malcolm x research paper topics

May 19, 1925 to February 21, 1965

As the nation’s most visible proponent of  Black Nationalism , Malcolm X’s challenge to the multiracial, nonviolent approach of Martin Luther King, Jr., helped set the tone for the ideological and tactical conflicts that took place within the black freedom struggle of the 1960s. Given Malcolm X’s abrasive criticism of King and his advocacy of racial separatism, it is not surprising that King rejected the occasional overtures from one of his fiercest critics. However, after Malcolm’s assassination in 1965, King wrote to his widow, Betty Shabazz: “While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem, I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had the great ability to put his finger on the existence and root of the problem” (King, 26 February 1965).

Malcolm Little was born to Louise and Earl Little in Omaha, Nebraska, on 19 May 1925. His father died when he was six years old—the victim, he believed, of a white racist group. Following his father’s death, Malcolm recalled, “Some kind of psychological deterioration hit our family circle and began to eat away our pride” (Malcolm X,  Autobiography , 14). By the end of the 1930s Malcolm’s mother had been institutionalized, and he became a ward of the court to be raised by white guardians in various reform schools and foster homes.

Malcolm joined the Nation of Islam (NOI) while serving a prison term in Massachusetts on burglary charges. Shortly after his release in 1952, he moved to Chicago and became a minister under Elijah Muhammad, abandoning his “slave name,” and becoming Malcolm X (Malcolm X, “We Are Rising”). By the late 1950s, Malcolm had become the NOI’s leading spokesman.

Although Malcolm rejected King’s message of  nonviolence , he respected King as a “fellow-leader of our people,” sending King NOI articles as early as 1957 and inviting him to participate in mass meetings throughout the early 1960s ( Papers  5:491 ). Although Malcolm was particularly interested that King hear Elijah Muhammad’s message, he also sought to create an open forum for black leaders to explore solutions to the “race problem” (Malcolm X, 31 July 1963). King never accepted Malcolm’s invitations, however, leaving communication with him to his secretary, Maude  Ballou .

Despite his repeated overtures to King, Malcolm did not refrain from criticizing him publicly. “The only revolution in which the goal is loving your enemy,” Malcolm told an audience in 1963, “is the Negro revolution … That’s no revolution” (Malcolm X, “Message to the Grassroots,” 9).

In the spring of 1964, Malcolm broke away from the NOI and made a pilgrimage to Mecca. When he returned he began following a course that paralleled King’s—combining religious leadership and political action. Although King told reporters that Malcolm’s separation from Elijah Muhammad “holds no particular significance to the present civil rights efforts,” he argued that if “tangible gains are not made soon all across the country, we must honestly face the prospect that some Negroes might be tempted to accept some oblique path [such] as that Malcolm X proposes” (King, 16 March 1964).

Ten days later, during the Senate debate on the  Civil Rights Act of 1964 , King and Malcolm met for the first and only time. After holding a press conference in the Capitol on the proceedings, King encountered Malcolm in the hallway. As King recalled in a 3 April letter, “At the end of the conference, he came and spoke to me, and I readily shook his hand.” King defended shaking the hand of an adversary by saying that “my position is that of kindness and reconciliation” (King, 3 April 1965).

Malcolm’s primary concern during the remainder of 1964 was to establish ties with the black activists he saw as more militant than King. He met with a number of workers from the  Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee  (SNCC), including SNCC chairman John  Lewis  and Mississippi organizer Fannie Lou  Hamer . Malcolm saw his newly created Organization of African American Unity (OAAU) as a potential source of ideological guidance for the more militant veterans of the southern civil rights movement. At the same time, he looked to the southern struggle for inspiration in his effort to revitalize the Black Nationalist movement.

In January 1965, he revealed in an interview that the OAAU would “support fully and without compromise any action by any group that is designed to get meaningful immediate results” (Malcolm X,  Two Speeches , 31). Malcolm urged civil rights groups to unite, telling a gathering at a symposium sponsored by the  Congress of Racial Equality : “We want freedom now, but we’re not going to get it saying ‘We Shall Overcome.’ We've got to fight to overcome” (Malcolm X,  Malcolm X Speaks , 38).

In early 1965, while King was jailed in Selma, Alabama, Malcolm traveled to Selma, where he had a private meeting with Coretta Scott  King . “I didn’t come to Selma to make his job difficult,” he assured Coretta. “I really did come thinking that I could make it easier. If the white people realize what the alternative is, perhaps they will be more willing to hear Dr. King” (Scott King, 256).

On 21 February 1965, just a few weeks after his visit to Selma, Malcolm X was assassinated. King called his murder a “great tragedy” and expressed his regret that it “occurred at a time when Malcolm X was … moving toward a greater understanding of the nonviolent movement” (King, 24 February 1965). He asserted that Malcolm’s murder deprived “the world of a potentially great leader” (King, “The Nightmare of Violence”). Malcolm’s death signaled the beginning of bitter battles involving proponents of the ideological alternatives the two men represented.

Maude L. Ballou to Malcolm X, 1 February 1957, in  Papers  4:117 .

Goldman, Death and Life of Malcolm X , 1973.

King, “The Nightmare of Violence,”  New York Amsterdam News , 13 March 1965.

King, Press conference on Malcolm X’s assassination, 24 February 1965,  MLKJP-GAMK .

King, Statement on Malcolm X’s break with Elijah Muhammad, 16 March 1964,  MCMLK-RWWL .

King to Abram Eisenman, 3 April 1964,  MLKJP-GAMK .

King to Shabazz, 26 February 1965,  MCMLK-RWWL .

(Scott) King,  My Life with Martin Luther King, Jr. , 1969.

Malcolm X, Interview by Harry Ring over Station WBAI-FM in New York, in  Two Speeches by Malcolm X , 1965.

Malcolm X, “Message to the Grassroots,”  in Malcolm X Speaks , ed. George Breitman, 1965.

Malcolm X, “We Are Rising From the Dead Since We Heard Messenger Muhammad Speak,”  Pittsburgh Courier , 15 December 1956.

Malcolm X to King, 21 July 1960, in  Papers  5:491 .

Malcolm X to King, 31 July 1963, 

Malcolm X with Haley,  Autobiography of Malcolm X , 1965.

Historical Material

Maude L. Ballou to Malcolm X

From Malcolm X

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: December 18, 2023 | Original: October 29, 2009

Malcolm X was a minister, a leader in the civil rights movement and a supporter of Black nationalism. He urged his fellow Black Americans to protect themselves against white aggression “by any means necessary,” a stance that often put him at odds with the nonviolent teachings of Martin Luther King, Jr. His charisma and oratory skills helped him achieve national prominence in the Nation of Islam, a belief system that merged Islam with Black nationalism. After Malcolm X’s assassination in 1965, his bestselling book, The Autobiography of Malcolm X, popularized his ideas and inspired the Black Power movement.

Malcolm X: Early Life

Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little in 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska . His father was a Baptist preacher and follower of Marcus Garvey . The family moved to Lansing, Michigan after the Ku Klux Klan made threats against them, though the family continued to face threats in their new home.

In 1931, Malcolm’s father was allegedly murdered by a white supremacist group called the Black Legionaries, though the authorities claimed his death was an accident. Mrs. Little and her children were denied her husband’s death benefits.

Did you know? In 1964, Malcolm X made a pilgrimage to Mecca and changed his name to el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz.

At age 6, the future Malcolm X entered a foster home and his mother suffered a nervous breakdown. Though highly intelligent and a good student, he dropped out of school following eighth grade. He began wearing zoot suits , dealing drugs and earned the nickname “Detroit Red.” At 21, he went to prison for larceny.

Nation of Islam

It was in jail that Malcolm X first encountered the teachings of Elijah Muhammad , head of the Lost-Found Nation of Islam, or Black Muslims, a Black nationalist group that identified white people as the devil. Soon after, Malcolm adopted the last name “X” to represent his rejection of his “slave” name.

Malcolm was released from prison after serving six years and went on to become the minister of Mosque No. 7 in Harlem, where his oratory skills and sermons in favor of self-defense gained the organization new admirers: The Nation of Islam grew from 400 members in 1952 to 40,000 members by 1960. His admirers included celebrities like Muhammad Ali , who became close friends with Malcolm X before the two had a falling out.

His advocacy of achieving “by any means necessary” put him at the opposite end of the spectrum from Martin Luther King, Jr. ’s nonviolent approach to gaining ground in the growing civil rights movement .

After King’s “ I Have a Dream ” speech at the 1963 March on Washington, Malcolm remarked: “Who ever heard of angry revolutionists all harmonizing ‘We Shall Overcome’ … while tripping and swaying along arm-in-arm with the very people they were supposed to be angrily revolting against?”

Malcolm X’s politics also earned him the ire of the FBI , who conducted surveillance of him from his time in prison until his death. J. Edgar Hoover even told the agency’s New York office to “do something about Malcolm X.”

In 1958, Malcolm X married Betty Shabazz (née Betty Sanders), a native of Detroit, Michigan , after a lengthy courtship.

The couple had six children, all daughters: Attallah, Qubilah, Ilyasah, Gamilah Lumumba and twins Malikah and Malaak. Several of Malcolm X’s children have been outspoken activists in the civil rights movement and other causes.

Organization of Afro-American Unity

Disenchanted with corruption in the Nation of Islam, which suspended him in December 1963 after he claimed that President John F. Kennedy’s assassination was “the chickens coming home to roost,” Malcolm X left the organization for good.

A few months later, he traveled to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, where he underwent a spiritual transformation: "The true brotherhood I had seen had influenced me to recognize that anger can blind human vision," he wrote. Malcolm X returned to America with a new name: El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz.

In June 1964, he founded the Organization of Afro-American Unity, which identified racism, and not the white race, as the enemy of justice. His more moderate philosophy became influential, especially among members of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee ( SNCC ).

Malcolm X Assassination

On February 21, 1965, Malcolm X was assassinated by three gunmen at an Organization of Afro-American Unity rally in the Audubon Ballroom in New York City .

Though it was initially believed that the three assassins were members of the Nation of Islam and were affiliated with religious leader Louis Farrakhan, the killing remains controversial and no consensus exists on who the killer(s) actually were.

In 2021, Muhammad Aziz was exonerated after being convicted in 1966 for the killing along with Khalil Islam and Mujahid Abdul Halim. Halim, who admitted to the shooting but later said Aziz and Islam were not involved, was paroled in 2010.

Malcolm X had predicted that he would be more important in death than in life, and had even foreshadowed his early demise in his book, The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Malcolm X is buried in Ferncliff Cemetery, New York.

The Autobiography of Malcolm X

Malcolm X began work on his autobiography in the early 1960s with the help of Alex Haley , the acclaimed author of Roots . The Autobiography of Malcolm X chronicled his life and views on race, religion and Black nationalism. It was published posthumously in 1965 and became a bestseller.

The book and Malcolm X’s life have inspired numerous film adaptations, most famously Spike Lee’s 1992 film Malcolm X starring Denzel Washington .

Quotes by Malcolm X

“If you have no critics, you'll likely have no success.”

“Stumbling is not falling.”

“There is no better teacher than adversity. Every defeat, every heartbreak, every loss, contains its own seed, its own lesson on how to improve your performance the next time.”

“The future belongs to those who prepare for it today.”

“You can't separate peace from freedom, because no one can be at peace unless he has his freedom.”

Malcolm X. Biography.com . ‘Blood Brothers: The Fatal Friendship Between Muhammad Ali and Malcolm X.’ New York Times. People and Ideas: Malcolm X. PBS . Malcolm X’s 5 surviving daughters: Inside lives marred by tragedy and turmoil. New York Post . A man exonerated in the killing of Malcolm X is suing New York City for $40 million. NPR .

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African American Heritage

Malcolm X (May 19, 1925 - February 21, 1965)

Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little in Omaha, Nebraska. In his early years, Malcolm experienced extreme racism, spent years in the foster system and served a sentence in jail for larceny and breaking and entering. While in jail Malcolm joined the Nation of Islam and after his release, he became the public face of the organization. He led countless demonstrations and spoke publicly, both nationally and internationally with a focus on empowering Black people. Records at the National Archives related to Malcolm X includes Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) case files and recordings of his speeches and debates.

Search the Catalog for Records relating to Malcolm X  

Social Networks and Archival Context - Malcolm X

Malcolm X, 1964 ( Library of Congress )

Selected records relating to malcolm x.

HICK - John R. Hickman Audio Collection

Sound Recordings of Historical Radio Broadcasts, 1906-1993

Address by Malcolm X to a United Black Front Rally in Harlem

Black Muslims in America

Malcolm X: A Retrospective

Speech by Malcolm X

RG 65 - Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation

Classification 44 (Civil Rights) Headquarters Case Files

44-12831, Section 9 Serials 342-434, Alabama (1965) Selma, Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X, Edmund Pettus Bridge

44-12831, Section 11 Serials 436-454, Alabama (1965) Selma, Malcolm X

44-16520, New York (1960) Malcolm X

Classification 157 (Civil Unrest) Case Files, 1957 - 1978 [St Louis, Missouri Field Division]

157-4433-v.1 -- Malcolm K Little -- Malcolm X -- Nation of Islam(NOI)

RG 79 - Records of the National Park Service

National Register of Historic Places and Landmarks Records, 2013-2017

Nebraska SP Malcolm X House Site

RG 490 - Records of the Peace Corps

Moving Images Relating to International Volunteer Activities, 1982-1995

The Negro and the American Promise: With Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. and Minister Malcolm X

The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism pp 1–5 Cite as

Malcolm X (1925–1965)

• Brian Richardson 3  
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• First Online: 29 June 2020

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Malcolm X was one of the most charismatic, controversial, and iconic figures of the US civil rights and black power struggles of the 1950s and 1960s. His legacy has had a lasting influence on successive generations of political activists and intellectuals in the US and throughout the world. He spent the majority of his active adult life building the Nation of Islam.

Malcolm X was one of the most charismatic, controversial, and iconic figures of the US civil rights and black power struggles of the 1950s and 1960s. His legacy has had a lasting influence on successive generations of political activists and intellectuals in the US and throughout the world. Though he was a contemporary of Dr Martin Luther King (1929–68), Malcolm met the de facto leader of the Civil Rights Movement (CRM) just once, on Capitol Hill, Washington, on 26 March 1964, during the passage of the Civil Rights Bill. The primary reason for this was that he spent the majority of his active adult life building...

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Breitman, G. (Ed.). (1989). Malcolm X speaks: Selected speeches and statements . New York: Pathfinder Press.

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Malcolm X. (1965). The autobiography of Malcolm X, with an introduction by Alex Haley . New York: Grove Press.

