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  • Indian J Dermatol
  • v.61(2); Mar-Apr 2016

Methodology Series Module 2: Case-control Studies

Maninder singh setia.

Epidemiologist, MGM Institute of Health Sciences, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Case-Control study design is a type of observational study. In this design, participants are selected for the study based on their outcome status. Thus, some participants have the outcome of interest (referred to as cases), whereas others do not have the outcome of interest (referred to as controls). The investigator then assesses the exposure in both these groups. The investigator should define the cases as specifically as possible. Sometimes, definition of a disease may be based on multiple criteria; thus, all these points should be explicitly stated in case definition. An important aspect of selecting a control is that they should be from the same ‘study base’ as that of the cases. We can select controls from a variety of groups. Some of them are: General population; relatives or friends; and hospital patients. Matching is often used in case-control control studies to ensure that the cases and controls are similar in certain characteristics, and it is a useful technique to increase the efficiency of the study. Case-Control studies can usually be conducted relatively faster and are inexpensive – particularly when compared with cohort studies (prospective). It is useful to study rare outcomes and outcomes with long latent periods. This design is not very useful to study rare exposures. Furthermore, they may also be prone to certain biases – selection bias and recall bias.

Introduction

Case-Control study design is a type of observational study design. In an observational study, the investigator does not alter the exposure status. The investigator measures the exposure and outcome in study participants, and studies their association.

In a case-control study, participants are selected for the study based on their outcome status. Thus, some participants have the outcome of interest (referred to as cases), whereas others do not have the outcome of interest (referred to as controls). The investigator then assesses the exposure in both these groups. Thus, by design, in a case-control study the outcome has to occur in some of the participants that have been included in the study.

As seen in Figure 1 , at the time of entry into the study (sampling of participants), some of the study participants have the outcome (cases) and others do not have the outcome (controls). During the study procedures, we will examine the exposure of interest in cases as well as controls. We will then study the association between the exposure and outcome in these study participants.

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Object name is IJD-61-146-g001.jpg

Example of a case-control study

Examples of Case-Control Studies

Smoking and lung cancer study.

In their landmark study, Doll and Hill (1950) evaluated the association between smoking and lung cancer. They included 709 patients of lung carcinoma (defined as cases). They also included 709 controls from general medical and surgical patients. The selected controls were similar to the cases with respect to age and sex. Thus, they included 649 males and 60 females in cases as well as controls.

They found that only 0.3% of males were non-smokers among cases. However, the proportion of non-smokers among controls was 4.2%; the different was statistically significant ( P = 0.00000064). Similarly they found that about 31.7% of the female were non-smokers in cases compared with 53.3% in controls; this difference was also statistically significant (0.01< p <0.02).

Melanoma and tanning (Lazovic et al ., 2010)

The authors conducted a case-control study to study the association between melanoma and tanning. The 1167 cases - individuals with invasive cutaneous melanoma – were selected from Minnesota Cancer Surveillance System. The 1101 controls were selected randomly from Minnesota State Driver's License list; they were matched for age (+/- 5 years) and sex.

The data were collected by self administered questionnaires and telephone interviews. The investigators assessed the use of tanning devices (using photographs), number of years, and frequency of use of these devices. They also collected information on other variables (such as sun exposure; presence of freckles and moles; and colour of skin, hair, among other exposures.

They found that melanoma was higher in individuals who used UVB enhances and primarily UVA-emitting devices. The risk of melanoma also increased with increase in years of use, hours of use, and sessions.

Risk factors for erysipelas (Pitché et al, 2015)

Pitché et al (2015) conducted a case-control study to assess the factors associated with leg erysipelas in sub-Saharan Africa. This was a multi-centre study; the cases and controls were recruited from eight countries in sub-Saharan Africa.

They recruited cases of acute leg cellulitis in these eight countries. They recruited two controls for each case; these were matched for age (+/- 5 years) and sex. Thus, the final study has 364 cases and 728 controls. They found that leg erysipelas was associated with obesity, lympoedema, neglected traumatic wound, toe-web intertrigo, and voluntary cosmetic depigmentation.

We have provided details of all the three studies in the bibliography. We strongly encourage the readers to read the papers to understand some practical aspects of case-control studies.

Selection of Cases and Controls

Selection of cases and controls is an important part of this design. Wacholder and colleagues (1992 a, b, and c) have published wonderful manuscripts on design and conduct of case-control of studies in the American Journal of Epidemiology. The discussion in the next few sections is based on these manuscripts.

Selection of case

The investigator should define the cases as specifically as possible. Sometimes, definition of a disease may be based on multiple criteria; thus, all these points should be explicitly stated in case definition.

For example, in the above mentioned Melanoma and Tanning study, the researchers defined their population as any histologic variety of invasive cutaneous melanoma. However, they added another important criterion – these individuals should have a driver's license or State identity card. This probably is not directly related to the clinic condition, so why did they add this criterion? We will discuss this in detail in the next few paragraphs.

Selection of a control

The next important point in designing a case-control study is the selection of control patients.

In fact, Wacholder and colleagues have extensively discussed aspects of design of case control studies and selection of controls in their article.

