what is history coursework

History Coursework: how to Choose the Best Question

• Dr Janet Rose
• June 13, 2020

So, just when you thought your first A-level History year was over and you could relax before tackling next year, you have to think about your history coursework. This will be the non-exam assessment (NEA) or Historical Investigation.  It can cause a lot of angst amongst students but taking some time and thinking it through carefully before you start can make the world of difference.

1. Choose to study something interesting for your history coursework

If you have the chance to choose whichever topic you like for your history coursework and set your own question, or if you are given a list of different topics, choose one you are genuinely interested in. You will be working on this piece for months, so it makes sense to choose something that will hold your interest.

2. Make sure there are no clashes with your other topics

In practice, there are constraints set by the various exam boards to make sure that your topic does not overlap with the components you are already studying for your A level or Pre U. Your exam centre (school, college or independent centre) will need to have your question approved by the exam board and they will not approve a topic with an obvious overlap. For example, if you are already studying the Tudors for AQA, it is unlikely that you can  study a topic set in England between 1485 to 1603. Therefore, if you are setting your own question, ask yourself if it overlaps in date or topic with one of your components. If it does, you will need to find an alternative. Each exam board has slightly different rules, so check on their website to see what the rules are for your exam board.

3. Find your source material early

For your history coursework, you will need to find two types of source material – primary and secondary:

P rimary sources are those that were written at the time and you will also need to find a range of these to support your investigation. To achieve high marks you should look for a variety of primary sources, for example, a letter, a report, a painting, a speech etc.

Secondary sources are scholarly books or articles by historians, or what the a-level exam boards call ‘interpretations.’ this means that your investigation will only be viable if historians have written about the topic and, preferably, argued over it. you will need to understand the arguments that provide a framework for your chosen topic. historians call this the historiography..

Therefore, the question you set yourself will only be able to achieve high marks if you make sure there are both secondary sources (scholarly argument) and primary sources (original material) to support your investigation. If you cannot find these, you should re-think your question.

4. Remember you actually have to answer the question!

It sounds really obvious – but remember that you actually have to answer the question you set yourself!  You need to choose something that is achievable in the time frame and gives you a good chance of success. A good question will give you a framework within which to research and write – you are looking for something that is not too vague nor too wide.

You also need something that you can address in the historical time frame (e.g. around 100 years for AQA) and a topic that you can analyse and evaluate in approximately 3, 500 words (check the word limit for your own exam board). In practice, any question that is too wide, too vague or unlikely to be achievable should be vetoed either by your school/college/independent centre or the exam board. However, this will waste your valuable time and is not totally foolproof, so choose an achievable project to give yourself a fighting chance of achieving that elusive A grade.

5. Choose a good format for your history coursework question

The standard ‘for and against’ question format will always be a good choice and will give you a framework within which to set your investigation. There are various ways to word such a question e.g. ‘How far…’, To what extent…’ ‘Within the context of … how important was…’ which will give you a clear framework and a direction for your investigation. Keep it simple is good advice here. Remember, though, to define your framework by including the date range in your question. For example ‘Within the context of 1790 to 1890, how important was…?’

Done well, the NEA or Personal Investigation will teach you a huge amount about how historians work, how sources are used and how to construct an argument. This will help you enormously when you come to the final exams and it can be a very valuable contribution to your qualification. It can also be enjoyable as it is your first chance to ‘do’ some real historical research. Choose your question with care and you automatically give yourself a head start.

Exam Board History Coursework Guidance

AQA Guidance

Cambridge Pre U Guidance

OCR Guidance

Edexcel Guidance

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1 What is History?

Though you have likely spent a good part of your education sitting in history classes and reading history books, you probably have not really thought deeply about how to define the subject.  In many ways, it’s easier to start with what history is not:  It is not simply a record of what happened in the past.  For one thing, clearly too much happened yesterday alone—let alone ten, one hundred, one thousand years ago—to record. People ate meals, chose which socks to wear, kissed someone new, scanned their Twitter feed, etc., etc.  History is not even a record of important things that happened in the past, because that definition raises the question of what counts as important and who gets to decide.  If those new lovers kissing for the first time were Antony and Cleopatra—whose relationship redirected Egyptian history—or if the meal inspired an immigrant activist by reminding of her roots, then those seemingly mundane actions were critical.  Deciding what is important—which among myriad of past events should be retold, the order to put them in, how to phrase stories so that they reach the right audience—that is what history is.  As historians James Davidson and Mark Lytle put it, “History is not ‘what happened in the past;’ rather it is the act of selecting, analyzing, and writing about the past.”

Historians are tasked with finding evidence about the past and then deciding what to do with it. They research, evaluate, and write using what past actors have left behind. That means that the historical narratives scholars (including you!) create actually depend upon scholars’ interpretations of extant evidence— on what we call “primary sources.” Primary sources are those produced by the actors of the time and can run the gamut from oral histories to government documents to Hollywood films to material culture and beyond. Historians also keep in mind other historians’ writings, or secondary sources . Historians seek as many sources from as many different perspectives as possible, and scrutinize each one carefully, in the attempt to overcome any biases infusing those sources. Yet, no matter how skilled the researcher there will be gaps in the sources that require interpretation. Gaps or silences in the record merit attention, meaning that historians must consider why some perspectives are not found in archives or in published scholarship. The reason may be perfectly harmless, such as the warehouse fire in 1921 that destroyed the 1890 U.S. Census manuscript schedules (the millions of records  left by enumerators who went house-to-house with questionnaires).  The resulting silence about literacy rates among immigrants (or a number of other topics that rely on Census records) for that decade is frustrating and has certainly diminished our knowledge of the past, but historians do not need to explain the silence beyond noting this accident of history.  At other times, silences speak directly to the experience of those under study, such as the shortage of written records by enslaved peoples. In this case, the silence must be explained by the pernicious decision by White legislators to limit the literacy of enslaved Americans and is itself a part of the history of slavery.  In sum, historians must be adept at not only ferreting out sources and assessing their meaning, but also evaluating the meaning of what remains hidden. Writing history is at heart the art and science of deciding how to stitch together what remains of the past in a way that is meaningful to readers in the present.

Where does the (social) science part come from? Though gaps in the record mean that we can never know everything about the past–and thus a certain amount of art and interpretation is necessarily a part of history–historians mimic scientific processes, posing and testing hypotheses and placing weight on the use of peer review before publication. Guidelines about the value of a source, rules about how you record where you find it, and advice on how to present your findings when you present them to the public (or just your instructor) are all part of an effort to create reliable scholarship that can be replicated—the key elements of reason.  Writing and teaching history successfully depends upon your ability to understand and master those guidelines. Indeed, your obligation to take this course reflects the opinion among historians that while we know a good deal of art shapes our interpretations, we still value the role of scientific inquiry in our discipline.  You have been assigned this book because your instructor wants you to think like an historian.

The philosophy of history

It’s worth pointing out that while the present-day discipline of history is marked by shared standards of practice, historians as a group debate virtually everything, from what should be studied to the precise cause and effect of almost every event.  While historians today no longer embrace the notion of cyclical history (that time is not linear, and events reoccur repeatedly) or providential history (that God is directing all events for a particular outcome), they do sometimes accept a progressive view (that humanity is constantly improving).  Most contemporary historians, however, exist somewhat closer to a postmodern view of history—that is, that a pure understanding of the past is unknowable, but that learning as much as we can about the past from our current (changing) perspectives helps us learn more about ourselves and our own time.

These different philosophies of history are part of the long-term history of history.  In the past century though, with the rise of professional history , the history of history involves chronicling and analyzing historical debates–discussions in which some historians lobby others to revise previous interpretations of past people and events for a range of reasons.  Some of these debates stem from differences in political perspective, some emerge out of access to new sources or new ideas about how to read old sources.  Other conflicts between historians happen because of a difference in epistemology—roughly speaking, because some historians emphasize the ability of culture and ideas to shape the importance of  economic/material infrastructure, and other historians see it the opposite way around (that is, that certain geographies or other material structures  permit or promote what sort of ideas and cultural artifacts develop).

History graduate students and professional historians spend a good deal of time thinking about the implications of these different philosophies.  While the really old philosophies (cyclical or providential history) are seldom discussed, the newer ones based upon political and epistemological differences are at the heart of many  lively debates among historians.  For most readers of this text, it’s enough to understand that such distinctions exist, and to be aware of the fact that historical interpretations vary not only over time, but between competing points of view. The section below, which explains historiography, and guidance in the next part Reading Historically , will give you some tools for discerning interpretive points of view.  Awarness of differences and understanding where they come from will be among the most important critical thinking skills you develop as a history student.

historiograPHY

Writing about the past has changed over time.  In other words, history has a history, and the fancy term for how historians recount and analyze previous interpretations of the past is “historiography.”    Historiographical change   refers to the fact that over time, historians have altered their explanations of past events, and the discipline of history keeps track of, and continuously reconsiders, these changing interpretations; writing about historians (or the history of history as opposed to the story of the past) is called historiography .

One of the easiest ways to grasp the importance of historiography involves looking at a subject such as slavery in the United States, for which the history has changed dramatically over the last one hundred years. The first professional historians of slavery wrote in the very years in which state and local governments were establishing and justifying racial segregation.  Their interpretations of the “peculiar institution” (as slavery was sometimes called) fit in with their society’s world view, and often suggested slavery was benign or at least a critical part of the process of “improving” those of African descent.  As legal segregation, the concept of eugenics, and other types of racialized thinking came increasingly under attack over the course of the twentieth century, such views were criticized and the historians of slavery more often focused on the violence and dehumanizing elements of the institution.  As the Civil Rights Movement led to the outlawing of segregated education, it opened the door to new scholars with new perspectives. Critical race studies today–scholarship that assesses the many ways that the justification of racial slavery has shaped U.S. politics and society–has a decidedly different view of enslaved peoples than did the history written in the past.  The scholarship about the history of race also actually has within it  a variety of perspectives, including differences between historians about how the global economy, technology, religion, gender and/or disability  shaped the experience of the enslaved, those who claimed ownership, and those who fought for and against the institution of slavery.