Marable, M. (2011). Malcolm X: A life of reinvention . London: Allen Lane.

Newton, H. P. (1995). Revolutionary suicide . New York: Writers & Readers Publishing.

Younge, G. (2013). The speech: The story behind Martin Luther King’s dream . London: Guardian Books.

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Richardson, B. (2020). Malcolm X (1925–1965). In: Ness, I., Cope, Z. (eds) The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91206-6_315-1

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Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention

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Komozi Woodard, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention, Journal of American History , Volume 98, Issue 4, March 2012, Pages 1134–1136, https://doi.org/10.1093/jahist/jar592

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Manning Marable’s long-awaited biography of Malcolm X was released only a few days after the author’s untimely death. The author explains that one of the central aims of this biography is to recover a period of dramatic radicalization, especially Malcolm X’s revolutionary voice, which was curiously absent when Alex Haley finished The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965). Thus teachers and students of the black revolt held their collective breaths in anticipation of an epic history of Malcolm X’s trajectory in black liberation.

Malcolm X was an architectural genius who designed bridges between the local struggles against racism throughout the United States and anticolonial struggles in Africa, Asia, and Latin America; between civil rights in black America and human rights in the African diaspora in Paris and London; between the New Deal black renaissance and the black arts renaissance; and between the Paul Robeson political generation and the black power generation. He developed insights that penetrated the language of universalism obscuring the contours of racial oppression in the Jim Crow North in housing, schooling, policing, sports, and labor. Coming of age in black America, Malcolm X learned the myriad sources of brilliance that flowered at the grass roots. Thus he knew the epic tug-of-war in the Jim Crow North between the white politics of exclusion and the black politics of entitlement.

One of the poetic insights of Malcolm X that made him such a great leader was that black America was crowded with genius. The phenomenal development of a grassroots leader such as Malcolm X was possible because he was at the epicenter of an assembly of leadership reaching from the Nation of Islam (working with Louis Farrakhan and Elijah Muhammad) to the organization called ACT (working with Gloria Richardson) to the Freedom Now party that organized black power experiments in the Jim Crow North. That unwieldy leadership ensemble involved veterans such as Adam Clayton Powell Jr. and Victoria Garvin of the Harlem boycott movement. Garvin began her organizing career in Powell’s Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem in the 1930s. A legend in New York black politics, she tried to recruit Malcolm X into the Harlem Left. Although Malcolm X did not join Garvin when she was at the helm of the National Negro Labor Council, he did attract attention from the Federal Bureau of Investigation during the Cold War witch hunts when he wrote to a number of people, including Elijah Muhammad, that he always felt like he was “a communist.”

Both Malcolm X and Garvin mastered the organizing tradition in the Jim Crow North, often in the same cities, doing at the grass roots what Cold War social science concluded was impossible. When Malcolm X began his work in reorienting the organization of the Nation of Islam in the 1950s, it had only a few temples. Garvin’s Negro Labor Council built branches in Detroit, Chicago, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Newark, and more than a dozen other cities.

By the 1960s, when Malcolm X began to reorient his politics and draft a blueprint for black liberation, he reached out to Garvin and her roommate Maya Angelou to help him with the strategic design. Garvin said that her last meeting with Malcolm X was in Cairo, Egypt, in 1964: he attending the Organization of African Unity summit and she en route to China. Since they were both students of comparative revolutions, Garvin invited Malcolm to join her to learn more about the Chinese revolution; however, Malcolm suggested that he was not “going to make it.” Still, he made her promise that she would return to black America to teach the next generation after learning firsthand about that revolutionary experience.

In essence, radical women were central to Malcolm X’s poetic insight and political imagination: at the helm of the Cambridge movement in Maryland, Richardson was the epitome of militant leadership; at the head of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic party, Fannie Lou Hamer and Victoria Gray were the incarnation of brilliant political maneuvering for the 1965 Voting Rights Act. And before an adoring Rosa Parks, Malcolm offered his last message in Detroit.

Teachers and students of the black revolt would expect that such figures as Parks, Hamer, Gray, Richardson, Angelou, Queen Mother Moore, and Garvin, all of whom shared genius with Malcolm X in the organizing tradition, would play a central role in this biography, particularly because Marable foregrounds the debate between black nationalism and American communism. Garvin, Paul Robeson, Claudia Jones, Moore, and Cyril Briggs insisted on black self-determination in the United States. Given Marable’s research agenda, students of Malcolm X would expect to see some exploration of his thinking about that strategy for black liberation as he considered the Left. Indeed, we know that when Malcolm X read “Revolutionary Nationalism and the Afro-American” in Studies on the Left (Spring 1962), he called the journal’s office seeking the author, the political maverick Harold Cruse.

Such developments must have a central place in the study of a brilliant grassroots intellectual such as Malcolm X. However, to a teacher’s surprise and disappointment none of those important developments found their way into a book that aimed to examine the contours of his revolutionary politics.

Fortunately Marable established an important online resource, featuring not only documents but also interviews with some of the book’s informants. Thus it will be much easier to teach Malcolm X and the black revolt in the future. However, this book does not replace the Malcolm X–Alex Haley autobiographical collaboration. Students interested in the important subject of radical women in the black freedom movement must look elsewhere. Above all, for those students who want to understand the horrors of white racism in the Jim Crow North that led thousands to join Malcolm X, his speeches remain the best texts. Since one of Malcolm X’s most important insights was his wisdom on the profound parallels between the Jim Crow North and the Jim Crow South, this omission from the biography is especially disappointing.

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Malcolm X: Home

The Autobiography   |  Biography & History   |  Speeches & Writings   |  Perspectives

“Malcolm X’s autobiography seemed to offer something different. His repeated acts of self-creation spoke to me; the blunt poetry of his words, his unadorned insistence on respect, promised a new and uncompromising order, martial in its discipline, forged through sheer force of will.” —Barack Obama “Extraordinary . . . a brilliant, painful, important book.” — The New York Times “A great book . . . Its dead level honesty, its passion, its exalted purpose, will make it stand as a monument to the most painful truth.” — The Nation “The most important book I’ll ever read, it changed the way I thought, it changed the way I acted. It has given me courage I didn’t know I had inside me. I’m one of hundreds of thousands whose lives were changed for the better.” —Spike Lee “This book will have a permanent place in the literature of the Afro-American struggle.” —I. F. Stone

The Sword and the Shield: The Revolutionary Lives of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr. by Peniel E. Joseph (2020)

The Dead Are Arising: The Life of Malcolm X by Les Payne & Tamara Payne (2020)

Blood Brothers: The Fatal Friendship Between Muhammad Ali and Malcolm X by Randy Roberts & Johnny Smith (2016)

A Lie of Reinvention: Correcting Manning Marable's Malcolm X ed. Jared Ball & Todd Steven Burroughs (2015)

The Autobiography of Malcolm X by Malcolm X & Alex Haley (2015)

Alex Haley and the Books That Changed A Nation by Robert J. Norrell (2015)

The Night Malcolm X Spoke at the Oxford Union: A Transatlantic Story of Antiracial Protest by Stephen Tuck (2014)

Malcolm X at Oxford Union: Racial Politics in a Global Era by Saladin Ambar (2013)

By Any Means Necessary: Malcolm X - Real, Not Reinvented: Critical Conversations on Manning Marable's Biography of Malcolm X ed. Herb Boyd et al (2012)

Malcolm X: The FBI File by Carson Clayborne (2012)

Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention by Manning Marable (2011)

Malcolm X Visits Abroad: April 1964-February 1965 by Marika Sherwood (2011)

Growing Up X by Ilyasah Shabazz & Kim McLarin (2009)

Malcolm X, African American Revolutionary by Dennis D. Wainstock (2008)

Malcolm X: A Graphic Biography by Andrew Helfer & Randy DuBurke (2006)

Children of the Movement by John Blake (2004)

The Assassinations: Probe Magazine on JFK, MLK, RFK, and Malcolm X, ed. James DiEugenio & Lisa Pease (2003)

Betty Shabazz: A Remarkable Story of Survival and Faith Before and After Malcolm X by Russell John Rickford (2003)

Seventh Child: A Family Memoir of Malcolm X, by Rodnell P. Collins & A. Peter Bailey (2000)

On the Side of My People: A Religious Life of Malcolm X by Louis A. Decaro, Jr. (1995)

Ghosts in Our Blood: With Malcolm X in Africa, England, and the Caribbean by Jan Carew (1994)

A Malcolm X Reader: Perspectives on the Man and the Myths, ed. David Gallen (1994)

Malcolm X: Make It Plain ed. Cheryll Y. Greene (1994)

Malcolm X: The Great Photographs by Thulani Davis, ed. Howard Chapnick (1993)

Malcolm X: The Assassination by Michael Friedly (1993)

Malcolm X: As They Knew Him, ed. David Gallen (1993)

Remembering Malcolm: The Story of Malcolm X from Inside the Muslim Mosque by Benjamin Karim et al (1993)

The Judas Factor: The Plot to Kill Malcolm X by Karl Evanzz (1992)

Malcolm X: The Man and His Times, ed. John Henrik Clarke (1991)

The Death and Life of Malcolm X by Peter L. Goldman (1979)

The Assassination of Malcolm X by George Breitman et al, ed. Malik Miah (1976)

The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary by George Breitman (1967)

This dual biography of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King upends longstanding preconceptions to transform our understanding of the twentieth century's most iconic African American leaders. To most Americans, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. represent contrasting ideals: self-defense vs. nonviolence, black power vs. civil rights, the sword vs. the shield. The struggle for black freedom is wrought with the same contrasts. While nonviolent direct action is remembered as an unassailable part of American democracy, the movement's militancy is either vilified or erased outright. In this work, Joseph upends these misconceptions and reveals a nuanced portrait of two men who, despite markedly different backgrounds, inspired and pushed each other throughout their adult lives. This is a strikingly revisionist biography, not only of Malcolm and Martin, but also of the movement and era they came to define.

Les Payne, the renowned Pulitzer Prize–winning investigative journalist, embarked in 1990 on a nearly thirty-year-long quest to interview anyone he could find who had actually known Malcolm X ― all living siblings of the Malcolm Little family, classmates, street friends, cellmates, Nation of Islam figures, FBI moles and cops, and political leaders around the world. His goal was ambitious: to transform what would become over a hundred hours of interviews into an unprecedented portrait of Malcolm X, one that would separate fact from fiction. The result is this historic biography that conjures a never-before-seen world of its protagonist, a work whose title is inspired by a phrase Malcolm X used when he saw his Hartford followers stir with purpose, as if the dead were truly arising, to overcome the obstacles of racism. Setting Malcolm’s life not only within the Nation of Islam but against the larger backdrop of American history, the book traces the life of one of the twentieth century’s most politically relevant figures “from street criminal to devoted moralist and revolutionary.” This book is a penetrating and riveting work that affirms the centrality of Malcolm X to the African American freedom struggle.

Winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History, this work is the definitive biography of Malcolm X. Hailed as "a masterpiece" (San Francisco Chronicle), the late Manning Marable's acclaimed biography of Malcolm X finally does justice to one of the most influential and controversial figures of twentieth-century American history. Filled with startling new information and shocking revelations, Malcolm X unfolds a sweeping story of race and class in America. Reaching into Malcolm's troubled youth, it traces a path from his parents' activism as followers of Marcus Garvey through his own work with the Nation of Islam and rise in the world of black nationalism, and culminates in the never-before-told true story of his assassination. Malcolm X is a stunning achievement, the definitive work on one of our greatest advocates for social change.

The age of multitasking needs better narrative history. It must be absolutely factual, immediately accessible, smart, and brilliantly fun. Enter Andrew Helfer, the award-winning graphic-novel editor behind Road to Perdition and The History of Violence, and welcome the launch of a unique line of graphic biographies. If a picture is worth a thousand words, these graphic biographies qualify as tomes. But if you're among the millions who haven't time for another doorstop of a biography, these books are for you. With the thoroughly researched and passionately drawn Malcolm X, Helfer and award-winning artist Randy DuBurke capture Malcolm Little's extraordinary transformation from a black youth beaten down by Jim Crow America into Malcolm X, the charismatic, controversial, and doomed national spokesman for the Nation of Islam.

The gunmen rose from the crowd and set their sights on Malcolm X. The thunder of shotgun blasts ripped through the ballroom, and Betty Shabazz turned to see her husband float backward, keel over and crash to the ballroom stage. She grabbed her children, hurling them beneath a booth and shielding them with her body while the room erupted into screams and chaos. As she lay there squeezing her family, the Betty Shabazz who was the dutiful and obedient wife of the Civil Rights Movement's most feared leader ceased to be, and the woman who emerged would become one of the greatest heroines of our day. This work is the first major biography of Dr. Betty Shabazz, the unsung and controversial champion of the Civil Rights era. From her early marriage to black liberation's raging voice through her evolution into a powerful and outspoken African-American leader, Betty Shabazz was in constant struggle to bring freedom and justice to her people. Yet, at times her greatest fight was to struggle through tragedy and hold on to her faith amidst the stereotypes forced on her by a culture of racism and the very people she was trying to liberate.

Ella Little Collins saw her brother Malcolm through some of the most significant times of his life, and knew him better than anyone else. Now, for the first time, she shares her poignant, vivid memories of him. Told to her son, Rodnell, to whom Malcolm was a much-loved uncle and mentor, this work contains bitter, haunting, as well as joyful, recollections by two people who knew him intimately in the context of the family. It reveals Malcolm not just as a leader, but also as a brother, cousin, nephew, uncle, father, husband, and friend. It also provides remarkable information about Malcolm's family genealogy that has never before been available to the general public. No other book about Malcolm X -- and there have been dozens -- offers such enlightenment on the man. With rare family photos, including one of Rodnell with Malcolm the night before his assassination, this book adds immeasurably to our knowledge of this great and controversial figure.

