self efficacy a brief literature review

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Self-Efficacy: A Brief Literature Review

Today there is a huge need for a scientific literature review especially for researchers who are preparing research proposals. Scientific journals are mostly filled with research results that are proof of the theory. There are not many articles that contain a literature review on an actual issue. This essay aims to present a concise literature review of self-efficacy. The discussion focused on exploring the basic theories, definitions, dimensions, sources, roles, and antecedents and consequences of self-efficacy. This paper is expected to contribute especially to researchers who are preparing research proposals on this issue.

Bandura, A. & Adams, N. E. 1977. Analysis of self-efficacy theory of behavioral change. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1(4), 287-310.

Bandura, A. & Cervone, D. 1983. Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(5), 1017-1028.

Bandura, A. 1977. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. 1990. Perceived self-efficacy in the exercise of control over AIDS infection. Evaluation and Program Planning, 13, 9-17.

Bandura, A. 1992. Exercise of personal agency through the self-efficacy mechanisms. In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), Self-efficacy: Thought control of action. Washington, DC: Hemisphere.

Bandura, A. 1994. Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior,4. New York: Academic Press, pp. 71-81.

Bandura, A. 1995. Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies. Cambridge University Press.

Bandura, A. 1997. Self efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

Bandura, A. 2008. Toward an agentic theory of the self, dalam Marsh, H., Craven, R.G., & McInerney, D.M. (Eds.). Advances in Self Research, Self-Processes, Learning, and Enabling Human Potential (pp. 15-49). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Bandura, A. 2012. On the functional properties of perceived self-efficacy revisited. Journal of Management, 38(1), 9-44.

Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. 2001. Self-efﬁcacy beliefs as shapers of children’s aspirations and career trajectories. Child Development, 72(1), 187-206.

Benight, C. C. & Bandura, A. 2004. Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: the role of perceived self-eﬃcacy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1129-1148.

Dagher, G. K., Chapa, O., & Junaid, N. 2015. The historical evolution of employee engagement and self-efficacy constructs: an empirical examination in a non-western country. Journal of Management History, 21(2), 232-256.

Ivancevich, J. M., Konopaske, R., & Matteson, M. T. 2007. Perilaku dan Manajemen Organisasi, Edisi Ketujuh. Jakarta: Erlangga.

Jarvis, C. B., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. 2003. A critical review of construct indicators and measurement model misspecification in marketing and consumer research. Journal of consumer research, 30(2), 199-218.

Jeng, C. & Braun, L. T. 1994. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory: A guide for cardiac rehabilitation nursing practice. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 12(4), 425-436.

Lianto, L., Eliyana, A., & Fauzan, R. 2018. Enhancing the Employee Engagement: The Mediating Role of Exchange Ideology. Jurnal Pengurusan (UKM Journal of Management), 53(2), 61 – 71

Lunenburg, F. C. 2011. Self-efficacy in the workplace: Implications for motivation and performance. International Journal of Management, Business, and Administration, 14(1), 1-6.

Luthans, F. & Peterson, S. J. 2002. Employee engagement and manager self-efficacy: Implications for managerial effectiveness and development. Journal of Management Development, 21(5), 376-387.

Luthans, F. 2011. Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Mathisen, G. E. 2011. Organizational antecedents of creative self‐efficacy. Creativity and Innovation Management, 20(3), 185-195.

McShane, S. L., & Von Glinow, M. A. 2005. Organizational Behavior: Emerging Realities for the Workplace Revolution. New York: Mc Graw-Hill.

Mensah, A. O. & Lebbaeus, A. 2013. The influence of employees' self-efficacy on their quality of work life: The case of Cape Coast, Ghana. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(2), 195-205.

Montcalm, D. M. 1999. Applying Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy to the teaching of research. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 19, 93-107.

Ouweneel, E., Schaufeli, W. B., & Le Blanc, P. M. 2013. Believe, and You Will Achieve: Changes over Time in Self‐Efficacy, Engagement, and Performance. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 5(2), 225-247.

Propst, D. B. & Koesler, R. A. 1998. Bandura goes outdoors: Role of self-efficacy in the outdoor leadership development process.

Leisure Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 20(4), 319-344.

Rich, B. L., Lepine, J. A., & Crawford, E. R. 2010. Job engagement: Antecedents and effects on job performance. Academy of Management Journal, 53(3), 617-635.

Robbins, S. P. & Judge, T. A. 2013. Organizational Behavior, 15th. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Rollnick, S. & Heather, N. 1982. The application of Bandura’s self-efficacy theory to abstinence-oriented alcoholism treatment. Addictive Behaviors, 7, 243-250.

Salanova, M., Llorens, S., & Schaufeli, W.B. 2011. “Yes, I Can, I Feel Good, and I Just Do It!” On Gain Cycles and Spirals of Efﬁcacy Beliefs, Affect, and Engagement. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 60(2), 255-285.

Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. 1995. Optimistic self-beliefs as a resource factor in coping with stress. In Extreme stress and communities: Impact and intervention (pp. 159-177). Springer Netherlands.

Stajkovic, A. D. & Luthans, F. 1998. Self-efficacy and work-related performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 240-261.

Tierney, P., & Farmer, S. M. 2002. Creative self-efficacy: Its potential antecedents and relationship to creative performance. Academy of Management journal, 45(6), 1137-1148.

Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. 2007. The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and teacher Education, 23(6), 944-956.

Wood, R. & Bandura, A. 1989. Social Cognitive Theory of Organizational Management. Academy of Management Review, 14(3), 361-384.

Xanthopoulou, D., Baker, A. B., Heuven, E., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. 2008. Working in the Sky: A Diary Study on Work Engagement Among Flight Attendants. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13(4), 345-356.

Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Pons, M. 1992. Self-Motivation for Academic Attainment: The Role of Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Personal Goal Setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 663-676.

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Self-Efficacy: A Brief Literature Review

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Self-efficacy: Implications for Physical Activity, Function, and Functional Limitations in Older Adults

Attenuating the physical decline and increases in disability associated with the aging process is an important public health priority. Evidence suggests that regular physical activity participation improves functional performance, such as walking, standing balance, flexibility, and getting up out of a chair, and also plays an important role in the disablement process by providing a protective effect against functional limitations. Whether these effects are direct or indirect has yet to be reliably established. In this review, the authors take the perspective that such relationships are indirect and operate through self-efficacy expectations. They first provide an introduction to social cognitive theory followed by an overview of self-efficacy's reciprocal relationship with physical activity. They then consider the literature that documents the effects of physical activity on functional performance and functional limitations in older adults and the extent to which self-efficacy might mediate these relationships. Furthermore, they also present evidence that suggests that self-efficacy plays a pivotal role in a model in which the protective effects conferred by physical activity on functional limitations operate through functional performance. The article concludes with a brief section making recommendations for the development of strategies within physical activity and rehabilitative programs for maximizing the major sources of efficacy information.

In all such associations, there has been evidence to suggest that self-effcacy is one of a number of potential mediators of the effects of physical activity on these psychological outcomes.

