phd in canada vs phd in usa

  • PhD in USA – A Guide for 2020/21
  • Finding a PhD

A PhD in USA takes approximately 5 – 6 years of full-time study and can cost between $12,000 – $45,000 per academic year. PhD programs in USA differ from that in the UK and Europe in that students must first take taught classes, coursework and exams before starting their research project.

Why Do a PhD in USA?

The United States has long had some of the most distinguished universities and advanced PhD programmes in the world. Combined with curriculum flexibility, rigorous teaching methods, vast funding opportunities, breathtaking campuses and significant career prospects, it’s no wonder that it is one of the most sought-after study destinations for research students.

In addition to comprehensive training standards, here are a few other reasons why a student may choose to undertake their PhD in the United States:

  • Longer learning timeframes – A PhD in the US lasts longer than a PhD in the UK or Europe. This allows students to more confidently transition from undergraduate to postgraduate studies; more commonly referred to as ‘graduate studies’ in the US. This gives you the opportunity to learn more about your subject, research methods and academic writing in general before starting your research project.
  • World-class universities – It’s no secret that some of the most well-known higher education institutions that continue to dominate global rankings are based in the United States. Although many factors go into determining whether a position is right for you, a PhD at a high-ranking American university will undeniably have many benefits, from excellent learning standards to access to innovative equipment and deep expertise.
  • International network – The US has long been a popular choice among PhD students around the world. As such, the US hosts a diverse and multicultural learning environment in which many research students will quickly feel at home.
  • Opportunities – With over 4,000 universities in the US, we can safely say you will have plenty of opportunities to find the ideal combination of project, supervisor and university that works for you.

Universities in USA

Universities in the United States can be divided into two types: public universities and private universities.

Public universities are financed by the state in which they are based. Because of this, public universities charge less for students from within the state and more for students from outside the state, including international students.

Private universities are not financed by their state, but by private donors, research funds and tuition fees. For this reason, private universities generally charge higher tuition fees than public universities and require all students to pay the same amount, regardless of whether they come from out-of-state or abroad.

According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2021 , eight of the top ten universities in the world are located in the United States. These are:

Method of Study

The main difference between a PhD in the US and a PhD in Europe lies in the program structure. Whereas a European PhD essentially consists of a single phase lasting three to four years , an American PhD consists of three different phases, each with its own time frame.

  • Phase One – The first phase lasts approximately two years and focuses on building a basic foundation for the doctoral student. This phase consists largely of taught components such as lectures, tutorials and laboratory sessions, in which the student learns more about theoretical concepts and research methods within their discipline.
  • Phase Two – The second phase can be considered an assessment phase, which runs both periodically alongside and at the end of the first phase. Here, students complete coursework and take exams on the basis of the material they have covered of which they must pass in order to proceed to the third phase.
  • Phase Three – The third phase lasts approximately three years and resembles the European PhD structure. During this period, the student undertakes an independent research project, including forming a research design, conducting experiments, writing a thesis (more commonly referred to in the USA as a dissertation) and sitting a viva exam.

Teaching Requirements

Besides structure, a key difference between a PhD program in the US and in Europe is the focus on teaching requirements. In the US, doctoral students are expected to lecture, lead tutorials, host laboratory sessions, mark coursework and provide office hours for undergraduate students. Although students studying in European will likely contribute to these at some point during their study, this would normally be on a voluntary basis and involve less time commitment.

Research Flexibility

Another difference is project flexibility. In Europe, students typically apply to a PhD project predetermined by a supervisor, and although there may be some scope to adapt the project, depending on the funding provider , it will usually be limited to how the project is carried out rather than what it is about. In the US, however, a student applies to become a doctoral candidate within a department rather than applying for a particular research project. This is because students are expected to decide on their thesis topic (also commonly referred to as a dissertation research topic) near the end of their first phase after they have developed a better understanding of their subject and know where their interests lie. Therefore, research students in the US generally have more flexibility and influence in the direction of their research than students in the United Kingdom or Europe.