The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X (2020)

The Diary of Malcolm X, El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz, 1964 by Malcolm X, ed. Herb Boyd & Ilyasah Al Shabazz (2013)

Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements by Malcolm X, ed. George Breitman (1994)

By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X (1993)

Habla Malcolm X: discursos, entrevistas, y declaraciones by Malcolm X, ed. Martin Koppel (1993)

February 1965: The Final Speeches by Malcolm X, ed. Steve Clark (1992)

Malcolm X: Speeches at Harvard by Malcolm X, ed. Archie Epps (1992)

Malcolm X Talks to Young People: Speeches in the U.S., Britain, and Africa by Malcolm X (1991)

Malcolm X on Afro-American History by Malcolm X (1990)

Malcolm X: The Last Speeches by Malcolm X, ed. Bruce Perry (1989)

King, Malcolm, Baldwin: Three Interviews, ed. Kenneth B. Clark (1985)

Malcolm X remains a touchstone figure for black America and in American culture at large. He gave African Americans not only their consciousness but their history, dignity, and a new pride. No single individual can claim more important responsibility for a social and historical leap forward such as the one sparked in America in the sixties. When, in 1965, Malcolm X was gunned down on the stage of a Harlem theater, America lost one of its most dynamic political thinkers. Yet, as Michael Eric Dyson has observed, "he remains relevant because he spoke presciently to the issues that matter today: black identity, the politics of black rage, the expression of black dissent, the politics of black power, and the importance of consolidating varieties of expressions within black communities — different ideologies and politics — and bringing them together under a banner of functional solidarity." This collection contains four major speeches by Malcolm X, including: "Black Man's History," "The Black Revolution," "The Old Negro and the New Negro," and the famous "The Chickens Are Coming Home to Roost" speech ("God's Judgment of White America"), delivered after the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Several of the speeches include a discussion with the moderator, among whom Adam Clayton Powell, or a question-and-answer with the audience.

In 1964, Malcolm X made two trips to Africa and the Middle East. During those trips, he kept copious notes. This remarkable document, The Diary of Malcolm X El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz, 1964, is comprised of those notes, along with editing, annotations, and commentary by editors Herb Boyd and Ilyasah Al-Shabazz. This volume captures Malcolm X in all his complexity, reveals some of his trepidations, and above all, reveals his humanity as he encounters a coterie of dignitaries, world leaders, and ordinary people who were mesmerized by his genius as he was in wonder of the often challenging new cultures he experienced from country to country. Readers will discover how significantly the Diary complements his autobiography, at times filling in the blanks, expanding an incident, and adding context to moments sometimes only mentioned in passing before.

These are the major speeches made by Malcolm X during the last tumultuous eight months of his life. In this short period of time, his vision for abolishing racial inequality in the United States underwent a vast transformation. Breaking from the Black Muslims, he moved away from the black militarism prevalent in his earlier years only to be shot down by an assassin's bullet.

Critical Insights: Malcolm X, ed. Robert C. Evans (2020)

Black Minded: The Political Philosophy of Malcolm X by Michael E. Sawyer (2020)

A Phenomenological Hermeneutic of Antiblack Racism in the Autobiography of Malcolm X by David Polizzi (2019)

Africa in Black Liberation Activism: Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael, and Walter Rodney, by Tunde Adeleke (2018)

Malcolm X: From Political Eschatology to Religious Revolutionary, ed. Dustin J. Byrd & Seyed Javad Miri (2017)

Malcolm X and Africa by A. B. Assensoh & Yvette M. Alex-Assensoh (2016)

Fighting for Our Place in the Sun: Malcolm X and the Radicalization of the Black Student Movement, 1960-1973 by Richard Benson (2015)

Malcolm X's Michigan Worldview: An Exemplar for Contemporary Black Studies ed. Rita Kiki Edozie & Curtis Stokes (2015)

Reimagining Malcolm X: Street Thinker Versus Homo Academicus by Seyed Javad Miri (2015)

Malcolm X: The Pragmatic Nationalist by Lukmaan H.K. Seekdaur (2014)

The Iconography of Malcolm X by Graeme Abernethy (2013)

Dreams and Nightmares: Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X, and the Struggle for Black Equality in America by Britta Waldschmidt-Nelson (2012)

Black Nationalism in the United States: From Malcolm X to Barack Obama by James Lance Taylor (2011)

The Cambridge Companion to Malcolm X, ed. Robert E. Terrill (2010)

Malcolm X, Black Liberation, and the Road to Workers Power by Jack Barnes (2009)

Malcolm X: A Historical Reader, ed. James L. Conyers, Jr. & Andrew P. Smallwood (2008)

Black Religion: Malcolm X, Julius Lester, and Jan Willis by William David Hart (2008)

Racism in The Autobiography of Malcolm X, ed. Candice L. Mancini (2008)

Malcolm X for Beginners by Bernard Aquina Doctor (2007)

The Geography of Malcolm X: Black Radicalism and the Remaking of American Space, by James Tyner (2005)

Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X, and the Civil Rights Struggle of the 1950s and 1960s by David Howard-Pitney (2004)

Malcolm X: Inventing Radical Judgment by Robert E. Terrill (2004)

Between Cross and Crescent: Christian and Muslim Perspectives on Malcolm and Martin by Lewis V. Baldwin & Amiri Yasin Al-Hadid (2002)

The Malcolm X Encyclopedia, ed. Robert L. Jenkins & Mfanya Donald Tryman (2002)

One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based on Alex Haley's The Autobiography of Malcolm X by James Baldwin (2000)

From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity by William W. Sales (1999)

Malcolm and the Cross: The Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity by Louis A. Decaro, Jr. (1998)

Making Malcolm: The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X by Michael Eric Dyson (1995)

Teaching Malcolm X: Popular Culture and Literacy, ed. Theresa Perry (1995)

Malcolm X As Cultural Hero: and Other Afrocentric Essays by Molefi Kete Asante (1993)

American Jihad: Islam After Malcolm X by Steve Barboza (1993)

Malcolm A to X: The Man and His Ideas, ed. David Gallen (1993)

Malcolm X: Justice Seeker, ed. James B. Gwynne (1993)

Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream or A Nightmare? by James H. Cone (1992)

Understanding malcolm x: the controversial changes in his political philosophy by edward r. leader (1992).

Malcolm X: In Our Own Image, ed. Joe Wood (1992)

Black Religious Leaders: Conflict in Unity by Peter J. Paris (1991)

Malcolm x: a comprehensive annotated bibliography, by timothy v. johnson (1986).

The Political Legacy of Malcolm X by Oba T'Shaka (1986)

Malcolm X: A Selected Bibliography ed. Lenwood G. Davis & Marsha L. Moore (1984)

The Victims of Democracy: Malcolm X and the Black Revolution by Eugene V. Wolfenstein (1981)

When the Word Is Given...: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World by Louis E. Lomax (1979)

Known as 'the angriest black man in America', Malcolm X was one of the most famous activists to ever live. Going beyond biography, this book examines Malcolm X's philosophical system, restoring his thinking to the pantheon of Black Radical Thought. Michael Sawyer argues that the foundational concepts of Malcolm X's political philosophy - economic and social justice, strident opposition to white supremacy and Black internationalism - are often obscured by an emphasis on biography. The text demonstrates the way in which Malcolm X's philosophy lies at the intersection of the thought of W.E.B. Du Bois and Frantz Fanon and is an integral part of the revolutionary politics formed to alleviate the plight of people of African descent globally. Exploring themes of ontology, the body, geographic space and revolution, Black Minded provides a much-needed appraisal of Malcolm X's political philosophy.

In this work, Richard D. Benson II examines the life of Malcolm X as not only a radical political figure, but also as a teacher and mentor. The book illuminates the untold tenets of Malcolm X’s educational philosophy, and also traces a historical trajectory of Black activists that sought to create spaces of liberation and learning that are free from cultural and racial oppression. It explains a side of the Black student movement and shift in black power that develops as a result of the student protests in North Carolina and Duke University. From these acts of radicalism, Malcolm X Liberation University (MXLU), the Student Organization for Black Unity (SOBU/YOBU), and African Liberation Day (ALD) were produced to serve as catalysts to extend the tradition of Black activism in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Scholars, researchers, community organizers, and students of African-American studies, American studies, history of education, political science, Pan-African studies, and more will benefit from this provocative and enlightening text.

Less than three months before he was assassinated, Malcolm X spoke at the Oxford Union ― the most prestigious student debating organization in the United Kingdom. The Oxford Union regularly welcomed heads of state and stars of screen and served as the training ground for the politically ambitious offspring of Britain’s "better classes." Malcolm X, by contrast, was the global icon of race militancy. For many, he personified revolution and danger. Marking the fiftieth anniversary of the debate, this book brings to life the dramatic events surrounding the visit, showing why Oxford invited Malcolm X, why he accepted, and the effect of the visit on Malcolm X and British students. Stephen Tuck tells the human story behind the debate and also uses it as a starting point to discuss larger issues of Black Power, the end of empire, British race relations, immigration, and student rights. Coinciding with a student-led campaign against segregated housing, the visit enabled Malcolm X to make connections with radical students from the Caribbean, Africa, and South Asia, giving him a new perspective on the global struggle for racial equality, and in turn, radicalizing a new generation of British activists. Masterfully tracing the reverberations on both sides of the Atlantic, Tuck chronicles how the personal transformation of the dynamic American leader played out on the international stage.

From Detroit Red to El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz, the man best known as Malcolm X restlessly redefined himself throughout a controversial life. His transformations have appeared repeatedly in books, photographs, paintings, and films, while his murder set in motion a series of tugs-of-war among journalists, biographers, artists, and his ideological champions over the interpretation of his cultural meaning. This book marks the first systematic examination of the images generated by this iconic cultural figure — images readily found on everything from T-shirts and hip-hop album covers to coffee mugs. Graeme Abernethy captures both the multiplicity and global import of a person who has been framed as both villain and hero, cast by mainstream media during his lifetime as "the most feared man in American history," and elevated at his death as a heroic emblem of African American identity. As Abernethy shows, the resulting iconography of Malcolm X has shifted as profoundly as the American racial landscape itself. Abernethy reveals that Malcolm X himself was keenly aware of the power of imagery to redefine identity and worked tirelessly to shape how he was represented to the public. His theoretical grasp of what he termed "the science of imagery" enabled him both to analyze the role of representation in ideological control as well as to exploit his own image in the interests of black empowerment. This provocative work marks a startling shift from the biographical focus that has dominated Malcolm X studies, providing an up-to-date — and comprehensively illustrated — account of Malcolm's cultural afterlife.

The Autobiography of Malcolm X Research Paper

One of the greatest and most influential men that captured the attention of both his friends and enemies, and articulated the struggle, the hunger, and the credence of African-American in the early 1960s is none other than Malcolm X. Malcolm X lived a complex and controversial life, at times landing a job of shoe-shinning, a dancer, criminal, a leader, a minister, and an icon, before his life was drastically ended by an assassins’ bullets at a tender age of thirty nine.

He worked tirelessly giving speeches and educating both young and old black Americans to better their lives and create strong communities that embraces strong fabric of self actualization and independent man.

Interestingly, Malcolm X is also known for using and changing his names from Malcolm Little, El Hajj Malik, Detroit Red and El-Shabazz. Most historians argue that those different names of Malcolm represented the different spheres of his live. Needless to say, Malcolm X became one of the greatest symbols of reconciliation and resistance for millions of people around the world.

This study will endeavor to explore the life history of Malcolm X who was a son of a Baptist minister. The autobiography of Malcolm X is the outstandingly true story of an African-American man, and it presents the daily struggle of millions of black during the period of racial discrimination and segregation.

The study will explore the transformation and individuality of Malcolm X that led him to sustain dedication and will to get education. Malcolm X autobiography unfolds a society that is plagued by discrimination and class segregation in every sphere of America society. Malcolm unveils the struggle of civil rights movements and the emergence of the Black Nationalism.

The autobiography of Malcolm X give a detailed true story of Malcolm X as he struggled with the life of hustling, dope peddler and a thief to become a dynamic and influential African American leader. The autobiography captures a span of four decades from the birth of Malcolm X in May 1925, to his assassination on 21 February 1965.

Malcolm X was one of the eight children of Louise Little and Reverend Earl. Like many other black American children Malcolm X was raised amidst racial prejudice and poverty stricken family. Malcolm X only attended school up to the eighth grade and he spent most of teenage life in street and prison. During the late 1950s, discrimination and racial segregation was institutionalized in every aspect of America society.

Schools, neighborhoods and businesses were segregated along skin color, and the Supreme Court legalized racial segregation through allowing separate but equal treatment of both black and white citizens. Furthermore, several states in America prevented African-Americans from voting. All African-Americans experienced grave hardship during this period given their inferior status in American society (Henry and Nellie, 9).

In the early 1950, Malcolm X together with several African Americans leaders organized black militancy that organized both violent and nonviolent demonstration. Malcolm believed that African American had the right to defend they society using any means necessary to gain their freedom. Malcolm X was against the white power structure and racist vigilante groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, which at one time threatened their family (Malcolm X, Haley and Shabazz, 2).

In addition, Malcolm was against some civil rights organization for their soft stance against American’s racial problems. Before being assassinated Malcolm had moderated his stance against black discrimination and advocated for solidarity among African-Americans, and urged both people of all races to work together and end racism.

According to the autobiography of Malcolm X, his life is a good example of how determination, confidence and perseverance can change the life of an individual (Manning, 5). The next section will critically explore the life history of Malcolm X from his birth to up to his assassination. The section will critically analyze some of the achievements and setbacks that Malcolm went throughout his life.

Malcom X was born on 19 th May 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, and was a son of an African Baptist preacher. His mother, Louise Norton Little was a house wife and took responsible of raising the eight children. Malcolm X, Haley and Shabazz, (2) explains that the father of malcoml X, Earl Little was an outspoken activists and minister, and was among the strongest members of Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and a member of Marcus Garvey.

This organizations made Earl Little to brush shoulders with white supremacist groups including the Ku Klux Klan. The family of Malcolm X was in constant fear of being attacked from these groups. From the autobiography of Malcolm X (6) he recall that “When my mother was pregnant with me, she told me later, a party of hooded Ku Klux Klan riders galloped up to our home in Omaha, Nebraska, one night.

Surrounding the house, brandishing their shotguns and rifles, they shouted for my father to come out”. The group smashed their family house destroying all their windows and doors, which angered Malcolm X father. The family late moved to Lansing, but their house was late burned by the Ku Klux Klan and the family managed to escape without any major injuries.

Aboulafia (7) explains that on 8 th September 1931, the further of Malcolm X was fatally killed by streetcar on his way to home, at then Malcolm was only six years old. The police ruled his death to be an accident although the black community refuted the finding of the police claiming that the white supremacy groups had a hand on his death.

The death of Malcolm X father changed their family life drastically. Henry and Nellie (67) explains that since their father was the bread winner, their financial problems worsened. Furthermore, Mrs. Louise Norton Little was most devastated by Mr. Earl death, which made her suffer from enormous stress and anxiety caused by the responsibility of raising the eight children. Her mother was later institutionalized in the early 1937, which left the eight children leaving with friends, foster families or their in lasing.

Malcolm X, Haley and Shabazz (78) explain that Malcolm attended school up to the level of eighth grade. At the age of thirteen Malcolm became expelled from school and the state officials moved him to detention home. During this period, Malcolm had defiant behavior, but he was an outstanding student among his schools mates.