Biomedical advances and the practice of preventive health behaviors have resulted in an unprecedented growth in the older population of the United States, a trend projected to continue over the next several decades. 1 However, the addition of years to life is no guarantee that those years will be quality years, and there is considerable evidence to suggest that increasing the life span is also associated with decrements in function and increases in disability. It is well established that declines in physical function are an inevitable part of the aging process and are markers of disability risk. 2 In 2008, 64% of adults over 65 years of age reported limitations in at least 1 domain of physical function—walking, climbing, standing, sitting, stooping, reaching, grasping, carrying, and/or pushing. 3 Although there was a decline in disability and functional limitation rates among older adults during the 1990s, 4 a recent report suggests that that trend has reversed. 5 Indeed, using data from the American Community Survey and the National Nursing Home Survey, Fuller-Thompson et al 5 reported a 9% relative increase in basic activities of daily living (ADL) limitations from 2000 to 2005. More than one third of adults aged 65 or older report limitations with basic ADLs, such as bathing and dressing. 3 Such limitations are important risk factors for subsequent disability, institutionalization, the erosion of independent living, and compromised quality of life in older adults. 6 The need to develop practical and scalable approaches for the prevention or attenuation of declines in function can therefore be considered a key public health priority. 7

Physical activity interventions and the incorporation of physical activity into a healthy lifestyle represent at least 1 behavioral modality for possibly attenuating the effects of the aging process on functional limitations and disability and the attendant declines in quality of life. However, it is important to frame such associations within a theoretical framework. 8 Doing so allows us to better understand why these associations might exist (ie, which factors might underlie any effects of physical activity on physical function and functional limitations), and in turn, practitioners can use such information to guide and implement programs designed for older adults. One such theoretical approach is social cognitive theory (SCT). 9 , 10 Although consisting of a number of constructs associated with behavior change (ie, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, facilitators, and impediments), self-efficacy, as the central active agent in SCT, has been consistently associated with physical activity, function, and well-being. Self-efficacy is conceptualized as one's beliefs in one's capabilities to successfully execute courses of action. 9 In this review, we examine the literature that has focused on self-efficacy's relationship with physical activity, functional performance, and functional limitations in older adults. A social cognitive perspective of these relationships is depicted in Figure 1 . 11 , 12 We believe it prudent, however, to first provide a brief introduction to SCT and, in particular, the role played by self-efficacy in behavior change. Given that we are taking the position that physical activity effects on physical function and functional limitations are mediated in part by self-efficacy, we next provide a brief overview of the self-efficacy and physical activity relationship. This is followed by a review of the literature examining physical activity effects on physical function and functional limitations and the extent to which this relationship might be explained by the mediation of self-efficacy. We conclude with recommendations for future practitioners.

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Self-effcacy as a Mediator of the Association Between Physical Activity, Functional Performance, and Functional Limitations in Older Adults.

Social Cognitive Theory: A Brief Introduction

SCT 9 , 10 , 13 provides the theoretical foundation that has served as the impetus for a considerable body of literature documenting the correlates and determinants of health behavior change. The core set of determinants underlying SCT (ie, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, and facilitators/impediments) and the manner in which they are theorized to influence behavior have been clearly articulated by Bandura. 13 The “active agent” in SCT is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy expectations are beliefs regarding the individuals' capabilities to successfully carry out a course of action 14 and in lay terms may be considered as a situation-specific form of self-confidence. The situation-specific nature of self-efficacy is nontrivial because it is a characteristic that distinguishes efficacy cognitions from more stable, dispositional qualities of self-confidence and subjects them to external and internal influences making them ideal targets for manipulation 15 and interventions. 16 The primary sources of efficacy information include past performance accomplishments, or mastery experiences, social persuasion, social modeling, and the interpretation of physiological and emotional states. 10 Efficacy expectations are theorized to influence the activities that individuals choose to pursue, the degree of effort they expend in pursuit of their goals, and the levels of persistence they demonstrate in the face of setbacks, failures, and difficulties. It is difficult to argue that choice, effort, and persistence are unrelated to the successful adoption and maintenance of an exercise regimen, especially as one ages. Thus, self-efficacy would appear to be a very natural correlate of this complex health behavior, and indeed, it has been perhaps one of the most consistently reported correlates of exercise behavior and its outcomes. 17

As noted earlier, self-efficacy has been demonstrated to influence a wide array of health behaviors. 10 , 17 However, it is equally important to consider that behavioral outcomes associated with physical activity take the form of elements other than actual physical activity behavior itself. For example, there is a considerable literature detailing the effects of physical activity on psychological well-being in the form of anxiety, 18 depression, 19 affect, 20 and quality of life. 11 In all such associations, there has been evidence to suggest that self-efficacy is one of a number of potential mediators of the effects of physical activity on these psychological outcomes. In addition, there is a growing literature to suggest that physical activity plays an important role in the attenuation of functional limitations 21 and the enhancement of functional performance in older adults. 22 Again, there is evidence to suggest that self-efficacy may mediate this relationship. For example, self-efficacy mediated the influence of an exercise intervention on stair climbing in older adults with osteoarthritis of the knee. 23 Li et al 24 also showed a positive association between self-efficacy and physical function with improvements in older adults' self-efficacy for movement, as a function of tai chi practice, being associated with an attendant improvement in physical function. Finally, Seeman and her colleagues 25 , 26 have reported self-efficacy expectations to be related to disability and functional declines and that self-efficacy influenced disability independent of physical abilities.

It is important, however, to demonstrate that the relationship between self-efficacy and physical activity is consistent before making inferences regarding self-efficacy's potential as a mediator of physical activity's effects on other health outcomes. The theoretical tenets of SCT are such that self-efficacy is hypothesized to be reciprocally related to physical activity behavior. That is, older adults with a higher sense of exercise self-efficacy are more likely to engage in physical activity, and in turn, successful exercise experiences are effective in building a more potent sense of efficacy. To this end, we now briefly review this literature. First, we consider the extent to which self-efficacy might act as a potential correlate or determinant of physical activity in older adults. We then consider the reciprocal relationship in which physical activity acts as a source of efficacy information—a vital relationship in exploring the potential mediating role of efficacy on physical function and functional limitations.

Self-Efficacy as a Determinant of Physical Activity

Self-efficacy has been demonstrated to be particularly influential in the adoption of physical activity 17 , 27 because there appears to be greater opportunity to mediate behavior through cognitive control than when behavior has become more habitual. 9 , 28 Moreover, the role played by self-efficacy in physical activity behavior appears to be quite consistent across ages and populations. 29 For example, McNeill et al 30 examined the influences of individual, social environmental, and physical environmental variables on physical activity in African American and Caucasian adults. They found that the social and physical environments had an indirect effect on physical activity through motivation and self-efficacy. What is interesting is that this association was stronger for activities of greater intensity—a finding that is in accord with SCT principles, which posit that self-efficacy had greater predictive ability under more challenging circumstances, assuming that the requisite skills and sufficient motivation are present. Castro et al 31 have examined the correlates of physical activity in sedentary, ethnic minority women reporting that higher levels of self-efficacy were associated with participation in more physical activity. In a more recent study of underprivileged women, Cleland et al 32 found that women who were successful at achieving physical activity recommendations reported higher levels of self-efficacy for walking and vigorous physical activity. Indeed, those with high self-efficacy for walking, stronger intentions to be active, and a plan for activity were twice as likely to meet the physical activity recommendations compared with those women with low walking self-efficacy, low intentions, and no set physical activity routine.

However, self-efficacy is also implicated in the long-term maintenance of physical activity. For example, Oman and King 33 reported that higher levels of self-efficacy at baseline of a home-based physical activity trial among middle-aged and older adults were predictive of physical activity behavior at 2-year follow-up. Conversely, it has also been reported that decreases in physical activity self-efficacy in older adults were correlated with becoming inactive. 34 , 35 Additionally, Schwarzer et al 34 have noted that self-efficacy was a determinant of exercise adherence at months 4, 8, and 12 in a sample of cardiac rehabilitation patients.

McAuley and colleagues 28 , 36 have provided compelling evidence for the importance of self-efficacy as a predictor of long-term physical activity maintenance. They have reported data from 2- 28 and 5-year follow-ups 36 of a 6-month physical activity intervention for older adults (N = 174; mean age = 66.7 years at baseline). Those participants with stronger self-efficacy expectations at the end of the intervention were significantly more active at the 2-year follow-up, even when previous physical activity behavior was statistically controlled. At the 5-year follow-up, once again controlling for previous physical activity, self-efficacy continued to be a significant determinant of activity. Thus, it appears that self-efficacy plays an important role in the process of being physically active over the long term. It is also critical to note that self-efficacy remained a significant predictor of physical activity after controlling for previous behavior. This is consistent with McAuley's 37 and Bandura's 10 , 38 position that under challenging circumstances (eg, long-term maintenance of behavior), higher-level cognitive control systems, such as self-efficacy, exert a significant influence on the execution of behavioral repertoires.

