research about wastewater treatment plant

Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants: Gap, Challenges, and Opportunities in Environmental Management

• Published: 19 November 2021
• Volume 69 , pages 75–88, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Ricardo Herrera-Navarrete   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9175-4486 1 ,
• Arturo Colín-Cruz   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7612-8391 2 ,
• Hilda Janet Arellano-Wences   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7308-7731 1 ,
• María Laura Sampedro-Rosas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7966-8190 1 ,
• José Luis Rosas-Acevedo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2744-7454 1 &
• América Libertad Rodríguez-Herrera   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4145-3300 1  

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Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants (MWWTPs) have proven to be sources of adverse environmental impacts; however, integrated management can help improve their efficiency. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the gap between the current management and another based on an international standard applied to WWTPMs, in order to understand their environmental commitment, and to identify the challenges and opportunities they present for the adoption or certification of an environmental management system (EMS) based on ISO 14001. For this purpose, a descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out in two MWWTPs in southern Mexico. In a first step, an automated checklist was designed based on the requirements of the ISO 14001:2015 standard and based on a modified FMEA (Failure Mode and Effects Analysis) calculation method. In a second step, a diagnosis was carried out at the MWWTPs, followed by a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis to determine internal and external factors until a series of challenges and opportunities was identified. The findings indicate that the selected MWWTPs have a wide gap that keeps them away from efficient management. Among the challenges, “limited financial resources” were identified followed by “high turnover of managerial staff”, while the opportunities with the greatest potential for improvement are related to the factors “candidate for investment” and “environmental policy”. The treatment plants show a weak environmental commitment, therefore rigorous action plans should be considered, not only to protect the environment but also the investment, and they should be the main promoters that challenge the private sector.

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Center of Regional Development Sciences, Autonomous University of Guerrero, Privada de Laurel No. 13 Col. El Roble, C.P. 39640 Acapulco, Guerrero, México

Ricardo Herrera-Navarrete, Hilda Janet Arellano-Wences, María Laura Sampedro-Rosas, José Luis Rosas-Acevedo & América Libertad Rodríguez-Herrera

Faculty of Chemistry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico, Paseo Colon esq. Paseo Tollocan, S/N C.P. 50120, Toluca, México

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Conceptualization, RH-N, HJA-W; methodology, RH-N; validation, RH-N, HJA-W, AC-C, MLS-R, JLR-A, ALR-H; formal analysis, RH-N, HJA-W, AC-C, MLS-R, JLR-A, ALR-H; investigation, RH-N; writing—original draft preparation, RH-N; writing—review and editing, RH-N. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Herrera-Navarrete, R., Colín-Cruz, A., Arellano-Wences, H.J. et al. Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants: Gap, Challenges, and Opportunities in Environmental Management. Environmental Management 69 , 75–88 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-021-01562-y

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Wastewater is a major threat to nature and human health.

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Strategic Communications & Policy

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It's time the world understood the critical threat wastewater pollution poses to humans and the natural systems we depend on.

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POLICY REFORM

If the world is to meet the UN's Sustainable Development Goals , we'll need significant policy reform. Many of the world’s wastewater policies and regulations are inadequate and based on outdated science that neither accounts for modern-day stressors nor recognizes the economic opportunity of wastewater resource recovery. TNC is exploring avenues for policy interventions to reduce and mitigate wastewater pollution for human health and environmental protection.

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TNC and partners are employing nature-based solutions to address wastewater. One of the most promising solutions our team is studying is constructed wetlands . These are engineered systems designed for wastewater treatment that use natural biological technologies that incorporate wetland vegetation, soils, and microorganisms to remove contaminants.

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Constructed Wetlands in Lake Sembakkam

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Climate change and wastewater pollution are two inextricably linked crises. 

It’s estimated that wastewater treatment plants account for at least 3% of all greenhouse gas emissions, in addition to supplemental emissions from direct discharge into waterways. Beyond the treatment process, wastewater pollution is also a significant threat to some of the key ecosystems we rely on to store carbon, including mangrove forests and seagrass beds. To complicate the matter, the effects of climate change—from sea level rise to the increase in extreme weather events—are overburdening wastewater treatment systems that are already stressed and outdated. 

But if we change the status quo, addressing wastewater pollution can provide multiple avenues for tackling climate change. It starts with implementing treatment options that better protect carbon-storing ecosystems. These options are even more effective when coupled with investment in innovative practices that divert waste into valuable resources, such as reclaimed water, biofuel and fertilizer.

In Florida, TNC and partners have helped pave the way for more widespread reuse of wastewater, helping craft legislation that bans the use of ocean outfalls that discharge treated wastewater directly to the coastal zone within Southeast Florida by 2025, instead encouraging reuse. 

Make Transformative Change Possible.

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• Open access
• Published: 03 February 2020

Effectiveness of wastewater treatment systems in removing microbial agents: a systematic review

• Zahra Aghalari 1 ,
• Hans-Uwe Dahms 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Mika Sillanpää 5 ,
• Juan Eduardo Sosa-Hernandez 6 &
• Roberto Parra-Saldívar 6  

Globalization and Health volume  16 , Article number:  13 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Due to unrestricted entry of wastewater into the environment and the transportation of microbial contaminants to humans and organisms, environmental protection requires the use of appropriate purification systems with high removal efficiency for microbial agents are needed. The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of current wastewater treatment systems in removing microbes and their contaminants.