At the detention home Malcolm was treated as a mascot to the couples who lived at that home. Malcolm aspired to become a lawyer, but his English teacher discouraged him from becoming a lawyer because he was black. In 1941, Malcolm asked to be transferred to the guardianship of his half sister who was living in Boston.

During the stay in Boston, Malcolm was more attracted to street life than in the upper class that her sister resided. Malcolm landed a job of shoe shinning at Roseland Ballroom, which became a center of his life. During this period, Malcolm became a hustler, where he leant how to sell drugs, dancing, con man, dope pusher and a thug. His love life was also affected and he dated many women a white woman Sophia and Laura.

In some instances Malcolm explains that Sophia “was bothered about me living among the prostitutes until I introduced her to some of them, and they talked, and she thought they were great. They would tell her they were keeping me straight for her” (104). Malcolm X, Haley and Shabazz explain that during World War II, Malcolm was able to secure a job in the army by lying about his age.

Malcolm secured a job in the railway since the American army was in dire need of cooks, porters and waiters. As a worker in railway, Malcolm became even more dangerous by engaging in drug peddling and gambling. At one point Malcolm X argue that “One day, in a blackjack game, an old cook who was dealing the cards tried to be slick, and I had to drop my pistol in his face” (119).

Breitman (46) explains that Malcolm was able to secure a job at Small Paradise as a waiter, where he became acquitted with many drug loads and elites. After losing the job at Small paradise, Malcolm was able to form a burglary ring that terrorized many residence together with their sister and girl friend.

Malcolm became a drug addict and cocaine dealers, whereby he was well known by the police. He escaped several attempts to be caught by the police. At the age of 20 years, malcon became a well known drug dealer, burglar and peddler. In 1946, Malcolm was arrested and sent to 10 years in jail.

Manning (9) explains that the prison life changed Malcolm character and behavior for the rest of his life. During the prison life Malcolm met another prisoner called Bimbi who was a self educated man. For the long time that Malcolm had left school he had forgotten how to read and write.

With the help of Bimbi encouragement and training Malcolm was able to learn how to read and write. In addition, Malcolm underwent spiritual and moral transformation through the teaching of honorable Elijah Muhammad. Elijah Muhammad was known as the message of Allah (Allah is the name for Muslim god).

Elijah was very much adored by the black prisoners since he instilled a sense of self-respect and admiration. Furthermore, Elijah Muhammad condemned very strongly the white supremacist segregation of black people and blamed them on the poor government policies. Elijah blamed whites for the harsh treatment of African-American in the North, and he argued that the only way to solve the injustice was through black separatism (Aboulafia, 8).

Breitman (57) explains that it was during this period that Malcolm brother Reginald visited him severally to offer spiritual support. During the numerous visits Reginald advised Malcolm that he had a way of removing him from the prison. During the meetings Reginald advised Malcolm not to eat any pork meat because of religious reasons.

The plan of Reginald was to enlist Malcolm in the Nation of Islam, which was an organization known as Black Muslims. The organization was founded by Elijah Muhammad in the early 1930s and their main objective was to urge for the separation of races. The organization viewed the white man as being evil, and blamed them for the misfortune of blacks. Malcolm was very ready to receive this ideology since the white supremacists groups terrorized them constantly.

The ideology and teachings of Elijah Muhammad inspired Malcolm to study African American history. Through studying history Malcolm was strongly convinced that the white were responsible for their suffering and mistreatment. Through studying Malcolm joined the Nation of Islam and changed his name to the famous Malcolm X (Henry and Nellie, 9).

Aboulafia (78) explains that Malcolm actively studied the work of Elijah, which advocated that the white supremacists worked tirelessly to prevent the blacks from gaining independence. The white ensured that the African Americans did not achieve economic, social and political power. The organization also taught Africans American to fight for their state that was not habited by white. Malcolm became an active member of the group and stated his new career teaching other African Americans to fight for their rights.

After serving for seven years Malcolm was released from jail through a paroled and went to recede in Detroid. Malcolm became an active member of the Black Muslim and took up studies to understand the ways of Muslims. In early 1952, Malcolm travelled to Chicago to meet with Muhammad who played an important role in educating him while he was in prison.

Malcolm was very determined to understand Muslim and he decided to study personally under the guidance of Elijah. To show his dedication to revolutionize the African American Malcolm returned to Boston and implemented the black temple. In 1954, Malcolm X was elected as the minster of Nation of Islam, which was located in the New York (Aboulafia, 78).

Through the leadership of Malcolm the Nation of Islam grew significantly, and Malcolm gained popularity among the African Americans. The organization grew from a small number of worshippers into a large organized movement that was dedicated to Black separatisms ideology.

Malcolm became the greatest and exceptional speaker and teacher for the Black Muslim. Aboulafia (78) explains that Malcolm became increasingly close to Elijah because of his popularity and the successful launch of several temple in different cities. Henry and Nellie, (9) explains that with time Malcolm became the leading symbol of the organization as he organized several lectures and establishment of several mosque.

The social life of Malcolm significantly changed through the new status he gained in the Black Muslim organization. In 1955, Malcolm X met Betty Sanders during his lectures at temple Number seven.

Betty sander had been invited to several lectures of Malcolm X, and she was impressed with the teaching of Malcolm X. the two friends met severally and Malcolm managed to convert Betty to become one of the most active lady in Nation of Islam. In 1958, Malcolm and Betty were officially married in Lansing, Michigan. The two couples were blessed with six daughters. Their names were Attallah, Qubilah, llyasah, Gamilah, Malka and Malaak (Henry and Nellie, 89).

During his lectures, Malcolm X stated to advocate for violent revolution citing numerous countries that went through the same situation. In one of his numerous speeches, Malcolm cited the American Revolution, French revolution, Russian revolution.

In all this revolution, Malcolm argued that it involved the shade of blood. Malcolm argued that you cannot have a revolution without bloodshed and the African American should be ready to shade blood for them to gain independent. In early 1959, the speeches of Malcolm stated to attract media attention through the country.

Most importantly the media covered the two leaders that are Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad because of their strong separatist ideology and hatred for whites. This new found publicity made Malcolm have violent confrontation with police after organizing several protest and demonstrations. Malcolm became a symbol for an angry black man that was tired of constant discrimination (Aboulafia, 78).

Malcolm sudden extremist speech and notoriety made Elijah Muhammad fearful. Elijah stated to reduce the support that was given to Malcolm and during the same period Malcolm had rumors that Elijah had violated the code of Nation of Islam. The disagreement between Malcolm and Elijah Muhammad became unsolvable, which led to the ultimate suspension of Malcolm.

The suspension was meant to last for only 90 days, but Malcolm inquired that Elijah had planned to make the suspension permanent. Malcolm X (300) explains that his suspicions was correct after a member of the group confessed to him that he was paid to assassinate Malcolm through placing a bomb in his car.

In 1964, Malcolm decided to leave the Nation of Islam and formed his own organization called Organization of Afro-American Unity. After visiting pilgrimage in Mecca, Malcolm stated to form different ideology regarding the new war against segregation. Malcolm came up with the ideology of brotherhood.

Malcolm stated to blame the American culture and ideology on racism and hugged the African-American to join other whites to end racial discrimination. The ideology that Malcolm came up with was quite different from the Black Muslim ideologies. He rejected the earlier ideology that he was taught with Elijah.

He explained that the African American should labor like any other races to build their businesses and homes. Malcolm argued that the African Americans should patronize their own people, and start to build their own respect. According to Malcolm, the African-Americans were supposed to correct their morality, moral and spiritual life. Aboulafia, (200) explains that not most African Americans followed the new ideology of Malcolm.

Malcolm made several trips to Africa countries where he was received with government officials. He returned back home where he dedicated most of his time with Organization of Afro-American Unity. Malcolm X, Haley and Shabazz (119) explain that the last few month of Malcolm had intense pressure. His house was bombed and he received constant threat both from nation of Islam and his enemies.

In 21th February 1965, Malcolm X was assassinated with unknown men by being short several times. During that period, Malcolm was supposed to give a speech at Organization of Afro-America Unity meeting at ballroom in Harlem. Malcolm X, Haley and Shabazz, (400) explains that when Malcolm stood to speak a fight stated in the audience.

During the commotion three men emerged and short Malcolm several times where he died instantly. Three of the assassins were arrested and two of them were Muslims. Most of the followers of Malcolm believed the assassination was planned by a large number of organizations including the government officials. Malcolm was killed but killers were not able to stop his influence (Malcolm X, Haley and Shabazz, 409).

It is clear from the study that the autobiography of Malcolm X can be viewed in different perspective. When viewed as an autobiography it portrays an interesting life history of a young man. In addition, when viewed as sociological study, the autobiography gives a clear example of how young people struggle to meet the end meat.

Politically, the autobiography has influenced most African Americans to fight for their rights. It clearly shows how religion plays a fundamental role molding character of individuals. One of the difficult positions of the autobiography is that Malcolm X was life was constantly changing. His political ideas were very contradicting, and it was difficult to tell the direction of his ambitions.

Works Cited

Aboulafia, Anita. Alex Haley’s the autobiography of Malcolm X . REA. 1996. Web.

Breitman, George. The Last Year of Malcolm X; the Evolution of a Revolutionary . New York: Pathfinder Press, 1967. Print.

Henry, Louis and Mckay Nellie. The Norton anthology of African American Literature . NY: WW Norton Company, 1996. Print.

Malcolm X, Alex Haley and Attallah Shabazz. The Autobiography of Malcolm X; As Told to Alex Haley . New York: Ballantine Books, 1987. Print.

Manning, Marable. Malcolm X; a Life of Reinvention . New York: Viking, 2011. Print.

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IvyPanda. (2023, December 18). The Autobiography of Malcolm X. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-autobiography-of-malcolm-x/

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The Autobiography of Malcolm X." December 18, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-autobiography-of-malcolm-x/.

• The Autobiography of Malcolm X as Told to Alex Haley
• Elijah Muhammad and the Nation of Islam
• Malcolm X: Life and Influence in History
• Malcolm X’s Influence across the World
• Malcolm X and His Second Conversion
• King Jr. and Malcolm X in African American History
• Race Identity Evaluation in the Film "Malcolm X"
• The "We Are All Equal" Photography by Haley Bell
• The Activities of Malcolm X
• Malcolm X: The Idea of Black Supremacy
• The Fight for Equality in Martin Luther King's Life and Writings
• Changing the Unjust Laws: "Letter From Birmingham Jail"
• Jim Crow Laws and Their Effect on the Black American Community
• Reflection on Malcolm X
• Autobiography of Malcolm X

Penn State University Libraries

Malcolm x: selected resources.

• Find Articles
• Encyclopedias and Other Reference Works
• Bibliography | Biographies
• Books By and About Malcolm X
• Microfilm Collections | Selected Websites
• Selected Articles about Malcolm X

Selected Dissertations about Malcolm X

• The Contemporary Rhetoric about Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X in the post-Reagan Era Burrow, Cedric Dewayne. Miami University. 2005,
• Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam: two moments in his religious sojourn DeCaro, Louis Anthony, Jr.. New York University. 1994.
• Uses of Heroes: Celebration and Criticism in the interpretation of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr. Dyson, Michael Eric. Princeton University. 1993,
• The Rhetorical Strategies and Tactics of Malcolm X Gay, John Franklin. Indiana University. 1985.
• Malcolm X and the Rhetoric of Transformation: 1948-1965 Lee, Andrew Ann Dinkins. University of Pittsburgh. 1995.
• Malcolm X and Nelson Mandela: the motivations and attributes of their political leadership Meeks, Daris Deshon. Regent University. 1997.
• The Transformational Leadership and Educational Philosophic Legacy of Malcolm X Muhammad, Najee Emerson. University of Cincinnati. 1999.
• The Dual Voices of the Civil Rights Movement: the heroic narratives of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X Owens, Kerry Paul. Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College. 1995.
• The Oratory of Martin Luther King and Malcolm X: a study in linguistic stylistics Rudzka-Ostyn, Brygida Irena. The University of Rochester. 1972.
• Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity: a case study in Afro-American nationalism Sales, William W, Jr.. Columbia University. 1991.
• Justice Born Through Struggle: Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X (El-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz) and Angela Yvonne Davis Thurston, William Anthony. Emory University. 1994
• Marcus Garvey and Malcolm X: a comparative analysis of their thought Williams, Anthony C. Florida Atlantic University. 1985.
• << Previous: Selected Articles about Malcolm X
• Last Updated: Sep 25, 2023 8:21 AM
• URL: https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/malcolm-x

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Creative Suggestions For Writing A Research Paper On Malcolm X

Writing a research paper isn’t always the easiest thing to do – especially when you’re stuck for inspiration or you just don’t know what would be best to explore. Luckily, Malcolm X is one of the best things you could be researching, as it is an interesting topic and there are tonnes of information out there about him. Here are some creative suggestions you could use:

• What happened in his early life? – This is a good topic to write about as many people don’t know his past. You could write about the murder of his father and how his mother ended up in a mental hospital.
• What happened while he was in prison? – You should first talk about how he got put in prison and what age he was. Then you should explore what actually happened while he was in prison and how this may have affected what he went on to be famous for.
• His promotion of black supremacy – In a time when white people were seen as superior, there were black supremacist groups who thought the opposite, and Malcolm X was one of these people. You could talk about why he supported black supremacy and how he didn’t support the civil rights movement because it said black and whites should integrate.
• How is he portrayed in film – You could talk about how Malcolm X is portrayed in films. Some of these films include The Greatest and Death of a Prophet. It might be best, however, to leave this as the last thing on your paper – you could even put it as the first thing. It wouldn’t make sense to just put in the middle, though.
• Malcolm X’s private life – You may want to talk about how Malcolm X married, who it was to and in what year. It might be a nice idea to briefly describe his wife’s history and what she went on to do. You could also talk about how they had children, how many they had, and what they were called.

With these suggestions, you should be well on your way to writing the best Malcolm X research paper your teacher has ever seen in their life, and I hope these ideas help you to enjoy and really get to know the topic you are writing about. Don’t hesitate to use your own ideas, too. These are just suggestions!

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Archives & manuscripts, the malcolm x collection : papers 1948-1965 [bulk 1961-1964] d.

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Malcolm X was an African American nationalist leader and minister of the Nation of Islam who sought to broaden the civil rights struggle in the United States into an international human rights issue, and who subsequently founded the Muslim Mosque Incorporated and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. Assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom in New York City on February 21, 1965. Writings, personal memorabilia, organizational papers and printed matter documenting Malcolm X's activities and opinions as the Nation of Islam's first National Minister, and following his separation from the organization and his embrace of orthodox Islam in early 1964, as a prominent advocate of human rights and self-determination for African-Americans.