However, it is a central tenet of SCT that the nature of the relationship between self-efficacy and behavior is reciprocally determined. That is, efficacy expectations provide an important basis for the prediction of subsequent behavioral action but are also influenced by behavioral successes and failures. 10 This latter aspect of the relationship is of vital importance when considering potential pathways from physical activity to functional limitations in older adults. Participation in physical activity can influence self-efficacy by acting as one of the principal sources of efficacy information, that is, by providing mastery or performance accomplishment experiences. Early evidence for this was provided in a study reporting the effects of both acute and chronic physical activity participation on several measures of self-efficacy for physical performance. 39 Middle-aged men and women completed measures of self-efficacy prior to and following a graded exercise test administered at baseline and at the end of a 5-month exercise trial. Both men and women demonstrated significant increases in self-efficacy following acute exercise. Interestingly, women, who had demonstrated significantly lower self-perceptions than men at baseline, made dramatic increases in efficacy during the exercise program, equaling or surpassing those of men. In another randomized controlled exercise trial examining the prediction of exercise behavior in older adults, McAuley et al 28 found that participants who exercised more frequently during the 6-month program had higher levels of social support and a more positive exercise experience, which led to enhanced self-efficacy. Additionally, mastery experiences associated with participation in tai chi exercise significantly increased self-efficacy to overcome barriers to tai chi. 40 Physical activity counseling related to self-efficacy has also been shown to increase physical activity participation, which in turn increased self efficacy for physical activity over the course of a 6-month intervention. 41

In an effort to further understand the role of physical activity behavior in efficacy formation and effects on other aspects of well-being, a number of researchers have conducted experiments in which self-efficacy has been manipulated to be a function of physical activity performance information. 15 , 42 , 43 In these experiments, participants have typically been randomly assigned to a high-or low-efficacy condition and efficacy expectations. They then engage in a single bout of exercise, typically an exercise stress test, and efficacy is manipulated by means of bogus feedback and graphs depicting contrived normative data. 15 These manipulations have, in turn, successfully influenced affective responses, with participants in the high-efficacy group reporting more positive and less negative affect than did the low-efficacy group. Such findings suggest that self-efficacy is informed by the provision of physical activity mastery experiences and provides the necessary evidence to further examine how self-efficacy may mediate physical activity association with physical function and functional limitations in older adults.

Physical Activity, Aging, Function, and Functional Limitations

There is emerging evidence regarding the role played by physical inactivity in functional limitations and disability in older adults. Physical inactivity or sedentary behavior appear to exacerbate the impairments in physiological and structural systems that occur with the aging process 44 and, in turn, result in the accumulation of functional limitations and disability over time. It has been suggested that interventions designed to promote or maintain physical activity behavior among older adults might represent an effective strategy for attenuating functional decline and reducing the risk of disability in older adults. 45 For example, being physically active is associated with improved physical functioning activities such as walking, climbing stairs, getting up out of a chair, and so on. However, it is important to make a distinction between physical function and functional limitations. 22 Physical functioning encompasses physical abilities, dexterity, and the capabilities to perform ADLs. Functional limitations typically manifest as self-reported frequency in restrictions, or difficulty in walking, lifting, or carrying, and rates of limitation in function and appear to be exacerbated by sedentary behavior. 2 Sedentary lifestyles compound the physiological impairments associated with the aging process. 45

Keysor and colleagues 21 , 46 have conducted 2 major reviews of the association between physical activity and functional limitations and disability. In the earlier review, the most consistent observation was that more than half of the studies reported improvements in strength, aerobic capacity, flexibility, standing balance, and walking after exercise training in older adults. The effects of exercise on disability were less clear, with most studies reporting no improvement and a handful of studies reporting reduced physical disability as a function of physical activity. As noted by Keysor and Jette, 46 few of the studies reviewed actually targeted disability as a primary outcome of physical activity. Keysor 21 used a best-evidence framework and included meta-analyses and systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) as well as individual RCTs and longitudinal observational studies to examine the protective effect of physical activity participation on the prevention and attenuation of functional limitations and disability in older adults. Again, this review clearly supported the position that exercise was associated with improvements in strength, aerobic capacity, and function, particularly walking. Additionally, although there was once more conflicting evidence regarding physical activity and disability outcomes, there was consistent evidence that physical activity plays an important role in the disablement process and has a protective effect against functional limitations. 21 Those older adults who reported being more physically active had fewer functional limitations.

Conversely, recent evidence from the Veterans LIFE study 47 reported a physical activity intervention to have only a marginal influence on self-reported functional limitations and disability. However, the nature of the intervention should be considered in the interpretation of this finding. The intervention was a multi-modal physical activity counseling program incorporating in-person baseline physical activity counseling to help tailor goals and determine limitations. Additionally, it included systematic telephone calls from a health counselor, automated telephone calls from the participant's primary care physician (PCP), and program endorsement when visiting the PCP. Although this intervention was able to increase minutes of moderate/vigorous physical activity and physical function (ie, gait speed), it is unclear from the reporting whether those individuals with greater improvements in physical activity and functional performance also reported fewer limitations and less disability. Such analyses would have been illustrative of the extent to which actual behavior change was associated with changes in compromised functioning.

Although being less physically active has been shown to be associated with more severe functional limitations in a large sample of community dwelling older women, 48 evidence suggests that a relatively small amount of activity (eg, walking 1 mile in a week) results in a significant slowing of the functional limitation trajectory over a 6-year period. 49 Earlier work from the Women's Health and Aging Studies indicated that the relative risk of disability was 5 times greater in older women with the poorest strength and balance compared with those with the best strength and balance. 50 Thus, the importance of incorporating strength and balance activities in physical activity programs for older adults is underscored. Indeed, findings from a recent systematic review and meta-analysis 51 suggest that exercise programs that include balance activities and have a higher dose of activity are more effective in the prevention of falls in older adults. Such findings echo the importance of physical activity recommendations for older adults, which underscore the importance of activity regimens that include elements of flexibility, strength, and balance 52 for maintaining independent living. Moreover, recent data from the Lifestyle Interventions for Elders Pilot (LIFE-P) testify to the efficacy of combining walking, strength training, balance, and behavioral skills training to enhance physical activity adherence and physical function in sedentary older adults at risk for disability. 53 Compared with a successful aging control group, participants in the physical activity condition demonstrated greater gains in physical activity and strength and improved their physical function performance, as assessed by timed measures of standing balance, gait speed, and rising from a chair.

Although Keysor 21 has concluded that physical activity does indeed have a protective effect on functional limitations as we age, what is unclear is the extent to which this may be a direct effect—that is, completely attributable to physical activity—or an indirect effect—that is, a relationship that is explainable by other mediating variables. Understanding such relationships would be instrumental in the design of more effective interventions by targeting not simply exercise behavior but also the potential mediator variables in order to maximize beneficial effects on function and disability in older adults. Keysor 21 and others 12 , 23 have suggested that self-efficacy may be one such mediator.

Physical Activity, Functional Performance, and Functional Limitations: A Social Cognitive Perspective

Considerable evidence exists to suggest that efficacy expectations are associated with physical function performance. 17 For example, Rejeski et al 23 reported that self-efficacy mediated the influence of an exercise intervention on stair climbing in older adults with osteoarthritis of the knee. In a prospective epidemiological trial examining the progression of disability in older adults with knee pain, self-efficacy was associated with declines in stair-climbing performance and self-reported disability at 30-month follow-up. 54 It is important to note that further analyses revealed that baseline levels of self-efficacy were important for predicting functional performance and disability when knee strength was low. Such findings align well with the social cognitive perspective that self-efficacy demonstrates greatest predictive power under more challenging circumstances. 9 , 10

Seeman and her colleagues 26 provide longitudinal data from the McArthur Successful Aging studies, which suggest an important association between self-efficacy and changes in functional abilities and disability status. In both men and women, having a stronger sense of efficacy for performing instrumental activities at baseline conferred a protective effect on level of disability 2.5 years later. What is important is that the impact of self-efficacy on perceptions of functional decline was independent of actual physical abilities. This suggests that our views of what we may be limited in doing are shaped more by our perceptions of what we can do rather than by our actual abilities to carry out these actions. This is a perspective that is perfectly in accordance with SCT principles. 10

Kempen et al 55 conducted a 2-year prospective study of disability change in a community sample (N = 575) of low-functioning older adults from the Netherlands. Their findings suggest that initial status of self-efficacy may be instrumental in the progression of disability in older adults. That is, individuals classified as having high efficacy at baseline reported significantly less disability progression over the 2-year period than did low- and medium-efficacy participants. Unfortunately, Kempen et al 55 did not report any data relative to physical activity status, and it is therefore not possible to determine the extent of the relationship between physical activity, self-efficacy, and disability. Fortunately, a number of studies exist that allow us to further examine the role played by physical activity in this relationship.

