods or products to trade their goods internationally without any constraint.

The businessman fetches huge profit as they easily get low price workforce in developing nations with the concept of globalization. It offers a big prospect to the firms who wish to deal with the global market. Globalization assists any nation to contribute, set up or amalgamate businesses, capitalize on shares or equity, vending of services or products in any country.

How does the Globalization Work?

Globalization benefits the international market to the entire deliberate world like a solitary marketplace. Merchants are spreading their extents of trade by aiming world as a worldwide community. In the 1990s, there was a limit of importing some goods that were already mass-produced in India such as engineering goods, agricultural products, toiletries, food items, etc.

But, in the 1990s the rich countries pressurize the WTO (World Trade Organization), World Bank (affianced in improvement financing activities), and IMF (International Monetary Fund) to let other nations spread their trades by introducing market and trade in the deprived and emerging countries. The process of liberalization and globalization in India began in the year 1991 below the Union Finance Minister Mr. Manmohan Singh.

After numerous years, globalization has fetched major uprising inside the Indian marketplace when international brands arrived in India such as KFC, PepsiCo, Mc. Donald, Nokia, IBM, Aiwa, Ericsson, etc., and began the delivery of an extensive variety of quality goods at low-cost rates.

The entire leading brands presented actual uprising of globalization at this time as a marvellous improvement to the economy of an industrial sector. Rates of the quality goods were also getting low owing to the cut-throat war happening in the marketplace.

Liberalization and globalization of the businesses in the Indian marketplace is submerging the quality of imported goods but influencing the local Indian businesses badly in large part causing the job loss of illiterate and poor labors. Globalization has remained a goldmine for the customers, but it is also a burial ground for the small-scale manufacturers in India.

Positive Influences of Globalisation:

Globalization has influenced the education sectors and students of India predominantly by making accessible the education material and enormous info on the internet. Association of Indian universities with the overseas universities has fetched a massive modification in the education business.

The health industries are too influenced enormously by the globalization of health observing electronic apparatuses, conventional drugs, etc. The trade globalization in the agricultural sector has provided a range of high-quality seeds possessing disease-fighting property. But, it is not beneficial for the underprivileged Indian agriculturalists owing to the reason of expensive seeds as well as agricultural equipment.

Globalization has given an enormous rebellion to the occupation sector by increasing the growth of trades related to the handloom , cottage, artisans and carving, carpet, jewellery, ceramics, and glassware, etc.

Globalization is definitely required by the people and nation to progress and turn into an established society and country. It benefits in expanding our visualization and thoughts. It also aids in endorsing the philosophy that we fit in a huge crowd of persons, i.e., the humankind. Once the two nations congregate, they flourish by sharing their beliefs, thoughts, opinions, customs, and behaviors. People come to know new things and also acquire a chance to discover and get acquainted with other values.

Globalization has provided many reasonably priced valued goods and complete economic welfares to the emerging nations in addition to the employment. But, it has also given growth to the crime, competition, terrorism, anti-national activities, etc. Thus, along with the pleasure it has supplied some grief too.

Globalization is a term that we hear about every now and then. Question is; do we really know what it is all about? Globalization is defined as the process of integration and interaction among people, cultures and nations who come together in order to get things done easily through contact. Globalization began with the migration of people from Africa to different parts of the world. Global developments have been achieved in various sectors through the different types of globalization. The effects of globalization have been felt in every part of the world and more people continue to embrace it. Globalization has some of its core elements that help in the process.

Types of Globalization:

Globalization does not just transform a sector unless the strategies are related to that specific sector. The first type of globalization is financial and economic globalization whereby interaction takes place in the financial and economic sectors especially through stock market exchange and international trade. The other type is technological globalization which involves the integration and connection of different nations through technological methods like the internet. Political globalization transforms the politics of a nation through interactions with adoption of policies and government that cut across other nations. Cultural globalization is basically the interaction of people from different cultures and sharing. Ecological globalization is the viewing of the earth as one ecosystem and sociological globalization is on equality for all people.