The Malcolm X Collection is divided into nine series, the bulk of which range from 1961 to 1964. The papers consist of personal and family memorabilia, correspondence, writings and notes, selected organizational records and printed matter. They provide an in-depth documentation of Malcolm X as Black Muslim theologian, black nationalist ideologue, propagandist for the Nation of Islam, and skilled organizer — with occasional glimpses of his private or family life. Overall, the collection's original order has been preserved.

The The Malcolm X collection : papers are arranged in nine series:

This small group of personal items includes two address books (1958-1961), a notebook with details of the Shabazz family vacation in Miami in January 1964, hotel receipts from 1961 to 1965, and various items found in Malcolm X's heavily scored copy of the Quran and in one of the two address books. In this latter group are several newspaper clippings, some disparaging notes about Martin Luther King, Jr., described as the "hare in the bushes" without the desire "to run for self", and a 1961 letter from a member of Mosque No. 7 in New York who found himself "obligated to recognize the good work that you are doing for the Nation of Islam", while deploring that "with the pace of things going so fast, it is a rare occasion for me to see you, lest I interfere or detain you at your busiest moments". In his autobiography, Malcolm X explained how the demand on him to speak all over the country grew dramatically with the publication of C. Eric Lincoln's book, The Black Muslims in America in 1961. Letters, airline tickets, hotel bills, currency exchange slips, customs declarations, telephone messages, visitors' cards and an announcement for a public lecture in Ghana in the Middle East and West Africa Trip folder, amount to a day to day itinerary of Malcolm X's first major trip abroad in 1964.

Miscellaneous items in this and the next series include invoices for the Corona Mosque in Queens, a prescription for Phenobarbitol, one to be taken "as needed for nerves", an invoice for a new 1962 Oldsmobile, various receipts (camera shop, book stores, a master tailor), household expenditure lists in Malcolm X's hand, a message from one Dr. Adams at Bellevue Hospital, and an airline questionnaire where the subject listed the year of his first airline flight as 1956 and his highest level of education as elementary school.

This small but significant group of documents includes both incoming and outgoing correspondence, receipts and other household-related items. The earliest document in this series is a 1955 letter to a friend where Betty Shabazz, then Betty X Saunders, a nursing student, discusses the difficulty of conforming to the Nation of Islam's religious strictures against socializing with whites, whether at meal times, in class projects, or at a dance party her class was organizing. The outgoing correspondence also includes three letters to Elijah Muhammad, two of them written during the period of her husband's silencing. The earlier letter (February 18, 1963) was written at Muhammad's suggestion to "tell you what I thought about the trip to Philadelphia (critical points)". She went on to confide that "Ministers' wives have a full time job keeping the minister happy so he can do his job", but also felt that she could do other "constructive things" and was "wasting away". The second letter dated January 5, 1964 was an appeal "to come out to see you one week end", adding that "I have no one that I feel I can talk to but you". The last letter written three months later, three days before Malcolm X's official separation from the NOI, was an attempt to elucidate the charges against herself and against her husband "beside speaking against past President JFK". "In your letter, you stated my action toward the Muslims since my husband was sat down is deserving of time, how have I acted? " she wrote.

The incoming correspondence includes letters from Elijah Muhammad's wife and daughter, Clara and Harriett Muhammad, and Elijah Muhammad's special instructions for Ramadan in 1962. Orthodox Islam follows the lunar calendar in the observance of Ramadan, but Muhammad had set December as Ramadan month for his followers, "because we were once Christian believers and we used to worship this month as the month Jesus was born". His instructions called on married couples to "take no pleasure during this month", and on all his followers "not to forget in our prayers that the enemy has killed one of our brothers this year - the first we have lost since Allah's coming - due to the murderous hands of the devils". NOI member Ronald Stokes had been killed earlier that year in a police shooting at the Los Angeles Mosque. Letters to her from Malcolm X are filed in the next series. There are several letters from her adoptive mother in Detroit, ending typically: "Write when you feel like it. Your worried lonely mother". The Condolence file, more than 70 letters and cards, includes messages of sympathy from prominent figures across the country, many of which were read by Ruby Dee at the funeral service for Malcolm X. Other documents in the series include a selection of charity slips or receipts for contributions paid first to Muhammad's Mosque No. 7 and later to the Muslim Mosque, Inc.

• Correspondence 1948-1965 0.6 linear feet

The Writing series is divided into the following subseries: Major Addresses, Interviews, Radio Scripts, Religious Teachings, Diaries, and Speech Notes. For the most part the documents within each subseries have been kept in the order they were found. However, documents that reveal a clear relationship to another category have been moved to the appropriate subseries (i. e. alternate versions of a lecture, various drafts of a speech) and arranged chronologically when possible. In the main, the writings in this series are dated pre-December 12, 1963 or until Malcolm X's silencing. But there are several speeches, in addition to the travel diaries of Malcolm X's trips to Africa and the Middle East, that date after March 12, 1964, following his split from NOI.

Divided into General, New York Mosque and Other Cities subseries, these selected files and working papers are not the actual records of the Nation of Islam, nor are they necessarily the extent of NOI-related documents once in Malcolm X's possession. The General subseries opens with the form letter addressed to "W. F. Muhammad... Dear Saviour Allah, Our Deliverer", that new recruits were required to copy without fault before they would be granted an X as the replacement of their "slave name". Louis Lomax wrote that "The Black Muslims have little or no liturgy". The file "Lessons and Questions, Prayers" holds some of the few documents that form the NOI creed. "Actual Facts" and "Student Enrollment, Rules of Islam", are the first sets of questions and answers that the new convert had to memorize by rote and in sequence. Then came "Lesson No. 1" and "Lesson No. 2", which also came in the form of questions and answers, to be memorized textually. These basic documents, together with a selection of prayers and a glossary of some twenty words or concepts, were the cornerstone of the convert's new worldview. Also included here is a set of nine questions answered by Malcolm X on December 25, 1963, during the period of his silencing, "to the best of my knowledge and understanding of the Honorable Elijah Muhammad's Mission (message and work) among us". Two other documents, "English Lesson C-1" and "The Problem Book", and two additional texts distributed among Muslims, "The Sacred Ritual of the Nation of Islam" and a religious cryptogram, "Teachings for the Lost-Found Nation of Islam in a Mathematical Way", that only W. D. Fard, it was said, could interpret, are other tenets of the NOI dogma that are not available in this collection.

The Elijah Muhammad file consists of printed matter and carbon copies of pronouncements by and about Muhammad. Also included are letters and directives from Muhammad to his ministers across the country. A four-page introductory essay entitled "The Honorable Elijah Muhammad" argues that the historical Muhammad was not an actual prophet, or Allah's final messenger. "The Holy Quran was not meant for that Muhammad 1400 years ago in Arabia.... The Injil [New Testament] prophecies last right up to the resurrection, but how could the Holy Quran be the fulfillment (destroy) [sic] of the Injil prophecies when there was no resurrection in Muhammad's days 1400 years ago". Elijah Muhammad, on the other hand, was the last messenger, "raised up from among the dead" by the Mahdi (W. D. Fard or God in person). He and his followers were the real fulfillment of prophecy. "I am here to tell you", Muhammad wrote in a 1958 untitled pronouncement, "why America does not want you to accept Islam...not the 'old' Islam, but the 'New Islam'.... Ours is a new government and a new religion". Muhammad further clarifies that the United States was not alone in keeping the Black Man at the bottom of civilization. "I have seen the Black Man even in Africa and Asia working as the burden-bearer (doing all the heavy work) while the Brown Man sat in the shade". In a broadside, "What Is Un-American? Problems of the Black Man in Africa, Asia, America the Same", written in response to a 1961 report by the California State Senate Fact-Finding Subcommittee on Un-American Activities, he reaffirmed his Twelve-Point Program as the only salvation for African Americans.

The Muhammad Speaks file includes correspondence and typed articles by Abdul Naeem, a Brooklyn-based Pakistani immigrant who served as a go-between between Muhammad and the orthodox Islamic world, and articles by Charles P. Howard whose syndicated column, "United Nations Report", appeared in the NOI newspaper. Publicity Material in this subseries include leaflets, broadsides and a souvenir journal, advertising public appearances by Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad. The Printed Matter file consists of articles and essays by scholars such as C. Eric Lincoln, August Meier, J. Schacht, professor of Arabic and Islamics at Columbia University, and by law enforcement agencies.

This series is very sketchy, containing many gaps in the documentation. The MMI survived its founder for about a year, at which point the papers were reportedly dispersed. Included here are several statements by Malcolm X (March 1964) announcing his separation from the Nation of Islam, and his rationale for launching a new group. Malcolm X insisted he did not leave NOI of his own free will, but that he had been driven out by the "Chicago officials". The philosophy of the MMI was to be Black Nationalism. The switch to orthodox Islam came during his pilgrimage to Mecca in April 1964. In statements issued in Jedda, Saudi Arabia, and in Lagos, Nigeria, the author told the story of his conversion to "true Islam", which "removes racism" and "concerns itself with the human rights of all mankind, despite race, color or creed". James Shabazz, Malcolm X's personal assistant and Vice-President of the new organization, handled the day-to-day business of the group. His list of twelve questions put to Malcolm X, indicating the areas of responsibility entrusted by the latter to his associates can be found here.

In this series is a group of letters Shabazz sent on May 14, 15 and 16, 1964, to a wide array of national and international contacts, thanking the latter for their assistance to the MMI leader during his pilgrimage, and expressing Malcolm X's new disposition for "mutual cooperation" with leaders of the civil rights movement. The only substantive response to these letters in the collection came from James Farmer, Executive Director of the Congress of Racial Equality. Malcolm X's itinerary during the Hajj, his schedule of activities immediately after his return to the U. S. in early June, and a log of telephone calls received by his office at the Theresa Hotel during that period, give a sense of the tremendous interest occasioned by Malcolm X's new orientation.

Also included is a copy of the certificate from the office of the Supreme Imam of Al-Azhar University designating Malcolm X as "one of the Muslim community...with his true and correct faith", with the responsibility "to propagate Islam and offer every available assistance and facilities to those who wish conversion to Islam". A leaflet in the same file boldly advertised twenty "stipend-bearing" scholarships to Al-Azhar University and fifteen additional scholarships to the University of Medina in Saudi Arabia, and called on people to join the MMI, the Organization of Afro-American Unity and the Organization of Afro-American Students. Malcolm X had developed a strong NOI chapter in Philadelphia and retained a strong base of support in that city. The Philadelphia file in this series gives some indication that the MMI leader was planning to develop an MMI chapter there with the help of a local barber, "Brother Aaron". The remaining files in the series deal with mosque attendance, donations and charity slips, and the sale of the Theresa Hotel. There are also leaflets and publicity material, including a March 22, 1964 Spanish-language flyer advertising a talk by Malcom X at the Rockland Palace on "El Nacionalismo de la Raza de Color en Harlem".

Malcolm X founded the OAAU to broaden the scope of the African-American civil rights movement into a struggle for human rights with international linkages. Partly due to his prolonged trips abroad, he only played a limited role in the day-to-day life of the new organization. An early draft of the OAAU's "Basic Aims and Objectives" called for organizing "the Afro-American community block by block", and proposed to join or to form political clubs, and to establish local businesses "to stop the flow of millions of dollars that leave our community weekly, never to return". But superimposed on that grassroots "organization of the people" was the expectation of a leadership structure "patterned after the letter and the spirit of the Organization of African Unity", with the purpose of uniting "Afro-Americans and their organizations around a non-religious, non-sectarian program for human rights". These two contrasting views are reflected in the collection through Malcolm X's statements from abroad and in local efforts to organize a membership base for the new organization.

The correspondence file includes carbon copies of Malcolm X's well-publicized June 30, 1964 telegrams to Martin Luther King, Jr. in St. Augustine, Georgia, and to James Forman, chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, in Mississippi, proposing to "immediately dispatch some of our brothers there to organize our people into self-defense units capable of retaliating against the Ku Klux Klan in the only language it understands". Also included are OAAU acting chair, Lynn Shifflet's invitation, on behalf of Malcolm X, to representative African-American leaders and personalities, to a roundtable discussion on the so-called Harlem Riot of 1964; and a two-page letter from Ana Livia Cordero, Puerto-Rican independence activist and the wife of African-American expatriate writer Julian Mayfield, who had launched the first international branch of the OAAU in Ghana, on approaches to the Puerto Rican community in New York.

The file Working Papers consists of research material, and suggestions and recommendations from two OAAU research groups. At an initial May 30, 1964 meeting chaired by Malcolm X, it was decided that the new group would start work at the local level in Harlem. "When we control New York City, we will then be a model for other U. S. cities". The organization would try to mobilize mass resistance against Governor Rockefeller's "No Knock" and "Search and Seizure" laws, and against police brutality. In subsequent meetings, the group laid out its organizational structure, dealt with issues of membership and finances, debated the nature of its relationship with the civil rights movement, analyzed some of the "social, political and economic facts in Harlem", and attempted to define a basic policy on education, on self-defense and on culture. Also included are personal commentaries from Sara Mitchell, a prime contributor to this file.

The balance of this series comprises declarations and statements by Malcolm X upon launching the new organization. Included are his July 17, 1964 address to the OAU in Cairo, a series of research notes prepared by James Shabazz on the legality of rifle clubs in New York and elsewhere, copies of the OAAU newsletter, Blacklash, membership receipts, miscellaneous financial records, a complete set of the resolutions and recommendations adopted at the first OAU assembly of heads of state and government in Addis Ababa in July 1964, including a resolution against "Racial Discrimination in the United States of America", which is attributable to Malcolm X.

This is a broad mix of printed matter on individuals, organizations and subjects of interest to Malcolm X, and typescripts of stories written about Malcolm X, some of them after his death. The Africa file is a compilation of research papers by mostly black scholars on African Americans and Africa, African messianic movements, Africa in antiquity, and the African press. The Muhammad Ali file is mostly newspaper and magazine articles, including a two-page Associated Press report stipulating that "Scholars at Islam's 1,000 year-old university welcomed Cassius Clay's statement that he is a Moslem" but expressed "reservations about the 'Black Muslim' movement in the United States". The file dates from the mid-February 1964 period when the athlete was training for his championship fight against Sonny Liston, and attests to some of Malcolm X's activities and thinking during the later period of his silencing. Invited with his family for a winter vacation at the young boxer's training camp, Malcolm X is credited with recruiting Ali to the NOI. In a little known February 19, 1964 interview Malcolm X circumvented his silencing to tell the Miami News, through a third party, of his admiration for "The Champ", and to predict that "when warmer weather begins to appear in the North, the problem is going to get worse in 1964 than it was in 1963". Malcolm X presumably counted on his friendship with the young athlete to woo him to his side in the feud with his mentor, but the outspoken Ali quickly put any such hope to rest. "I don't know much what Malcolm X is doing", he told the Norfolk Journal and Guide, "but I do know that Muhammad is the wisest". (March 14, 1964).