A systematic review was conducted for all articles published in 5 Iranian environmental health journals in 11 years. The data were collected according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria and by searching the relevant keywords in the articles published during the years (2008–2018), with emphasis on the efficacy of wastewater treatment systems in removing microbial agents. Qualitative data were collected using a preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyzes (PRISMA) standard checklist. After confirming the quality of the articles, information such as the name of the first author and the year of publication of the research, the type of study, the number of samples, the type of purification, the type of microbial agents and the rate of removal of microbial agents were entered into the checklist. Also the removal rates of the microbial agents mentioned in the studies were compared with united states environmental protection agency (US-EPA) standards.

In this study, 1468 articles retrieved from 118 issues of 5 environmental health journals were reviewed. After reviewing the quality of the articles in accordance with the research objectives, 14 articles were included in the study that were published between 2010 and 2018. In most studies, two main indicators Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms in wastewater were investigated. Removing fungi and viral contamination from wastewater was not found in any of the 14 studies. Different systems (activated sludge, stabilization ponds, wetlands, and low and medium pressure UV disinfection systems were used to remove microbial agents in these studies. Most articles used active sludge systems to remove Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms , which in some cases were not within the US-EPA standard. The removal of Cysts and Parasitic eggs was only reporte from stabilization pond systems (SPS) where removal efficiency was found in accordance with US-EPA standards.

Conclusions

Different types of activated sludge systems have higher efficacy to remove microbial agents and are more effective than other mentioned systems in removing the main indicators of sewage contamination including Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms . However, inappropriate operation, maintenance and inadequate handling of activated sludge can also reduce its efficiency and reduce the removal of microbial agents, which was reported in some studies. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct research on how to improve the operation, maintenance, and proper management of activated sludge systems to transfer knowledge to users of sludge systems and prevent further health issues related to microbial agents.

Introduction

Due to hazardous impacts of municipal, industrial and hospital wastewater on water, soil, air and agricultural products, wastewater treatment and the proper disposal of the sludge produced are indispensable from an environmental safety point of view [ 1 , 2 ]. Economically, effective wastewater treatment has important effects on saving water, and preventing unnecessary water losses [ 3 ]. In arid and semiarid countries such as Iran, the water demand has increased and annual rainfall is low also in regions of North Africa, Southern Europe, and in large countries such as Australia and the United States. Consequently, reuse of sewage is the most sustainable and long-term solution to the problem of water scarcity [ 4 , 5 ]. In the next 30 years, the world’s population will increase by more than double. Due to population growth, the amount of water available in 1960 was reduced to 3300 cubic meters and in 1995 it was reduced to 1250 cubic meters. This trend is projected to decrease to 650 cubic meters worldwide by 2025 [ 6 ]. Due to this water shortage crisis, water from wastewater treatment need to be reused increasingly in the near future [ 6 ]. Wastewater reuse requires treatment and application of appropriate wastewater treatment systems [ 7 ]. In recent years, increased research has been done on wastewater treatment using simple, low-cost, easy-to-use methods in developing countries [ 8 , 9 ]. Systems and processes such as activated sludge, aerated lagoons, stabilization ponds, natural and synthetic wetlands, trickling filters, rotating biological contactors (RBCs) have been used for wastewater treatment and removal of physical, chemical and biological contaminants [ 10 , 11 ]. Among different contaminants of wastewater, microbial agents becoming increasingly important and their removal efficiency should be reported in different wastewater treatment systems [ 12 , 13 ]. Biological contaminants in wastewater are different types of bacteria ( Fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli , Salmonella , Shigella , Vibrio cholerae ), diverse Parasite cysts and eggs , viruses and fungi. All of them can be hazardous to environmental and human health depending on the type and amount [ 14 , 15 ]. For example, bacteria in wastewater cause cholera, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis, viruses can cause hepatitis, and protozoa can cause dysentery [ 16 , 17 ]. Many microbial agents attached to suspended solids in wastewater if inadequately treated and wastewater discharge into the environment, such as river water, green space, and crops, put humans and aquatic organisms at risk [ 18 , 19 ]. Therefore, utilization of appropriate wastewater treatment systems tailored to a variety of microbial agents is essential to achieve as complete as possible elimination of biological agents. For example, in the study of Sharafi et al., (2015) with the aim of determining the removal efficiency of parasites from wastewater using a wetland system, the removal rates of protozoan cysts and Parasite eggs were 99.7 and 100%, respectively [ 20 ]. Okoh, et.al. (2010) reported that activated sludge processes, oxidation pools, activated carbon filtration, lime and chlorination coagulation eliminated removed 50–90% of wastewater viruses [ 21 ]. Wastewater from wastewater treatment plants, is used in Iran without restrictions and controls like in many other countries. Therefore, it is necessary to employ proper sewage treatment systems, before water can be publicly used such as for irrigation. This study is focusing on the efficacy of different wastewater treatment systems in removing microbial agents.

Study protocol

This systematic review study was carried out to determine the efficacy of wastewater treatment systems in the removal of microbial agents (bacteria, parasites, viruses, and fungi) by searching all articles published in 5 Iranian Journals of Environmental Health. The data were collected by referring to the specialized site of each journal, from the beginning of 2008 to the latest issue of 2018. Reviewed journals included; Iranian Journal of Health and Environment (IJHE), Journal of Environmental Health Engineering (JEHE), Journal of Research in Environmental Health (JREH), and two English-language journals, Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal (EHEMJ), Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering (JEHSE).