For example, physical activity and self-efficacy may be particularly important for the physical functioning of older individuals who are prone to fall-related injuries. Using a sample of older low–bone mass women (mean age = 79.3 years), Liu-Ambrose et al 56 reported that both self-efficacy and physical activity were significantly correlated with balance and mobility in a bivariate sense. However, only self-efficacy was an independent predictor of these important health outcomes in hierarchical regression models. Although cross-sectional in design, findings from this study are suggestive of the social cognitive position that physical activity effects on functional performance may be mediated by perceptions of personal efficacy.

One potential way to understand the relationship between physical activity and functional limitations may be through the pathways of self-efficacy and physical function performance. That is, more active individuals are likely to be more efficacious, which should lead to better physical functional performance. Being able to function better in one's environment would then be associated with fewer functional restrictions or limitations. This pattern of relationships is also consistent with the arguments made by Stewart 22 regarding the role played by physical function performance in the disablement process. It is important to note that they also support a social cognitive perspective that perceptions of personal efficacy are important mediators of the physical activity and functional limitations relationship.

Although not much effort has been made to empirically examine the potential mediators of the physical activity and functional limitations relationship, a number of research groups 12 , 24 , 36 have adopted a social cognitive perspective for examining self-efficacy and physical function performance as possible mediators in the association between physical activity and functional limitations among older adults. Li et al 24 tested a relatively simple social cognitive model in the context of a tai chi intervention for older adults (mean age = 72.8 years). Their conceptual model hypothesized that participation in tai chi would result in improvements in self-efficacy, which, in turn, would lead to improved physical function. Using a multisample latent growth curve approach they were able to compare the hypothesized effects between the treatment condition (tai chi) and a control condition (waitlist). They report several findings of interest. First, rate of change (ie, treatment effects) for self-efficacy and function were influenced by initial status. That is, those with lower self-efficacy and lower physical function at baseline benefitted more from tai chi practice. More important, practicing tai chi led to the hypothesized increases in self-efficacy and subsequent improvement in physical function. It is important, however, to critically evaluate these findings in the context of how physical function was measured. Li et al used a health status measure that actually assessed functional limitations , a related but conceptually distinct construct from functional performance. 2 , 22 In essence, the Li et al findings support self-efficacy as a mediator of physical activity effects on functional limitations. Moreover, they are in concert with data from other studies, which have suggested that physical activity interventions have a differential impact on older adults, with differing levels of self-efficacy. 57 , 58

Further support for such associations comes from the recently completed lifestyle intervention and independence pilot study (LIFE-P), 59 a multicenter pilot RCT examining the effects of a physical activity intervention (vs a successful aging condition) designed to prevent mobility disability in functionally compromised atrisk older adults. Recent evidence from this trial 60 provides further evidence for the physical activity–self-efficacy–function link. Results indicated that participants in the physical activity arm had significantly greater increases in self-efficacy for completion of a 400 m walk than did those participants in the successful aging condition. It is interesting to note that those individuals in the control condition with lower functional performance scores at baseline showed significantly greater reductions in self-efficacy across the intervention and follow-up. Finally, changes in self-efficacy were associated with changes in physical function across 12 months.

Such findings have been replicated and theoretically expanded by McAuley and his colleagues. 12 In a 24-month prospective observational study of older community-dwelling black and white women, McAuley et al demonstrated at baseline that physical activity was correlated with self-efficacy for exercise, efficacy for gait and balance, and physical function performance, and both measures of self-efficacy as well as physical functional performance were associated with functional limitations. Further analyses using structural equation modeling tested the social cognitive position that physical activity effects on functional limitations would be mediated by self-efficacy. Moreover, they tested Stewart's 22 perspective that physical function performance should be considered as a separate step in the disability process and precede functional limitations. This is counter to many studies that have viewed functional performance and functional limitations as synonymous. 2 , 22 McAuley and his colleagues found substantial support for their hypotheses, with self-efficacy serving as a mediating variable in the physical activity, physical function, and functional limitations relationship. Additionally, when self-efficacy was included in the model, the initially substantial relationship between functional performance and functional limitations was reduced by half. These relationships were independent of the influence of demographic and health status variables.

At the 24-month follow-up on the same sample, they used a panel model design to examine whether changes in the model constructs were related in the same manner across time. 36 As hypothesized, changes in physical activity over time were associated with residual changes in both exercise and balance self-efficacy. Changes in exercise and balance self-efficacy were, in turn, associated with residual change in physical function performance. Most important, changes in self-efficacy for both exercise and balance and physical function performance were associated with residual change in functional limitations. Thus, declines in physical activity led to reductions in self-efficacy over time. Consequently, this led to poorer physical function and an increase in functional limitations. Such findings offer support for the social cognitive position that self-efficacy and physical function performance play a mediating role in the physical activity and functional limitations relationship. They also support Stewart's 22 position that functional performance and functional limitations are not isomorphic constructs and that physical function performance should be considered a distinct step in the disablement process. 61

Although there is a considerable literature examining the relationships among self-efficacy, physical activity, physical function, and functional limitations, there have been few efforts that consider all the components of the SCT framework in these relationships. Apart from self-efficacy, other SCT constructs include outcome expectations, goal setting and self-monitoring, and impediments and facilitators of behavior. Outcome expectations reflect beliefs that a given behavior will produce a specific outcome and have also been associated with physical activity, 62 , 63 however, with less consistency than self-efficacy has been. Williams et al 63 concluded in their review that self-efficacy and outcome expectations are correlated constructs, and associations between positive outcome expectations and physical activity are stronger among older adults than among young to middleaged adults. A more limited focus has been applied to goal setting and self-monitoring, although the Guide-to-Health Trial 64 evaluated self-regulation, reporting that self-regulation mediated the effects of self-efficacy on physical activity and nutrition-related behaviors. 65 , 66 Regarding facilitators and impediments to health behavior, Im et al 67 discuss how barriers are unique to the individual and therefore may be disparate in nature. Such barriers may include lack of time, feeling tired, feeling that one is active at their job, lack of motivation, or health problems. These barriers may be exacerbated if mobility issues are further hindered by the environment. 68 Clearly, there is an important void to be filled in the context of applying not just self-efficacy but other social cognitive constructs in our attempts to understand the physical activity and functional limitations relationship in older adults.

Self-Effcacy and Functional Limitations: What Can the Practitioner Do?

As previously noted, the United States is witnessing and an unprecedented growth in its older population; this increase in longevity is likely to be accompanied by further reductions in levels of physical activity and attendant declines in function and independent living. Incorporating physical activity into a healthy lifestyle and meeting public health guidelines for physical activity 69 is one approach that can help prevent age-related functional limitations and disability and enhance participation in ADLs. We have taken the position in this review that the salutary effects of physical activity on physical function performance and functional limitations are mediated by self-efficacy, a modifiable construct consistently associated with health behavior change. 10 Thus, there are several avenues open to practitioners for enhancing self-efficacy by thoughtful physical activity programming. Bandura 10 has identified 4 primary sources of self-efficacy information: mastery experiences, social modeling, social persuasion, and the interpretation of physiological and emotional responses. Each of these sources can easily and very effectively be targeted within physical activity and rehabilitation programs to maximize efficacy enhancement. For example, mastery experiences reflect previous successes that bolster one's confidence in his or her ability to succeed again. This is the most potent form of efficacy information. When beginning an exercise program, successes may well be outweighed by failures because of trying to do too much, too soon, resulting in disappointment and potentially injury. The setting of daily, challenging, but reachable goals for physical activity participation can be an effective method of ensuring regular successful experiences. Such successes lead to participants creating more challenging objectives for themselves, which in turn, are likely to boost efficacy still further. Exercise leaders, physical therapists, and rehabilitation specialists can further contribute to this source of efficacy information by creating an activity environment that challenges the older participant in such a way that with effort and persistence, success is reachable. The end product of increased efficacy is improved physical functioning and reduced perceptions of which functional activities are limiting.