Though other historical topics may not have seen shifts as dramatic as the scholarship on slavery, every subject has experienced some shifting over time. As you read secondary sources on historical topics that interest you, try to become conversant with some of the most prominent historiographical debates for your own periods of interest. Most scholarly history essays have an historiographical section, that is a section near the beginning that notes how previous historians have approached the same topic, or ones closely related to the subject under study.  Historians touch on earlier interpretations in order to show how their own work will add to what we already know, perhaps by pointing out errors in the use of a primary source or how a particular philosophical or political assumption unfairly limited analysis. More likely for student researchers, this reference to earlier interpretations will point to a gap–by place, or era, or perspective–that the student’s research can help fill. Because it will fill a gap in what we know, the historical research presented is thus more meaningful, a positive reason to be aware of the historiography of your subject. A negative reason also exists:  Those who don’t consider current knowledge risk “reinventing the wheel” or worse, erring in interpretation because of unfamiliarity with a major finding by an earlier historian. Whatever side motivates you as a student, it’s important you attempt to learn the historiography of topics in which you hope to specialize.

those produced by the actors of the time and can run the gamut from oral histories to government documents to Hollywood films to material culture and beyond.

what a historian has written about the topic

ideas about what drives historical change or what history means. For example, a progressive historical philosophy views humanity as getting better overtime.

whereby many of those who write history have undergone formal training resulting in the acquisition of a doctorate degree in history.

the change in the way historians at large view a particular topic

the study of the the collective work done by historians about a particular topic

How History is Made: A Student’s Guide to Reading, Writing, and Thinking in the Discipline Copyright © 2022 by Stephanie Cole; Kimberly Breuer; Scott W. Palmer; and Brandon Blakeslee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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A Level History Coursework AQA – A Guide

• Post author By admin
• Post date January 8, 2024
• No Comments on A Level History Coursework AQA – A Guide

This guide shows you how to plan, research and write A Level History Coursework for AQA using ideas, resources, examples and structure. This coursework is weighted in the following format. Assessment Objective One (AO1) 10% (20 marks), Assessment Objective Two (AO2) 5% (10 marks) and Assessment Objective Three (AO3) 5% (10 marks). For AQA coursework this gives a total of 20% (40 marks) divided as shown above across all three of the A Level History Assessment Objectives.

A Level History Coursework AQA – Ideas, Examples and Resources

Choosing an Issue and Question – You are required to identify an issue or topic that you wish to study and develop a question from this. This gives a broad scope for potential questions. There are however two specific requirements of the question.

• The question must not duplicate any of the content that you are studying for examination assessment in components 1 and 2.
• The question must place the issue or topic in the context of approximately 100 years of history.

Question Ideas, Example and Selection

There are two potential ways to ensure that you cover the 100 year requirement for this coursework. You could identify an issue and related question which traces development over approximately 100 years. Alternatively, you could focus on a narrower issue but place it in the context of a 100 year period. Lets look at a couple of examples below to make this clear.

• Q1. Q. ‘Despite a period of unprecedented economic and social change, British women remained marginalised and downtrodden’. During the period 1760-1867, assess the validity of this view. – This is the perfect example of a broad issue and question from which you could analyse development over the time period.
• Q2. In the context of the period 1905 to 2003, to what extent was the Cuban missile crisis the biggest turning point in the relationship between Russia and the USA? – This question highlights a more specific issue (the Cuban missile crisis) and places it in context of the relationship between the two countries over the c100 year period.

There are some key points to consider when selecting a question for your coursework.

• Question formulation – Students are advised to use the type of question formulations seen in AQA examinations and shown in the examples above.
• Historiographical debate – There needs to be a scholarly debate around the question or issue. This means differing views on the question from different historians. This makes it easier to select appropriate works to analyse and compare.
• Primary sources – Is there a range of primary sources and primary material available to support the coursework? These primary resources need to be accessible to the student.

Coursework Resources

• Library – school, local, college, university – you should be able to borrow appropriate works.
• Teacher – your teacher should be able to provide you with copies of appropriate resources to use.
• JSTOR – www.jstor.org – contains a large collection of journal articles from historical publications covering numerous topics. These will often engage in the historical debate by replying to opposing views.
• Purchase Books – many second-hand books are available to purchase at very cheap prices through Amazon or similar sites.

A Level History Coursework AQA – Structure and Planning

First section – introduction to the question (c. 350 words).

Introduction to the overall topic. You need to put the question into context by providing relevant information regarding what was happening at the time. You then need to define any key terms in the question. For the British women example question above you would need to define ‘remained marginalised and downtrodden’ .

This we could do by defining;

• remained as showing continuity rather than change
• marginalised as a group treated as insignificant and peripheral. 
• downtrodden as a group oppressed or treated badly by those in power.

You would then need to set-out valid criteria by which the question can be judged in order to provide an accurate answer. These criteria will go on to become your factors as you can see in the plan below.

For the British women example question, we could potentially use the following criteria to judge whether they remained marginalised and downtrodden. Did women’s lives change for the better, during the period, in the following different areas?

• Socially and Culturally
• Legally and Politically
• Education and Work

Second Section – Historians Viewpoints (c. 800 words – 400 each)

In this section we look at the viewpoints of two different academic historians. In order to achieve the highest marks, Level 5 (9-10 Marks) we need to do the following:

• Show a very good understanding of the differing historical interpretations raised in the question.
• Convincingly evaluate the interpretations with reference to time, context and/or limitations placed on the historians.

Using the example Cold War question shown above, you could analyse the views of a US historian writing after the Cold War has ended, with a Soviet historian writing during the period. This would enable you to contrast the content of both works and evaluate the interpretations given. This would also show how the time period affected the works, how limitations affected the works, how purpose affected the works, amongst many other issues that help to explain the authors differing viewpoints.

Third Section – Factor 1 and Source 1 (c. 650 words Factor 1 and 350 words Source 1)

In this section you cover the first factor that you have identified from your criteria in the introduction, as well as one of your primary sources that matches with this theme. So for the British women example question this section would concentrate on the Socially and Culturally factor that we are using as criteria to answer the question. Crucially you have to cover the time period and show your understanding of change and continuity as illustrated by the mark scheme detailed below.

• Level 5 (17-20) marks – Very good understanding of change and continuity within the context of approximately 100 years.

You then add to this section your evaluation of your first primary source that matches with this theme. So for the British women example question you would have a primary source that related to the Socially and Culturally factor being covered here.

Fourth Section – Factor 2 and Source 2 (c. 650 words Factor 2 and 350 words Source 2 )

In this section you cover the second factor that you have identified from your criteria in the introduction, as well as one of your primary sources that matches with this theme. So for the British women example question this section would concentrate on the Legally and Politically factor that we are using as criteria to answer the question. Crucially you have to cover the time period and show your understanding of change and continuity as illustrated by the mark scheme detailed below.

You then add to this section your evaluation of your first primary source that matches with this theme. So for the British women example question you would have a primary source that related to the Legally and Politically factor being covered here.

Fifth Section – Factor 3 and Source 3 (c. 650 words Factor 3 and 350 words Source 3 )

In this section you cover the second factor that you have identified from your criteria in the introduction, as well as one of your primary sources that matches with this theme. So for the British women example question this section would concentrate on the Education and Work factor that we are using as criteria to answer the question. Crucially you have to cover the time period and show your understanding of change and continuity as illustrated by the mark scheme detailed below.

You then add to this section your evaluation of your first primary source that matches with this theme. So for the British women example question you would have a primary source that related to the Education and Work factor being covered here.

Sixth Section – Overall Conclusion (c. 350 words)

In the final section you need to produce an overall conclusion that fully answers the coursework question. So for the British women question you would be answering ‘did they remain marginalised and downtrodden during this period?’. This will take into account everything you have considered throughout the piece of work including your criteria, the viewpoints of the academic historians, the primary sources and the factors that you have covered from your criteria. In reaching a final judgement and conclusion, you need to take into account the entire period considering continuity and change across it, as you should have done throughout the rest of the coursework.

A Level History Coursework AQA – Primary Source Analysis

Looking at the primary source mark scheme table from the AQA website can help you to understand the requirements. Firstly, you must ensure that three sources are used and that there are a minimum of two different types (can be two different types of written source). To achieve the highest marks you must then ensure that a range of relevant and well supported comments are made on the value of the sources. Finally, you must provide a balanced and convincing judgement on the merits of each source in relation to our question.

Assessing Your Primary Sources

• Provenance – The five W’s of Who, Why, What, When, Where; can help you to identify the provenance of a primary source and assess its value or limitations.
• Tone and Emphasis – How does the tone and emphasis impact the value of the source. Is it impartial, critical, formal, aggressive, empathetic, mocking, candid etc?
• Content – What is the actual content of the source saying? How true is this in terms of your contextual knowledge? Is there value in the inaccuracies of the content?
• Value/Limitations and Judgement – The above three points ( Provenance, Tone and Emphasis and Content ) can be used to assess how much we can learn from the source, by weighing up value and limitations, as well as giving judgement on the merit of the source.

How To Improve Further at A Level History

Pass A Level History – is our sister site, which shows you step by step, how to most effectively answer any A Level History extract, source or essay question. Please click the following link to visit the site and get access to your free preview lesson. www.passalevelhistory.co.uk

Previous and Next Blog Posts

Previous  – A Level History Coursework Edexcel Guide –  passhistoryexams.co.uk/a-level-history-coursework-edexcel/

Next  – A Level History Extract Questions – How To Answer –  passhistoryexams.co.uk/a-level-history-extract-questions/

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What You Need to Know About Becoming a History Major

History majors learn to think critically about the past and how it influences the present and the future.

Becoming a History Major

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By taking classes that span regions and time periods, history majors will build an appreciation for the field’s vast scope.

History majors explore the past, seemingly able to move through time and space to understand distant societies and cultures, often becoming adept critical thinkers and writers during their rigorous studies. These reasoning and analytical abilities are useful beyond the scope of traditional professions for historians. Students likely to be a good fit for an undergraduate history program will be eager to make sense of complex stories and consider diverse perspectives of historical events.

What Is a History Major?

A history major is a degree path that teaches students to critically examine the past and become informed citizens. Unlike in some high school history courses, where students might spend most of their time memorizing dates and facts, undergraduate history majors focus on analysis and evaluation.

By taking classes that span regions and time periods, history majors can build an appreciation for the field’s vast scope. History degree requirements are often flexible, allowing students time to explore topics and eras that interest them. As they complete their degrees , students build the tools to understand links connecting the past, present and future. These majors have the opportunity to complete original research and apply the methods they observed in the classroom. Undergraduate history journals allow students to publish their best research papers.

Those looking to improve foreign language skills relevant to their history coursework might consider undergraduate study abroad programs. History majors can see artifacts and sites they have learned about through these programs. This hands-on experience is especially meaningful for students studying in parts of the world far from their college or university.