Search strategy

Inquired information was collected by searching for keywords on the sites of Iranian specialty health journal. Key words included; ‘waste water’ OR ‘waste-water’ OR ‘wastewater treatment’ OR ‘effluent’ OR ‘sewage’ OR ‘sewage treatment’ OR ‘sewage disposal’ OR ‘wastewater disposal’ AND ‘treat’ OR ‘remove’ AND ‘microb’ AND ‘pathogen’ AND ‘bacteria’ AND ‘virus’ AND ‘parasite’ AND ‘FCs’ OR ‘Fecal coliforms ’ AND ‘Iran’.

A manual search was performed by checking all published articles. This way, the abstracts of all published articles were reviewed over the period of 11 years between 2008 and 2018.

Inclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria for this study included the year of publication, type of wastewater samples (municipal wastewater, domestic wastewater, hospital wastewater), number of samples (more than 5 wastewater samples), treatment procedures (different types), state the required and mention the type of purification (type of treatment, type of microbial agents, amount or percentage of microbial agents removed).

Exclusion criteria

Exclusion criteria for this study were: lack of access to the full article, inappropriate subject matter, inadequacy of the method of treatment and purification, lack of expression of the type of microbial agents removed, review studies, and letters to the editor.

Quality assessment articles

This study is based on standard checklist PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyzes). The US-based National Institute of Health Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies [ 22 ] for qualitative studies was used. This checklist is made based on the following criteria: Yes, No, cannot determine, Not applicable, and Not reported. It has eliminated the scoring problems. The checklist included 14 questions that were used for research purposes, samples, inclusion and exclusion criteria, findings, results and publication period of each of the 14 articles (Table  1 ).

Extract information from articles

In order to extract information, all articles were evaluated independently by two reviewers based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Both reviewers eventually summarized the information and in cases where the information was inconsistent a third reviewer’s comments was used. The information extracted from the articles was included in the researcher’s checklist for qualitative approval and used in other prior author studies of this paper [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. The checklist included the name of the first author, the year of publication of the research, the type of study, the number of samples, the type of purification, the type of microbial agents and the rate of microbial removal. Additionally, the removal rates of the microbial agents mentioned in the studies were compared with US-EPA standards [ 26 , 27 ] (Table  2 ).

Search results

In this study, 1468 articles related to 118 issues of 5 environmental health journals were reviewed. In the first phase of the search process, 216 articles on wastewater treatment were identified. Then, 196 inappropriate and irrelevant articles were excluded for the purpose of the study. Finally, after reviewing the information and quality of the articles, 14 articles were eligible for systematic review (Fig.  1 ).

Flowchart describing the study design

Descriptive results of articles

Of the 14 articles reviewed, the largest number of articles (9 articles; 64.2%) were published between 2014 and 2018. Most of the experiments were carried out on wastewater samples in Tehran (28.58%). In total, studies were conducted in 10 cities of Iran (Fig.  2 ).

Cities selected for wastewater sampling in 14 articles

Concerning the type of microbial agents, it was found that a total of 14 articles have eliminated types of bacteria and parasites from municipal, hospital and industrial wastewater (Fig.  3 ). In 11 articles, two main microbial indices ( Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms ) were used as bioindicators to evaluate the efficacy of the wastewater treatment systems (Fig. 3 ).

Types of microbial agents removed in wastewater based on the articles

Quality assessment of articles

The qualitative results of the articles showed that most of the studies were of good quality but in many articles the method of determination of sample size (Q5) was not specified. In the articles, participation rate of eligible persons, inclusion and exclusion criteria, exposure (s) were evaluated more than once, and blinding of participant exposure status was not relevant and not applicable (Q10, Q4, Q3 and Q12) (Table  3 ).

Article features

Articles on the efficacy of a variety of purification systems for the removal of microbial agents were published between 2010 and 2018. All studies don in the laboratory. The largest sample size was related to Derayat et al., 2011 [ 30 ] in Kermanshah with 120 wastewater samples. Wastewater studies were carried out in different cities of North, East, West and Central Iran. Most studies have investigated bacterial factors in wastewater and the efficacy of removing fungi and viral contamination in wastewater was not found in any study (Table  4 ). In most articles, the type of sewage treatment system was activated sludge. For example were the removal rates of microbial agents in wastewater investigated in the study by Derayat et al., 2011 [ 30 ], Baghapour et al., 2013 [ 31 ] and Nahavandi et al., 2015 [ 37 ] on Conventional Activated Sludge, Ghoreishi et al., 2016 [ 38 ] on extended aeration activated sludge (Table 4 ).

Evaluation of the removal of microbial agents in accordance with US-EPA standards showed that in some articles the removal of Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms was not within acceptable ranges. For example, in the study of Ghoreishi et al., 2016 [ 38 ], although several different systems were used to remove Total coliforms, eimination efficiency never reached US-EPA standards. Moreover, the activated sludge process did not have the efficiency to remove Parasitic eggs as reported in the study by Nahavandi et al., 2015 [ 37 ] (Table 4 ).