According to them, an important aspect of selecting a control is that they should be from the same ‘study base’ as that of the cases. Thus, the pool of population from which the cases and controls will be enrolled should be same. For instance, in the Tanning and Melanoma study, the researchers recruited cases from Minnesota Cancer Surveillance System; however, it was also required that these cases should either have a State identity card or Driver's license. This was important since controls were randomly selected from Minnesota State Driver's license list (this also included the list of individuals who have the State identity card).

Another important aspect of a case-control study is that we should measure the exposure similarly in cases and controls. For instance, if we design a research protocol to study the association between metabolic syndrome (exposure) and psoriasis (outcome), we should ensure that we use the same criteria (clinically and biochemically) for evaluating metabolic syndrome in cases and controls. If we use different criteria to measure the metabolic syndrome, then it may cause information bias.

Types of Controls

We can select controls from a variety of groups. Some of them are: General population; relatives or friends; or hospital patients.

Hospital controls

An important source of controls is patients attending the hospital for diseases other than the outcome of interest. These controls are easy to recruit and are more likely to have similar quality of medical records.

However, we have to be careful while recruiting these controls. In the above example of metabolic syndrome and psoriasis, we recruit psoriasis patients from the Dermatology department of the hospital as controls. We recruit patients who do not have psoriasis and present to the Dermatology as controls. Some of these individuals have presented to the Dermatology department with tinea pedis. Do we recruit these individuals as controls for the study? What is the problem if we recruit these patients? Some studies have suggested that diabetes mellitus and obesity are predisposing factors for tinea pedis. As we know, fasting plasma glucose of >100 mg/dl and raised trigylcerides (>=150 mg/dl) are criteria for diagnosis of metabolic syndrome. Thus, it is quite likely that if we recruit many of these tinea pedis patients, the exposure of interest may turn out to be similar in cases and controls; this exposure may not reflect the truth in the population.

Relative and friend controls

Relative controls are relatively easy to recruit. They can be particularly useful when we are interested in trying to ensure that some of the measurable and non-measurable confounders are relatively equally distributed in cases and controls (such as home environment, socio-economic status, or genetic factors).

Another source of controls is a list of friends referred by the cases. These controls are easy to recruit and they are also more likely to be similar to the cases in socio-economic status and other demographic factors. However, they are also more likely to have similar behaviours (alcohol use, smoking etc.); thus, it may not be prudent to use these as controls if we want to study the effect of these exposures on the outcome.

Population controls

These controls can be easily conducted the list of all individuals is available. For example, list from state identity cards, voter's registration list, etc., In the Tanning and melanoma study, the researchers used population controls. They were identified from Minnesota state driver's list.

We may have to use sampling methods (such as random digit dialing or multistage sampling methods) to recruit controls from the population. A main advantage is that these controls are likely to satisfy the ‘study-base’ principle (described above) as suggested by Wacholder and colleagues. However, they can be expensive and time consuming. Furthermore, many of these controls will not be inclined to participate in the study; thus, the response rate may be very low.

Matching in a Case-Control Study

Matching is often used in case-control control studies to ensure that the cases and controls are similar in certain characteristics. For example, in the smoking and lung cancer study, the authors selected controls that were similar in age and sex to carcinoma cases. Matching is a useful technique to increase the efficiency of study.

’Individual matching’ is one common technique used in case-control study. For example, in the above mentioned metabolic syndrome and psoriasis, we can decide that for each case enrolled in the study, we will enroll a control that is matched for sex and age (+/- 2 years). Thus, if 40 year male patient with psoriasis is enrolled for the study as a case, we will enroll a 38-42 year male patient without psoriasis (and who will not be excluded for other reason) as controls.

If the study has used ‘individual matching’ procedures, then the data should also reflect the same. For instance, if you have 45 males among cases, you should also have 45 males among controls. If you show 60 males among controls, you should explain the discrepancy.

Even though matching is used to increase the efficiency in case-control studies, it may have its own problems. It may be difficult to fine the exact matching control for the study; we may have to screen many potential enrollees before we are able to recruit one control for each case recruited. Thus, it may increase the time and cost of the study.

Nonetheless, matching may be useful to control for certain types of confounders. For instance, environment variables may be accounted for by matching controls for neighbourhood or area of residence. Household environment and genetic factors may be accounted for by enrolling siblings as controls.

If we use controls from the past (time period when cases did not occur), then the controls are sometimes referred to historic controls. Such controls may be recruited from past hospital records.

Strengths of a Case-Control Study

  • Case-Control studies can usually be conducted relatively faster and are inexpensive – particularly when compared with cohort studies (prospective)
  • It is useful to study rare outcomes and outcomes with long latent periods. For example, if we wish to study the factors associated with melanoma in India, it will be useful to conduct a case-control study. We will recruit cases of melanoma as cases in one study site or multiple study sites. If we were to conduct a cohort study for this research question, we may to have follow individuals (with the exposure under study) for many years before the occurrence of the outcome
  • It is also useful to study multiple exposures in the same outcome. For example, in the metabolic syndrome and psoriasis study, we can study other factors such as Vitamin D levels or genetic markers
  • Case-control studies are useful to study the association of risk factors and outcomes in outbreak investigations. For instance, Freeman and colleagues (2015) in a study published in 2015 conducted a case-control study to evaluate the role of proton pump inhibitors in an outbreak of non-typhoidal salmonellosis.