History major vs. political science major: What’s the difference?

While the subject matter covered in history and political science majors may appear similar, a primary difference is the perspective from which world events are viewed. History majors learn about the events of the past and the context in which they took place from a broader perspective. In contrast, political science majors examine events specifically through the lens of civics and government.

Common Coursework History Majors Can Expect 

Students pursuing a history degree can expect to learn not only about other parts of the world but also to understand the impact of history on current events and to see change as a gradual and eternal process. Students learn how to read and analyze primary sources and historical writings. Most historians become adept at contending with competing points of view.

Within the department, class offerings include surveys that provide intensive overviews of large geographic areas or lengthy periods. For instance, survey classes at the University of California, Los Angeles, include “Modern Latin America” and “History of Africa, 1800 to Present.”

Students can also sign up for courses that examine history through environmental or economic lenses. Some classes focus more narrowly on particular topics, such as the Cold War or the Mexican Revolution. These types of history courses allow students to learn about the complexities of particular historical moments. Course offerings vary by semester, so students should keep an eye out for classes that interest them.

Many history programs include chronological and geographic course requirements, asking students to become familiar with the premodern period and to explore multiple regions. History majors may also be required to complete a capstone course that concludes with a significant research paper.

How to Know if This Major Is the Right Fit for You

If you frequently ask questions about politics, war or culture and are unsatisfied with simple answers, a history major could be a good fit for you. History is a broad discipline, so curious students should explore the field before choosing a specific career path. Students should also be prepared to spend much of their time reading and writing and be able to interpret multiple, and sometimes conflicting, points of view.

Pick the Perfect Major

Discover the perfect major for you based on your innate wiring. The Innate Assessment sets you up for success by pairing you with majors, colleges and careers that fit your unique skills and abilities.

What Can I Do With a History Major?

History majors might work as policy analysts, editors or paralegals after graduation. For students interested in teaching, some schools allow history majors to pursue teacher certification while completing their undergraduate requirements. History majors might also consider graduate study in fields including law, journalism, the arts or business. Students who earn master’s or doctorate degrees in history can look for jobs at colleges, universities and museums, among other institutions.

While certification is required for some jobs, like public schoolteacher, history majors in other roles may pursue other credentials to demonstrate their expertise, dive deeper into an area of interest or learn new skills to boost their career. A multimedia certificate might teach a journalist or other professional how to convey information digitally, while a community-based librarianship certificate might be a good addition for people who want to help others research and find information, for example. Archivists who meet education and work experience requirements and pass an exam can earn the certified archivist credential from the Academy of Certified Archivists .

Like other liberal arts degrees, studying history gives students communication and critical thinking skills that can be applied to a variety of career paths. Because the subject area is quite broad, however, whether history majors need additional education or certification before embarking on a career depends on the student’s ambitions and interests.

Data is from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics' most recent estimates of annual salary by occupation and the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook .

What History Majors Say

"Majoring in history has enhanced my ability to develop nuanced opinions and articulate strong evidence-based arguments about the past and how it has influenced the present. My reading, writing, and analytical thinking skills have flourished as a result of my studies. I’ve enjoyed the opportunity to get students involved in history by organizing guest speaker events and local field trips to historic sites as President of the University of Baltimore’s History Club. "My advice for anyone pursuing a degree in history is to seek connections with people with similar historical interests and keep in touch with them. Building a network will help you visualize the numerous possibilities that a history degree can unlock. Whether you plan to pursue a career in the field or not, the transferable skills gained through studying history are in high demand and offer a solid professional foundation."

– Lexzander Nebel Ernst , University of Baltimore, class of 2024.

"I honestly could not describe the history major itself in a short paragraph, because there is so much the field has to offer. From studying the social implications of the Central-African Independence movements of the mid-twentieth century to witchcraft in Medieval England, every history major’s experience will be slightly different. For me, history has opened the door to many opportunities at Clemson University, such as the ability to further specialize my education and research on what I find most fascinating. This includes collaborating with students who share similar interests, conducting research based on the work of other academics, and traveling the world to engage with history on a personal level. The study of history builds on itself in a similar way to how a complex skyscraper is constructed: there are many places where one can find their specialty in this interconnected project, and the whole of the field is erected with help from everyone involved."

– Matthew Ployhart , Clemson University, class of 2025.

"Being a history major is so cool because history is such a diverse field. We get to look at different periods, different artifacts, and specialize in things like public history, archives, and research-related paths. It has been such a meaningful experience to be able to research topics I am passionate about using historical data and context. Overall, history, as a major is such an important field that I think everyone should explore at least as an elective."

– Grace Holland , Middle Tennessee State University, class of 2024.

"The skills I’ve learned by studying history have proved to be very rewarding. Throughout college, I have been able to expand my reading, writing, and research skills. This is essential to succeed as a history major but also for college in general. The practice and development of these skills are also important for any future career. For example, the ability to comprehensively read long documents in a short amount of time is an important practice for future lawyers. Writing is important for even those who go into careers in STEM, as you will need to write up reports that clearly explain your ideas. The same also applies to the practice of researching, which is a very prominent activity for history majors. Being familiar with research databases and the analyzing of sources can apply to many career fields and prepare you for success. Due to how well-rounded the study of history is, to major in the subject is perfect for those who have many interests.”

– Lucy Manias , University of Kentucky, class of 2026.

Schools Offering a History Major

Schools offering history majors are below. Filter and sort our complete list of schools to search for those that meet your preferences and needs.

2024 Best Colleges

Search for your perfect fit with the U.S. News rankings of colleges and universities.

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Why Study History? (1998)

In 2020, Peter N. Stearns revisited his “Why Study History? (1998)” essay with “ Why Study History? Revisited ” in Perspectives on History.

By Peter N. Stearns

People live in the present. They plan for and worry about the future. History, however, is the study of the past. Given all the demands that press in from living in the present and anticipating what is yet to come, why bother with what has been? Given all the desirable and available branches of knowledge, why insist—as most American educational programs do—on a good bit of history? And why urge many students to study even more history than they are required to?

Any subject of study needs justification: its advocates must explain why it is worth attention. Most widely accepted subjects—and history is certainly one of them—attract some people who simply like the information and modes of thought involved. But audiences less spontaneously drawn to the subject and more doubtful about why to bother need to know what the purpose is.

Historians do not perform heart transplants, improve highway design, or arrest criminals. In a society that quite correctly expects education to serve useful purposes, the functions of history can seem more difficult to define than those of engineering or medicine. History is in fact very useful, actually indispensable, but the products of historical study are less tangible, sometimes less immediate, than those that stem from some other disciplines.

In the past history has been justified for reasons we would no longer accept. For instance, one of the reasons history holds its place in current education is because earlier leaders believed that a knowledge of certain historical facts helped distinguish the educated from the uneducated; the person who could reel off the date of the Norman conquest of England (1066) or the name of the person who came up with the theory of evolution at about the same time that Darwin did (Wallace) was deemed superior—a better candidate for law school or even a business promotion. Knowledge of historical facts has been used as a screening device in many societies, from China to the United States, and the habit is still with us to some extent. Unfortunately, this use can encourage mindless memorization—a real but not very appealing aspect of the discipline. History should be studied because it is essential to individuals and to society, and because it harbors beauty. There are many ways to discuss the real functions of the subject—as there are many different historical talents and many different paths to historical meaning. All definitions of history's utility, however, rely on two fundamental facts.

History Helps Us Understand People and Societies

In the first place, history offers a storehouse of information about how people and societies behave. Understanding the operations of people and societies is difficult, though a number of disciplines make the attempt. An exclusive reliance on current data would needlessly handicap our efforts. How can we evaluate war if the nation is at peace—unless we use historical materials? How can we understand genius, the influence of technological innovation, or the role that beliefs play in shaping family life, if we don't use what we know about experiences in the past? Some social scientists attempt to formulate laws or theories about human behavior. But even these recourses depend on historical information, except for in limited, often artificial cases in which experiments can be devised to determine how people act. Major aspects of a society's operation, like mass elections, missionary activities, or military alliances, cannot be set up as precise experiments. Consequently, history must serve, however imperfectly, as our laboratory, and data from the past must serve as our most vital evidence in the unavoidable quest to figure out why our complex species behaves as it does in societal settings. This, fundamentally, is why we cannot stay away from history: it offers the only extensive evidential base for the contemplation and analysis of how societies function, and people need to have some sense of how societies function simply to run their own lives.

History Helps Us Understand Change and How the Society We Live in Came to Be

The second reason history is inescapable as a subject of serious study follows closely on the first. The past causes the present, and so the future. Any time we try to know why something happened—whether a shift in political party dominance in the American Congress, a major change in the teenage suicide rate, or a war in the Balkans or the Middle East—we have to look for factors that took shape earlier. Sometimes fairly recent history will suffice to explain a major development, but often we need to look further back to identify the causes of change. Only through studying history can we grasp how things change; only through history can we begin to comprehend the factors that cause change; and only through history can we understand what elements of an institution or a society persist despite change.

The Importance of History in Our Own Lives

These two fundamental reasons for studying history underlie more specific and quite diverse uses of history in our own lives. History well told is beautiful. Many of the historians who most appeal to the general reading public know the importance of dramatic and skillful writing—as well as of accuracy. Biography and military history appeal in part because of the tales they contain. History as art and entertainment serves a real purpose, on aesthetic grounds but also on the level of human understanding. Stories well done are stories that reveal how people and societies have actually functioned, and they prompt thoughts about the human experience in other times and places. The same aesthetic and humanistic goals inspire people to immerse themselves in efforts to reconstruct quite remote pasts, far removed from immediate, present-day utility. Exploring what historians sometimes call the "pastness of the past"—the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives—involves a sense of beauty and excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society.

History Contributes to Moral Understanding

History also provides a terrain for moral contemplation. Studying the stories of individuals and situations in the past allows a student of history to test his or her own moral sense, to hone it against some of the real complexities individuals have faced in difficult settings. People who have weathered adversity not just in some work of fiction, but in real, historical circumstances can provide inspiration. "History teaching by example" is one phrase that describes this use of a study of the past—a study not only of certifiable heroes, the great men and women of history who successfully worked through moral dilemmas, but also of more ordinary people who provide lessons in courage, diligence, or constructive protest.