Elements of Globalization:

Globalization works with characteristic elements. Trade agreements is one of the components that significantly benefits the economic and financial globalization. These trade agreements have been designed to promote and sustain globalization by preventing barriers that inhibit trade among nations or regions. Another element is capital flow that is concerned with the measures of either a decline or a rise in domestic or foreign assets. Migration patterns is a socio-economical and cultural element that monitors the impacts of immigration and emigration actively. The element of information transfer involves communications and maintains the functioning of the markets and economies. Spread of technology is an element of globalization that facilitates service exchanges. Without these elements, globalization would have faced many challenges, which would even stagnate the process of globalization.

Impacts of Globalization:

The impact of globalization is felt differently among individuals but the end result will be either positive or negative. Globalization has impacts on the lives of individuals, on the aspects of culture, religions and education. The positive impacts of globalization include the simplification of business management through efficiency. In business, the quality of goods and services has increased due to global competition. Foreign investment has been facilitated by globalization and the global market has been able to expand. Cultural growth has been experienced through intermingling and accommodation. Interdependence among nations has developed and more people have been exposed to the exchange program between nations. Improvement of human rights and legal matters has improved through media and technology sharing. Poverty has been alleviated in developing countries due to globalization and also employment opportunities are provided. Through technology, developments have been positively influenced in most parts of the world.

Although globalization has positive impacts, the negative impacts will remain constant unless solutions are sought. One of the negative effects of globalization is job insecurity for some people. Through globalization, more innovations are achieved, for e.g., technology causes automation and therefore people get replaced and they lack jobs. Another negative impact is the frequent fluctuation of prices of commodities that arises from global competitions. On the cultural side, the fast food sector has become wide spread globally, which is an unhealthy lifestyle that was adopted due to globalization. Also, Culture has been negatively affected for people in Africa because they tend to focus more on adopting the western culture and ignore their cultural practices.

Possible Solutions to the Negative Impacts of Globalization:

Globalization has impacted the society negatively and some of the solutions might help to mitigate the impacts. When adopting cultures from other people, it is important to be keen on the effects of the culture on the people and the existing culture being practiced. For example, Africans should not focus more of the western culture such that they ignore their own culture.

In conclusion, it is evident that globalization results in both negative and positive consequences. The society should embrace the positive and mitigate the negative impacts. Globalisation is a dynamic process which involves change, so flexibility among people is a must.

The buzzword befitted to describe the growth of Modern Indian economy is ‘Globalization’. But what exactly is Globalization? Globalization can be defined as integrating the economy of a country with the rest of the countries of the world. From the Indian perspective, this implies encouraging free trade policies, opening up our economy to foreign direct investment, removing constraints and obstacles to the entry of multinational corporations in India, also allowing Indian companies to set up joint ventures abroad, eliminating import restrictions, in-short encouraging Free Trade policies.

India opened its markets to Global Trade majorly during the early Nineties after a major economic crisis hit the country. New economic reforms were introduced in 1991 by then Prime Minister Shri. P V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister at the time, Dr. Manmohan Singh. In many ways, the new economic policies positively contributed to the implementation of the concept of Globalization in India.

It’s Impact:

1. Economic Impact :

Globalization in India targets to attract Multinational Companies and Institutions to approach Indian markets. India has a demography with a large workforce of young citizens who  are in need of jobs. Globalization has indeed left a major impact in the jobs sector. Indian companies are also expanding their business all over the world. They are driving funds from the bigwigs of the Global economy.

The Best example in today’s time is OYO Rooms, a budding Indian company in the hospitality sector. OYO Rooms recently made headlines when it declared to raise a fund close to $1 Billion from Japan’s Soft Bank Vision Fund. Globalization has also led the Indian Consumer market on the boom. The Giant of FMCG (fast-moving consumer goods) sector WALMART is also enthusiastic and actively investing in the India market.