Examination of microbial removal rates in the study of Ghoreishi et al., 2016 [ 38 ] that none of the Total Coliforms removal was US-EPA standard although both extended aeration activated sludge and conventional activated sludge systems were used to remove Total coliforms . The US-EPA standard for Total coliforms removal is 1000 MPN/100 mL, and wastewater showing this amount of Total coliforms is capable of being discharged into the receiving waters [ 26 , 27 ]. A study by Paiva et al., 2015 on domestic wastewater in tropical Brazil also showed that removal of Total coliforms through the use of activated sludge was not a desirable remediation method [ 42 ]. The reason for the poor performance of activated sludge to remove Total coliforms can be attributed to factors such as management problems and operation of the activated sludge system, which results in the production of bulk waste and sludge. This problem is one of the most important disadvantages of activated sludge systems and should be addressed once a month by experienced staff and monitoring experts to correct it. Overall, different activated sludge systems are the best choice for this type of wastewater due to the amount of municipal wastewater pollutants because of high purification efficiency to reduce biochemical oxygen demand (BOD 5 ) [ 43 , 44 ].

Removal of Cysts and Parasitic eggs in the study of Derayat et al., (2011), which used stabilization pond systems, was reported as being in accordance with US-EPA standards [ 30 ]. A study by Amahmid et al. (2002) aimed at the treatment of municipal wastewater with a stabilized pond system in Morocco showing that Cyst and Parasitic egg removal efficiency was 100% and that the pond system showed a proper performance [ 45 ]. A large number of stabilized pond systems were been constructed and used in countries such as the United States, New Zealand, India, Pakistan, Jordan and Thailand [ 3 ]. In Iran, a number of these systems were constructed for the treatment of wastewater in Arak, Gilan West and Isfahan [ 46 ]. Stabilization ponds have a high acceptability due to their simplicity of operation, and lack of mechanical and electrical equipment compared to other sewage treatment systems, their high efficiency in removing pathogenic organisms [ 47 ]. A major drawback for stabilization ponds is the need for extensive land, the low quality of effluents due to the presence of algae, and odor production that limits the use of this type of treatment system near habitated areas. To improve the quality of resulting effluents, chemical compounds need to be consolidated, such as by coagulation and the application of microstrainers, stabilization ponds and rock filters [ 47 , 48 ].

As for wetlands by Karimi et al. (2014) on Fecal coliforms , Escherichia coli and Fecal streptococci show that wetlands did not perform well to remove microbial agents (removal rate for Fecal coliforms 1.13 × 1014 MPN/100 mL and Escherichia coli 5.03 × 1012 MPN/100 mL) [ 34 ]. In a study by Decamp et al. (2000), the mean removal of Escherichia coli through the wetland was 41 to 72% at the in situ scale and 96.6 to 98.9% at the experimental scale [ 49 ]. In the study of Evanson et al. (2006), Fecal coliforms removal rate was 82.7 to 95.99% [ 50 ]. Removal of Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms in the wetlands is done by various biological factors such as nematodes, protozoa, bacterial activity, bacteriophage production, chemical factors, oxidation reactions, bacterial uptake and toxicity [ 51 ] and the interference in each of these (microbial communities) will affect the rate of removal of Total coliforms and other microbial agents. Removal of pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Cryptosporidium was also performed in wetlands but is often not in compliance with environmental standards [ 52 ]. In addition, although wetlands are economical and widely used in wastewater treatment systems because of easy to operate, maintain, and operate at a low price [ 53 , 54 , 55 ], but they don’t seem to be a good option for removing all of the microbial agents.

In a study by Hashemi, et.al. (2010) on UV disinfection system included low pressure (LP) and UV disinfection system including medium pressure (MP) to remove Total coliforms , Fecal coliforms and Fecal streptococci. All investigated microbial agents were completely eliminated [ 28 ]. However, it was reported that the direct disinfection of secondary effluents with LP and MP systems and even their integration due to high concentrations of suspended solids was not possible. Therefore, disinfection of wastewater with UV irradiation requires higher effluent quality through improved system utilization or application of an advanced treatment plant prior to disinfection [ 28 ]. In 1988, about 300 and in 2004 about 4300 sewage treatment plants in the United States, (that are more than 20% of filtration plants) used a UV system for wastewater disinfection. The number of wastewater treatment plants having UV systems has increased in the US, Europe and East Asia. This trend is expected to expand further in the coming decades. Although the use of UV radiation for wastewater disinfection has many potential advantages, it also has disadvantages in terms of cost, lamp deposition, and the possible reactivation of targeted pathogenic microorganisms after treatment [ 56 ]. Wastewater treatment professionals should therefore be aware of new replacement processes and perform pilot scale assessments prior to changing treatment processes.

One of the strengths of this study is addressing the efficacy of wastewater treatment systems by comparing the removal efficiency of various microbial agents that have received little attention as yet. In most studies, only one type of system for removing different physical, chemical and microbial contaminants in a single type of wastewater was investigated and it was not possible to compare the removal efficiency of microbial agents. One of the limitations of this study was the lack of reviewing published articles on wastewater treatment systems in other than the 5 Iranian journals. This limitation, however, might be negligible because the research on wastewater treatment was done by environmental health professionals. Therefore, most studies in this area are published in specialized environmental health journals.