History Provides Identity

History also helps provide identity, and this is unquestionably one of the reasons all modern nations encourage its teaching in some form. Historical data include evidence about how families, groups, institutions and whole countries were formed and about how they have evolved while retaining cohesion. For many Americans, studying the history of one's own family is the most obvious use of history, for it provides facts about genealogy and (at a slightly more complex level) a basis for understanding how the family has interacted with larger historical change. Family identity is established and confirmed. Many institutions, businesses, communities, and social units, such as ethnic groups in the United States, use history for similar identity purposes. Merely defining the group in the present pales against the possibility of forming an identity based on a rich past. And of course nations use identity history as well—and sometimes abuse it. Histories that tell the national story, emphasizing distinctive features of the national experience, are meant to drive home an understanding of national values and a commitment to national loyalty.

Studying History Is Essential for Good Citizenship

A study of history is essential for good citizenship. This is the most common justification for the place of history in school curricula. Sometimes advocates of citizenship history hope merely to promote national identity and loyalty through a history spiced by vivid stories and lessons in individual success and morality. But the importance of history for citizenship goes beyond this narrow goal and can even challenge it at some points.

History that lays the foundation for genuine citizenship returns, in one sense, to the essential uses of the study of the past. History provides data about the emergence of national institutions, problems, and values—it's the only significant storehouse of such data available. It offers evidence also about how nations have interacted with other societies, providing international and comparative perspectives essential for responsible citizenship. Further, studying history helps us understand how recent, current, and prospective changes that affect the lives of citizens are emerging or may emerge and what causes are involved. More important, studying history encourages habits of mind that are vital for responsible public behavior, whether as a national or community leader, an informed voter, a petitioner, or a simple observer.

What Skills Does a Student of History Develop?

What does a well-trained student of history, schooled to work on past materials and on case studies in social change, learn how to do? The list is manageable, but it contains several overlapping categories.

The Ability to Assess Evidence . The study of history builds experience in dealing with and assessing various kinds of evidence—the sorts of evidence historians use in shaping the most accurate pictures of the past that they can. Learning how to interpret the statements of past political leaders—one kind of evidence—helps form the capacity to distinguish between the objective and the self-serving among statements made by present-day political leaders. Learning how to combine different kinds of evidence—public statements, private records, numerical data, visual materials—develops the ability to make coherent arguments based on a variety of data. This skill can also be applied to information encountered in everyday life.

The Ability to Assess Conflicting Interpretations . Learning history means gaining some skill in sorting through diverse, often conflicting interpretations. Understanding how societies work—the central goal of historical study—is inherently imprecise, and the same certainly holds true for understanding what is going on in the present day. Learning how to identify and evaluate conflicting interpretations is an essential citizenship skill for which history, as an often-contested laboratory of human experience, provides training. This is one area in which the full benefits of historical study sometimes clash with the narrower uses of the past to construct identity. Experience in examining past situations provides a constructively critical sense that can be applied to partisan claims about the glories of national or group identity. The study of history in no sense undermines loyalty or commitment, but it does teach the need for assessing arguments, and it provides opportunities to engage in debate and achieve perspective.

Experience in Assessing Past Examples of Change . Experience in assessing past examples of change is vital to understanding change in society today—it's an essential skill in what we are regularly told is our "ever-changing world." Analysis of change means developing some capacity for determining the magnitude and significance of change, for some changes are more fundamental than others. Comparing particular changes to relevant examples from the past helps students of history develop this capacity. The ability to identify the continuities that always accompany even the most dramatic changes also comes from studying history, as does the skill to determine probable causes of change. Learning history helps one figure out, for example, if one main factor—such as a technological innovation or some deliberate new policy—accounts for a change or whether, as is more commonly the case, a number of factors combine to generate the actual change that occurs.

Historical study, in sum, is crucial to the promotion of that elusive creature, the well-informed citizen. It provides basic factual information about the background of our political institutions and about the values and problems that affect our social well-being. It also contributes to our capacity to use evidence, assess interpretations, and analyze change and continuities. No one can ever quite deal with the present as the historian deals with the past—we lack the perspective for this feat; but we can move in this direction by applying historical habits of mind, and we will function as better citizens in the process.

History Is Useful in the World of Work

History is useful for work. Its study helps create good businesspeople, professionals, and political leaders. The number of explicit professional jobs for historians is considerable, but most people who study history do not become professional historians. Professional historians teach at various levels, work in museums and media centers, do historical research for businesses or public agencies, or participate in the growing number of historical consultancies. These categories are important—indeed vital—to keep the basic enterprise of history going, but most people who study history use their training for broader professional purposes. Students of history find their experience directly relevant to jobs in a variety of careers as well as to further study in fields like law and public administration. Employers often deliberately seek students with the kinds of capacities historical study promotes. The reasons are not hard to identify: students of history acquire, by studying different phases of the past and different societies in the past, a broad perspective that gives them the range and flexibility required in many work situations. They develop research skills, the ability to find and evaluate sources of information, and the means to identify and evaluate diverse interpretations. Work in history also improves basic writing and speaking skills and is directly relevant to many of the analytical requirements in the public and private sectors, where the capacity to identify, assess, and explain trends is essential. Historical study is unquestionably an asset for a variety of work and professional situations, even though it does not, for most students, lead as directly to a particular job slot, as do some technical fields. But history particularly prepares students for the long haul in their careers, its qualities helping adaptation and advancement beyond entry-level employment. There is no denying that in our society many people who are drawn to historical study worry about relevance. In our changing economy, there is concern about job futures in most fields. Historical training is not, however, an indulgence; it applies directly to many careers and can clearly help us in our working lives.

Why study history? The answer is because we virtually must, to gain access to the laboratory of human experience. When we study it reasonably well, and so acquire some usable habits of mind, as well as some basic data about the forces that affect our own lives, we emerge with relevant skills and an enhanced capacity for informed citizenship, critical thinking, and simple awareness. The uses of history are varied. Studying history can help us develop some literally "salable" skills, but its study must not be pinned down to the narrowest utilitarianism. Some history—that confined to personal recollections about changes and continuities in the immediate environment—is essential to function beyond childhood. Some history depends on personal taste, where one finds beauty, the joy of discovery, or intellectual challenge. Between the inescapable minimum and the pleasure of deep commitment comes the history that, through cumulative skill in interpreting the unfolding human record, provides a real grasp of how the world works.

Careers for History Majors

Through clear graphs and informal prose, readers will find hard data, practical advice, and answers to common questions about the study of history and the value it affords to individuals, their workplaces, and their communities in Careers for History Majors . You can purchase this pamphlet online at Oxford University Press. For questions about the pamphlet, please contact Karen Lou ( [email protected] ). For bulk orders contact OUP directly . 

What You'll Learn with a History Degree

What do history students learn? With the help of the AHA, faculty from around the United States have collaborated to create a list of skills students develop in their history coursework. This list, called the "History Discipline Core," is meant to help students understand the skills they are acquiring so that they can explain the value of their education to parents, friends, and employers, as well as take pride in their decision to study history. 

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A brief introduction to US history

Unit 1: worlds collide (1491-1607), unit 2: colonial america (1607-1754), unit 3: the road to revolution (1754-1800), unit 4: the early republic (1800-1848), unit 5: the civil war era (1844-1877), unit 6: the gilded age (1865-1898), unit 7: rise to world power (1890-1945), unit 8: the postwar era (1945-1980), unit 9: the modern era (1980-present), unit 10: surveys of history, unit 11: primary documents.

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Using Historical Sources

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How Do I Use Sources?

The sources that you are likely to come across at A-Level will be either images or written sources and are usually primary (written or made at the time of study). You will simply need to remember the skills that you have been developing since year 7! Think of the 5 Ws that you might have learned lower down the school – they will help:

• Who – Who made the source - did they have an opinion or bias? Were they involved?
• What –  What information does the source give? Is it the full story? Is it accurate?
• Why – Why was the source made? Was it made to persuade people of a particular opinion? Was it made to take the mickey out of something/someone?
• When – Was it made at the time? Or years later? Was the person there?
• Where – Where was the source made? Were they involved in the event? Did they have an opinion?

For both written and image sources, it is unlikely you will be able to answer all of these questions. However, you should try to address the basic areas of analysis: author, audience, bias, purpose, context, motivation and validity –  the who, what where, when, why and how of it all. Below are specific questions to help you analyze and answer your question. 

Source interpretation: written sources

Identify the source. Is it primary or secondary? Who wrote it? When was it written? What kind of document is it? Where was it published? How widely was it circulated? What is it about?

Put it in its context. What events had happened or were happening when this was written? Specifically, what was happening where this was written? Who was the intended audience and what bias might they have had?

Consider the author and their purpose. Who was the author? Consider their race, gender, religion, nationality, heritage, party affiliation, socio-economic class, and their job. Is there bias? Is the author trying to persuade, incite, enlighten, explain or deceive their audience? Why was it written and for whom? Was the author paid to write this? Or bribed or threatened? Where did it first appear: a newspaper, a diary, a letter or a propaganda flyer?

Evaluate the information. Read the information, summarize it, and identify keywords, examples of bias and intention. Are there footnotes or citations? Does it reference other documents or events? What is the document about and how does that help you understand the period? What is the overall theme? How similar is it to other documents from the same period? How does the author claim to have their information? What assumptions does the author make? Is the author expecting any resulting action, sentiment or opinion from the audience? 

Source interpretation: image sources

Identify the source. Was the artist an eyewitness or is this image secondary? Who created it? When was it created? What medium is it? What is it portraying? Where was it published? Who would have seen this image?

Put it in its context. What events had happened or were happening when this was created? Specifically, what was happening where this was created? How long after the actual event portrayed was the image created? Who was the intended audience and what bias might they have had?

Consider the artist/creator and their purpose. Who was the artist? Consider their race, gender, religion, nationality, heritage, political point of view, socio-economic class, and their job. Is there bias? Are certain people or places portrayed in a more positive light? Is the artist trying to persuade, incite, explain to or deceive their audience? Why was this image created and for whom? Was the artist paid to do his work? Or bribed or threatened? What does that tell you? Where did it first appear: a newspaper, a diary, a letter or a propaganda flyer?

Evaluate the information. Look at the image, understand what is being portrayed, and identify the main focus and points of interest. Is there a caption or a title? Is it captured in a particular style? If yes, what associations can you make with this style? What does the scenery, the action, the people and the details tell you about this period in time? What is the overall theme? How similar is it to other images from the same period? If it is unusual for its period, why might the artist have chosen to be different? What assumptions does the author make? Is the author expecting any resulting action, feeling or opinion from the audience?