Social modeling involves watching similar others (ie, of the same gender, race, age, fitness level, etc) successfully complete a task. We often use this form of information to take stock of our own beliefs in our abilities when we have little or no experience in a particular behavior. Naturally, for older adults who have been sedentary for a considerable period of time, engaging in physical activity on a regular basis is replete with potential unknowns. Thus, the identification of other older adults of similar characteristics effectively and successfully carrying out physical activity regimens can provide a boost in self-efficacy simply by the comparative perspective that “If she can do it, so can I!” Social persuasion is by far the most commonly implemented strategy for enhancing self-efficacy and includes the motivation and support provided during or following successful completion of an exercise session. Although the exercise leader or therapist may be the most obvious individual to provide such information, it is also prudent to organize “buddy groups” within the activity program. These small groups of 2 to 4 individuals should be given the responsibility of assisting, monitoring, and encouraging each other throughout the exercise experience. We have found in our own trials that this strategy is particularly useful in assisting with attendance problems, moving on to more difficult series of activities, and generally keeping motivation levels high. Finally, the appropriate interpretation of physiological responses involves making the participant cognizant that changes in somatic states are often indicative of improving physical capabilities. That is, individuals engaging in physical activity programs after a considerable period of being sedentary are likely to experience the typical aches and pains associated with the taxing of the physiological system. Understanding that this is normal and reflective of the body adapting and becoming fitter and stronger helps the participant reinterpret these responses in a more positive sense, thereby enhancing self-efficacy.

In addition to these strategies, other approaches within the social cognitive framework have been found to be influential, including self-regulation, which has been shown to mediate the relationship between self-efficacy and physical activity. 65 Incorporating self-regulation techniques, including goal setting, self-monitoring, cues to action, and self-rewarding, into a physical activity intervention may improve the ability of older adults to be successful. Keys to successful goal setting include specificity and realism when embarking on a physical activity regimen. Useful self-monitoring techniques may include keeping a log or calendar of physical activity. Additionally, scheduling physical activity on a calendar in a visible location can later act as a cue to action. Finally, incorporating rewards into physical activity interventions can help build self-efficacy and encourage proper progression.

Although a comprehensive SCT model has rarely been applied in the context of the physical activity and functional limitations relationship, it is clear that self-efficacy, as a central SCT construct, plays an important role in the process of being physically active and is also an outcome of physical activity. This latter relationship is of particular importance in understanding the role played by physical activity in attenuating functional limitations. With thoughtful planning, creativity, and the realization that the same progressions, modifications, and exercises are not suitable for all older adults, practitioners can effectively construct physical activity programs that are challenging, enjoyable, and efficacy enhancing. Enhancements in self-efficacy are likely to be effective in facilitating daily activities involving ambulating, reaching, lifting, and generally taking control over one's physical environment. Successful physical performance is then theorized to reduce functional limitations. Preventing the exacerbation of functional limitations for our increasingly older populations has important implications for reducing subsequent disability, prevention of institutionalization, and enhancing quality of life as they age.

Acknowledgments

This review was supported in part by grant R56 AG021118 from the National Institute on Aging and a Shahid and Ann Carlson Khan Professorship in Applied Health Sciences.

Teacher self-efficacy and reform: a systematic literature review

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Published: 20 April 2022
Volume 50 , pages 801–821, ( 2023 )

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Danielle Gordon ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7319-5441 1 , 2 ,
Christopher Blundell 1 ,
Reece Mills 1 &
Terri Bourke 1

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Teacher self-efficacy (TSE) of pre-service and in-service teachers plays a significant role in the successful implementation of educational reforms. The purpose of this systematic literature review is to explore the interaction between curriculum and/or assessment reform and TSE. Twenty-nine empirical research studies are analysed to find factors that impact TSE during change and the support mechanisms necessary to maintain high TSE. Using the Systematic Quantitative Literature Review method coupled with Social Cognitive Theory and Sources of Self-efficacy, studies reported that environmental determinants lower TSE during reform. It was found that to support high TSE professional learning was a necessity.

Exploring the consequences of teachers’ self-efficacy: a case of teachers of English as a foreign language

Goudarz Alibakhshi, Fariborz Nikdel & Akram Labbafi

Teacher Professional Development and Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Iranian EFL teachers’ self-efficacy: structural equation modeling of the consequences

Mohammadnasser Mossafaie, Goudarz Alibakhshi & Hossein Heidari Tabrizi

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Internationally, education systems have always been subject to various types of reforms. These can be large scale, driven by trends such as the Global Education Reform Movement (GERM) (Sahlberg, 2015 ) or smaller teacher-initiated changes in a single school. When the purposes of education are perceived as not being met, reforms become necessary to initiate improvement (Min, 2019 ). Whilst reform is not a new phenomenon, the accelerating rate at which it is occurring puts teachers under pressure to support, implement, and be co-creators of change (Cerit, 2019 ). All teachers are impacted by change regardless of career stage, including pre-service teachers (PST) who more than ever are expected to be classroom-ready. These graduates are the future of education, who will implement new curriculum and assessment and deal with challenges associated with change agendas (Fomunyam, 2014 ).

The impetus for this review is the writers’ context. The state of Queensland, in Australia, has recently implemented significant curriculum and assessment reform. This reform was initiated to address perceived issues of equity and accessibility in senior secondary schooling (Polesel et al., 2020 ). As teacher educators in this state, we are in the position of preparing PSTs for a new system as well as providing support for in-service teachers. As such we were interested in how teacher self-efficacy (TSE) might be affected during times of change. As noted by Ma et al. ( 2021 ), TSE remains one of the most important psychological constructs to understand teacher motivation. An overview of the factors that influence TSE in a context of reform and how teachers can be supported to maintain high TSE is presented in this review.

Teacher self-efficacy is defined as the degree to which a person has conviction to successfully execute behaviours to produce outcomes or have confidence/belief in their own ability to teach effectively (Gibson & Dembo, 1984 ). High TSE belief is an indicator of willingness to support, implement and create positive change, persevere during challenges, be open to new ideas and try teaching strategies even if considered risky (Cerit, 2019 ; Charalambous & Philippou, 2010 ). According to Bandura ( 2006 ), being high on the TSE scale is commensurate with overcoming obstacles in domains. In this review, the domain is education reform.

There have been several narrative and systematic reviews (see for example Koniewski, 2019 ; Tümkaya & Miller, 2020 ) around self-efficacy in education. The Australian Education Researcher has also published studies about TSE, for example, Ma et al. ( 2021 ) highlighted the importance of maintaining pre-service teachers’ high TSE between ITE and entering schools to teach. Fernandes et al. ( 2019 ) and Wang et al. ( 2016 ) suggested various support mechanisms to foster high TSE. Whilst these studies are informative, none deal specifically with TSE during curriculum and/or assessment reform. The purpose of this systematic review is to specifically examine TSE during change.

Research design and procedures

Systematic reviews are commonly used in a range of professions including psychology and nursing and are becoming widespread in education (Alexander, 2020 ). This type of review was chosen as it provides a clear and precise way to review literature and enable replication of search processes (Moher et al., 2015 ). Systematic reviews are beneficial for identifying gaps and future research directions (Petticrew, 2006 ).