Different types of activated sludge systems have better efficacy to remove microbial agents and are more effective than other systems in removing the main indicators of sewage contamination including Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms . However, inappropriate operation, maintenance and inadequate handling of activated sludge can also reduce the efficiency of microbial agent removal, which has been reported in some studies. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct research on how to increase the operation, maintenance and proper management of activated sludge systems and provide the results to utility personnel responsible to work with this system in order to correct the system quality output in a timely manner. In future research, it is recommended that employed treatment methods integrate two or more purification systems, which then could more effectively remove microbial agents. Additionally, the reports of removal efficiency should include each of the indicated microbes so that health and environmental professionals can make better decisions about using the systems or prevent future eventualities.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Anaerobic baffled reactor

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal

Fluidized Bed Reactor

Iranian Journal of Health and Environment

Journal of Environmental Health Engineering

Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering

Journal of Research in Environmental Health

Low pressure

Medium pressure

Most Probable Number

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyzes

Rotating Biological Contactors

Stabilization Pond Systems

United States Environmental Protection Agency

Ultraviolet

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Muga HE, Mihelcic JR. Sustainability of wastewater treatment technologies. J Environ Manag. 2008;88:437–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.03.008 .

Vymazal J. Removal of nutrients in various types of constructed wetlands. Sci Total Environ. 2007;380(1–3):48–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.09.014 .

NewYork State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA). Evaluation of ultraviolet (UV) radiation disinfection. Enter Report. 2004.

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Acknowledgements

Since this research is part of a research project approved at Gonabad University of Medical Sciences, it is hereby sponsored by Gonabad University of Medical Sciences Research and Technology, which supported the research (Project No. T/4/95) and the Code of Ethics. (IR.GMU.REC.1396.110), is appreciated.

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We have a permission to collect the data from the source.

This research was funded by the Deputy of Research and Technology of Gonabad University of Medical Sciences. The funders did not have any role in the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript.

A grant from MOST to Tan Han Shih (Hans-Uwe Dahms) is gratefully acknowledged (MOST 107–2621-M-037-001 and MOST 108–2621-M-037-001 to T.H. Shih). A NSYSU/KMU collaboration is acknowledged (108-PO25).

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Zahra Aghalari

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Aghalari, Z., Dahms, HU., Sillanpää, M. et al. Effectiveness of wastewater treatment systems in removing microbial agents: a systematic review. Global Health 16 , 13 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-020-0546-y

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EPA research is developing and applying new techniques and analytical methods for priority and emerging biological, chemical, and other contaminants in wastewater systems. This research will improve methods for evaluating chemical mixtures, quantify risks from priority and emerging contaminants, and develop improved surrogates for monitoring the effective removal of contaminants. 

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

PFAS are a growing concern in water treatment but data are lacking on the sources and control of PFAS entering wastewater treatment plant operations. EPA is providing research results on the types, concentrations, fate, transport, and transformation of PFAS in wastewater treatment operations. Researchers are evaluating treatment and pre-treatment technologies for removing PFAS at high concentration sources (e.g. textile manufacturing facilities) to minimize consequences to downstream treatment or disposal operations. The goal is to identify major contributors of PFAS in biosolids and wastewater, with an emphasis on upstream prevention and pre-treatment strategies for minimizing PFAS contamination in water resources. Results from this research inform strategies, technologies, and processes for pre-treating sources prior to discharge to publicly owned treatment works and/or commercial treatment facilities.

EPA is identifying and evaluating alternative indicators for fecal pollution and viruses from wastewater treatment operations. In addition, researchers are determining the microbial loads and the effect of water treatment approaches on the removal of microbial contaminants in wastewater. Extraction standard operating procedures will also be developed for contaminants of emerging concern. Specific activities include the following:

• Development of advanced tools, technologies, and analytical methods for identifying and quantifying exposure to and health effects from known and emerging microbial contaminants for the development of human health criteria.
• Increasing understanding microbial contaminant removal capabilities of resource recovery water technologies and wastewater treatment plants for water reuse efforts.

The emergence of antibiotic resistant pathogens is a major public health concern. While resistance is known to occur due to antibiotic overuse, either in humans or animals, there is an increasing need to understand the role of environmental transmission of antimicrobial resistance.  Since antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic-resistant genes have both been detected in  waste water, EPA is conducting research to better understand this group of contaminants. Specific areas of focus include the following:

• Assessment of relative contributions of hospital and residential wastewater flows to antimicrobial resistance in sewer networks.
• Characterization of antimicrobial resistant bacteria and genes in biosolids.
• Development of a PCR panel for the broad-range analysis of antibiotic resistant gene-related fecal pollution in wastewater.
• Assessment of antimicrobial resistant bacteria and gene loadings on wastewater treatment plants using molecular and cultivation-based assays and improving bacterial concentration methods.

Biosolids are a product of the wastewater treatment process and have the potential for beneficial use. Land applied biosolids must meet strict quality standards as described in existing regulations ( Biosolids Rule in 40CFR Part 503 Standards for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge ). There are several data gaps related to the occurrence, fate and transport, and management of pollutants found in biosolids, with potential human health effects from land applied biosolids. EPA and EPA-supported research is focused on several aspects of the identification, quantification, and treatment of chemical and microbial pollutants in biosolids, including

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Switch to green wastewater infrastructure could reduce emissions and provide huge savings, new research finds

by Colorado State University

University researchers have shown that a transition to green wastewater-treatment approaches in the U.S. that leverages the potential of carbon-financing could save a staggering $15.6 billion and just under 30 million metric tons of CO 2 -equivalent emissions over 40 years.