Remember... you are being tested on your ability to analyse sources. You won't be expected to know minor details of the architecture in a photo and you won't necessarily know the class and religion of an author. Use the information you are given in the source, recognize and detect in the source. Your own knowledge of the period of time should add to the source evidence you have before you in answering a question. 

Tips for Analysing Political Images 

Techniques used by cartoonists.

• Symbolism – using an object to stand for an idea.
• Caricature – exaggerating a physical feature or habit: big nose, bushy eyebrows, large ears, baldness.
• Captioning and labels – used for clarity and emphasis.
• Analogy – a comparison between two unlike things that share some characteristics.
• Irony – the difference between the way things are and the way things should be or the way things are expected to be.
• Juxtaposition – positioning people or objects near each other, side-by-side.
• Exaggeration – overstating or magnifying a problem.
• Cartoonists use simple objects, or symbols , to stand for larger concepts or ideas.
• After you identify the symbols in a cartoon, think about what the cartoonist intends each symbol to stand for.

Exaggeration

• Sometimes cartoonists overdo, or exaggerate , the physical characteristics of people or things in order to make a point.
• When you study a cartoon, look for any characteristics that seem overdone or overblown. (Facial characteristics and clothing are some of the most commonly exaggerated characteristics.) Then, try to decide what point the cartoonist was trying to make through exaggeration.
• Cartoonists often label objects or people to make it clear exactly what they stand for.
• Watch out for the different labels that appear in a cartoon, and ask yourself why the cartoonist chose to label that particular person or object. Does the label make the meaning of the object clearer?
• An analogy is a comparison between two unlike things that share some characteristics. By comparing a complex issue or situation with a more familiar one, cartoonists can help their readers see it in a different light.
• After you've studied a cartoon for a while, try to decide what the cartoon's main analogy is. What two situations does the cartoon compare? Once you understand the main analogy, decide if this comparison makes the cartoonist's point clearer to you.
• Irony is the difference between the ways things are and the way things should be, or the way things are expected to be. Cartoonists often use irony to express their opinion on an issue.
• When you look at a cartoon, see if you can find any irony in the situation the cartoon depicts. If you can, think about what point the irony might be intended to emphasize. Does the irony help the cartoonist express his or her opinion more effectively?

Once you've identified the persuasive techniques that the cartoonist used, ask yourself:

• What issue is this political cartoon about?
• What is the cartoonist's opinion on this issue?
• What other opinion can you imagine another person having on this issue?
• Did you find this cartoon persuasive? Why or why not?
• What other techniques could the cartoonist have used to make this cartoon more persuasive?

Examples of Symbols used in Political Cartoons

• Peace – dove, olive branch, victory sign
• United States –  Uncle Sam, flag, stars and stripes, shield
• Democrats   – donkey
• Republicans   – elephant
• Death – vulture, skeleton with shroud, skull and crossbones, Grim Reaper
• Love – heart, Cupid, Venus
• Money – dollar/pound bill or $/£ sign
• Heroes or good guys – wear white
• Villains or bad guys – wear black
• Communism  – star and sickle
• Communist  – person wearing a flat cap
• Victims/ oppressed  –   will appear smaller than aggressors
• Military action  – sword/weapons
• Friendship/peace or youth  –  f lowers

Steps in Analyzing a Political Cartoon

• Identify the characters, symbols and objects in the cartoon.
• Look for clues and details that would give further meaning.
• Identify the main idea of the cartoon by reading the captions and putting the message into their own words.
• Identify any bias the cartoonist might have.

Suggested Questions:

• What is the event or issue that inspired the cartoons?
• What background knowledge do you need to understand the message?
• Are there any real people in the cartoon?
• Did the artist use caricatures?
• Are these symbols in the cartoons?
• What is the cartoonist's opinion about the topic portrayed?
• Does the caption help you understand the message?
• Do you agree or disagree with the cartoonist's option? Why?

Use the above when looking at the following cartoon:

"The New Protector"

• Hitler acts as a worried parent or authority figure
• Hungary/Poland: bullies
• Czechoslovakia: defenceless child, needs Hitler
• Czech: dressed in a very German outfit.
• Czech: actually labelled Ruthenia
• Czechoslovakia was bullied by Germany (and Western powers) into ceding the Sudetenland because of the ethnic Germans in the area.
• Loss of the Sudetenland made Czechoslovakia extremely susceptible to German occupation.
• The bullies (Poland and Hungary) were soon after invaded by Germany. This is the satire/irony of the cartoon.

Have a look the following photograph:

Hyperinflation - Germany 1923

This is a photograph taken in 1923 of a man using German banknotes as wallpaper. There are also similar images of children using bundles of banknotes as building bricks.

How far does this photograph explain why Germany faced difficulties in 1923? Use the source and your knowledge to explain your answer. 

The source shows one difficulty, hyperinflation, facing Germany in 1923. The man using banknotes as wallpaper and German children playing with banknotes shows just how worthless the money was and so it has been reduced to a toy. The source indicates just how much money was in circulation and further underlines how worthless German money was, even in mass quantities. However, the source does not show the repercussions of hyperinflation on ordinary German citizens such as unemployment, loss of savings and general financial struggle.

In addition, this source does not explain two other reasons Germany faced difficulty in 1923: the Munich Putsch and the invasion of the Ruhr. The source does not indicate the difficulties of the invasion of the Ruhr, when the French and Belgians occupied the Ruhr, a major German industry centre, because the Germans had failed to make a reparations payment in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. German workers, supported by the Weimar government, went on strike but passive resistance only exacerbated the issue. As the source shows, the government's response was to print more banknotes which became virtually worthless. Besides the invasion of the Ruhr, the source also doesn't show the Munich Putsch, a third difficulty in Germany in 1923. When Hitler tried to take over the government by force, it was a clear act of violence and open opposition to the Weimar government and, quite obviously, the Munich Putsch and its leaders were never properly dealt with, something the source gives no indication of.

Therefore, the source shows a limited extent of the problems Germany faced in 1923, demonstrating the issue of hyperinflation without showing the impact on ordinary German lives, and with absolutely no indication of the invasion of the Ruhr or the Munich Putsch.

• Analysing portraits - Elizabeth I

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AS and A-level History

• Specification
• Planning resources
• Teaching resources
• Assessment resources

Introduction

• Specification at a glance
• 1A The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204
• 1B Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598 (A-level only)
• 1C The Tudors: England, 1485–1603
• 1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702
• 1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796 (A-level only)
• 1F Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885
• 1G Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964
• 1H Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964
• 1J The British Empire, c1857–1967
• 1K The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975
• 1L The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991
• 2A Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216
• 2B The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499
• 2C The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564 (A-level only)
• 2D Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570
• 2E The English Revolution, 1625–1660
• 2F The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715 (A-level only)
• 2G The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801
• 2H France in Revolution, 1774–1815 (A-level only)
• 2J America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877
• 2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only)
• 2L Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945
• 2M Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957
• 2N Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953
• 2O Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945
• 2P The Transformation of China, 1936–1997
• 2Q The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980
• 2R The Cold War, c1945–1991
• 2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007
• 2T The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000 (A-level only)

Component 3: Historical investigation (non-exam assessment) (A-level only)

• Scheme of assessment
• Non-exam assessment administration
• General administration

Purpose of the Historical investigation

The purpose of the Historical Investigation is to enable students to develop the skills, knowledge and historical understanding acquired through the study of the examined components of the specification.

Through undertaking the Historical Investigation students will develop an enhanced understanding of the nature and purpose of history as a discipline and how historians work.

• ask relevant and significant questions about the past and undertake research
• develop as independent learners and critical and reflective thinkers
• acquire an understanding of the nature of historical study
• organise and communicate their knowledge and understanding in a piece of sustained writing

Students will be required to submit a Historical Investigation based on a development or issue which has been subject to different historical interpretations. The Historical Investigation must:

• be independently researched and written by the student
• be presented in the form of a piece of extended writing of between 3500 and 4500 words in length, with a limit of 4500 words
• draw upon the student's investigation of sources (both primary and secondary) which relate to the development or issue chosen and the differing interpretations that have been placed on this
• place the issue to be investigated within a context of approximately 100 years
• be an issue which does not duplicate the content of Components 1 and 2.

The Historical Investigation must be supervised in accordance with the requirements of Section 5.1 of this specification.

The centre must complete a non-examined assessment (NEA) title approval form no later than 20 October in the year before the intended completion of the A-level course. The form must detail the title and date range of the proposed historical investigation for each student. The teacher must state which examined components will be studied. This form must be submitted to AQA for review. AQA will check that the proposed historical investigation title, when combined with the examined components, meets the following requirements:

• the proposed title is set in the context of approximately 100 years
• there is no overlap with the content of the options studied for the examined components
• all three components together cover a chronological range of at least 200 years

AQA will inform the centre if any historical investigation title does not meet the requirements and the focus for the non-examined assessment will need to be changed.

Failure to comply with these requirements will invalidate the student’s entry and no A-level result will be issued.

It is therefore vital that the teacher ensures that all requirements are met. If a student changes their historical investigation title, a new form should be completed.

On completion of the NEA, each student must also complete a Candidate Record Form (CRF) detailing the options studied for the examined components. The student must sign this form. The teacher must counter sign the CRF and this declaration will confirm that the historical investigation complies with the NEA title approval form and has adhered to all requirements.

The CRF must be sent to the moderator at the same time as marks for the NEA are submitted. The moderator will check that all course requirements have been met.

If the requirements have not been met, then the entry will be invalid and no result issued.

Copies of all the documentation, including the NEA proposal form and guidance on submission procedures are available from the AQA website at www.aqa.org.uk/history

Further guidance is available from the History subject team: [email protected]

Choice of issue and question to be studied

Students will be required to identify an issue or topic they wish to study and develop a question from this issue or topic as the focus of the Historical Investigation. The issue or topic to be studied and the question which stems from it must place the issue or topic in the context of approximately 100 years of history. The question could be based on British history or non-British history or could be a multi-country issue. However, it must not duplicate content studied in Components 1 and 2.

The Historical Investigation could identify an issue and a related question which traces a development over approximately 100 years. Alternatively, it could focus on a narrower issue, but place it the context of approximately 100 years.

• A broad issue and related question which analyses its development over approximately 100 years, for example: assessing how Puritanism changed during the Seventeenth Century; or assessing the extent to which the condition of the Russian peasant improved over the period 1850–1950
• A more specific issue in the context of approximately 100 years, for example: assessing the extent to which the Glorious Revolution successfully settled relations between Crown and Parliament in the context of the Stuart period; or assessing the extent to which Tsar Nicholas I changed the nature of Tsarist rule set against the period of Catherine the Great, Alexander and Nicholas I.