This review combines two approaches; contractual and authorial as outlined by Dixon-Woods ( 2016 ). The contractual approach emphasises procedure. For this, the first ten steps of the Systematic Quantitative Literature Review (SQLR) method (Pickering & Byrne, 2014 ) (Fig. 1 ) were followed. In combination with the SQLR method, aspects of Search, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation and Research type (SPIDER) (Cooke et al., 2012 ) and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) (Moher et al., 2015 ) were utilised.

Systematic Quantitative Literature Review step process (Pickering & Byrne, 2014 , p. 539)

The authorial approach involves applying expertise in the analysis and interpretation of data (Dixon-Woods, 2016 ). For this, elements of Bandura’s ( 1986b ) Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), specifically the triadic reciprocality model and the four sources of TSE, were used to analyse the data.

The model of triadic reciprocality illustrates the reciprocal relationships between environmental (E), personal/cognitive (P/C), and behavioural (B) determinants in human behaviour. Bandura ( 2012 ) refers to this as an interactionist model; in other words, it is not just the environment or an individual that is the locus of causation. Rather, human functioning is a product of the interaction between the environmental, personal/cognitive, and behavioural determinants in a triadically reciprocal way.

Environmental determinants could include both teachers’ physical and perceived environments. An example of the physical environment could be class size and perceived might be teachers’ expectations of their school providing professional learning (PL). Personal/cognitive determinants are influences such as knowledge, beliefs, values, and biological endowment (e.g. age, sex, genetics), for example knowledge and understanding of the reformed senior secondary syllabuses. Finally, behavioural determinants are the “personal production of action[s] for an intended outcome” (Bandura, 1977 , p. 6). If the model of triadic reciprocality is applied to our local context and using the examples from above, if a school doesn’t provide PL about the new curriculum and assessment reforms (E), teachers’ understandings of the new content (P/C) might be limited and cause feelings of stress and anxiety (P/C) thus the teacher may not be confident with the subject matter and therefore their enactment of teaching the new curriculum (B) may be less effective. When analysing the studies included in this review, it became apparent that environmental, personal/cognitive, and behavioural determinants were useful for organising the findings.

The second part of the analysis using the authorial approach utilised Bandura’s ( 1977 ) model of TSE, specifically the four sources of self-efficacy. Grounded in SCT, TSE is a self-referent belief of capability shaped by four sources of efficacy information (Bandura, 1977 ). These four sources from which teachers achieve self-efficacy are mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social/verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal. Any of these sources could be developed in the context of curriculum and assessment reform. Mastery experiences are successful, authentic performances in an activity, for example, teaching (Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009 ). Vicarious experiences are observations of other teachers’ role modelling of (in)effective practice (Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009 ). Social/verbal persuasion is instilling, through talk, a belief that somebody can do something (Bandura, 1986b ), for example, colleagues’ verbal encouragement (Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009 ). Emotional arousal refers to the type of emotion an individual experiences when anticipating/completing a task such as teaching; for example, self-efficacy could be lowered if a teacher experiences stress (Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009 ).

Research topic and questions

The first two steps in the SQLR method involve defining the topic (Step 1) and formulating research questions (Step 2). The topic is the interaction between curriculum and/or assessment reform and TSE. The following research questions were formulated to guide the review and underpin Steps 3–10:

What factors within environmental, personal/cognitive, and behavioural determinants influence teacher self-efficacy in a context of reform?

How can teacher self-efficacy be supported in a context of reform?

Search process

To identify keywords (Step 3) and search databases (Step 4), the SPIDER strategy (Cooke et al., 2012 ) was adapted. Initial search terms were created and iteratively trialled by the authors. Thesaurus databases enabled the identification of possible synonyms for each search term. This process led to the search terms in Table 1 . All research designs and associated methods were considered in this search.

Scopus, PsycINFO, ERIC, and ProQuest Education databases were chosen because they are the authoritative databases in education and collectively index research with both psychological and sociological underpinnings. Google Scholar was also searched using an abridged version of the search terms to locate studies that may have been missed in the original search. From this search, 250 studies were identified.

Inclusion/exclusion criteria and screening process

A set of inclusion criteria was established (Step 5). Empirical journal articles and book chapters in English were considered in this review providing a foundation of evidence-based research. The concept of self-efficacy was coined by Bandura in 1977, therefore no date range was set. For inclusion, studies focussed on three criteria:

research in a context of school-based change or reform, for example, curriculum and/or assessment reform (reforms taking place in other contexts were excluded (Grossman et al., 2007 ) as were studies from health and medicine (Tolsgaard, 2013 );

teachers or pre-service teachers who were affected by reforms in schools; and

research that measures the impact of reform/change on teacher confidence and/or TSE (studies focussing on students’ self-efficacy were excluded (Weekes et al., 2011 ).

Excluded studies did not fulfil one or more of these criteria.

The bibliographic details of 250 studies were exported from databases and imported into an Endnote library. Once duplicates were removed, all authors screened 10% of abstracts against the inclusion criteria and discussed until consensus was reached. Further studies were excluded based on the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Some of these did not focus on how a school-based reform affected teachers (Andersen et al., 2017 ), were not empirical (Harrison, 2017 ), focussed on students (Midgley et al., 1989 ), or were not about TSE and/or confidence. This resulted in 32 studies included in the final dataset as outlined in Fig. 2 .

PRISMA flow diagram

Analysis and interpretation

To analyse and interpret the 32 studies Steps 6–10 of the SQLR method were followed. Using Microsoft Excel, a database was structured (Step 6) under the broad categories of bibliographic details, location, research design, theoretical framework, method, participants, and summary of results. In line with Step 7, the first author catalogued 10% of papers. Once catalogued, one or more key words were assigned to document the type, reason, and instigator of the reform. Additionally, studies were assigned key words in line with the research questions. These were refined as the first author became more familiar with the data (Step 8). Once all studies were entered on the spreadsheet (Step 9), the data were analysed and interpreted, and summary tables were produced (Step 10). Table 2 includes an overview of the 32 studies included in this review, and whether the participants were pre-service or in-service teachers.

Following the authorial approach, a deductive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006 ) using Bandura’s ( 2011 ) model of triadic reciprocality in line with SCT was used. As mentioned in “ Research design and procedures ” section, according to Bandura ( 1986b ), SCT consists of environmental, personal/cognitive, and behavioural determinants. These determinants provided a rigorous theoretical frame to answer the research questions. Additionally, Bandura’s ( 1977 ) four sources of self-efficacy provided a robust framework for discussing the mechanisms outlined in the studies to support teachers during reform.

The findings are divided into two sections. First, following the SQLR approach, the demographics of the studies are quantified and outlined in terms of location and research design (methodology and participants). The second section is structured around the two research questions using the determinants from Bandura’s SCT ( 1986b ) as the categories. To answer RQ1, the themes within each category are the factors influencing TSE; in RQ2 themes are support mechanisms.

Section 1: Research locations and designs

The publications were categorised by the country where the research took place (“ Research location ” section) and the research design (“ Research design ” section).

Research location

As can be seen in Fig. 3 , studies related to self-efficacy and reform were worldwide. America ( n = 6), Australia ( n = 4), Ireland ( n = 3), and Turkey ( n = 3) were the countries where most research around self-efficacy and reform have occurred. Studies predominantly took place in metropolitan locations ( n = 18), limiting the ability to comment on the self-efficacy and confidence of pre-service and in-service teachers in regional/rural areas.

Studies by geographical location

Research design

The next section reports on the methodology and participants in the empirical studies included in this review.

Methodology

Studies reviewed used quantitative ( n = 21), qualitative ( n = 15) and mixed methods ( n = 3) research designs. Seven reported using both quantitative and qualitative methods but did not identify as mixed methods. Six of the quantitative studies used SCT as the theoretical framework. Earlier work around TSE was mainly quantitative (Hughes, 1999 ; Johnson et al., 1999 ; McCormick et al., 2006 ). More up-to-date studies used both quantitative ( n = 38–1623 participants), qualitative ( n = 1–110 participants), and mixed methods ( n = 1–371 participants). It was interesting to note that 21 of the 32 selected studies were published in the last decade, despite Bandura’s ( 1977 ) theory of self-efficacy being over 40 years old. This could be because of the accelerating rate of reform as alluded to earlier.