Taken together, the Civil Rights files in this and the Printed Matter series attest to Malcolm X's intense preoccupation throughout 1963 with the nonviolence and integration movement represented by King. The annotated and underscored articles, noting every hesitation or setback, comforted the author in his claim that the civil rights movement was controlled by the white-Jewish "liberal establishment", and was running out of steam. The Education folder complements other materials in the NOI series. The Group on Advanced Leadership (GOAL) convened the November 1963 Grassroots Leadership Conference in Detroit at which Malcolm X delivered his celebrated speech, "Message to the Grassroots". The file documents the split between the GOAL group, led by Richard B. Henry, and the more conservative Detroit Council for Human Rights, which had initially called for a Northern Negro Leadership summit, with the exclusion of known nationalists and communists, including the Black Muslims. The Rev. Albert Cleague, who represented GOAL on the Council, insisted that "all black men, regardless of their views, should sit down and hammer out a concerted policy for a united civil rights push in the North".

The slim Martin Luther King file includes material by and critical of King's nonviolent strategy. The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) folder consists mostly of educational or promotional material leading to and following the MFDP Challenge to the white Democratic delegation at the 1964 National Democratic Convention. The Monroe "Kidnapping" file includes a draft article by the same title by Julian Mayfield, and printed matter of the Committee to Aid the Monroe Defendants. The story of the Monroe incident is told in Robert F. Williams's Negroes with Guns (Third World Press, 1975). The Repatriation Commission file contains a 25-page report to Prime Minister Michael Manley of Jamaica by a 1961 "Back to Africa" mission that traveled to five African states to explore the conditions for "Africans living abroad" to return to the "ancestral land". The original manuscripts in this series include "A Fallen Star" by Ruby Williams, a disillusioned Black Muslim who aspired to tell "the naked truth" of some of Elijah Muhammad's shortcomings, and "Malcolm", a screenplay by Betty L. Rhea, completed in 1974.

• Printed Matter 1959-1965 1.6 linear feet

Custodial history

The papers form the larger part of the Malcolm X collection, stored initially in the Shabazz family home in Mount Vernon and later sold at a storage auction in Miami. The Shabazz family regained control of the papers after cancellation of the public auction by Butterfields Auctioneers in Los Angeles, and deposited them at the Library for a period of 75 years.

Source of acquisition

Estate of Betty Shabazz, December 2002

Processing information

Processed by Andre Elizee, Millery Polyne and Lisann Lewin, with the expert assistance of Mr. Abdullah Abdur-Razzaq (formerly known as James 67X and James Shabazz), 2004-2005

Accessioned by Andre Elizee, January 2004

Separated material

The following records have been transferred:

Moving Image and Recorded Sound Division - Film and Audio Materials

Photographs and Print Division - 22 archival boxes and binders of photographs, slides and negatives.

Related Material

Malcolm X Material in Other Collections And Repositories

Schomburg Center, MARB: Organization of Afro-American Unity Collection, 1964-1965. 0.2 lin. ft.

Schomburg Center, MARB: John Henrik Clarke Papers, box 24. 1.0 lin. ft.

Schomburg Center, MARB: David Garrow / Freedom of Information Act Materials on the Civil Rights Movement, SCM 92-42, boxes 19-20. 1.6 lin. ft.

Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, Detroit, MI: Malcolm X Collection, 1941-1955. 0.5 lin. ft.

Access to materials

Conditions governing use.

Reproductions, including scans, photographs, and photocopies, are prohibited.

Information on copyright (literary rights) available from repository.

Access restrictions

Researchers are restricted to the microfilm copy in the Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division. Reproductions, including scans, photographs, and photocopies, are prohibited.

Container List

The Correspondence series encompasses Malcolm X's personal and professional activities. The series begins with a group of thirty handwritten letters, with a later typed version, to his brother Philbert, and the latter's wife, Henrietta, between 1948 and 1952, shortly after Malcolm X joined the Nation of Islam. Writing from jail to another correspondent, Sister Beatrice, Malcolm X confided his desire to assist Elijah Muhammad in building the NOI. "There is nothing I would like more so than a beautiful Muslim wife and family, but something tells me fate has chosen me to lead a lonely life, for I have the ability to speak to my people and guide them to the Apostle, and I cannot go to Georgia, Alabama and into the heart of this devil's stronghold where the truth has not been heard unless I am free to travel and preach, and that is my one and only desire, to preach to my people". In a later letter to Sister Beatrice, dated March 1955, he commented on his recruiting successes while having "to take care of FOUR TEMPLES", and hints at the incipient jealousy among the older Muslims. "Many years now, Islam has been among our people, and they have sat on the curb waiting for ELIJAH MUHAMMAD to do all of the WORK himself. Now the new Muslims want to help 24 HOURS A DAY, and those who have been in the Temple all these years take our sincerity to DO our utmost, not as something good, but instead they accuse us of being self-righteous. Or they classify the faith we have in our ability to achieve success as a display of arrogance. They say that I have lost my sense of humor and gift of ease and humanness". [Emphases in original].

There are also seven letters from Malcolm X to Betty Shabazz, ranging from 1959 to August 1964, generally encouraging greater thriftiness ("Don't call unless it's vital; write letters. Phone costs too much. "), and patience with his busy schedule. He prods her to be more devout ("Stress to all the importance of Ramadan and regular prayers during Ramadan. ") and more involved in his overall activities ("Keep a close check on the papers and the newscasts. When I know you do this, I can call you to find out what's happening instead of someone else. ") Writing from an Organization of African Unity summit conference in Cairo in July 1964, he comments: "I realize many there in the States may think I'm shirking my duties as a leader (and even as a husband) by being way over here while there is so much trouble there, but what I'm doing here will be more helpful to the whole in the long run, and I always think in terms of the whole".

Other outgoing letters include a September 1962 tongue-lashing reply to a Sudanese Muslim in Philadelphia, where he recounts his and Elijah Muhammad's visits to the Sudan in 1959. "The letter that you wrote in a recent issue of the Pittsburgh Courier doesn't sound like it came from the heart of a Sudanese Muslim", he wrote to Yahya Hayari. "It sounds like it came from the heart of an American Negro Christian whose only excuse is that the condition of his heart and mind are the results of 400 years of brain-washing". In the same letter, he derides NOI's adversary Talib Dawoud whose "followers combined can fit in one station wagon", and the latter's wife, singer Dakota Staton, who sings "dirty songs in a nightclub to entertain drunken customers". Responding to Eleanor Mason, a California student, during the period of his silencing (December 6, 1963), he wrote that: "We are living at a time and in a world of paradoxes", and that "the Messenger has the right solution and the right program, if handled by intelligent persons who properly understand it". In a second letter to Mason, following his break from NOI (March 21, 1964), he ventured that "you were perhaps well aware of the many obstacles placed in my path to prevent the progressive moves necessary to unite our people and make them stand on their own feet", adding that "I have gotten responses from students throughout America expressing solid support in this new venture. All we have to do is organize energies into one progressive direction and our people will be free overnight". In several letters written that same day, Malcolm X clarified his position vis-à-vis Elijah Muhammad and sought to recruit members into his new "militant Muslim movement", pledging that they will be "actively involved in the Human Rights Struggle that our people are waging in this country".

In a three-page letter to Elijah Muhammad, also dated March 21, 1964, he assured his former mentor that he is still his "number one" follower: "You know well that I would never leave you of my own free will". Two paragraphs later he explained: "Some very bad lies have been spread and are still being spread about me among the Muslims by the officials.... I would do nothing to harm your image or your work or Islam, but I don't hesitate a minute to attack and expose these vicious hypocrites who are trying to make it appear that I am the hypocrite". He further explained that NOI members had been sent to kill him, and that he will readily abandon his East Elmhurst residence to the NOI officials if they would allow him to respond to their charges before the general body at Mosque No. 7. In another series of letters written in June 1964, he discussed his pilgrimage to Mecca, his meetings with several African heads of state and with the African-American expatriate community in Ghana. Writing to Maya Angelou on June 1, he conveyed that "the true reason for my splitting from the Muslim movement is being told here in the States.... It will be exactly as I explained to you". This was in reference to recent news stories about group conflicts and jealousy of Malcolm X on the part of the NOI leadership.

Following his second trip to West Africa and the Middle East in 1964, Malcolm X was intent on reorganizing the Muslim Mosque Inc. and the Organization of Afro-American Unity along separate lines. He engaged in detailed correspondence with his contacts abroad, as part of a broad OAAU networking drive, and also to solicit Islamic support for the Muslim Mosque. In a December 21, 1964 letter to Warith Muhammad (Wallace Muhammad), he sought to entice him to move to Philadelphia: "... we can work together like twins and in no time have Islam on the right path". The last letter in this file is an undated, handwritten protest to U. S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk, following the refusal by French officials on February 9, 1965 to allow him entry to the country where he had been scheduled to speak. The letter requested an investigation as to "why this incident took place with no intervention from the United States embassy".

Correspondents in this subseries include Ayo Emeka Azikiwe, the son of Nigeria's first president Nnamdi Azikiwe, then a student in the U. S.; Alex Haley who assisted Malcolm X in the writing of his Autobiography; Elijah Muhammad and two of his sons, Akbar and Wallace (Warith Deen). The Haley file includes an author-collaborator letter of agreement dated June 1, 1963, signed by the two parties, stipulating that the author, Malcolm X, had no desire to profit personally from this joint venture and that "any and all money representing your 50% share shall be made payable to Muhammad's Mosque No. 2" in Chicago. Also in this file are a series of letters written by Haley soliciting additional material needed to shore up various aspects of the narrative; the carbon copy of a letter to FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, in which Haley lays out the basis of his association with the Muslim minister, upon his being informed that two teams of federal agents had been asking questions at a previous residence in Manhattan; copies of Haley's letters to his agent stressing the need for timely advances to Malcolm X and raising the prospect of another book using the latter's travel diaries; and two letters, dated June 21 and June 27, 1964, exhorting Malcolm X to follow in Prophet Muhammad's footsteps and embark on a Hegira or flight of his own, "to now remove yourself from the scene in which you are". The last letter in the Haley file, sent to Malcolm X during his second pilgrimage to West Africa and the Middle East, is concerned with distribution rights and with "the changes which have occurred in your perspectives" which would necessitate a complete rewriting of the last two chapters of the book. Other materials pertaining to the Autobiography are located in the Publishers and Agents subseries.

Akbar Muhammad's letters relate to his life in Egypt as a student at Al-Azhar University and to his expulsion from the Nation of Islam for refusing to denounce Malcolm X as a hypocrite. He encouraged his embattled correspondent "to strike a blow" against his enemies: "If you strike now, [Allah] will be with you because it will definitely be for the good of Islam in the Western hemisphere". Elijah Muhammad's letters, all written before the Malcolm X silencing, covered a broad range of topics, from discussing his own health, to the mechanics of selling 500,000 copies of C. Eric Lincoln's book on the Black Muslims through the NOI network. Praising his disciple's work as "wonderful among the educated class", he further instructed that when speaking on college campuses Malcolm X should not "go too much into details on the political side, nor into the subject of a separate state here for us". "Make the public to seek (sic) for the answers", he insisted, adding that "there are two other Ministers who have already gone too far on this subject". In another letter (March 1962), he acknowledged that "The people are more inclined towards the Teachings than ever before, especially about the program on 'some of this earth that we can call our own'" concluding that "This is winning the minds of most of our people today than the religious side which is Islam". In the same letter, he commented that his health was improving and that he was thinking of doing "a little more work", adding that "the greater part will be in study and preparing myself for the great 'rush' that I sense will come pretty soon". With Allah's help, he advised that "the institutions of learning of this devil's civilization will crumble like the others before his - ancient Babylon and Rome - they all fell. Great Kingdoms and Institutes fell before them. So this one is on the way and we are trying to save our people from falling with it".

In a signed letter to Minister Lewis (sic) (Louis Farrakhan) in Massachusetts, also in this file, Elijah Muhammad, reacting to the police killing of Black Muslim Ronald Stokes in Los Angeles commented: "It is very good to see our people showing, for the first time, sympathy with us. This tells us that the dead is (sic) now rising". But faced with the impatience of some followers who anticipated some form of retaliatory action for that killing, he warned that "Physical retaliation will not work too well for us at the present time, as Allah himself wants to show these devils who He is and cannot do so with us running ahead". In response to Malcolm X's offer to go to Detroit to help his brother Wilfred deal with "the ever increasing disagreement between the Ministers and the Captains of No. 1", he praised his disciple's ability to get along "with my near of kin there. Surely they love you and do love your brother, but your brother has not been able to see it because of certain other factors. I have yet to hear or see one of my kin folks say or act in no way other than good towards you". He turned down Malcolm X's offer. (June 17, 1962).

In other letters, Muhammad instructed his disciple to avoid the appearance of direct involvement in politics, which would "gradually ease over into just what the devil is desiring to charge us with". (September 18, 1962) Malcolm X was to avoid further public speaking engagements without first consulting with him. "You should always notify me in advance and give your leader just what you have in mind to say to the people ... on my mission and the teaching or message to the people that Allah has given to me". He advised Malcolm X to decline an invitation to speak in Canada, adding that he pays little attention to similar requests from Europe "because I am not particular about them. I am only after my people here in America". Other requests for personal appearances should be filtered through him, so "I can guide best on what to say". (September 20, 1962) Malcolm X wrote back he was canceling a debate against Martin Luther King that was scheduled for October 1962. The last letter in this group, dated August 1, 1963, warned Malcolm X to be "careful about mentioning Kennedy in your talks and printed matters [sic] by name; use U. S. A. or American Government".