Issues which relate to international, national or local developments are appropriate, as are investigations which adopt specific historical perspectives such as cultural, social or technological.

However, in choosing the issue, students need to take the following into account:

• Is there a range of primary sources and primary material available to support individual investigation?
• Is the issue and related question one which has promoted debate and differences of interpretation amongst historians?

When framing the question to be answered, students must ensure that it enables them to demonstrate skills of historical analysis, evaluation and judgement, to appraise the views of historians and to evaluate primary sources.

Students are advised to use the type of question formulations seen in examinations such as the use of questions which begin ‘To what extent’ or a quotation in the form of a judgement followed by ‘Assess the validity of this view’.

The A-level subject content for history requires that students carry out a Historical Investigation that is independently researched. It is acceptable that students within a centre base their Historical Investigations around the same topic. However, the essential pre-requisite of non-exam assessment and the principal purpose of the Historical Investigation both require that the Historical Investigation is the work of individual students each developing a question to investigate and each evaluating individually, primary sources and historical interpretations. Where students in a centre are studying a similar topic or topics, there may be only a limited number of primary sources and, more so, a limited number of historical interpretations. However, the centre must ensure that students assess and evaluate sources individually, even where sources used are similar. It is not permitted for centres to direct students to the same sources as this fundamentally undermines the need for the Historical Investigation to be the work of an individual student.

Further guidance and exemplar material are available via the AQA website.

The skills and qualities to be demonstrated and assessed

The skills and qualities of all three Assessment Objectives must be demonstrated in the Historical Investigation. These are:

AO1: demonstrate, organise and communicate knowledge and understanding to analyse and evaluate the key features related to the periods studied, making substantiated judgements and exploring concepts, as relevant, of cause, consequence, change, continuity, similarity, difference and significance.

AO2: analyse and evaluate appropriate source material, primary and/or contemporary to the period, within the historical context.

AO3: analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, different ways in which aspects of the past have been interpreted.

The task required of students in responding to AO3 will be different from that in the examined components in that students will be expected to:

• show an understanding of the limitations placed on historians
• show an understanding of the significance of the time and/or context in which an historian writes
• compare and evaluate differing historical interpretations.

Students must base their analysis and evaluation of historical interpretations on the work of academic historians. It is not acceptable that the analysis and evaluation is based on textbook historians or course books.

Students are expected to use short quotations, paraphrase and/or footnotes to show the source of their interpretations. Lengthy extracts are not required.

In developing their response to a chosen issue to investigate, students are expected to consult a range of resources, which may include textbooks, course books and work of academic historians. Within the Historical Investigation, however, there must be explicit analysis and evaluation of two differing interpretations by academic historians where students analyse and evaluate the differences between the interpretations, show an awareness of the time and/or context of the interpretations and demonstrate an understanding of the limitations placed on historians.

The Historical Investigation must be written with the qualities of all three objectives integrated within the body of the work. For example, students will analyse, evaluate and reach judgements about the question chosen (AO1) and within this analysis and evaluation, appraise the views of historians (AO3) and analyse and evaluate primary source material and the extent to which it is useful in supporting arguments or conclusions (AO2).

Completion of the Historical investigation

The Investigation should be completed in approximately 3500-4500 words, excluding bibliography, footnotes, and appendices, with a limit of 4500 words. Work that exceeds this word limit will incur a five mark penalty. This penalty will be applied by AQA, and should not be applied by the teacher. A word count must be included on the Candidate Record Form.

The Investigation must contain an evaluation of three primary sources. At least two different types of primary source should be evaluated. These may be different types of written primary sources, for example: official publications; reports; diaries; speeches; letters; chronicles; observations of elite or ‘ordinary’ people (from the inside or from the outside). Other appropriate sources may include artefacts, archaeological or visual sources.

The Investigation must also demonstrate an understanding of differing interpretations presented by two academic historians about the issue.

Students are advised to avoid extensive, verbatim copying from sources and to ensure that the Investigation is written in their own words. Extensive verbatim copying can lead to malpractice.

The use of footnotes is strongly advised in order to demonstrate the range of evidence consulted and validate the bibliography. Additionally, footnotes alleviate concerns about plagiarism, as the source of comments, views, detail or others' judgements is acknowledged. Skill in the use of footnotes is also highly valued by Higher Education. A bibliography should be provided, listing the sources that have been consulted.

The role of the teacher

Teachers have a number of significant roles:

• to explain the requirements of the Historical Investigation to students
• to ensure that students do not duplicate content already covered in Components 1 and 2 and to ensure that the NEA title which forms the focus of the Historical Investigation is placed in the context of approximately 100 years
• to provide appropriate supervision of students, offering general guidance about the issue and question chosen for investigation
• to monitor the progress of the Investigation
• to submit to AQA, by 20 October in the year before intended A-level certification, an NEA title approval form. This form will require that options from Components 1 and 2 are identified, along with the title of Component 3 and its chronological range for each student
• to sign a declaration that the Investigation is the work of the individual working independently
• to inform AQA where there are concerns about malpractice, such as plagiarism or the submission of work that is not that of the student

Assessment and moderation

The Historical Investigation will be marked by centres and moderated by AQA. It is most important that centres establish rigorous internal standardisation to ensure that the rank order of the students is fair, accurate and appropriate. This is particularly important in larger centres where more than one teacher has prepared and assessed students.

The work of students is to be assessed by a levels of response mark scheme which addresses each of the following assessment objectives, with the weighting as indicated:

Mark Scheme to be used when assessing the Historical investigation

AO1: 20 marks

Demonstrate, organise and communicate knowledge and understanding to analyse and evaluate the key features related to the periods studied, making substantiated judgements and exploring concepts, as relevant, of cause, consequence, change, continuity, similarity and significance.

NOTE: An Historical investigation which fails to show an understanding of change and continuity within the context of approximately 100 years cannot be placed above Level 2 in AO1 (maximum 8 marks)

Level 5: 17–20 The response demonstrates a very good understanding of change and continuity within the context of approximately 100 years and meets the full demands of the chosen question. It is very well organised and effectively delivered. The supporting information is well-selected, specific and precise. It shows a very good understanding of key features, issues and concepts. The answer is fully analytical with a balanced argument and well-substantiated judgement.

Level 4: 13–16 The response demonstrates a good understanding of change and continuity within the context of approximately 100 years and meets the demands of the chosen question. It is well-organised and effectively communicated. There is a range of clear and specific supporting information, showing a good understanding of key features and issues, together with some conceptual awareness. The response is predominantly analytical in style with a range of direct comment relating to the question. The response is well-balanced with some judgement, which may, however, be only partially substantiated.

Level 3: 9–12 The response demonstrates an understanding of change and continuity within the context of approximately 100 years and shows an understanding of the chosen question. It provides a range of largely accurate information which shows an awareness of some of the key issues. This information may, however, be unspecific or lack precision of detail in parts. The response is effectively organised and shows adequate communication skills. There is a good deal of comment in relation to the chosen question, although some of this may be generalised. The response demonstrates some analytical qualities and balance of argument.

Level 2: 5–8 The response demonstrates some understanding of change and continuity but may have limitations in its coverage of a context of approximately 100 years. The response may be either descriptive or partial, showing some awareness of the chosen question but a failure to grasp its full demands. There is some attempt to convey material in an organised way although communication skills may be limited. The response contains some appropriate information and shows an understanding of some aspects of the investigation, but there may be some inaccuracy and irrelevance. There is some comment in relation to the question but comments may be unsupported and generalised.

Level 1: 1–4 The response demonstrates limited understanding of change and continuity and makes little reference to a context of approximately 100 years. The chosen question has been imperfectly understood and the response shows limited organisational and communication skills. The information conveyed is extremely limited in scope and parts may be irrelevant. There may be some unsupported, vague or generalised comment.

AO2: 10 marks

Analyse and evaluate appropriate source material, primary and/or contemporary to the period, within the historical context.

Level 5: 9–10 Provides a range of relevant and well-supported comments on the value of three sources of two or more different types used in the investigation to provide a balanced and convincing judgement on their merits in relation to the topic under investigation.

Level 4: 7–8 Provides relevant and well-supported comments on the value of three sources of two or more different types used in the investigation, to produce a balanced assessment on their merits in relation to the topic under investigation. Judgements may, however, be partial or limited in substantiation.

Level 3: 5–6 Provides some relevant comment on the value of three sources of at least two different types used in the Investigation. Some of the commentary is, however, of limited scope, not fully convincing or has only limited direction to the topic under investigation.

Level 2: 3–4 Either: provides some comment on the value of more than one source used in the investigation but may not address three sources in equal measure or refers to sources of the same 'type'. Or: provides some comment on the value of three sources of at least two types used in the investigation but the comment is excessively generalised and not well directed to the topic of the investigation.

Level 1: 1–2 Provides some comment on the value of at least one source used in the Investigation but the response is very limited and may be partially inaccurate. Comments are likely to be unsupported, vague or generalised.

In commenting and making judgements on the value of the sources, students will be expected to apply their own contextual knowledge and perspectives of time and place in order to assess the value and limitations of their sources as evidence. They will be expected to comment on, as appropriate to the investigation and chosen sources:

• the differing perspectives of the sources chosen
• the social, political, intellectual, religious and/or economic contexts in which the sources were written
• the credibility, authority, authenticity, consistency and comprehensiveness of the sources
• the bias, distortion or propagandist elements found in the sources

AO3: 10 marks

Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, different ways in which aspects of the past have been interpreted.

Level 5: 9–10 Shows a very good understanding of the differing historical interpretations raised by the question. There is a strong, well-substantiated and convincing evaluation of two interpretations with reference to the time, context and/or limitations placed on the historians.

Level 4: 7–8 Shows a good understanding of the differing historical interpretations raised by the question. There is some good evaluation of the two interpretations with reference to the time, context and/or limitations placed on historians, although not all comments are substantiated or convincing.

Level 3: 5–6 Shows an understanding of differing historical interpretations raised by the question. There is some supported comment on two interpretations with reference to the time, context and/or limitations placed on historians, but the comments are limited in depth and/or substantiation.

Level 2: 3–4 Shows some understanding of the differing historical interpretations raised by the question. They may refer to the time, context and/or limitations placed on the historians in an unconvincing way.