PhD Admission Requirements in USA

PhD admission into US universities can be highly competitive, both because of the limited number of positions and the large number of annual applicants.

The eligibility requirements for a doctoral program in the USA can generally be divided into four sections:

How to Apply for a PhD in USA

  • Grade Point Average (GPA) – in the US, a scoring system known as Grade Point Average is used to measure academic ability. A student’s GPA is calculated as a weighted score of the subjects they study during their undergraduate degree; an equivalent score is calculated by universities for international applicants. Although universities rarely set minimum GPA requirements for doctoral study, it’s worth being aware that a GPA of 3.0 is equivalent to a UK second class honours (2:1); the typical entry requirement for UK universities.
  • Graduate Records Exam (GRE) – most universities will require you to take a series of examinations known as Graduate Records Exams, which are used to determine your suitability for graduate study. GREs will assess your analytical, reasoning and critical thinking skills as well as your depth of your subject.
  • Student aptitude – in addition to academic ability, US universities also look for characteristics of a strong researcher. These include traits such as engaging in the subject in your own time, e.g. by attending talks and conferences, demonstrating a high degree of independence and enthusiasm, and a general passion for your subject.
  • English Language Proficiency – international students whose first language is not English must sit language exams such as IELTS or TOELF to demonstrate their English language proficiency.

International students will also require a F1 student visa in order to study in the US, however, you would typically apply for this after you have secured a place into a doctorate program.

How to Apply for PhD in USA

When applying for a PhD position at a graduate school, the application process will differ between universities, however, they will all typically ask for the following:

  • Academic CV – a short document summarising your educational background and current level of experience .
  • Personal statement – a document which outlines why you believe you are suitable for PhD study and your passion for the subject.
  • Academic transcripts – a complete breakdown of the modules and their respective marks you have taken as part of your previous/current degree.
  • GRE scores – a transcript of your Graduate Records Exam results.
  • Research statement – a condensed version of a research proposal outlining your general research interests, if required.
  • Recommendation letters – references from several academic referees who endorse your qualities as a person, your abilities as a student and your potential as a doctoral researcher.

Application Deadlines and Fees

Since PhD programs in the United States have taught components, they commence at the same time as all other taught degrees, and therefore share the same application deadlines and start dates. This corresponds to an application period that typically begins in August and ends in February. Admission decisions are typically made in April, with successful students starting in August/September.

When you apply to a graduate school, you will be expected to pay a fee for each doctorate application to cover the school’s administrative costs for processing your application. The fee varies from university to university, but typically ranges from $50 to $100 .

Funding your PhD in USA

It’s very common for a PhD student to receive financial aid in the form of a PhD scholarship; in fact, this will be the case for the vast majority of students in the US.

PhD funding can be ‘fully funded’ covering the student’s graduate program tuition fees, accommodation and living costs, or ‘partially funded’ covering the student’s tuition fee only in part or full.

Besides funding, a graduate student can take on an assistantship, such as a graduate teaching assistant or research assistant, in which they take on a part-time salaried position at the university alongside their studies.

Due to the international and collaborate nature of American universities, there are also a number of international scholarships available, such as the Fulbright Scholarship and the AAUW International Fellowship .

PhD Duration in USA

In the US, a PhD takes approximately 5 – 6 years to complete if studying full-time, and 8 – 10 years if studying part-time.

If you already have a Master’s degree, your first phase can be shortened by one year at the discretion of the university.

Cost of a PhD in USA

The cost of a PhD program in the US can vary considerably depending on the type of university, i.e. whether it’s a public or private university, the doctoral course, i.e. whether it’s in a STEM subject such as computer science, engineering or a non-STEM subject, and whether you are a home or international student.

In general, however, the typical annual tuition fee for a PhD in the US is between $12,000 and $45,000 per academic year.

As with any doctoral degree, additional costs may include travel for collaborations, bench fees, accommodation and living expenses.