2. Socio-Cultural impact on the Indian Society:

The world has become a smaller place, thanks to the social networking platforms blooming of the internet. India is a beautiful country which takes immense pride in “Unity in Diversity” as it is home to many different cultures and traditions. Globalization in India has left a lasting impression on the socio-cultural aspect of Indian society.

Food chains like McDonald’s are finding its way to the dining tables. With every passing day, Indians are indulging more and more in the Western culture and lifestyle. But Globalization in India has also provided a vibrant World platform for Indian Art, Music, Clothing, and Cuisine.

The psychological impact on a common Indian Man: The educated youth in India is developing a pictorial identity where they are integrating themselves with the fast-paced, technology-driven world and at the same time they are nurturing the deep roots of Indian Culture. Indians are fostering their Global identity through social media platforms and are actively interacting with the World community. They are more aware of burning issues like Climate Change, Net neutrality, and LGBT rights.

Advantages:

India has taken the Centre Stage amongst the Developing Nations because of its growing economy on the World Map. Globalization in India has brought tremendous change in the way India builds its National and International policies. It has created tremendous employment opportunities with increased compensations.

A large number of people are hired for Special Economic Zones (SEZs), Export Processing Zones (EPZs), etc., are set up across the country in which hundreds of people are hired. Developed western countries like USA and UK outsource their work to Indian companies as the cost of labour is cheap in India. This, in turn, creates more employment. This has resulted in a better standard of living across the demographic of young educated Indians. The Indian youth is definitely empowered in a big way.

Young lads below the age of 20 are now aspiring to become part of global organizations. Indian culture and morals are always strengthening their roots in modern world History as the world is now celebrating ‘International Yoga Day’ on 21st June every year. Globalization in India has led to a tremendous cash flow from Developed Nations in the Indian market. As a positive effect, India is witnessing the speedy completion of Metro projects across the country. Another spectacular example of newly constructed High-end Infrastructure in the country is the remarkable and thrilling ‘Chenani-Nashri Tunnel’, Longest Tunnel in India constructed in the State of Jammu and Kashmir. Globalization has greatly contributed in numerous ways to the development of Modern India.

Disadvantages:

As there are so many pros we cannot turn a blind eye to the cons of Globalization which are quite evident with the Indian perspective. The worst impact is seen in the environment across Indian cities due to heavy industrialization. Delhi, the capital of India has made headlines for the worst ever air pollution, which is increasing at an alarming rate.

India takes pride in calling itself an Agriculture oriented nation, but now Agriculture contributes to fragile 17% of the GDP. Globalization in India has been a major reason for the vulnerable condition of Indian Farmers and shrinking Agriculture sector. The intrusion of world players and import of food grains by the Indian Government has left minimal space for Indian farmers to trade their produce.

The impact of westernization has deeply kindled individualism and ‘Me factor’ and as a result, the look of an average Indian family has changed drastically where a Nuclear family is preferred over a traditional Joint family. The pervasive media and social networking platforms have deeply impacted the value system of our country where bigotry and homophobia are becoming an obvious threat.

One cannot clearly state that the impact of Globalization in India has been good or bad as both are quite evident. From the economic standpoint, Globalization has indeed brought a breath of fresh air to the aspirations of the Indian market. However, it is indeed a matter of deep concern when the Indian traditions and value system are at stake. India is one of the oldest civilizations and World trade has been the keystone of its History. Globalization must be practiced as a way towards development without compromising the Indian value system.

Globalisation can simply be defined as the process of integration and interaction between different people, corporations and also governments worldwide. Technology advancement which has in turn advanced means of communication and transportation has helped in the growth of globalisation. Globalisation has brought along with it an increase in international trade, culture and exchange of ideas. Globalisation is basically an economic process that involves integration and interaction that deals also with cultural and social aspects. Important features of globalisation, both modern and historically are diplomacy and conflicts.

In term of economy, globalisation involves services and goods, and the resources of technology, capital and data. The steamship, steam locomotive, container ship and jet engine are a few of the many technological advances in transportation while the inception of the telegraph and its babies, mobile phones and the internet portray technological advances in communications. These advancements have been contributing factors in the world of globalisation and they have led to interdependence of cultural and economic activities all over the world.