Level 1: 1–2 Shows limited understanding of the differing historical interpretations raised by the question. Comment on historical interpretations is generalised and vague.

In showing an understanding of historical interpretations and evaluating historical interpretations, students will be expected to apply their own contextual knowledge.

They will be expected, as appropriate to the investigation:

• to show an understanding of the limitations placed on historians
• to show an understanding of the significance of the time and/or context in which an historian writes
• to compare and evaluate differing historical interpretations.

NOTE: The Investigation has a limit of 4500 words. Work that exceeds this word limit will incur a 5 mark penalty. This deduction will be applied by AQA, and should not be applied by the teacher.

History is a dynamic, contested, evidence-based discipline that involves an exciting engagement with the past.

History is an exploratory subject that fosters a sense of inquiry. It is also an interpretive discipline, allowing opportunity for engagement with multiple perspectives and opinions. Studying history develops an understanding of the past, which leads to a deeper understanding of the nature of humans and of the world today.

The Diploma Programme (DP) history course is a world history course based on a comparative, multi-perspective approach to history and focused around key historical concepts such as change, causation and significance. It involves the study of a variety of types of history, including political, economic, social and cultural, encouraging students to think historically and to develop historical skills. In this way, the course involves a challenging and demanding critical exploration of the past.

The DP history course requires students to study and compare examples from different regions of the world, helping to foster international mindedness. Teachers have a great deal of freedom to choose relevant examples to explore with their students, helping to ensure that the course meets their students’ needs and interests regardless of their location or context.

History is available at both Standard Level (SL) and Higher Level (HL).

Syllabus outline

Learn more about history in a DP workshop for teachers . 

History subject brief

Subject briefs are short two-page documents providing an outline of the course. Read the standard level (SL) and/or higher level (HL) subject brief below. 

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The Harvard History department will resurrect an introductory undergraduate History course this fall after almost two decades.

The department previously offered a year-long European history survey course that was mandatory for concentrators, but discontinued the class in 2006. Since then, there has not been an introductory history course specifically designed for new or prospective concentrators.

Though the new course — History 10: “A History of the Present,” co-taught by professors Jill Lepore, Maya R. Jasanoff ’96, and Kirsten A. Weld — shares the same course number as the previous iteration, it boasts a completely new format, methodology, and goal.

“The idea that we would require everyone to do a European history survey just seems like a thing very much of an earlier generation,” Jasanoff said in an interview. “So that went away.”

History Assistant Director of Undergraduate Studies Carla Heelan wrote in a statement that the reintroduction of History 10 became a top priority following an annual internal review which found that the department needed a new gateway course.

Each professor will focus on a particular theme in the course. Weld, a historian of Latin America, will teach memory; Jasanoff, an expert in the British Empire, will teach about ancestry and genealogy; and Lepore, who specializes in American history, will teach about rights.

Heelan wrote that the department wanted a class that could appeal to both concentrators and non-concentrators.

She added that the course focuses on teaching students how to think like a historian — a trait that requires a “great deal of empathy” and is “an increasingly valuable tool” across subjects and fields.

In preparation for the course, Jasanoff said that she, Weld, and Lepore looked at other universities around the country for inspiration, but felt that other introductory history courses too closely resembled high school history classes.

Their course, she said, takes a different approach.

To create dynamism and interactivity in the classroom, Jasanoff said, Monday lectures will feature a “question box” where the professors will answer student-submitted questions. On Wednesdays, they will “riff” on recent headlines for a portion of the lecture, she added.

At the end of each course module, Jasanoff added, two of the professors will comment on how they might approach the subject that the third professor taught, and students will be invited to share any approaches they came up with as well.

“One of the fundamental things about history as well is there’s no right answer, and there’s no single answer,” Jasanoff said.

There will be no exams, and the assignments will consist of essays culminating in an end-of-semester portfolio. With these assignments, Jasanoff said “we want to teach students what it is to think historically.”

“I want it to be thought provoking. I want it to be engaging,” Jasanoff added. “I want it to raise more questions than answers. I want it to be dynamic.”

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Baltimore bridge collapse wasn't first major accident for giant container ship Dali

Propulsion failed on the cargo ship that struck the Francis Key Bridge in Baltimore early Tuesday as it was leaving port, causing it to collapse into the frigid Patapsco River. Its crew warned Maryland officials of a possible collision because they had lost control.

“The vessel notified MD Department of Transportation (MDOT) that they had lost control of the vessel” and a collision with the bridge “was possible,” according to an unclassified Department of Homeland Security report. “The vessel struck the bridge causing a complete collapse.”

An official speaking on condition of anonymity confirmed to USA TODAY that the DHS’ Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency is working with federal, state, and local officials “to understand the potential impacts of this morning’s collapse of the Francis Scott Key Bridge.”

Clay Diamond, executive director, American Pilots’ Association, told USA TODAY power issues are not unusual on cargo ships, which are so large they cannot easily course correct.

“It’s likely that virtually every pilot in the country has experienced a power loss of some kind (but) it generally is momentary,” Diamond said. “This was a complete blackout of all the power on the ship, so that’s unusual. Of course this happened at the worst possible location.” 

The ship in Tuesday's crash, Dali, was involved in at least one prior accident when it collided with a shipping pier in Belgium.

That 2016 incident occurred as the Dali was leaving port in Antwerp and struck a loading pier made of stone, causing damage to the ship’s stern, according to VesselFinder.com, a site that tracks ships across the world. An investigation determined a mistake made by the ship’s master and pilot was to blame.

No one was injured in that crash, although the ship required repair and a full inspection before being returned to service. The pier – or berth – was also seriously damaged and had to be closed.

VesselFinder reports that the Dali was chartered by Maersk, the same company chartering it during the Baltimore harbor incident.

The 9-year-old container ship had passed previous inspections during its time at sea, but during one such inspection in June at the Port of San Antonio in Chile, officials discovered a deficiency with its "propulsion and auxiliary machinery (gauges, thermometers, etc)," according to the Tokyo MOU, an intergovernmental maritime authority in the Asia-Pacific region.

The report provided no other information about the deficiency except to note that it was not serious enough to remove the ship from service.

Follow here for live updates: Baltimore's Key Bridge collapses after ship strike; construction crew missing: Live Updates

Why did Dali crash into the Baltimore bridge?

Officials said Tuesday they’re investigating the collision, including whether systems on board lost electricity early Tuesday morning, which could be related to mechanical failure, according to a U.S. official who was not authorized to speak publicly.

Accidents at sea, known as marine casualties, are not uncommon, the source told USA TODAY. However, “allisions,” in which a moving object strikes a stationary one with catastrophic results, are far less common. The investigation of the power loss aboard the Dali, a Singapore-flagged vessel, will be a high priority.

In a video posted to social media, lights on the Dali shut off, then turned back on, then shut off again before the ship struck a support pier on the bridge.

Numerous cargo and cruise ships have lost power over the years.

The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea requires all international vessels to have two independent sources of electricity, both of which should be able to maintain the ship's seaworthiness on their own, according to a safety study about power failures on ships , citing the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea.

The Dali's emergency generator was likely responsible for the lights coming back on after the initial blackout, Diamond said.

“There was still some steerage left when they initially lost power,” he said. “We’ve been told the ship never recovered propulsion. The emergency generator is a diesel itself – so if you light off the generator, that’s also going to put off a puff of exhaust.”

Under maritime law, all foreign flagged vessels must be piloted into state ports by a state licensed pilot so the Dali's pilot is licensed by Association of Maryland Pilots .

Diamond described the incident based on information from the Maryland agency that licensed the pilot aboard the ship. His organization represents that group and all other state piloting agencies in the US.

“The pilot was directing navigation of the ship as it happened,” he said. “He asked the captain to get the engines back online. They weren’t able to do that, so the pilot took all the action he could. He tried to steer, to keep the ship in the channel. He also dropped the ship’s anchor to slow the ship and guide the direction.

“Neither one was enough. The ship never did regain its engine power.”

How big is the Dali ship?

The Dali is a 984-foot container vessel built in 2015 by Hyundai Heavy Industries in South Korea. With a cruising speed of about 22 knots – roughly 25 mph. It has traveled the world carrying goods from port to port.

The ship, constructed of high-strength steel, has one engine and one propeller, according to MarineTraffic.com.

The Dali arrived in Baltimore on Sunday from the Port of Norfolk in Virginia. Before that, it had been in New York and came through the Panama Canal.

It remains at the scene of the collapse as authorities investigate.

Who owns and operates the Dali?

It is owned by the Singapore-based Grace Ocean Pte Ltd but managed by Synergy Marine Group, also based in Singapore. It was carrying Maersk customers’ cargo, according to a statement from the shipping company.

“We are deeply concerned by this incident and are closely monitoring the situation,” Maersk said in the statement. 

Synergy, which describes itself as a leading ship manager with more than 600 vessels under its guidance, issued a statement on its website acknowledging the incident and reporting no injuries among its crew and no pollution in the water. There were two pilots on board and 22 crew members in all, according to Synergy, all of them from India.

USA TODAY reached out to Synergy on Tuesday, but the company did not immediately return a call seeking comment.

Contributing: Josh Susong

What we know about the container ship that crashed into the Baltimore bridge

• The ship that crashed into the Francis Scott Key Bridge on Tuesday was the Singapore-flagged Dali.
• The container ship had been chartered by Maersk, the Danish shipping company. 
• Two people were recovered from the water but six remain missing, authorities said.

A container ship crashed into a major bridge in Baltimore early Tuesday, causing its collapse into the Patapsco River.

A livestream showed vehicles traveling on the Francis Scott Key Bridge just moments before the impact at 1:28 a.m. ET.

Baltimore first responders called the situation a "developing mass casualty event" and a "dire emergency," per The Associated Press.

James Wallace, chief of the Baltimore Fire Department, said in a press conference that two people had been recovered from the water.

One was uninjured, but the other was transported to a local trauma center in a "very serious condition."

Wallace said up to 20 people were thought to have fallen into the river and some six people were still missing.

Richard Worley, Baltimore's police chief, said there was "no indication" the collision was purposeful or an act of terrorism.

Wes Moore, the governor of Maryland, declared a state of emergency around 6 a.m. ET. He said his office was in close communication with Pete Buttigieg, the transportation secretary.

"We are working with an interagency team to quickly deploy federal resources from the Biden Administration," Moore added.

Understanding why the bridge collapsed could have implications for safety, in both the shipping and civil engineering sectors.

The container ship is the Singapore-flagged Dali, which is about 984 feet long, and 157 feet wide, per a listing on VesselFinder.