The comprehensive findings from Colorado State University were highlighted in Nature Communications Earth & Environment in a first-of-its-kind study. The work from the Walter Scott, Jr. College of Engineering explores the potential economic tradeoffs of switching to green infrastructure and technology solutions that go beyond existing gray- water treatment practices.

Built off data collected at over 22,000 facilities, the report provides comprehensive baseline metrics and explores the relationship among emissions, costs and treatment capabilities for utility operators and decision-makers.

Braden Limb is the first author on the paper and a Ph.D. student in the Department of Systems Engineering. He also serves as a research associate in the Department of Mechanical Engineering. He said the findings are a key initial step to categorize and understand potential green solutions for wastewater.

"These findings draw a line in the sand that shows what the potential for adopting green approaches in this space is—both in terms of money saved and total emissions reduced," he said. "It is a starting point to understand what routes are available to us now and how financing strategies can elevate water treatment from a somewhat local issue into something that is addressed globally through market incentives."

The research was completed in partnership with the University of Colorado Boulder and Brigham Young University. Findings center around both point-source water treatment and non-point sources of water pollution.

Traditional point-source water treatment facilities such as sewage plants remove problem nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus before releasing water back into circulation. This gray-infrastructure system—as it is known—is monitored by the Environmental Protection Agency.

However, regulation standards may tighten in the future, and facilities would need more power, and in turn more emissions, to reach newly allowable thresholds. Existing facilities already account for 2% of all energy use in the U.S. and 45 million metric tons of CO 2 emissions, said Limb.

Another significant source of freshwater contamination in the U.S. comes from non-point source activity such as fertilizer runoff from agriculture entering rivers. Other non-point sources of pollution can come from wildfires—aided by climate change —or urban development, for example.

Limb said that rather than building more gray-infrastructure treatment facilities to address those increasing sources, the paper explores green approaches financed through carbon markets that can tackle both types simultaneously.

"There could be a switch to nature-based solutions such as constructing wetlands or reforestation instead of building yet another treatment facility," he said. "Those options could sequester over 4.2 million carbon dioxide emissions per year over a 40-year time horizon and have other complementary benefits we should be aiming for, such as cheaper overall costs."

Carbon financing is a mechanism aimed at mitigating climate change by incentivizing activities that reduce emissions or sequester them from the atmosphere. Companies voluntarily buy "credits" on an open market that represent a reduction or removal of carbon from the atmosphere that can be accomplished in a variety of ways. That credit offsets the institution's emissions from operations as it aims to reach sustainability goals.

These trades incentivize development of sustainable activities and can also provide a source of fresh money to further develop or scale up new approaches.

While there are similar financing markets for water, the problem is initially more localized than it is for air quality and carbon. That dynamic has limited the value of water market trades in the past. The paper suggests that these existing markets could be improved, and that the carbon markets could also be leveraged to change some of the financial incentives farmers have around water treatment and impacts from their activity.

The researchers found that using the markets could generate $679 million annually in revenue, representing an opportunity to further motivate green infrastructure solutions within water quality trading programs to meet regulated standards.

Mechanical Engineering Professor Jason Quinn is a co-author on the study. He said the findings have some limitations, but that this was an important first step to model both the problem and opportunity available now. He said the results in the paper have supported new research at CSU with the National Science Foundation to further develop the needed carbon credit methodology with stakeholders.

"This is the first time we are considering air and water quality simultaneously—water is local and carbon is global," he said. "But by bringing these market mechanisms together we can capitalize on a window of opportunity to accelerate the improvement of America's rivers as we transition to a renewable energy and restored watershed future."

Journal information: Nature Communications Earth & Environment

Provided by Colorado State University

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Switch to green wastewater infrastructure could reduce emissions and provide huge savings according to new research

University researchers have shown that a transition to green wastewater-treatment approaches in the U.S. that leverages the potential of carbon-financing could save a staggering $15.6 billion and just under 30 million tonnes of CO 2 -equivalent emissions over 40 years.

The comprehensive findings from Colorado State University were highlighted in Nature Communications Earth and Environment in a first-of-its-kind study. The work from the Walter Scott, Jr. College of Engineering explores the potential economic tradeoffs of switching to green infrastructure and technology solutions that go beyond existing grey-water treatment practices. Built off data collected at over 22,000 facilities, the report provides comprehensive baseline metrics and explores the relationship among emissions, costs and treatment capabilities for utility operators and decision makers.

Braden Limb is the first author on the paper and a Ph.D. student in the Department of Systems Engineering. He also serves as a research associate in the Department of Mechanical Engineering. He said the findings are a key initial step to categorize and understand potential green solutions for wastewater.

"These findings draw a line in the sand that shows what the potential for adopting green approaches in this space is -- both in terms of money saved and total emissions reduced," he said. "It is a starting point to understand what routes are available to us now and how financing strategies can elevate water treatment from a somewhat local issue into something that is addressed globally through market incentives."

The research was completed in partnership with the University of Colorado Boulder and Brigham Young University. Findings center around both point-source water treatment and non-point sources of water pollution.

Traditional point-source water treatment facilities such as sewage plants remove problem nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus before releasing water back into circulation. This grey-infrastructure system -- as it is known -- is monitored by the Environmental Protection Agency. However, regulation standards may tighten in the future, and facilities would need more power, and in turn more emissions, to reach newly allowable thresholds. Existing facilities already account for 2% of all energy use in the U.S. and 45 million tonnes of CO 2 emissions, said Limb.