Limitations of a Case-control Study

  • The design, in general, is not useful to study rare exposures. It may be prudent to conduct a cohort study for rare exposures

Since the investigator chooses the number of cases and controls, the proportion of cases may not be representative of the proportion in the population. For instance if we choose 50 cases of psoriasis and 50 controls, the prevalence of proportion of psoriasis cases in our study will be 50%. This is not true prevalence. If we had chosen 50 cases of psoriasis and 100 controls, then the proportion of the cases will be 33%.

  • The design is not useful to study multiple outcomes. Since the cases are selected based on the outcome, we can only study the association between exposures and that particular outcome
  • Sometimes the temporality of the exposure and outcome may not be clearly established in case-control studies
  • The case-control studies are also prone to certain biases

If the cases and controls are not selected similarly from the study base, then it will lead to selection bias.

  • Odds Ratio: We are able to calculate the odds ratios (OR) from a case-control study. Since we are not able to measure incidence data in case-control study, an odds ratio is a reasonable measure of the relative risk (under some assumptions). Additional details about OR will be discussed in the biostatistics section.

The OR in the above study is 3.5. Since the OR is greater than 1, the outcome is more likely in those exposed (those who are diagnosed with metabolic syndrome) compared with those who are not exposed (those who do are not diagnosed with metabolic syndrome). However, we will require confidence intervals to comment on further interpretation of the OR (This will be discussed in detail in the biostatistics section).

  • Other analysis : We can use logistic regression models for multivariate analysis in case-control studies. It is important to note that conditional logistic regressions may be useful for matched case-control studies.

Calculating an Odds Ratio (OR)

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Object name is IJD-61-146-g002.jpg

Hypothetical study of metabolic syndrome and psoriasis

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Additional Points in A Case-Control Study

How many controls can i have for each case.

The most optimum case-to-control ratio is 1:1. Jewell (2004) has suggested that for a fixed sample size, the chi square test for independence is most powerful if the number of cases is same as the number of controls. However, in many situations we may not be able recruit a large number of cases and it may be easier to recruit more controls for the study. It has been suggested that we can increase the number of controls to increase statistical power (if we have limited number of cases) of the study. If data are available at no extra cost, then we may recruit multiple controls for each case. However, if it is expensive to collect exposure and outcome information from cases and controls, then the optimal ratio is 4 controls: 1 case. It has been argued that the increase in statistical power may be limited with additional controls (greater than four) compared with the cost involved in recruiting them beyond this ratio.

I have conducted a randomised controlled trial. I have included a group which received the intervention and another group which did not receive the intervention. Can I call this a case-control study?

A randomised controlled trial is an experimental study. In contrast, case-control studies are observational studies. These are two different groups of studies. One should not use the word case-control study for a randomised controlled trial (even though you have a control group in the study). Every study with a control group is not a case-control study. For a study to be classified as a case-control study, the study should be an observational study and the participants should be recruited based on their outcome status (some have the disease and some do not).

Should I call case-control studies prospective or retrospective studies?

In ‘The Dictionary of Epidemiology’ by Porta (2014), the authors have suggested that even though the term ‘retrospective’ was used for case-control studies, the study participants are often recruited prospectively. In fact, the study on risk factors for erysipelas (Pitché et al ., 2015) was a prospective case case-control study. Thus, it is important to remember that the nature of the study (case-control or cohort) depends on the sampling method. If we sample the study participants based on exposure and move towards the outcome, it is a cohort study. However, if we sample the participants based on the outcome (some with outcome and some do not) and study the exposures in both these groups, it is a case-control study.

In case-control studies, participants are recruited on the basis of disease status. Thus, some of participants have the outcome of interest (referred to as cases), whereas others do not have the outcome of interest (referred to as controls). The investigator then assesses the exposure in both these groups. Case-control studies are less expensive and quicker to conduct (compared with prospective cohort studies at least). The measure of association in this type of study is an odds ratio. This type of design is useful for rare outcomes and those with long latent periods. However, they may also be prone to certain biases – selection bias and recall bias.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