There are many theories regarding the origin of globalisation, some posit that the origin is in modern times while others say that it goes way back through history before adventures to the new world and the European discovery age. Some have even taken it further back to the third millennium. Globalisation on a large-scale began around the 1820s. Globalisation in its current meaning only started taking shape in the 1970s. There are four primary parts of globalisation, they are: transactions and trade, investments and capital movement, movement and migration of people and the circulation of knowledge and information. Globalization is subdivided into three: economic globalisation, political globalisation and cultural globalisation.

There are two primary forms of globalisation: Archaic and Modern Globalisations. Archaic globalisation is a period in the globalisation history from the period of the first civilisations until around the 1600s. Archaic globalisation is the interaction between states and communities and also how they were incepted by the spread by geography of social norms and ideas at different levels.

Archaic globalisation had three major requirements. First is the Eastern Origin idea, the second is distance, the third is all about regularity, stability and inter-dependency. The Silk Road and trade on it was a very important factor in archaic globalisation through the development of various civilisations from Persia, China, Arabia, Indian subcontinent and Europe birthing long distance economic and political relationships between them. Silk was the major item from China along the Silk Road; other goods such as sugar and salt were also traded.

Philosophies, different religious beliefs and varying technologies and also diseases also moved along the Silk Road route. Apart from economic trade, the Silk Road also was a means of cultural exchange among the various civilisations along its route. The cultural exchange was as a result of people’s movement including missionaries, refugees, craftsmen, robbers, artists and envoys, resulting in religions, languages, art and new technologies being exchanged.

Modern globalisation can be sub-divided into early modern and Modern. Early modern globalisation spans about 200 years of globalisation between 1600 and 1800. It is the period of cultural exchange and trade links increasing just before the modern globalisation of the late 19 th century. Early modern globalisation was characterised by Europeans empires’ maritime of the 16 th and 17 th centuries. The Spanish and Portuguese Empires were the first and then we had the British and Dutch Empires. The establishment of chartered companies (British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company) further developed world trade.

Modern Globalisation of the 19 th century was as a result of the famed Industrial Revolution. Railroads and steamships made both local and international transportation easier and a lot less expensive which helped improve economic exchange and movement of people all over the world, the transportation revolution happened between 1820 and 1850. A lot more nations have embraced global trade. Globalisation has been shaped decisively by the imperialism in Africa and in Asia around the 19 th century. Also, the ingenious invention in 1956 of the shipping container has really helped to quicken the advancement of globalisation.

The Bretton Woods conference agreement after the Second World War helped lay the groundwork for finance, international monetary policy and commerce and also the conception of many institutions that are supposed to help economic growth through lowering barriers to trade. From the 1970s, there has been a drop in the affordability of aviation to middle class people in countries that are developed. Also, around the 1990s, the cost of communication networks also drastically dropped thus lowering the cost of communicating between various countries. Communication has been a blessing such that much work can be done on a computer in different countries and the internet and other advanced means of communications has helped remove the boundary of distance and cost of having to travel and move from place to place just to get business done.

One other thing that became popular after the Second World War is student exchange programmes which help the involved students learn about, understand and tolerate another culture totally different from theirs, it also helps improve their language skills and also improve their social skills. Surveys have shown that the number of exchange students have increased by about nine times between 1963 and 2006.

Economic globalisation is differentiated from modern globalisation by the information exchange level, the method of handling global trade and expansionism.

Economic Globalisation:

Economic globalisation is just the ever increasing interdependence of economies of nations worldwide caused by the hike in movement across borders of goods, services, capital and technology. Economic globalisation is basically the means of increasing economic relationships between countries, giving rise to the birth of a single or global market. Based on the worldview, Economic globalisation can be seen as either a negative or positive thing.