Another significant source of freshwater contamination in the U.S. comes from non-point source activity such as fertilizer runoff from agriculture entering rivers. Other non-point sources of pollution can come from wildfires -- aided by climate change -- or urban development, for example.

Limb said that rather than building more grey-infrastructure treatment facilities to address those increasing sources, the paper explores green approaches financed through carbon markets that can tackle both types simultaneously.

"There could be a switch to nature-based solutions such as constructing wetlands or reforestation instead of building yet another treatment facility," he said. "Those options could sequester over 4.2 million carbon dioxide emissions per year over a 40-year time horizon and have other complementary benefits we should be aiming for, such as cheaper overall costs."

Carbon financing is a mechanism aimed at mitigating climate change by incentivizing activities that reduce emissions or sequester them from the atmosphere. Companies voluntarily buy "credits" on an open market that represent a reduction or removal of carbon from the atmosphere that can be accomplished in a variety of ways. That credit offsets the institution's emissions from operations as it aims to reach sustainability goals.

These trades incentivize development of sustainable activities and can also provide a source of fresh money to further develop or scale up new approaches.

While there are similar financing markets for water, the problem is initially more localized than it is for air quality and carbon. That dynamic has limited the value of water market trades in the past. The paper suggests that these existing markets could be improved, and that the carbon markets could also be leveraged to change some of the financial incentives farmers have around water treatment and impacts from their activity.

The researchers found that using the markets could generate $679 million annually in revenue, representing an opportunity to further motivate green infrastructure solutions within water quality trading programs to meet regulated standards.

Mechanical Engineering Professor Jason Quinn is a co-author on the study. He said the findings have some limitations, but that this was an important first step to model both the problem and opportunity available now. He said the results in the paper have supported new research at CSU with the National Science Foundation to further develop the needed carbon credit methodology with stakeholders.

"This is the first time we are considering air and water quality simultaneously -- water is local and carbon is global," he said. "But by bringing these market mechanisms together we can capitalize on a window of opportunity to accelerate the improvement of America's rivers as we transition to a renewable energy and restored watershed future."

• Nature of Water
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Story Source:

Materials provided by Colorado State University . Original written by Josh Rhoten. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Braden J. Limb, Jason C. Quinn, Alex Johnson, Robert B. Sowby, Evan Thomas. The potential of carbon markets to accelerate green infrastructure based water quality trading . Communications Earth & Environment , 2024; 5 (1) DOI: 10.1038/s43247-024-01359-x

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Reuse of treated urban wastewater on the growth and physiology of Medicago sativa L. cv. Gea and Petroselinum crispum L. cv. Commun: correlation with oxydative stress and DNA damage

Affiliations.

• 1 Research Unit of Analysis and Process Applied On the Environment (UR17ES32), Higher Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology, Mahdia, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia.
• 2 Research Unit of Analysis and Process Applied On the Environment (UR17ES32), Higher Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology, Mahdia, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia. [email protected].
• PMID: 37012559
• DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-26474-8

The freshwater scarcity is one of the major environmental problems, which is why the water reuse has become a possible remedy to cope with the shortage of water needed for agriculture irrigation. This study focuses on the evaluation of the irrigation effect with treated effluent from wastewater treatment plant in Tunisia on parsley (Petroselinum crispum L. cv. Commun) used as human food and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L. cv. Gea) as animal food. In vitro germination test was conducted at different dilution levels of wastewater as rejected into the environment (25, 50, and 100%) and wastewater with further treatment (TWW). Results have shown that wastewater with dilution of 25% as well as TWW positively affected the physiological parameters in comparison with the dilutions 50 and 100%. However, the tap water (TW) applied as control treatment has shown the best effects. Oxidative stress evaluated by malondialdehyde (MDA) content was in agreement with the physiological results and showed that the most stressed seeds were those treated with the dilutions 50 and 100%. A pot trial was also conducted to evaluate the suitability of WW and TWW in comparison to TW. Results have shown that TWW is more adapted than WW for irrigation as an improvement of growth and physiological parameters was recorded. Oxidative stress assessed with MDA and proline content has shown that plants irrigated with WW significantly accumulate MDA and proline compared to TWW. The TW has shown the lowest values. DNA damage was evaluated by extraction and agarose gel electrophoresis. It has revealed degradation of DNA for plants irrigated with WW. According to these results, it can be concluded that TWW can be used for irrigation of plants destined for human or animal foods. So, it can be a hydric alternative to resolve the problem of water deficit in semi-arid countries.

Keywords: Heavy metals; Lipid peroxidation; Phytotoxicity; Soil analysis; Wastewater reuse.

© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.

• Agricultural Irrigation / methods
• Medicago sativa*
• Oxidative Stress
• Petroselinum
• Wastewater*

Water treatment plant dedicated to influential UCR professor

The Yorba Linda Water District has dedicated a state-of-the-art water treatment plant in the name of J. Wayne Miller, an influential researcher and professor at UCR’s College of Engineering Center for Environmental Research and Technology, or CE-CERT.

Miller joined UCR in 2000 as a visiting researcher and adjunct professor following a career with Sun Oil Co. and UNOCAL. 

Miller has taught many courses in the Chemical and Environmental Engineering Department and CE-CERT and conducted an active research program with graduate students aimed at testing, characterizing, and reducing emissions from ocean-going vessels. He also taught classes on water quality. 