An unclassified Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency report said that the ship "lost propulsion" as it was leaving port, ABC News reported.

The crew notified officials that they had lost control and warned of a possible collision, the report said, per the outlet.

The Dali's owner is listed as Grace Ocean, a Singapore-based firm, and its manager is listed as Synergy Marine, which is also headquartered in Singapore.

Shipping news outlet TradeWinds reported that Grace Ocean confirmed the Dali was involved in the collapse, but is still determining what caused the crash.

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Staff for Grace Ocean declined to comment on the collision when contacted by Business Insider.

"All crew members, including the two pilots have been accounted for and there are no reports of any injuries. There has also been no pollution," Synergy Marine said in a statement.

The company did not respond to a request for further comment from BI.

'Horrified'

Maersk chartered the Dali, with a schedule for the ship on its website.

"We are horrified by what has happened in Baltimore, and our thoughts are with all of those affected," the Danish shipping company said in a statement.

Maersk added: "We are closely following the investigations conducted by authorities and Synergy, and we will do our utmost to keep our customers informed."

Per ship tracking data, the Dali left Baltimore on its way to Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka, at around 1 a.m., about half an hour before the crash.

The Port of Baltimore is thought to be the largest in the US for roll-on/roll-off ships carrying trucks and trailers.

Barbara Rossi, associate professor of engineering science at the University of Oxford, told BI the force of the impact on one of the bridge's supporting structures "must have been immense" to lead to the collapse.

Dr Salvatore Mercogliano, a shipping analyst and maritime historian at Campbell University, told BI: "It appears Dali left the channel while outbound. She would have been under the control of the ship's master with a Chesapeake Bay pilot onboard to advise the master.

"The deviation out of the channel is probably due to a mechanical issue as the ship had just departed the port, but you cannot rule out human error as that was the cause of the Ever Forward in 2022 just outside of Baltimore."

He was referring to the incident two years ago when the container ship became grounded for a month in Chesapeake Bay after loading up cargo at the Port of Baltimore.

The US Coast Guard found the incident was caused by pilot error, cellphone use, and "inadequate bridge resource management."

Claudia Norrgren, from the maritime research firm Veson Nautical, told BI: "The industry bodies who are here to protect against incidents like this, such as the vessel's flag state, classification society, and regulatory bodies, will step in and conduct a formal investigation into the incident. Until then, it'll be very hard for anyone to truly know what happened on board."

This may not have been the first time the Dali hit a structure.

In 2016, maritime blogs such as Shipwreck Log and ship-tracking site VesselFinder posted videos of what appears to be the stern of the same, blue-hulled container vessel scraping against a quay in Antwerp.

A representative for the Port of Antwerp told BI the Dali did collide with a quay there eight years ago but couldn't "give any information about the cause of the accident."

The Dali is listed as being built in 2015 by Hyundai Heavy Industries in South Korea.

Watch: The shipwreck at the center of a battle between China and the Philippines

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What can we learn from history about timing of future fed rate cuts.

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What Can We Learn From History About Timing Of Future Fed Rate Cuts?

At the end of 2023, many economists and bankers were predicting that the Federal Reserve (Fed) would cut rates several times over the course of 2024, leading to lower mortgage and credit card card rates, and overall, greater economic activity.

The Fed itself, according to its “dot plot” (a chart that records each Fed official’s projection for the central bank’s key short-term interest rate), projected three quarter-percentage point cuts by the end of 2024. Yet, with the first quarter coming to an end this month, the federal funds rate still remains locked in between 5.25% and 5.5%. While the stock market rally indicates that investors believe three or more rate cuts are still on the table for this year, history suggests that may not be the case.

Facade of the Marriner S Eccles building of the United States Federal Reserve, on a bright and sunny ... [+] day in Washington, DC, United States, July 24, 2017. (Photo by Smith Collection/Gado/Getty Images)

• Interest rates are not historically high. While the current rates are the highest they have been in twenty years, they are nowhere near historical highs. In June of 1981, the federal funds rate reached almost 20% — a record. At the beginning of the 1990s, rates hovered at 8% and were just under 7% in June of 2000. While the current federal funds rate is just above 5%, that number is relatively modest compared to prior decades.
• The Federal Reserve often leaves rates unchanged for long periods of time. The Federal Reserve has kept its target rate the same since raising it in July 2023 — eight months and counting. But the central bank has kept rates steady for longer in the past. Beginning in 1992, the Board of Governors of the Fed held interest rates at 3% until February 1994 — over 2 years — one of the longest periods in recent history. And as recently as June 2006 to September 2007 (over a year), the Fed held rates steady at 5.2%, close to their current level now.
• Rate cuts typically follow a recession or significant decline in economic activity. Since 1955, the Federal Reserve has voted to cut rates significantly (consecutive rate cuts equalling 1% or more) 17 times. Of those, 12 occurred during an economic downturn or crisis. The other 5 could be considered “preventative” (the Fed attempting to stave off a recession). As of its March meeting, Fed Chair Jerome Powell indicated that the economy does not face any immediate risks of a recession. Furthermore, unemployment remains at very low levels (below 4%) and growth has remained strong. All these factors lean towards the Fed staying the course, not cutting rates or doing so significantly.
• It’s an election year. Many expect another tight presidential election this fall. The Fed is arguably the most powerful “independent agency” and does not like to be perceived as politically motivated. The closer we get to November 5 (and barring any jarring economic news), the less inclined the central bank will be to cut rates significantly to avoid accusations of partisanship and election intervention.

If history is any guide (and barring any major economic downturn), the possibility of several rate cuts before the end of 2024 seems far from certain. But given expectations on Wall Street, anything less could unnerve the financial markets and play havoc with the real estate sector. That possibility might lead the Fed to preemptively cut 25 basis points from the current federal funds rate, even if current economic conditions remain unchanged.

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How Baltimore’s Key Bridge collapsed – a visual guide

Photos and maps show how Francis Scott Key Bridge snapped after a vessel collision

• Baltimore bridge collapse live updates

What happened in Baltimore on Tuesday morning?

A major bridge in Baltimore in the US state of Maryland collapsed after a container ship collided with it early on Tuesday, sending a number of vehicles into the chilly waters.

Rescuers pulled out two survivors, and were searching for more in the Patapsco River after reports that a 948ft Singapore-flagged container ship leaving port on its way to Sri Lanka had crashed into the 1.6-mile (2.57-km) Francis Scott Key Bridge, named after the author of the American national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner.

The state’s governor has declared a state of emergency to get federal resources quickly deployed. Joe Biden said search and rescue efforts were a “top priority” and that all indications were that the episode was a “terrible accident”.

What do we know about casualties?

Six people remain unaccounted for after the Francis Scott Key Bridge collapse, authorities said – all believed to be construction workers who had been repairing potholes on the bridge. Two people have been rescued so far, with one of them in serious condition.

The temperature in the river was about 47F (8C) in the early hours of Tuesday, according to a buoy that collects data for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Several vehicles were on the bridge at the time of the crash, including one the size of a tractor-trailer.

What do we know about the ship and the cause of the collision?

Ship-tracking data showed the Dali – a 290-metre (948ft) cargo ship with a capacity of 10,000 containers – was at the location of the bridge where the accident occurred at about 1.30am ET (0530 GMT) on Tuesday. The vessel had left Baltimore at 1am and was headed for the Sri Lankan capital, Colombo, according to the maritime data platform MarineTraffic.

Maryland’s governor, Wes Moore, said a preliminary investigation into the Key Bridge collapse “points to an accident”, and the FBI in Baltimore said the collapse of the bridge was not a result of terrorism.

The ship’s crew reported losing power and issued a mayday call moments before the crash took down the bridge, enabling authorities to limit vehicle traffic on the span, Moore said.

Video posted on social media showed the vessel ploughing into one of the bridge’s central supports in darkness, causing much of the bridge to give way as a number of vehicles fell into the Patapsco River below and the ship caught fire. Synergy Marine Group, the manager of the Dali, confirmed it had collided with one of the pillars of the bridge.

The same vessel was also involved in a collision while leaving the port of Antwerp, Belgium, in 2016.

How important is Baltimore port and what will the impact be on trade there?

The bridge leads to the Baltimore port, one of the busiest in the country and an important hub for shipping on the US east coast, especially in transporting road vehicles.

It is also the largest US port by volume for handling farm and construction machinery, as well as agricultural products, and a cruise terminal, according to Reuters.

Port traffic was suspended until further notice following the bridge collapse, and there will probably be grave consequences on commerce in the region.

The bridge’s collapse has revived scrutiny not just of this specific structure but also the overall health of bridges across the US, many of which are considered to be in poor condition. Maryland’s governor has said the bridge was “fully up to code”, while some experts have pointed out that the span, completed in 1977, was conceived before an age of supersized container ships.

What are the implications for road transport in Maryland?

With four lanes, the bridge is part of Interstate 695 and serves as a major route along the ring road that encircles the city. The bridge carries 11.3m vehicles a year, according to the Maryland transportation authority.

Authorities have called the incident a “major traffic alert” and closed all lanes in both directions of the I-695 Francis Scott Key Bridge. Highway signs as far south as Virginia have warned drivers of delays.

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What we know about Baltimore’s Francis Scott Key Bridge collapse

The Francis Scott Key Bridge in Baltimore collapsed early Tuesday after being hit by a cargo ship, with large parts of the bridge falling into the Patapsco River.

At least eight people fell into the water, members of a construction crew working on the bridge at the time, officials said. Two were rescued, one uninjured and one in serious condition, and two bodies were recovered on Wednesday. The remaining four are presumed dead. The workers are believed to be the only victims in the disaster.

Here’s what we know so far.

Baltimore bridge collapse

How it happened: Baltimore’s Francis Scott Key Bridge collapsed after being hit by a cargo ship . The container ship lost power shortly before hitting the bridge, Maryland Gov. Wes Moore (D) said. Video shows the bridge collapse in under 40 seconds.

Victims: Divers have recovered the bodies of two construction workers , officials said. They were fathers, husbands and hard workers . A mayday call from the ship prompted first responders to shut down traffic on the four-lane bridge, saving lives.

Economic impact: The collapse of the bridge severed ocean links to the Port of Baltimore, which provides about 20,000 jobs to the area . See how the collapse will disrupt the supply of cars, coal and other goods .

Rebuilding: The bridge, built in the 1970s , will probably take years and cost hundreds of millions of dollars to rebuild , experts said.

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