Participants

Participants in the studies were pre-service ( n = 19) and in-service ( n = 16) teachers. Some included both ( n = 3). Those that focussed on pre-service teachers, predominantly selected participants from a single university. In 11 studies, pre-service teachers were in their final year of an undergraduate degree or post-graduate teaching qualification and seven studies did not report the stage of ITE. Ten of the studies that focussed on in-service teachers were conducted across multiple sites in metropolitan areas, perhaps indicating convenience sampling. Only two studies included teachers in regional or rural locations. The prevalence of studies focussing on pre-service teachers reveals the importance of the theory–practice nexus where tertiary and school sectors need to work collaboratively.

Section 2: factors that influence—and support mechanisms for—teacher self-efficacy in a context of reform

High Teacher Self-Efficacy is a contributing factor to teachers’ likelihood to overcome obstacles and respond positively to change (Bandura, 2006 ). Therefore, acknowledging factors that can influence TSE and implementing support mechanisms becomes essential for teacher success during reform. In the next sections, the two research questions are reported on from an analysis of the 32 studies using Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986a ) as the framework.

What factors within environmental, personal/cognitive, and behavioural determinants influence TSE in a context of reform?

In response to RQ1, Table 3 summarises the factors influencing TSE during reform. In the studies, there were more instances of factors lowering TSE ( N = 66, 25 studies) than supporting high TSE development ( N = 29, 18 studies) in contexts of educational reform. Four studies reported one factor influencing TSE, whilst 28 studies highlighted multiple influencing factors operating concurrently. These factors are discussed below, with the text organised in line with Table 3 and in the following order: (1) environmental, (2) personal/cognitive, (3) behavioural.

The analysed studies reported four factors within the environment that can lead to higher TSE belief during educational reform (see Table 3 ). School/university provision of quality training and materials to support reform implementation was the most cited factor strengthening TSE ( n = 8). These studies indicated that ITE programs with reform-focussed curricula (Ahsan et al., 2013 ; Barros et al., 2014 ; Gleeson et al., 2015 ; Ogan-Bekiroglu, 2009 ; Robertson & Al-Zahrani, 2012 ; Romero-Contreras et al., 2013 ), school-based PL for teachers (Johnson et al., 1999 ; Romero-Contreras et al., 2013 ) and teaching resources (Ahsan et al., 2013 ) supported the development of high TSE.

When considering the factors which lower TSE during reform, the prevalence of environmental determinants was notable. When pre-service or practising teachers perceive that their environment is not supporting them to confidently implement reform, their TSE is lowered. This was apparent in 15 studies that reported School/university not supporting teachers’ implementation of reform as a factor influencing TSE. Thirteen of the 15 studies involved pre-service teachers ( n = 10) and beginning teachers in their first year ( n = 3). In these studies, participants indicated that Initial Teacher Education (ITE) programs did not provide an environment conducive to preparing new teachers to teach confidently during reform (Ahsan et al., 2013 ; Malak, 2013 ). Increased workload/time constraints were another environmental factor. For example, Saylor and Kerkhoff ( 2014 ) found that teachers in North Carolina felt overwhelmed with the workload and lack of instruction time to achieve expected student outcomes, and Fontaine et al. ( 2011 ), in Canada, found that beginning teachers felt ill-prepared to deliver new assessment regimes concomitantly with their regular teaching workloads. Technology reform was also attributed to increased workload and consequential lack of time to learn how to use new tools, resulting in a negative impact on TSE (Liang et al., 2006 ).

Other environmental determinants, with both positive and negative influences on TSE, included school leadership ( n = 4) and student engagement ( n = 3). For example, Gonzalez et al. ( 2017 ) and Min ( 2019 ) found that TSE varied depending on how valued and supported school leaders made their teachers feel. Concerning student engagement, studies by Charalambous and Philippou ( 2010 ) and Forlin et al. ( 2010 ) found that where students held negative attitudes towards new pedagogies and inclusive practices respectively, teachers’ self-efficacy suffered. However, where students positively engaged in newly introduced constructivist approaches (Cerit, 2019 ), teachers were more willing to implement change confidently, thus TSE was positively affected.

The remaining factors categorised as environmental determinants affecting TSE were disparate and specific to a small number of studies. These factors included: high-stakes assessment ( n = 3), crowded classrooms ( n = 2), new technology ( n = 1) and gender discrimination ( n = 1) (negative factors) and collaboration with colleagues ( n = 2) (positive factor).

As well as environmental, personal/cognitive determinants can influence TSE during reform. As shown in Table 3 , studies ( n = 7) revealed that teachers who had experience and expertise in the domain being reformed felt more confident and had higher TSE (Forlin et al., 2010 ; Lambe, 2007 ; Robertson & Al-Zahrani, 2012 ; Romero-Contreras et al., 2013 ). In contrast to this, the most frequent personal/cognitive determinant found to lower TSE was expertise and experience teaching in the pre-reform system ( n = 7). Charalambous and Philippou ( 2010 ) explained this phenomenon—“teachers who were more comfortable with pre-reform approaches tended to be more critical of the reform” (p. 14). Personal/Cognitive determinants also included factors such as not enough experience teaching the new requirements and influence of other teachers’ negative and positive responses as influencing TSE (Barros et al., 2014 ; Forlin et al., 2010 ; Pešková et al., 2019 ; Lambe, 2007 ; Min, 2019 ).

Another factor within personal/cognitive determinants that had a varied impact on TSE is pre-tertiary educational experiences ( n = 6). For example, Ahsan et al.’s ( 2013 ) study in Bangladesh revealed that where pre-service teachers had prior educational experiences before entering ITE and teaching, they were more likely to have higher self-efficacy. However, Lambe’s ( 2007 ) study in Northern Ireland found that even though inclusivity was a major reform, it was difficult to realise because of the entrenched beliefs and already present religious tensions formed during individuals’ schooling years.

Finally, understanding and using legislative documents ( n = 3) increased TSE. Other personal/cognitive determinants of Insecurity and Anxiety ( n = 4) and concern about the impact of reform on students ( n = 3) had a negative influence. Studies by Barros et al. ( 2014 ), Forlin et al. ( 2010 ), McCormick et al. ( 2006 ) and Putwain and von der Embse ( 2019 ) found that when in-service teachers were faced with curriculum and inclusive education reform, they became insecure and anxious about their teaching, thus negatively impacting their TSE.

Behavioural determinants affecting TSE were limited to two studies. Cerit ( 2019 ) discovered that in schools where reform adoption was unsuccessful there was a higher instance of teachers with lower TSE. This lower TSE correlated with active refusal to implement the stipulated changes . This could be interpreted that the teachers placed no value on the change process (P/C). In contrast, in Barros et al.’s ( 2014 ) study where teachers planned and implemented curriculum reform , TSE was higher perhaps because there was improved knowledge and understanding (P/C). Both studies are examples of where behavioural determinants influence personal/cognitive determinants.

In summary and responding to RQ1, it became obvious that environmental determinants can be particularly influential in both supporting and lowering TSE during reform. Dominant factors included school and/or ITE provision of quality PL opportunities, resourcing, and time-release to implement new agendas. Other less frequently reported factors included opportunities to work collaboratively with colleagues, strong leadership, and bringing students on the change journey. Notably, however, 17 of these studies reported that despite the number of factors that could lower TSE, when TSE was quantitatively measured using scales, it remained high. Therefore, factors that negatively influence TSE do not necessarily equate to low TSE, just lower.

RQ2: How can teacher self-efficacy be supported in a context of reform?

Based on the literature in this review, Table 4 tabulates various support mechanisms that have been implemented by schools, universities, and governments during reform. The findings are organised according to Table 4 and numerical counts of papers.