Wallace Muhammad's correspondence begins with a July 24, 1964 letter from his father, setting the conditions "on which you may return and be recognized as a true Muslim Believer in Allah Who came in the Person of Master Fard Muhammad and follow me, His Messenger to His people". The conditions called for Wallace Muhammad and his wife to publicly repudiate their previous "disbelief and opposition of my mission", adding that "if you wish to sincerely return and follow me, if they [sic] will not repent themselves, I still could not accept you". In a December 14, 1964 letter, Wallace Muhammad reached out to Malcolm X to "help you find and serve your purpose in this world", and advised that "the greatest deterrent to the threat of violence is a strong warning and the readiness to back it up, especially when you are faced with religious psychopaths and popularity worshipers who measure their religion in terms of dollars". A one-page cover letter, December 17, 1964, attached to a threatening open telegram from Fruit of Islam Supreme Captain Raymond Sharrieff published in the New Crusader, warned that "they are ready to kill members of their own race with no desire for peace. They've never been this violent or vicious against their own kind before". Other letters spoke of mounting threats against Malcolm X, of Wallace Muhammad's financial and organizational troubles, and of his new name, Warith Ud'Deen, given to him by an Imam from India. A January 15, 1965 reply referred to the "many brothers throughout the country" who had been led astray by "the false shepherd that they were following", and for the need for the two correspondents to "start building a solid foundation right now which will make it possible for us to intelligently pick up the pieces and start building a good house that our people can come into and rest".

Other material in this series pertaining to Malcolm X's separation from the Nation of Islam include an August 15, 1964, open letter (18 pages, incomplete) from Assistant-Minister Henry X, FOI Captain Joseph X and Mosque Secretary Maceo X, local officials at Mosque No. 7, the purpose of which was to shame its recipient as a hypocrite.

The Adam Clayton Powell file consists of invitations to Powell-led discussions, and copies of Powell's correspondence with State and prison authorities protesting the use of shackles in bringing Muslim prisoners to the Federal courthouse in Buffalo, New York.

The Cairo file begins with Malcolm X's second stay in that city in July 1964, and includes correspondence with David Du Bois about the OAAU and the American Muslim Student Association in Ghana, a letter from Shirley Graham Du Bois, along with various articles by and about Malcolm X written in Cairo, and an appeal to Diallo Telli, Secretary-General of the Organization of African Unity to urge an investigation by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights "into the inhumane destruction of Afro-American life and property which the present United States government seems either unable or unwilling to protect". The England file relates principally to Malcolm X's presentations at the London School of Economics, Sheffield University and other venues, in late 1964. The France file consists of an August 1964 article in the Paris edition of the New York Times citing official concerns in the U. S. that Malcolm X's efforts to internationalize the plight of African-Americans could become "a touchy problem"; and a letter from Carlos Moore about the mass meeting the Afro-American Center was planning for Malcolm X's February 9, 1965 visit, which was abruptly cancelled by the French government. The text of a telephone conversation between Moore and Malcolm, recorded the evening of February 9, is located in a small OAAU collection, also at the Schomburg Center.

The Speaking Engagements subseries consists of invitation letters with attachments, arranged chronologically into three categories: Colleges and Universities, Radio and Television, and Churches and Community Groups. Correspondents in these categories include Daniel Schechter of Dialogue Magazine; Adelaide Cromwell Hill from the African Studies Program at Boston University; C. Eric Lincoln; Sterling Stuckey, Chairman of the Amistad Society in Chicago; Morroe Berger, Director of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University; Henry Kissinger, Director of Harvard's International Seminar; and Chester Himes for French radio and television.

The General Correspondence subseries includes students, editors and writers, soliciting interviews and data about the Nation of Islam; people commenting on Malcolm X's pronouncements in the media and at public venues; former NOI members writing their grievances against the group; a July 3, 1962 letter from his brother Wilfred X in Highland Park, Michigan, about a local Socialist newspaper's offer to raise funds for the legal expenses in the California police brutality case; a letter with attachment from Bayard Rustin inviting Malcolm X to write a response to be published alongside a critique by August Meier in the magazine Liberation; another letter from the author's sister, Hilda Little, alleging corruption in the Boston Mosque (October 1962); Ossie Davis's thank you letter in response to Malcolm X's invitation to attend the 1962 African-Asian Bazaar as his guest; and a note from Ron Karanga begging his indulgence for his "stereotypical negligence" in not writing sooner.

The 1963 file is mostly incoming letters from fellow activists like William Worthy, and NOI members like Jeanne 2X reporting on the indictment of several Black Muslims on felony charges in the aftermath of the police assault on the Los Angeles Mosque in April 1962. Other correspondents shared their insights, or took exception with the NOI version of Islam and its focus on racial separation. In a Letter to the Editor at the New York Times in response to an article by Robert Payne, Malcolm X denounced the "frantic effort" by American newspapers and magazines "to prove the Honorable Elijah Muhammad is wrong, to discredit him in the Muslim world, and to stop the rapid spread of his religious message". Also included are letters from other mosques discussing NOI activities in various cities; a detailed letter by a recent convert describing the raptures of his new faith, letters denouncing various instances of racial discrimination; and invitations to speak at venues outside the three categories outlined above.

Less voluminous, the 1964-1965 General Correspondence file begins with the same mix described above. News of Malcolm X's break from the Nation of Islam occasioned some elation and invitations to public forums in Chicago and San Francisco to expound on his new views. A March 12, 1964 letter referred to "several brothers in Washington who desire to unite with you in your new Party". J. ben Thomas and Shaynii Zeffii Tau of Radio Free Africa in New York offered to incorporate the Muslim Mosque in a regular discussion of Black nationalist politics in their broadcasts. Ruby Williams wrote from Phoenix, Arizona, (July 4, 1964) of her husband's "information about Mr. Muhammad and his family which includes the tape you made telling him about the low sexual morals of the so-called Muslims". Her narrative, "Fallen Star", from her "experiences while employed in Mr. Muhammad's home and from documents" is located in the Subject Files series (Box 15, folder 10). A correspondent from Tanzania confided that Malcolm X's visit to Dar-es-Salaam had conquered the minds and hearts of those who heard his message: "You left a host of followers and well-wishers behind". (December 17, 1964) The last letter in this file is a note from Maggie Hathaway (February 4, 1965) from the L. A. Sentinel, thanking the author for writing and looking forward to his upcoming visit to Los Angeles.

The Correspondence series ends with sample letters from high school and college students; letters from Roy Wilkins, James Forman, Whitney Young, James Farmer, Ralph Bunche's and Martin Luther King's secretaries, declining Malcolm X's invitation to speak at an August 10, 1963 outdoor rally in Harlem; and letters from public officials and from Black Muslims in jail.

Arranged chronologically

This subseries primarily encompasses social, economic and political themes, delivered to diverse audiences, regardless of race or religion. It includes several versions of Malcolm X's "God's Judgment of White America" (1963), "Farce on Washington" (1963) and his "Warning to White America" (1964) speech. In "God's Judgment of White America" Malcolm X asserted the impending collapse of white power rule in the United States. Moreover, he clearly addressed how an emerging black internationalism, the rise of Islam and the influence of decolonization efforts within the global arena served as tools for dismantling white supremacy, and that these factors and others could further the black revolution in the U. S.

Also, in "God's Judgment", Malcolm X makes the distinction between the "black revolution" and the "Negro revolution". The black revolution represented an independent, radical and immediate movement towards African-American liberation while the Negro revolution advocated gradualist reforms and was controlled by the U. S. government. In his "Farce on Washington" speech Malcolm X argued that the 1963 March on Washington movement was initially a radical "grassroots" movement, but was soon transformed "into one of the meekest demonstrations that the country has ever known". President John F. Kennedy, Malcolm X asserted, was unable to prevent the approaching black uprising in Washington so he had "to weaken it, to mix it up, to integrate it, to control it" by supporting the distribution of close to $800,000 in funds to civil rights organizations. According to Malcolm X, the March on Washington was "one of the best conducted picnics in history".

Although Malcolm X's split with the Nation of Islam, his well-publicized Hajj to Mecca, and his travels to Africa and the Middle East in 1964 often signal a more inclusive social and political philosophy, his assessments of racism and segregation remained critical. For example, his 1964 speech "Warning to White America" admitted that he "no longer subscribes to sweeping indictments of any one race", however, he maintained that many Anglo-Americans were averse to forced integration. This speech, also printed in the August 25, 1964 issue of the Egyptian Gazette under the title "Racism: The Cancer That is Destroying America", demonstrated the internationalization of Malcolm X's ideas.

Also located here are typescripts of speeches and other material from Malcolm X's speaking engagements between 1961 and 1963 at many of the nation's top colleges and universities, including Harvard and Yale Universities, the University of California at Berkeley and Howard University in Washington D. C. Indeed, during most of this period Malcolm X was at the forefront of Nation of Islam politics. His confidence and fluid articulation on U. S. and international racial politics, his deep faith in the NOI dogma and his loyal character, situated him as a central figure in the Black Muslim movement in the United States. In 1962, Howard University students invited him to debate Bayard Rustin, noted pacifist and civil rights leader. Malcolm X's opening lecture at Howard University is included in this subseries. He lectured so frequently that he often gave the same or similar lectures. The speeches", A Racial Powderkeg" and "The Anemic Negro Leadership" mirrored his Howard University speech in many ways.

Coupled with numerous college visits, local speeches and the growth of the NOI, the impact of television and documentary filmmaking propelled the image of Malcolm X and the NOI into the national and international arena. This subseries includes notes and transcripts for the 1961 NBC series "The Open Mind". Entitled "Where is the Negro Headed? " the program included such guests as psychologist Kenneth Clark and Richard Haley, field secretary of the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE). The subseries also contains a transcript for a 1962 interview of Malcolm X by a French television crew. Similar to the CBS documentary "The Hate That Hate Produced", the French documentary focused on the NOI's criticism of racism in the U. S. Chester Himes, the African-American writer who also served as assistant director and translator on the project, provided a list of questions for Malcolm X, one of which was: "What is the aim and purpose of your organization? " In a clear and concise fashion Malcolm X wrote in his notes, to "raise the dead". Malcolm X understood the power that television and radio wielded in shaping the image of the NOI and conveying their ideas. His direct style of communication often complemented the hunger of reporters and television producers seeking to tell a story.

Other documents in the Writings series include press releases written by Malcolm X, notes and talking points for college debates and other public meetings, and various declarations, statements, open letters and letters to the editor. In his many forays on college campuses, encouraging students' interests in "controversial issues" became one of Malcolm X's principal goals. The recurring themes of separation versus segregation, the resurrecting power of Islam in African America, token integration, the need for a Black revolution and African-American participation in voting stirred up audiences and inspired students to question anti-black prejudice and social injustice in the U. S. There are several intriguing letters from college students to Malcolm that offer solutions and suggestions regarding the Civil Rights struggle, but also reveal their intellectual wrestling with the ideas of social and economic justice.

Radio served as a means to further educate audiences on the religious and political philosophy of the Nation of Islam. Following Elijah Muhammad's bout with asthmatic bronchitis and his subsequent move to Phoenix, Arizona in 1961, Malcolm X played a greater role in the development of NOI's radio program titled "Mr. Muhammad Speaks". Many of the broadcast listeners were non-Muslims and the NOI took advantage of this to inform and possibly recruit black converts to its ranks. Malcolm X traveled widely, from Boston's Mosque No. 11 to Atlanta, Georgia and as far West as Phoenix, Arizona and Mosque No. 27 in Los Angeles, California, to broadcast the NOI's message. The radio scripts in this series have been numbered 1 through 80 and kept in the order that they were found after their acquisition from the auction house. See Appendix I for an itemized list of the radio scripts and the cities where they were broadcast.

Similar to his major speeches and university lectures, Malcolm X's radio broadcasts were recycled for different venues and also encompassed a wide range of themes, from economic self-help, religious teachings, to token African-American leadership in the Civil Rights movement. Although many of the radio scripts are not dated there are a few temporal references that may alert the researcher to approximate dates.

This subseries comprises speeches and notes used to enhance and advance spiritual knowledge to black people in the U. S. Several speeches delivered at Christian churches are included — specifically Abyssinian Baptist Church, the Community Church of New York City and Los Angeles Prayer Baptist Church. Most of Malcolm X's teachings were delivered to Muslim audiences in mosques across the country. But on Sundays Nation of Islam ministers often preached to mixed Muslim and Christian audiences. To some degree, one is able to distinguish between religious teachings to Muslims as opposed to religiously mixed audiences because of the subject matter. It was rare that Malcolm X or other NOI ministers would discuss NOI's cosmology or its theological beliefs to non-Muslim audiences. Other instances reveal where Malcolm X shared religious teachings designed for registered Muslims, with Christian and other religious listeners.

The Religious Teachings folders possess a wealth of knowledge regarding the NOI's Ten Questions ("Student Enrollment"), and questions that have to be answered in order to become a registered Muslim (the Lessons #1 and #2 and the Problem Book). Some of these materials are located elsewhere in the collection. A special five-part teaching by Malcolm X includes lectures on the "Reality of God and Heaven", "Reality of the Devil and Hell", "Messenger Elijah Muhammad" and "Morals, Prayer, Charity". The fourth teaching is absent. Other teachings address subjects such as how to become a good Muslim, the dichotomy between Islam and Christianity, the meaning of Yacub, the black scientist from Nation of Islam mythology who created the white race to commit genocide on black people, and the "Actual Facts", a series of questions to which all the answers are numbers that describe humans' place on the planet and in the universe. The Religious Notes entitled "Roots of Civilization" incorporate material on the question "Why did we [Muslims] run Yacub from the root of civilization? " This question presumably stems from the NOI's Lesson #1 Question #4. In addition, some of the material in this subseries include notes on "Bible, God and the Devil", "Ezekiel's Wheel", the "Muslim Girl's Training" program, and the "End of the World". The latter reveals Malcolm X's thoughts on the fall of Western civilization and its relationship to black peoples' spiritual development.

Malcolm X's religious teachings are infused with social and political commentary on black Americans' (Muslim and non-Muslim) relationship with Allah (God), the Earth and to their humanity. Presented at churches, mosques, street corner rallies, Malcolm X's radical and spiritual messages conveyed the enriching power of Islam, the beauty of a black identity and a rationale for black economic and political empowerment. Islam was the religion of truth, according to Malcolm X, and black people's commitment to Islam (the truth) could liberate them from racial oppression in the U. S. Interestingly, although a devout Muslim, Malcolm X and the NOI primarily utilized the Bible as their spiritual and educational guide. Documents in the Religious Teachings subseries and throughout his writings display and explain Biblical references more so than Qu'ranic verses. The Bible was considered a book of prophecy that spoke to modern day issues of racial oppression and social injustice. Preaching to a population predominately rooted in a Judeo-Christian tradition may account for the use of the Bible as a primary source for educating U. S. blacks.

Organized alphabetically by first sentence or by title. Original titles are in quotations. Periods and ellipses denote a sentence or portion of a sentence. Titles supplied by the processor are in brackets.