Bibliography

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what is module 2 case study

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  • 1. Aims and Significance of Alternatives to Imprisonment
  • 2. Justifying Punishment in the Community
  • 3. Pretrial Alternatives
  • 4. Post Trial Alternatives
  • 5. Evaluating Alternatives
  • 1. Concept, Values and Origin of Restorative Justice
  • 2. Overview of Restorative Justice Processes
  • 3. How Cost Effective is Restorative Justice?
  • 4. Issues in Implementing Restorative Justice
  • 1. Gender-Based Discrimination & Women in Conflict with the Law
  • 2. Vulnerabilities of Girls in Conflict with the Law
  • 3. Discrimination and Violence against LGBTI Individuals
  • 4. Gender Diversity in Criminal Justice Workforce
  • 1. Ending Violence against Women
  • 2. Human Rights Approaches to Violence against Women
  • 3. Who Has Rights in this Situation?
  • 4. What about the Men?
  • 5. Local, Regional & Global Solutions to Violence against Women & Girls
  • 1. Understanding the Concept of Victims of Crime
  • 2. Impact of Crime, including Trauma
  • 3. Right of Victims to Adequate Response to their Needs
  • 4. Collecting Victim Data
  • 5. Victims and their Participation in Criminal Justice Process
  • 6. Victim Services: Institutional and Non-Governmental Organizations
  • 7. Outlook on Current Developments Regarding Victims
  • 8. Victims of Crime and International Law
  • 1. The Many Forms of Violence against Children
  • 2. The Impact of Violence on Children
  • 3. States' Obligations to Prevent VAC and Protect Child Victims
  • 4. Improving the Prevention of Violence against Children
  • 5. Improving the Criminal Justice Response to VAC
  • 6. Addressing Violence against Children within the Justice System
  • 1. The Role of the Justice System
  • 2. Convention on the Rights of the Child & International Legal Framework on Children's Rights
  • 3. Justice for Children
  • 4. Justice for Children in Conflict with the Law
  • 5. Realizing Justice for Children
  • 1a. Judicial Independence as Fundamental Value of Rule of Law & of Constitutionalism
  • 1b. Main Factors Aimed at Securing Judicial Independence
  • 2a. Public Prosecutors as ‘Gate Keepers’ of Criminal Justice
  • 2b. Institutional and Functional Role of Prosecutors
  • 2c. Other Factors Affecting the Role of Prosecutors
  • Basics of Computing
  • Global Connectivity and Technology Usage Trends
  • Cybercrime in Brief
  • Cybercrime Trends
  • Cybercrime Prevention
  • Offences against computer data and systems
  • Computer-related offences
  • Content-related offences
  • The Role of Cybercrime Law
  • Harmonization of Laws
  • International and Regional Instruments
  • International Human Rights and Cybercrime Law
  • Digital Evidence
  • Digital Forensics
  • Standards and Best Practices for Digital Forensics
  • Reporting Cybercrime
  • Who Conducts Cybercrime Investigations?
  • Obstacles to Cybercrime Investigations
  • Knowledge Management
  • Legal and Ethical Obligations
  • Handling of Digital Evidence
  • Digital Evidence Admissibility
  • Sovereignty and Jurisdiction
  • Formal International Cooperation Mechanisms
  • Informal International Cooperation Mechanisms
  • Data Retention, Preservation and Access
  • Challenges Relating to Extraterritorial Evidence
  • National Capacity and International Cooperation
  • Internet Governance
  • Cybersecurity Strategies: Basic Features
  • National Cybersecurity Strategies
  • International Cooperation on Cybersecurity Matters
  • Cybersecurity Posture
  • Assets, Vulnerabilities and Threats
  • Vulnerability Disclosure
  • Cybersecurity Measures and Usability
  • Situational Crime Prevention
  • Incident Detection, Response, Recovery & Preparedness
  • Privacy: What it is and Why it is Important
  • Privacy and Security
  • Cybercrime that Compromises Privacy
  • Data Protection Legislation
  • Data Breach Notification Laws
  • Enforcement of Privacy and Data Protection Laws
  • Intellectual Property: What it is
  • Types of Intellectual Property
  • Causes for Cyber-Enabled Copyright & Trademark Offences
  • Protection & Prevention Efforts
  • Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse
  • Cyberstalking and Cyberharassment
  • Cyberbullying
  • Gender-Based Interpersonal Cybercrime
  • Interpersonal Cybercrime Prevention
  • Cyber Organized Crime: What is it?
  • Conceptualizing Organized Crime & Defining Actors Involved
  • Criminal Groups Engaging in Cyber Organized Crime
  • Cyber Organized Crime Activities
  • Preventing & Countering Cyber Organized Crime
  • Cyberespionage
  • Cyberterrorism
  • Cyberwarfare
  • Information Warfare, Disinformation & Electoral Fraud
  • Responses to Cyberinterventions
  • Framing the Issue of Firearms
  • Direct Impact of Firearms
  • Indirect Impacts of Firearms on States or Communities
  • International and National Responses
  • Typology and Classification of Firearms
  • Common Firearms Types
  • 'Other' Types of Firearms
  • Parts and Components
  • History of the Legitimate Arms Market
  • Need for a Legitimate Market
  • Key Actors in the Legitimate Market
  • Authorized & Unauthorized Arms Transfers
  • Illegal Firearms in Social, Cultural & Political Context
  • Supply, Demand & Criminal Motivations
  • Larger Scale Firearms Trafficking Activities
  • Smaller Scale Trafficking Activities
  • Sources of Illicit Firearms