Economic globalisation includes: Globalisation of production; which is getting services and goods from a source from very different locations all over the world to gain from the difference in quality and cost. There is globalisation of markets; which is the coming together of separate and different markets into one global market. Economic globalisation includes technology, industries, competition and corporations.

Globalisation today is all about less developed countries and economies receiving FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) from the more developed countries and economies, reduction in barriers to trade and to particular extent immigration.

Political Globalisation:

Political globalisation is going to on-the-long-run drop the need for separate nation or states. Institutions like the International Criminal court and WTO are beginning to replace individual nations in their functions and this could eventually lead to a union of all the nations of the world in a European Union style.

Non-governmental organisations have also helped in political globalisation by influencing laws and policies across borders and in different countries, including developmental efforts and humanitarian aid.

Political globalisation isn’t all good as some countries have chosen to embrace policies of isolation as a reactionary measure to globalisation. A typical example is the government of North Korea which makes it extremely difficult and hard for foreigners to even enter their country and monitor all of the activities of foreigners strictly if they allow them in. Citizens are not allowed to leave the country freely and aid workers are put under serious scrutiny and are not allowed in regions and places where the government does not want them to enter.

Intergovernmentalism is the treatment of national governments and states as the major basic factors for integration. Multi-level governance is the concept that there are many structures of authority interacting in the gradual emergence of political globalisation.

Cultural Globalisation:

Cultural globalisation is the transmission of values, ideas and meanings all over the world in a way that intensify and extend social relations. Cultural globalisation is known by the consumption of different cultures that have been propagated on the internet, international travel and culture media. The propagation of cultures helps individuals to engage in social relations which break regional boundaries. Cultural globalisation also includes the start of shared knowledge and norm which people can identify their cultures collectively; it helps foster relationships between different cultures and populations.

It can be argued that cultural globalisation distorts and harms cultural diversity. As one country’s culture is inputted into another country by the means of globalisation, the new culture becomes a threat to the cultural diversity of the receiving country.

Globalisation has made the world into one very small community where we all interact and relate, learn about other cultures and civilisations different from ours. Globalisation has helped improve the ease of doing business all around the world and has made the production of goods and services quite easy and affordable. Globalisation isn’t all good and rosy as it can be argued that Globalisation is just westernisation as most cultures and beliefs are being influenced by the western culture and belief and this harms cultural diversity. Nevertheless, the good of globalisation outweighs the bad so globalisation is actually a very good thing and has helped shape the world as we know it.

Economics , Globalisation

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Engaging Global Cinema Cultures: Discourses and Disruptions

Global Cinema Symposium

Organized by the Harry W. Bass Jr. School of Arts, Humanities, and Technology

  Nov. 1-2, 2024

In-person at the University of Texas at Dallas

Keynote Speakers:

Dr. Lúcia Nagib ( University of Reading)

Dr. Lalitha Gopalan (University of Texas at Austin)

Special guests include Dr. Iggy Cortez (University of California, Berkeley), Dr. Shekhar Deshpande (Arcadia University), and Dr. Meta Mazaj (University of Pennsylvania).

The global nature of cinema has preoccupied scholars at least since André Bazin’s 1940s classification of film history into “classical” (Hollywood films) and “modern” (cinema produced in opposition to Hollywood) periods. With renewed urgency and in the midst of a rise in attention to “multiculturalism” in the 1990s, Ella Shohat and Robert Stam disrupted Eurocentric discourses on cinema, offering instead a polycentric approach to understanding the development of cinema around the globe. More recently, film scholars such as Lúcia Nagib, Stephanie Dennison, Song Hwee Lim, and Dudley Andrew have questioned the negative connotation of world or global cinema in anglophone film scholarship as well as film festival circuits, where the term is used as a replacement for non-Hollywood cinema or foreign art cinema. Twenty-first century approaches to global cinema include Nagib’s understanding of world cinema as a project centered on realism, Patricia White’s proposal to study women’s cinema as world cinema, Hamid Naficy’s study of films made by deterritorialized and displaced postcolonial filmmakers as accented cinema, and Deborah Shaw’s conceptualization of transnational cinema and its various registers.