Miller served as an elected member of Yorba Linda Water District’s board of directors from December 2016 to November 2023, including a stint as the board’s president.

The water district honored Miller on April 16 at a treatment plant dedication ceremony attended by more than 80 people. The J. Wayne Miller, Ph.D. Water Treatment Plant will be the largest ion exchange “forever chemical” treatment plant in the nation with a processing capacity of 25 million gallons of drinking water per day.

Forever chemicals, also known as PFAS or poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances, persist and accumulate in the environment due to stubbornly strong fluorine-to-carbon chemical bonds. They are used in thousands of products, ranging from grease-resistant potato chip bags to fire suppressant foams, and have been linked to various health maladies, including increased risk for prostate, kidney, and testicular cancers.

“When we faced the task of building this plant, there was only one in the nation, in Northern California,” said Miller in a statement posted by the water district. “I am proud that we were able to successfully test the ion exchange technology and make it work for the Yorba Linda Water District, providing our customers with clean drinking water and making our district less reliant on imported water.”

The plant dedication is one of many honors bestowed upon Miller. He has received the WPI Goddard Award for Outstanding Professional Achievement (2012); UCR Non-Faculty Research and Teaching Award (2008); U.S. EPA Climate Change Award (2007); and the U.S. Air Force’s Arnold Engineering Development Center Annual Technical Achievement   

Related Awards

Ucr professor to present on united nations climate change panel, ucr professor elected to the turkish academy of sciences, doe awards $300,000 to ucr professor for accelerating ev integration, electrochemical carbon capture shows promise in climate fight.

PROJECT SELECTIONS FOR DE-FOA-0002796: WATER RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FOR OIL AND GAS PRODUCED WATER AND COAL COMBUSTION RESIDUALS WASTEWATER ASSOCIATED WITH COAL POWER PLANTS (ROUND 2)

Characterization and Recovery of Rare Earth Elements/Elements of Interest in Coal Combustion Residual Wastewater and Solid Wastes Associated with Coal Power Generation  —  Lehigh University  (Bethlehem, Pennsylvania) intends to characterize rare earth elements and other elements of interest in coal combustion residuals wastewater and solid wastes associated with coal power generation as a function of coal type, coal combustion technologies, and air pollution control devices configurations. The project team will revise and streamline conventional procedures used to analyze rare earth elements and other elements of interest from power plant target sources. The secondary objective is to demonstrate one electrodialytic technology for potential recovery of rare earth elements and other elements of interest, thus helping enable beneficial use of coal combustion residuals wastewater and solid waste.

DOE Funding: $2,000,000 Non-DOE Funding: $500,000 Total Value: $2,500,000  

Scalable and Efficient Membrane Distillation and Adsorption Process for High-Purity Water and Lithium Recovery from Produced Water in New Mexico  —  New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology  (Socorro, New Mexico) plans to comprehensively characterize produced water from the Permian and San Juan Basins in New Mexico and develop a scalable and highly efficient membrane distillation-crystallization and adsorption process for simultaneous water and critical elements recovery from produced water. Both bench- and pilot-scale membrane distillation-crystallization and adsorption units (1,000 gallons per day) will be developed and validated for produced water treatment.

DOE Funding: $1,499,951 Non-DOE Funding: $375,025 Total Value: $1,874,976  

Strategic Management and Resource Recovery Transformation (SMAR2T): Recovery of Water and Elements of Interest from Produced Water Using Intensified Membrane Distillation and Metal Extraction  —  Texas Tech University  (Lubbock, Texas) intends to develop a system engineering approach for produced water resource extraction and management in oil and gas operations. The team intends to (1) test a cascade treatment approach involving vacuum membrane distillation integrated with vapor compression to extract water, (2) selectively recover elements (metals) of interest using staged precipitation, (3) develop an optimization framework for managing produced water and identifying infrastructure needs using software and a techno-economic approach and (4) engage with stakeholders, members and students of under-represented groups, state agencies and members of the oil and gas sector to promote workforce development and community involvement as the project tackles produced water challenges.

DOE Funding: $1,499,993 Non-DOE Funding: $696,848 Total Value: $2,196,841  

Characterizing and Recovering Valuable Elements and Minerals from Produced Water in Oklahoma (OK-CARVER)  — University of Oklahoma  (Norman, Oklahoma) intends to sample produced waters; determine their chemistry; determine their concentrations in terms of rare earth elements, critical minerals, and/or elements of interest; and engineer their extraction technologies. The project team plans to develop geoscience and engineering solutions for the recovery of valuable elements and minerals from produced water, thereby promoting sustainable resource utilization.

DOE Funding: $1,499,390 Non-DOE Funding: $500,000 Total Value: $1,999,390  

Valuable mineral recovery and alternative utilization of produced water through a novel process  —  Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University  (Blacksburg, Virginia) plans to develop a process for achieving three beneficial uses of produced water, including valuable mineral recovery, carbon fixation, and irrigation water production. The process consists of five major steps: (1) produced water treatment; (2) rare earth elements and critical metals recovery; (3) direct lithium recovery; (4) carbon mineralization; and (5) phyto-microbial treatment. Bench-scale experimental tests will be conducted to optimize each step of the process. In addition, the project will establish a pre-pilot circuit to continuously test the process and collect critical information for testing at larger scales.

DOE Funding: $1,500,000 Non-DOE Funding: $375,001 Total Value: $1,875,001