  • Consequences of Illicit Markets
  • International Public Law & Transnational Law
  • International Instruments with Global Outreach
  • Commonalities, Differences & Complementarity between Global Instruments
  • Tools to Support Implementation of Global Instruments
  • Other United Nations Processes
  • The Sustainable Development Goals
  • Multilateral & Regional Instruments
  • Scope of National Firearms Regulations
  • National Firearms Strategies & Action Plans
  • Harmonization of National Legislation with International Firearms Instruments
  • Assistance for Development of National Firearms Legislation
  • Firearms Trafficking as a Cross-Cutting Element
  • Organized Crime and Organized Criminal Groups
  • Criminal Gangs
  • Terrorist Groups
  • Interconnections between Organized Criminal Groups & Terrorist Groups
  • Gangs - Organized Crime & Terrorism: An Evolving Continuum
  • International Response
  • International and National Legal Framework
  • Firearms Related Offences
  • Role of Law Enforcement
  • Firearms as Evidence
  • Use of Special Investigative Techniques
  • International Cooperation and Information Exchange
  • Prosecution and Adjudication of Firearms Trafficking
  • Teaching Methods & Principles
  • Ethical Learning Environments
  • Overview of Modules
  • Module Adaption & Design Guidelines
  • Table of Exercises
  • Basic Terms
  • Forms of Gender Discrimination
  • Ethics of Care
  • Case Studies for Professional Ethics
  • Case Studies for Role Morality
  • Additional Exercises
  • Defining Organized Crime
  • Definition in Convention
  • Similarities & Differences
  • Activities, Organization, Composition
  • Thinking Critically Through Fiction
  • Excerpts of Legislation
  • Research & Independent Study Questions
  • Legal Definitions of Organized Crimes
  • Criminal Association
  • Definitions in the Organized Crime Convention
  • Criminal Organizations and Enterprise Laws
  • Enabling Offence: Obstruction of Justice
  • Drug Trafficking
  • Wildlife & Forest Crime
  • Counterfeit Products Trafficking
  • Falsified Medical Products
  • Trafficking in Cultural Property
  • Trafficking in Persons
  • Case Studies & Exercises
  • Extortion Racketeering
  • Loansharking
  • Links to Corruption
  • Bribery versus Extortion
  • Money-Laundering
  • Liability of Legal Persons
  • How much Organized Crime is there?
  • Alternative Ways for Measuring
  • Measuring Product Markets
  • Risk Assessment
  • Key Concepts of Risk Assessment
  • Risk Assessment of Organized Crime Groups
  • Risk Assessment of Product Markets
  • Risk Assessment in Practice
  • Positivism: Environmental Influences
  • Classical: Pain-Pleasure Decisions
  • Structural Factors
  • Ethical Perspective
  • Crime Causes & Facilitating Factors
  • Models and Structure
  • Hierarchical Model
  • Local, Cultural Model
  • Enterprise or Business Model
  • Groups vs Activities
  • Networked Structure
  • Jurisdiction
  • Investigators of Organized Crime
  • Controlled Deliveries
  • Physical & Electronic Surveillance
  • Undercover Operations
  • Financial Analysis
  • Use of Informants
  • Rights of Victims & Witnesses
  • Role of Prosecutors
  • Adversarial vs Inquisitorial Legal Systems
  • Mitigating Punishment
  • Granting Immunity from Prosecution
  • Witness Protection
  • Aggravating & Mitigating Factors
  • Sentencing Options
  • Alternatives to Imprisonment
  • Death Penalty & Organized Crime
  • Backgrounds of Convicted Offenders
  • Confiscation
  • Confiscation in Practice
  • Mutual Legal Assistance (MLA)
  • Extradition
  • Transfer of Criminal Proceedings
  • Transfer of Sentenced Persons
  • Module 12: Prevention of Organized Crime
  • Adoption of Organized Crime Convention
  • Historical Context
  • Features of the Convention
  • Related international instruments
  • Conference of the Parties
  • Roles of Participants
  • Structure and Flow
  • Recommended Topics
  • Background Materials
  • What is Sex / Gender / Intersectionality?
  • Knowledge about Gender in Organized Crime
  • Gender and Organized Crime
  • Gender and Different Types of Organized Crime
  • Definitions and Terminology
  • Organized crime and Terrorism - International Legal Framework
  • International Terrorism-related Conventions
  • UNSC Resolutions on Terrorism
  • Organized Crime Convention and its Protocols
  • Theoretical Frameworks on Linkages between Organized Crime and Terrorism
  • Typologies of Criminal Behaviour Associated with Terrorism
  • Terrorism and Drug Trafficking
  • Terrorism and Trafficking in Weapons
  • Terrorism, Crime and Trafficking in Cultural Property
  • Trafficking in Persons and Terrorism
  • Intellectual Property Crime and Terrorism
  • Kidnapping for Ransom and Terrorism
  • Exploitation of Natural Resources and Terrorism
  • Review and Assessment Questions
  • Research and Independent Study Questions
  • Criminalization of Smuggling of Migrants
  • UNTOC & the Protocol against Smuggling of Migrants
  • Offences under the Protocol
  • Financial & Other Material Benefits
  • Aggravating Circumstances
  • Criminal Liability
  • Non-Criminalization of Smuggled Migrants
  • Scope of the Protocol
  • Humanitarian Exemption
  • Migrant Smuggling v. Irregular Migration
  • Migrant Smuggling vis-a-vis Other Crime Types
  • Other Resources
  • Assistance and Protection in the Protocol
  • International Human Rights and Refugee Law