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  • Phd in Canada

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Study in Canada

Why Study Ph.D. in Canada?

Let’s Look at the Numbers!

  • As per QS World University Rankings 2023, 3 Canadian universities are in the top 50 list – the University of Toronto (Rank 34) ,  McGill University (Rank 31) and the University of British Columbia (Rank 47) .
  • In Canada, the University sector is the 2nd largest research driver in the country after the private sector.
  • Fortune Magazine has named Toronto the best international city to live in.

Following are some reasons to study PhD in Canada for international students:

Globally Recognized Degree : There are 3-4 universities in Canada for PhD that rank among the top 150 in the world. These top-ranked Canadian universities provide world-class research facilities as well as teachers with the most up-to-date academic expertise.

Post-study opportunity : After completing your Ph.D. programs in Canada, you can stay for up to three years through the PGWPP. After which you can apply for permanent residency in Canada.

Affordability : In Canada, the cost of earning a Ph.D. ranges from 4,000 to 19,000 CAD. When compared to other study destinations such as the United States and the United Kingdom, this is significantly low.

Scholarships : There are a number of Ph.D. scholarships in Canada for international students. Ontario Trillium Scholarships, Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarships, Ontario Graduate Scholarships, and others are among the most popular scholarships. Some of these scholarships include a yearly stipend of 15,000 to 40,000 Canadian dollars.

Work-study opportunities : During the academic year, PhD students in Canada can work for 10 hours every week. This enables you to fund and sustain your everyday costs while learning and getting experience in the field.

Ph.D. in Canada: Highlights

Academic year for ph.d. in canada.

The academic year in Canada begins from September to April, but semester dates vary by province and university.

Top Canadian University Rankings for Ph.D. in Canada

Universities within canadian provinces and territories.

Because of its huge geographic size and colonial past, Canada has evolved a federal structure consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Provinces are self-governing sovereign entities (equivalent to states in the United States), whereas territories are governed by the federal government.

Here is the list of the 10 Canadian provinces:

  • British Columbia
  • New Brunswick
  • Nova Scotia
  • Newfoundland and Labrador
  • Prince Edward Island
  • Saskatchewan

Best Cities to Study in Canada

Here is the list of some best cities to study in Canada:

  • Study in Montreal
  • Study in Québec City
  • Study in Edmonton
  • Study in Vancouver
  • Study in Toronto

Research Universities and Graduate Schools

In Canada, there are approximately 100 research universities. These universities frequently hold their doctoral programs in specialized graduate schools that have all of the necessary resources and expertise to let students complete advanced postgraduate (or ‘graduate’) degrees. Depending on how they are funded, Canadian universities can be either public or private. Public universities (the majority) are funded by their respective provinces or territories and tend to provide a broader range of academic options, including doctoral programs. Private universities are smaller as well as more specialized and are sponsored by third-party sources.

Are You Planning to Pursue Ph.D. in Canada? Click Here to Book Your Free 1-On-1 Session with Experts

Eligibility criteria for ph.d. programs in canada.

As a PhD aspirant, you need to properly network with a professor (supervisor, mentor) who has accepted to supervise your research and thesis work. The first step is to send out networking letters to professors whose areas of expertise match your interests and then wait for their reply.

A student who wants to pursue PhD programs in Canada must meet the eligibility criteria mentioned below:

  • Master’s degree with excellent academic records
  • Strong GRE or GMAT score
  • Scores of language proficiency test:
  • TOEFL: 100 (iBT) , 600 (pBT)

Know more about Entry Requirements for Canadian Universities .

Powerful Reasons to Study in Canada

Related Blog: Top Reasons to Study in Canada .