Most studies suggested that school-based PL can help strengthen TSE during reform ( n = 22). Opportunities for PL include small group collaboration and mentoring initiatives ( n = 12), information sessions ( n = 10), classroom observations ( n = 4), one-on-one help ( n = 3) and support from psychologists ( n = 2). Eight studies reported that more than one of these PL activities was needed. Putwain et al. ( 2015 ), for example, suggested a combination of information sessions, emotional support, and collaboration/mentoring initiatives to develop TSE and reduce stress.

Several studies pointed out the importance of support mechanisms needed in ITE during reform. Approaches included specifically designing ITE curriculum to include subjects in the domains being reformed ( n = 19), for example curriculum, assessment, or inclusive education. Additionally, eight studies emphasised providing opportunities for completing professional experience where reforms are being implemented . These studies pointed out the significance of the theory–practice nexus; that is, ITE programs and practicums working in tandem to develop TSE. These mechanisms in ITE are focussed on supporting pre-service teachers’ knowledge and experience (personal/cognitive).

The final group of papers reported that TSE could be developed if there were improvements in the broader environment. These included a slower pace of change ( n = 4), teacher involvement in reform decision-making ( n = 3), improved school facilities and smaller class sizes ( n = 1), and further reform of standardised testing ( n = 1). For example Pešková et al. ( 2019 ) found that teachers were more likely to accept change when implemented slowly.

Whilst nine studies focussed on the implementation of a single support mechanism in one location (i.e. school or university) (Ahsan et al., 2013 ; McCormick et al., 2006 ), 16 studies noted that support was needed across school PL, ITE, and/or the broader reform environment. For example, Saylor and Kerkhoff ( 2014 ) suggested that beginning teachers implementing top-down curriculum change desired quality ITE subjects addressing reform, mentoring within schools, and slow implementation of curriculum change.

In summary, and responding to RQ2, the literature revealed that there are various support mechanisms needed to improve pre-service and in-service teachers’ knowledge (P/C) during change. These mainly focussed on PL, course design/structure in ITE, or positive environmental conditions (E). It is also interesting to note that no support mechanisms are explicitly designed to change teacher behaviour, but the model of triadic reciprocality assumes that a change in P/C and/or E determinants will also impact teachers’ behaviours (B). Furthermore, authors agreed that to achieve successful reform/change, more than one approach across multiple sites and determinants is needed to support high TSE.

To take this analysis further, the support mechanisms mentioned above, classified using SCT, are now examined using Bandura’s ( 1977 ) four sources of self-efficacy which are mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and emotional arousal. This is summarised in Table 5 .

As shown in Table 5 , support mechanisms with a focus on knowledge (P/C) provide more opportunities for the four sources of TSE to be activated. The only support mechanism from the literature that fulfils all four sources of TSE is professional experience in the domain being reformed . Studies that recommended this mechanism revealed that when pre-service teachers and supervising teachers work together in classrooms, new practices can be trialled. For example, Ahsan et al. ( 2013 ), Forlin et al. ( 2010 ), Lambe ( 2007 ) and Malak ( 2013 ) maintain that pre-service teachers on practicums that offer effective inclusive practices are given opportunities for mastery experiences in inclusivity, thus promoting their confidence and leading to a positive cycle of TSE. Additionally, these pre-service teachers have vicarious experiences as they watch their supervising teachers role model inclusivity in action. Moreover, where supervising teachers give positive feedback (social/verbal persuasion), confidence is instilled, and negative emotional reactions may be mitigated (emotional arousal).

Four support mechanisms categorised as environmental determinants positively impact teachers’ emotions which can be high during change. By improving conditions to foster positive experiences, teachers may feel less stress and anxiety about change and a greater sense of agency, resulting in positive emotional experiences. It is noteworthy that here the findings reveal emotional arousal as the most frequently enacted. However, according to Bandura ( 1977 ), emotional arousal has the least impact on TSE. In response to the findings of this systematic review, the next section provides several recommendations to leaders to support teachers during reform.

Conclusion and recommendations

This paper has presented a systematic review of the academic literature related to TSE during reform. Thirty-two studies met the inclusion criteria and were analysed in-depth. These studies were geographically diverse with slightly more situated in the global west. Four types of reform were revealed: curriculum reforms, for example, changes in the content of Irish mathematics curriculum documents (Ní Fhloinn et al., 2018 ), assessment reforms, for example, implementation of high-stakes examinations in America (Gonzalez et al., 2017 ), inclusive education reform in Mexico as a result of changes in UNESCO policy in relation to human rights (Forlin et al., 2010 ), and technology reform, for example the integration of ICT into schools in Saudi Arabia (Robertson & Al-Zahrani, 2012 ). When the factors affecting TSE were categorised according to SCT, most studies reported factors situated within the environment. Twenty-eight of the 32 studies reported factors that reduce TSE during reform. This means that support mechanisms are needed to help teachers and pre-service teachers navigate a reform environment, especially where mastery experiences are lacking because the reform is new.

At the onset of this paper, the authors outlined their impetus for doing this review: their current working context. For this final section, based on what they have learned, they make several recommendations that could be applied to their local context, or any other reform context.

First, with regards to ITE, the literature spells out that universities and schools need to work together to include professional experiences where opportunities for the four sources of self-efficacy can be realised. Furthermore, pre-service teachers must be versed in the reforms taking place and be given time for reflection. Additionally, the current authors recommend that university courses could include knowledge about change models so that pre-service teachers have an appreciation of the effects of change. Being able to theorise change enables pre-service teachers (and teachers) to understand change/reform so they can engage deeply and critically.

Second, related to schools, the literature emphasises that leaders must include multiple forms of PL for their teachers, for example, PL on the domain being reformed. It is also clear that schools need to offer mentoring, and emotional support mechanisms. By enhancing teachers’ knowledge of the reform, and allowing time for effective implementation of new requirements, teachers will feel supported to positively enact change and maintain, if not increase, their TSE. There is also evidence arising from this review to suggest time-release/induction should be a priority for beginning teachers so they can successfully navigate the domains being reformed. With regards to the student body, they should be given a voice in change processes where appropriate.

Of course, to enable change, government bodies need to support teacher educators, school leaders, and teachers to keep abreast of what is happening. For example, in the writers’ current context the local curriculum authority has been proactive in conducting PL for all stakeholders involved. Academics were invited to undertake research to inform the change process and all teachers were invited to partake in surveys at multiple stages of syllabus revision. From a research perspective, given the accelerating frequency and impacts of reform on TSE, more studies of the influence of education reform on TSE in varied locations including regional and rural areas are needed. This study has exposed the paucity of research in this field. Change by its very nature is uncertain so teachers and pre-service teachers need to be supported during these uncertain times.

*Indicates reviewed and analysed study

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Gordon, D., Blundell, C., Mills, R. et al. Teacher self-efficacy and reform: a systematic literature review. Aust. Educ. Res. 50 , 801–821 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-022-00526-3

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In this article we reviewed literature related to crea tive self-efficacy in th e field of education. We. narrowed down the review to eightyeight articles. We formed categories according to (1 ...
Teacher self-efficacy and reform: a systematic literature review
Teacher self-efficacy (TSE) of pre-service and in-service teachers plays a significant role in the successful implementation of educational reforms. The purpose of this systematic literature review is to explore the interaction between curriculum and/or assessment reform and TSE. Twenty-nine empirical research studies are analysed to find factors that impact TSE during change and the support ...

Self-Efficacy: A Brief Literature Review

Self-Efficacy: A Brief Literature Review

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Teacher self-efficacy and reform: a systematic literature review

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Introduction

Research design and procedures

Research topic and questions

Search process

Inclusion/exclusion criteria and screening process

Analysis and interpretation

Section 1: Research locations and designs

Research location

Research design

Methodology

Participants

Section 2: factors that influence—and support mechanisms for—teacher self-efficacy in a context of reform

What factors within environmental, personal/cognitive, and behavioural determinants influence TSE in a context of reform?

RQ2: How can teacher self-efficacy be supported in a context of reform?

Conclusion and recommendations

*Indicates reviewed and analysed study

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