  • Vulnerable groups
  • Positive and Negative Obligations of the State
  • Identification of Smuggled Migrants
  • Participation in Legal Proceedings
  • Role of Non-Governmental Organizations
  • Smuggled Migrants & Other Categories of Migrants
  • Short-, Mid- and Long-Term Measures
  • Criminal Justice Reponse: Scope
  • Investigative & Prosecutorial Approaches
  • Different Relevant Actors & Their Roles
  • Testimonial Evidence
  • Financial Investigations
  • Non-Governmental Organizations
  • ‘Outside the Box’ Methodologies
  • Intra- and Inter-Agency Coordination
  • Admissibility of Evidence
  • International Cooperation
  • Exchange of Information
  • Non-Criminal Law Relevant to Smuggling of Migrants
  • Administrative Approach
  • Complementary Activities & Role of Non-criminal Justice Actors
  • Macro-Perspective in Addressing Smuggling of Migrants
  • Human Security
  • International Aid and Cooperation
  • Migration & Migrant Smuggling
  • Mixed Migration Flows
  • Social Politics of Migrant Smuggling
  • Vulnerability
  • Profile of Smugglers
  • Role of Organized Criminal Groups
  • Humanitarianism, Security and Migrant Smuggling
  • Crime of Trafficking in Persons
  • The Issue of Consent
  • The Purpose of Exploitation
  • The abuse of a position of vulnerability
  • Indicators of Trafficking in Persons
  • Distinction between Trafficking in Persons and Other Crimes
  • Misconceptions Regarding Trafficking in Persons
  • Root Causes
  • Supply Side Prevention Strategies
  • Demand Side Prevention Strategies
  • Role of the Media
  • Safe Migration Channels
  • Crime Prevention Strategies
  • Monitoring, Evaluating & Reporting on Effectiveness of Prevention
  • Trafficked Persons as Victims
  • Protection under the Protocol against Trafficking in Persons
  • Broader International Framework
  • State Responsibility for Trafficking in Persons
  • Identification of Victims
  • Principle of Non-Criminalization of Victims
  • Criminal Justice Duties Imposed on States
  • Role of the Criminal Justice System
  • Current Low Levels of Prosecutions and Convictions
  • Challenges to an Effective Criminal Justice Response
  • Rights of Victims to Justice and Protection
  • Potential Strategies to “Turn the Tide”
  • State Cooperation with Civil Society
  • Civil Society Actors
  • The Private Sector
  • Comparing SOM and TIP
  • Differences and Commonalities
  • Vulnerability and Continuum between SOM & TIP
  • Labour Exploitation
  • Forced Marriage
  • Other Examples
  • Children on the Move
  • Protecting Smuggled and Trafficked Children
  • Protection in Practice
  • Children Alleged as Having Committed Smuggling or Trafficking Offences
  • Basic Terms - Gender and Gender Stereotypes
  • International Legal Frameworks and Definitions of TIP and SOM
  • Global Overview on TIP and SOM
  • Gender and Migration
  • Key Debates in the Scholarship on TIP and SOM
  • Gender and TIP and SOM Offenders
  • Responses to TIP and SOM
  • Use of Technology to Facilitate TIP and SOM
  • Technology Facilitating Trafficking in Persons
  • Technology in Smuggling of Migrants
  • Using Technology to Prevent and Combat TIP and SOM
  • Privacy and Data Concerns
  • Emerging Trends
  • Demand and Consumption
  • Supply and Demand
  • Implications of Wildlife Trafficking
  • Legal and Illegal Markets
  • Perpetrators and their Networks
  • Locations and Activities relating to Wildlife Trafficking
  • Environmental Protection & Conservation
  • CITES & the International Trade in Endangered Species
  • Organized Crime & Corruption
  • Animal Welfare
  • Criminal Justice Actors and Agencies
  • Criminalization of Wildlife Trafficking
  • Challenges for Law Enforcement
  • Investigation Measures and Detection Methods
  • Prosecution and Judiciary
  • Wild Flora as the Target of Illegal Trafficking
  • Purposes for which Wild Flora is Illegally Targeted
  • How is it Done and Who is Involved?
  • Consequences of Harms to Wild Flora
  • Terminology
  • Background: Communities and conservation: A history of disenfranchisement
  • Incentives for communities to get involved in illegal wildlife trafficking: the cost of conservation
  • Incentives to participate in illegal wildlife, logging and fishing economies
  • International and regional responses that fight wildlife trafficking while supporting IPLCs
  • Mechanisms for incentivizing community conservation and reducing wildlife trafficking
  • Critiques of community engagement
  • Other challenges posed by wildlife trafficking that affect local populations
  • Global Podcast Series
  • Apr. 2021: Call for Expressions of Interest: Online training for academics from francophone Africa
  • Feb. 2021: Series of Seminars for Universities of Central Asia
  • Dec. 2020: UNODC and TISS Conference on Access to Justice to End Violence
  • Nov. 2020: Expert Workshop for University Lecturers and Trainers from the Commonwealth of Independent States
  • Oct. 2020: E4J Webinar Series: Youth Empowerment through Education for Justice
  • Interview: How to use E4J's tool in teaching on TIP and SOM
  • E4J-Open University Online Training-of-Trainers Course
  • Teaching Integrity and Ethics Modules: Survey Results
  • Grants Programmes
  • E4J MUN Resource Guide
  • Library of Resources
  • Integrity & Ethics
  • Module 12: Integrity, Ethics & Law
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University Module Series: Integrity & Ethics