With these disruptive discourses in mind, we are excited to invite papers for the inaugural biannual international symposium on Global Cinema, titled Engaging Global Cinema Cultures: Discourses and Disruptions . The driving questions of the symposium are: How can we explore the possibilities of studying alternative cartographies and epistemologies in global cinema? How do we understand contemporary spectatorship as interconnected global film cultures? Acknowledging the blurred geopolitical and economical boundaries in global cinema, where do we place the study of national cinemas? How do we reframe film studies curricula to reflect the innumerable possibilities of production, distribution, and exhibition of global cinemas offered by global cinema? What are the harmonies and chasms in transnational filmmaking practices in a glocalized world?

Conference Format : The symposium will be held in-person at the University of Texas at Dallas. We aim to create a network of scholars from around the world to develop theories, conceptual frameworks, and methodologies to reshape the field of global cinema. The symposium is envisioned as a two-day event that includes two keynote addresses by prominent scholars in the field, a featured panel of invited scholars to reflect on the state of the field, a workshop on syllabus development, and four traditional panels comprised of speakers selected from the open call for papers. The symposium also imagines more informal gatherings to promote collaboration and networking during meals and a reception on the first evening.

We welcome submissions that broadly engage with questions raised by the symposium theme, including but not limited to:

• Global sites of film production, reception, and exhibition: early cinema-present
• Theorizing World Cinema
• Decolonizing Film Studies
• Complicating identity, authenticity, and belonging in global filmmaking practices
• Conceptual intersections: national, transnational, world, and global cinemas
• Methods and methodologies in studying and teaching global cinema
• Interconnected cinema cultures: OTT platforms, film festivals, and classrooms
• Global cinema in the archives
• Global movements and interstices, and global cinema
• Filmmaking practices of diasporic, exilic, and immigrant communities
• Nationless cinemas, transnational activism, and transregional audiences
• Alternative production and reception practices in global cinema
• Politics of global cinema
• Avant-garde and experimental filmmaking in the global cinema ecosystem
• Paradigm shifts in global cinema pedagogy

Keynote Speakers

Dr. Lúcia Nagib , Professor of Film at the University of Reading. Nagib is an internationally recognised specialist in world cinema, cinematic realism, and cinematic intermediality, which she has explored through a novel approach in many publications, including her single-authored books Realist Cinema as World Cinema: Non-cinema, Intermedial Passages , Total Cinema (Amsterdam University Press, 2020) and World Cinema and the Ethics of Realism (Bloomsbury, 2011). She is an expert in a number of national cinemas, such as Brazilian, Japanese, and German cinemas.

Dr. Lalitha Gopalan , Associate professor in the Department of Radio-Television-Film and affiliate faculty in the Department of Asian Studies and South Asia Institute at the University of Texas at Austin. Gopalan’s research and teaching interests are in the areas of Film Theory, Feminist Film Theory, Contemporary World Cinemas, Indian Cinemas, Genre Films, and Experimental Film and Video. Her essays and books include Cinemas Dark and Slow in Digital India (Palgrave Macmillan, 2021; Orient Blackswan 2021), Cinema of Interruptions: Action Genres in Contemporary Indian Cinema (London: BFI Publishing, 2002), and Bombay (BFI Modern Classics, 2005), as well as the edited volume The Cinema of India (Wallflower Press, 2010). Her current book project explores various experimental film and video practices in India.

Submission Guidelines

• We invite individual papers from faculty, graduate students, and independent scholars. 
• Please use this link to make your submissions.
• The submission form requires abstracts of 300-350 words, a bibliography, and a short bio of approximately 100 words.

Timelines :

• Submission Deadline: June 15, 2024
• Notification of Acceptance: July 31, 2024

Contact email: [email protected]

Symposium Organizers, University of Texas at Dallas:

Shilyh Warren, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Film Studies

Mazyar Mahan, Ph.D. Student, Film Studies

Arya Rani, Ph.D. Candidate, Film Studies