This subseries consists of eight notebooks numbered 1 through 8. The first two are disculpatory notes that chronicle Malcolm X's separation from the NOI. Notebooks 3 to 7 are travel diaries for the author's trips to Africa and the Middle East in 1964. The last notebook contains outlines of later speeches, up to "The Last Message" delivered in Detroit, Michigan, on February 14, 1965.

The influence of Malcolm X's sojourn through Africa and the Middle East on his personal and political philosophies is immeasurable. The travel diaries bring to light his day-to-day interactions and opinions on various peoples and issues — from Arab and African statesmen, religious figures and African-American expatriates, to modernization and industrialization in Africa and the Arab world. A transcription of the July to September 1964 travel diaries is also included.

The purpose of Malcolm X's journey to Africa and the Middle East was two-fold: to build better communication and understanding between African-American Muslims and Muslims throughout the world and to strengthen relations between African Americans of all faiths and the emerging African nations. A struggle on two fronts, Malcolm X's work focused on the spread of Islam, human rights and racial equality in the U. S. He asserted in a 1964 speech at Shuban al-Muslimin in Egypt:

"As a Muslim, I feel obligated to fight for the spread of Islam until all the world bows before Allah, but as an Afro-American, I can never overlook the miserable plight of my people in America, so I have two fights, two struggles.... So, I come before you here in the Muslim World, not only to rejoice over the wonderful blessings of Islam, but also to take advantage of the opportunity to remind you that there are 22 million of us in America, many of whom have never heard of Allah and Islam, and all of whom are the victims of America's continued oppression, exploitation and degradation."

The travel diaries detail Malcolm X's interactions with writers Maya Angelou and Julian Mayfield in Ghana, and his evolving ideas on Anglo-Americans and whiteness. Also included are notes for university speeches, perspectives on racial politics in the West and also the role that Africa should play in the lives of African Americans. Malcolm X clearly argued for a political and religious agenda of Black Nationalism and Islam if African Americans were to be successful in combating the social, economic and political divide in the U. S. He stated: "...it will take Black Nationalism to make our people conscious of doing for self and then Islam will provide the spiritual guidance...[that] will link us spiritually to Africa, Arabia and Asia". Malcolm X's ideas during this time period involved an interplay between local and global issues that addressed the plight of millions of black people in the U. S.

The travel diaries ground Malcolm X's thoughts and his international socio-political agenda during the pivotal year of 1964 — in which his trips to the Middle East and Africa and the formation of the Organization of Afro American Unity proved fundamental to the evolution of his identity and his politics.

Malcolm X's speech notes complement the myriad of ideas expressed in his completed lectures and informal talks. In some of the more detailed notes, the author focused on the separation versus integration debate (2 folders), the Los Angeles police brutality case involving Ronald Stokes, white supremacy in the U. S., and the importance of studying the history of African-descended peoples. The "African-Asian Bazaar" folder highlights the influence of the 1955 Bandung Conference on Malcolm X's ideas on economic independence and international cooperation. Also included here is a folder of notes for lectures at a number of academic institutions that further document his ideas on separation and integration, the theological and organizational mission of Elijah Muhammad, and Malcolm X's own understanding of the NOI as a religious institution. Overall, this subseries provides rich documentation to further examine Malcolm's socio-political message.

Incorporated in May 1956 as Muhammad's Temple of Islam, Mosque No. 7 was the largest and most active NOI chapter, under Malcolm X's direction. Its files in the collection consist of administrative and educational material, correspondence, disciplinary decisions and appeals, and advocacy and legal documents pertaining to police brutality in New York City and religious discrimination in New York State prisons. The 1956 Certificate of Incorporation bears Malcolm X's signature as presiding officer. The Leases and Space Rental file includes correspondence between NOI lawyer Edward Jacko and New York State National Guard officials for the rental of the 369th Regiment's armory in Harlem for a bazaar showcasing the achievements of African-American businesses. The request had been initially rejected on grounds that the Nation of Islam was a "controversial organization" whose religious character was "in litigation in this State". Also included are attendance slips, one for 1961 and 24 for 1963, ranging from March 17 to October 20. Weekly services were held at the original Mosque No. 7 in Harlem as well as in Corona, Queens, (No. 7-B) and in Brooklyn (No. 7-C). The attendance slip for March 17, 1963 in Harlem records the presence of 219 men (Fruits of Islam or FOI), 137 women (Muslim Girls Training or MGT), 49 Junior FOI and 37 Junior MGT, 34 Brothers and 76 Sisters "on Forms" (waiting for their "X"), 74 visitors and 53 "Lost-Founds". The keynote speaker was Minister Malcolm X. The subject was "Freedom, Justice and Equality". On Sunday, October 6, services were held at all three locations, with a total of 665 participants in Harlem, 107 in Corona and 394 in Brooklyn.

The Youth Training Program at Mosque No. 7 was geared toward children aged 3 to 7, 8 to 12 and 13 to 18, and addressed the academic and moral needs of the children. Included in the file are a Parents-Teachers Association newsletter, proposals by Muslim educators and the Mosque's Youth Training Committee, an address by Sister Bernice entitled "The Children of Islam", the first two pages of an "ABC of Divine Knowledge" for children, and a 15-page "Guide for Teachers: Contributions of Afro-Americans to the American Culture" by Edwina Chavers Johnson. NOI women learned "how to keep house, how to rear children, how to take care of their husband, sew, cook, and in general, how to act at home and abroad", in classes designed by founder W. D. Fard for the Moslem Girls' Training and General Civilization Class (MGT-GCC). The MGT file consists of two short essays on the woman in Islam and some notes. Additional material on women and the NOI are in the Printed Matter series.

The slim correspondence file in the New York Mosque subseries includes inquiries from NOI members on such things as the meaning of Ramadan, sleeping arrangements for visiting Muslims attending a NOI rally in New York City, and members seeking guidance or redress against other members. MGT women in Mosque No. 10 (Atlantic City) wrote in alarm, in November 1962, of accusations made by their minister "that we are unfit for the brothers to give their life for us and that we are uncouth". One telegram dated December 1, 1962 offered "iron clad proof of an organized plot against you". An August 14, 1963 letter from FOI Captain Quinton R. X. in Washington, D. C., is concerned with a purported statement by Bayard Rustin that organizers of the historic 1963 March on Washington would welcome Malcolm X if he would embrace nonviolence. Also included are two January 1963 letters from the New York State Commissioner for Human Rights about a reported confrontation between the Rochester police and local Black Muslims. That meeting and a subsequent one between Malcolm X and the Commissioner for Public Safety in Rochester, Donald Corbett, were amply reported in an attached issue of the news magazine We.

The NOI held its members to strict codes of personal conduct, and enforced its discipline through temporary banishment or "Time Out". The disciplinary process involved the Minister, the FOI Captain and Investigators of both sexes. Some cases were forwarded to Chicago for a decision. The Disciplinary file includes several reports detailing member misconduct. The Police Brutality file deals marginally with New York City. An October 20, 1961 draft resolution in Malcolm X's hand called for the sub-committee on police brutality of the Emergency Committee for Unity on Social and Economic Problems to "disband at once and give back to the entire body of UNITY the gigantic responsibility of forming an Emergency Committee on Law Enforcement". The Emergency Committee was a coalition effort chaired by A. Philip Randolph. A four-page "Program for Correcting and Preventing the Breakdown of Law and Order Enforcement in the Black Community" is also included, along with other documents dealing with police misconduct in New York. On January 2, 1963, Malcolm X sent a telegram to Mayor Wagner, Police Commissioner Michael Murphy and District Attorney Frank Logan, to protest the increased harassment of Muslim street sellers of the Muhammad Speaks newspaper. The telegram called for an immediate investigation of the previous Christmas day arrest of two paper sellers at gunpoint in Times Square. Other documents in this file include a handout entitled "America has become a police-state for 20 million Negroes", a telegram to President Kennedy protesting the detention of a NOI minister and 12 Black Muslims in Rochester, and a press release announcing a February 13, 1963 protest in Times Square.

Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X filed a multi-million dollar damage suit against the Hearst Corporation in 1960, for a New York Journal-American article that characterized Muhammad's Temple of Islam as a "terrorist organization". The article stemmed from Malcolm X's thirty-minute private meeting with Fidel Castro at the Theresa Hotel in Harlem in September 1960. The complaint file by Edward Jacko recalled the context of Castro's stay at the Harlem hotel where he entertained Soviet leader Nikita Krushchev, among others. The two plaintiffs filed another lawsuit against the New York World-Telegram newspaper, following a February 17, 1961 article about "the Muslim Brotherhood, also known as the Black Muslims, Muslim Cult of Islam, Nation of Islam and other Arabic-sounding names". Citing police sources, the article referred to the Muslim Brotherhood as "one of the most dangerous gangs in the city", as a "fanatic Negro cult" responsible for a riot at the United Nations in which some 40 people had been injured, following the assassination of Congolese Prime-Minister Patrice Lumumba.

The remaining New York files relate to Black Muslims in jail and the restriction of their rights as a religious group by prison authorities. The Rikers Island folder refers to a policy prohibiting in-jail conversion to Islam. "The only inmates who are permitted to attend the [Muslim] services are those inmates who previously stated, prior to admittance to the institution, that they are Muslim.... All others are kept out of the services even if the guards have to resort to violence". At Attica, the Rules of Religious Services limited the chaplaincy only to candidates who held a degree from an accredited four-year college or university. This and other requirements disqualified most NOI ministers. In 1962, a group of Muslim inmates who had filed a suit against this discriminatory policy were brought to court in leg chains. A vigorous campaign involving Mosque No. 7, Congressman Adam Clayton Powell and African Americans in Buffalo, challenged Governor Nelson Rockefeller to discontinue these discriminatory practices. The file includes copies of correspondence between Powell and the governor's office, press releases, accounts in local newspapers, and various petitions filed by the plaintiffs. A similar situation at Clinton Prison in Dannemora, NY, led the NOI through its attorney, Edward Jacko, to file a civil rights brief on behalf of three inmates: James Pierce, Martin Sostre and William Marion. Inmates in Greenhaven Prison, Dutchess County, NY, also sought a relief order for the ministration of their faith. The Greenhaven file includes a late 1963 handwritten draft press release penned by Malcolm X, indicating that "two Negro inmates" had "filed a complaint last week with [United Nations] Secretary General U Thant charging violations of their human rights by the U. S. government and by the state of New York". This and other briefs are included here.

On May 4, 1962, Malcolm X issued a press alert in Los Angeles to call attention to an incident that had occurred a week earlier when a police squad forced its way inside the local mosque killing mosque secretary Ronald Stokes and wounding several others. A Grand Jury subsequently brought felony charges against fourteen of the Black Muslims, all of them unarmed at the time of the confrontation. Malcolm X went to L. A. as Elijah Muhammad's national representative, and sought to mobilize support in the local black community for the indicted men and against police brutality. The file includes Malcolm X's initial notes on the case, his "Open Letter to America's Five Negro Congressmen", press releases from the local and national NAACP, correspondence, legal documents, newspaper clippings and publicity material for several NOI-organized protests.

The Philadelphia file consists of correspondence and publicity material pertaining to the October 1962 NOI national convention in that city, and the minutes of a Fellowship Commission on Community Tension meeting on the Black Muslim movement. Also included are material developed by Minister Clifford X on organization and community relations. The Boston file includes three letters by Minister Louis X (Farrakhan) to Malcolm X, to community organizations, and to Massachusetts elected officials on the subject of police brutality in Los Angeles and Boston. In 1963 Malcolm X assumed stewardship of Mosque No. 4 in Washington, D. C. Included in the file for that city are monthly tallies of expenditures and income from May through August, attendance slips for the month of August, correspondence between Malcolm X and the District of Columbia Department of Corrections about the religious rights of Muslim inmates in D. C. jails, and some printed matter.

This subseries consists of articles from the national press and from local newspapers gathered by Malcolm X as he traveled around the country and across the world. The articles are arranged chronologically, according to preexisting headings found in the collection. Malcolm X used current events in his political agitation and as a result paid close attention to the news media. A fair number of articles are annotated and underlined. Malcolm X also expected his associates to write frequent press releases to publicize their events and their views, however when the media covered the events in question, the views expressed were often sensationalized, as if to constantly fuel public fear of the Black Muslims' more radical or extreme views. The nationalist leader understood this dynamic and warned the country in his prophecy of "the Ballot or the Bullet" that the price of denying the accommodationist demands of the civil right movement was the prospect of racial confrontation and unbridled violence.

The Malcolm X file picks up in 1962, as the NOI became "one of the fastest growing mass movements in the United States (Cornell Daily Sun, 3/7/62), and the young Muslim leader its most visible emblem. Articles in the file range from the mainstream New York daily press to local papers like the Ithaca Journal and the Omaha Star, with more coverage after his break from the NOI from the leftwing press and publications in Africa. The next file, Separation from the Nation of Islam, lends credence to claims that a campaign had been underway, prior to President Kennedy's November 22, 1963 assassination to foster division in the Black Muslims' ranks, or at the very least to drive Malcolm X away. The Chicago Defender and two other Chicago newspapers ran stories, in early November 1963, alleging a feud between Malcolm X and Muhammad. The black press sensationalized his silencing, and in the case of the Afro-American declared a "showdown" between the two men, set for the annual NOI Convention on February 26, 1964 in Chicago. The New York Times wrote (2/25/64) that the "chickens coming home to roost" remarks had been used by Muslim officials in Chicago to "cut Malcolm down to size". After the separation, the headlines veered to alleged armed confrontations between Malcolm X followers and NOI members, and to sizzling accounts of Muhammad's extra-marital affairs. Additional materials on Malcolm X are also found in the Black Muslims folder. The file "Mr. Muhammad Speaks" contains copies of the weekly column written by Elijah Muhammad and published in various African-American newspapers. Copies of the weekly column, "The Woman in Islam", published in the New Crusader and written by NOI member Tynetta Deanar are filed under that title. Other files relate to Black Muslims in jail, the L. A. police killing of Ronald X Stokes, the civil rights movement, the Kennedy administration, and racial unrest in the U. S. in 1964.

There is also a box of oversized newspapers featuring articles about Malcolm X and his activities at home and abroad. Printed matter not microfilmed include a Bible and three copies of the Quran, Muslim publications brought back from trips in Africa, the Middle East and Europe, and a copy of the book History of Palestine Temple, Ancient Arabic Order Nobles of the Mystic Shrine which is said to support Elijah Muhammad's claim that 33-Degree Masons were initially accepted as members of the Shrine, also known as Moslems Sons.

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