Module 12: integrity, ethics and law.

what is module 2 case study

  This module is a resource for lecturers  

Case studies.

Choose one or more of the following case studies and lead a discussion which allows students to address and debate issues of integrity, ethics and law. If time allows, let the students vote on which case studies they want to discuss.

For lecturers teaching large classes, case studies with multiple parts and different methods of solution lend themselves well to the group size and energy in such an environment. Lecturers can begin by having students vote on which case study they prefer. Lecturers could break down analysis of the chosen case study into steps which appear to students in sequential order, thereby ensuring that larger groups stay on track. Lecturers may instruct students to discuss questions in a small group without moving from their seat, and nominate one person to speak for the group if called upon. There is no need to provide excessive amounts of time for group discussion, as ideas can be developed further with the class as a whole. Lecturers can vary the group they call upon to encourage responsive participation.

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HGV Theory Test

CPC Case Study Practice Test

Mock theory test.

There are 12 multiple choice questions in this free CPC case study practice mock test. Read this carefully and ensure you fully understand the scenario before starting the test. You need to score at least 9 out of 11 to pass this test.

Register to track your progress

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Easy View of Theory Test Questions

what is module 2 case study

Mock Tests

CPC Module 2

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There are 9 questions in this CPC module 2 case study. Read the scenario carefully and ensure you understand it fully. You need to score at least 7 out of 9 to pass. Good luck!

Sign up to keep track of your progress

Tests Taken

Average Score

Your Progress

You're doing well! Carry on practising to make sure you're prepared for your test. You'll soon see your scores improve!

Do you wish to proceed?

1315 votes - average 4.8 out of 5

CPC Module 2 Quick View

Click the question box to reveal the correct answer. You can print the CPC Module 2 questions and answers by clicking the printer icon below.

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MKT 625 Milestone 3.1 Audience Audit

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IMAGES

  1. CYB 200 Module Two Case Study Template

    what is module 2 case study

  2. Module-2-Study-Guide

    what is module 2 case study

  3. Module 3 Case Study.docx

    what is module 2 case study

  4. Case Study: Module 6

    what is module 2 case study

  5. Module 2 Assignment: Case Study Analysis

    what is module 2 case study

  6. GM Case Study Assignment

    what is module 2 case study

VIDEO

  1. Case study practical

  2. Young People Module 2 Case Study

  3. How to solve a case study ( live class with a demo case)

  4. Week 2 Module 2 Case Study Instructions Video

  5. No Product No Service, फिर भी करोड़ों का धंधा ?

  6. Case Studies

COMMENTS

  1. Shared decision making

    Module 2 - Shared Decision-Making Case Study Given the two pieces of evidence, what are the key clinical questions to consider when caring for this patient? One question to ask is if the patient will be staying for longer than the 3-4 expected days.

  2. CYB200 Module 2 Case Study

    CYB 200 Module Two Caser Study. July 10th, 2021 CYB 200. After reviewing the scenario in the Module Two Case Study Activity Guidelines and Rubric document, fill in the table below by completing the following steps for each control recommendation: Specify which Fundamental Security Design Principle best applies by marking all appropriate cells ...

  3. Methodology Series Module 2: Case-control Studies

    Case-Control study design is a type of observational study. In this design, participants are selected for the study based on their outcome status. Thus, some participants have the outcome of interest (referred to as cases), whereas others do not have the outcome of interest (referred to as controls). The investigator then assesses the exposure ...

  4. CPC Module 2 Case Study Revision

    The case study test allows you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding and assesses you on how to put your knowledge and skills into practice. Remember, this module requires you to use what you have learned to make your own judgements on each scenario. The CPC Module 2 assessment lasts 1 hour and 30 minutes and tests you on 6 to 8 case ...

  5. Untitled document

    Module 2 Case Study. Choose a specific soil microbe, describe the following; a. What it consumes in the environment ; Bacteria recycle carbon in soils deposited by living and dead plants examples such as root exudates and fresh plant litter. b. It's growth curve ;The growth curve of bacteria has three phases, the first one is the lag phase.

  6. Methodology Series Module 2: Case-control Studies

    Case-Control study design is a type of observational study. In this design, participants are selected for the study based on their outcome status. Thus, some participants have the outcome of ...

  7. Module 2 case studies

    The module 2 case studies test involves a series of questions based on real-life scenarios that a student may encounter during their day to day work as the driver of a large goods vehicle. The test is made up of seven case studies consisting of between 5-10 questions. The maximum mark for the test is 50, and a minimum of 40 is required to pass ...

  8. CPC Module 2 Case Studies

    > CPC Module 2 Case Studies. Mock Tests; Questions List; CPC Module 2; CPC Module 4; Remove Ads. Free Case Study. Case Study 1. Case Study 2. Case Study 3. Case Study 4. Case Study 5. Case Study 6. Case Study 7. Case Study 8. Case Study 9. Case Study 10. Case Study 11. Case Study 12. Case Study 13. Case Study 14.

  9. Become a qualified heavy goods vehicle (HGV) or bus driver

    The case studies are short stories based on situations that you're likely to come across in your working life. You'll be asked between 6 and 8 multiple-choice questions on each case study.

  10. Free CPC case studies

    LGV Initial Driver CPC Theory Free CPC Case Studies Practice Test. Trevor and John are multi-manning a vehicle from the UK to France. They work for TSD Haulage who have been contracted to deliver car exhausts to a manufacturing plant. They are driving a curtain-sided lorry with a gross vehicle weight of 18 tonnes and carrying a 10 tonne load.

  11. Nutrition 1020

    Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like In Victor´s diet, at least half the grains consumed were from whole-grain sources., Victor´s diet is adequate in oils according to MyPlate., Victor´s diet is promoting hearth health, according to the American Heart Association (AHA) dietary guidelines. and more.

  12. Multiple-Choice Theory & Module 2 Case Studies

    National pass rate 63.2%. Our pass rate 92.4%. You need a driver CPC qualification. For this, you'll need to take the module 2 case studies test. The test can be taken in a test centre simultaneously with the multiple-choice theory and hazard perception. You can take the test before you've passed your practical driving test.

  13. Integrity Ethics Module 12 Exercises: Case Studies

    Case study 1. A manufacturing company provides jobs for many people in a small town where employment is not easy to find. The company has stayed in the town even though it could find cheaper workers elsewhere, because workers are loyal to the company due to the jobs it provides. Over the years, the company has developed a reputation in the town ...

  14. Hematology Case Studies Module 2 Flashcards

    sickledex. presence of Hgb S (screen) iron studies. iron deficiency. Hgb electrophoresis. sickle cell anemia confirmation. Kleihauer-Betke. fetal cell identification. UAMS Hematology Case Studies Module 2 Learn with flashcards, games, and more — for free.

  15. Module 2 Case Study EPMT 101ES (docx)

    Module 2 Problem Solution Discussion Now that you've been able to analyze a real-world scenario through a case study, it is time to showcase everything you've learned by presenting a solution to a project management problem that you may encounter in the future! First, discuss the differences between waterfall and agile strategies.

  16. Module 2 evb case study completed

    Module 2 | Shared Decision-Making Case Study Based on the two pieces of evidence, the clinical question for this patient is whether the two pieces of evidence conflict with the principles of patient-centered care. Another question to consider is whether the patient is experiencing any psychosocial issues not being addressed with evidence.

  17. CPC Case Study Practice Test

    He normally starts work at 6.00am and spends 30 minutes each morning carrying out vehicle safety checks and documentation. There are 12 multiple choice questions in this free CPC case study practice mock test. Read this carefully and ensure you fully understand the scenario before starting the test. You need to score at least 9 out of 11 to ...

  18. Module 2 Problem Solution Discussion EPMT 101ES

    Module 2 Problem Solution Discussion After reviewing all your learning materials, now is the time to utilize what you've learned to analyze a real-life scenario by reading the following case study: Kerzner, Harold. Project Management Case Studies.John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Fifth Edition. 2017. ISBN: 978-1-119-38597-4. Pages 773-775. Download Kerzner, Harold.

  19. Module 2 Case Study

    2 CYB 200 Module Two Case Study After reviewing the scenario in the Module Two Case Study Activity Guidelines and Rubric document, fill in the table below by completing the following steps for each control recommendation: 1. Specify which Fundamental Security Design Principle best applies by marking all appropriate cells with an X .

  20. Copy of Module 2- Case Study 2.docx

    View Homework Help - Copy of Module 2- Case Study 2.docx from MAR 3023 at Florida International University. Module 2: Case Study 2 Case 2: Survey Question Design Study Questions 1. Using multiple

  21. CPC Module 2

    There are 9 questions in this CPC module 2 case study. Read the scenario carefully and ensure you understand it fully. You need to score at least 7 out of 9 to pass. Good luck! Submit Rating 1315 votes - average 4.8 out of 5

  22. MKT 625 Milestone 3.1 Audience Audit (docx)

    MKT 625 Module 4-2 Case Study: Consumer and Business Standpoint - Puretec Fitness retailer. This helps since they shop at Amazon already. Amazon is a trusted brand, creating an instant connection. The user clicks on the URL for Amazon (which is highlighted on the website), and a variety of PureTec fitness products appear. This is easy for the consumer as Amazon has sorted all of them by price ...

  23. CYB 200 Module Two Case Study Template

    CYB 200 Module Two Case Study Template. After reviewing the scenario in the Module Two Case Study Activity Guidelines and Rubric document, fill in the table below by completing the following steps for each control recommendation: Specify which Fundamental Security Design Principle best applies by marking all appropriate cells with an X.

  24. what is module 2 case study

    A case study is an in-depth anal..... 140 module 2 case studies and over 900 revision questions for the initial driver CPC. Suitable for individuals wishing to drive a HGV vehicle.... There are 5 multiple choice questions in this CPC Module 2 case study. Read this carefully and ensure you fully understand the scenario...

  25. Land

    China is experiencing unprecedented urbanization and aging. Previous studies mostly ignored the internal mechanism of the effect of urban green space on the mental health of older adults. Consequently, the relationship between social participation in urban green spaces and mental health remains uncertain. Therefore, this study explored the impact of urban green spaces, social participation ...

  26. Module Two 2-2 Case Study: Job Classification Plan

    Aaron Moore Southern New Hampshire University OL-325 Total Rewards 16 September 2021 2-2 Case Study: Job Classification Plan Using the schedule above, calculate the number of years it would take an employee to advance from their starting position in Grade 4 (Step 1) to Step 4 if they demonstrate acceptable performance.