Popular Ph.D. Courses in Canada

Following is the list of popular courses to study Ph.D. in Canada for Indian students:

  • Natural Sciences & Mathematics
  • Social Sciences
  • Medicine & Health
  • Business & Management
  • Engineering & Technology
  • PhD in computer science in Canada
  • Agriculture & Forestry
  • Applied Sciences
  • Environment and Earth Sciences

Cost of Education for Ph.D. in Canada

Financial aid is available from universities as part of acceptance to Ph.D. programs. This financial aid can come as graduate assistantships in varied forms, including teaching and research assistantships, fellowships, and/or tuition waivers.

The Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship award, for example, comes in at CA$50,000 (~US$37,210) per year for highly qualified international and local Ph.D. students in the fields of social sciences and/or humanities, natural sciences and/or engineering and health.

The  Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation doctoral scholarships award $40,000 (~US$29,770) per year for three years to Canadian citizens and foreign students -with applications particularly welcomed from students from developing countries.

The University of British Columbia Four Year Doctoral Fellowship meanwhile, provides a stipend of at least CA$18,200 (~US$13,545) per year plus full tuition for outstanding international/home doctoral students for all four years of their studies.

Ph.D. Course Duration in Canada

Some Ph.D. programs in Canada last 2-3 years, while others last up to ten years, it is heavily dependent on the type of university you will attend and the field you will pursue.

  • Management: 4 years
  • Accounting: 4 years
  • Organization Studies: 5 years
  • Finance: 4-5 years
  • Industrial Engineering: 4 years
  • Civil Engineering: 3 years
  • Philosophy: 4 years
  • Social Sciences: 4 years
  • Anthropology: 2-3 years
  • IT: 3-4 years

PhD Program Structure

The doctorate in Canada is typically the last ‘terminal degree,’ or the greatest level of academic certification that a student can achieve after earning a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree.

Along with the traditional academic Ph.D., a variety of doctoral degrees are offered, including professional doctorates such as the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) and Doctor of Education (EdD).

Supervision and Research for Ph.D. in Canada

Your Ph.D. will be completed under the supervision of at least one academic supervisor. They’ll be an expert in your overall subject and field. Other members of your graduate school may assist you with supervision and training, especially if your degree requires additional classes and coursework. The completion of a Ph.D. thesis will be the primary criterion of your degree. If you are pursuing a professional doctorate degree, such as a DBA or an EdD, you will have to concentrate on practical work and case studies along with your academic research. A thesis will still be required, although it may be shorter and complemented by other resources.

Assessment and Examination for Ph.D. in Canada

The originality and quality of your doctoral thesis are the major factors for evaluating a Canadian Ph.D.

After you submit your thesis, it will be read and considered by a committee of examiners (which will include at least one external expert). After that, you’ll have a verbal presentation of your thesis.

This process may be slightly more involved than viva voce, which is commonly done in the United Kingdom and elsewhere. Instead of discussing your work in a room,’ you may be expected to give a presentation about your research before being questioned about its content and significance.

The examiners will next meet separately to determine whether or not you performed well on the examination and if you have performed well then you will be awarded your PhD.

Admission Requirements for Ph.D. in Canada

A Master’s degree in a relevant field is usually the minimal PhD requirement in Canada. PhD admission in Canada can be quite tough. Students frequently take classes and modules together, and graduate institutions only accept a specific number of students each year. This means that your previous academic achievements will be examined carefully.

GPA Scores for Ph.D. in Canada

Instead of just providing your final degree result, you will be asked to offer a Grade Point Average (GPA) score. The GPA system is widely used in the United States and Canada (as well as a few other nations), although it is less widespread in the United Kingdom and Europe. It gives you a more comprehensive picture of your total performance over the course of your studies.

A GPA of 3.0 or better is usually required for admission to a Canadian PhD program.

Graduate Admissions Tests for Ph.D. in Canada

As part of your application, you may be asked to submit a score from the Graduate Records Examination (GRE) or the Graduate Management Admissions Test (GMAT). This allows universities to evaluate applicants’ readiness for higher graduate work and, in some cases, choose between candidates with similar academic histories.

Specific criteria (and expected scores) differ per university and graduate school, so double-check ahead of time.

Language Requirements for Ph.D. in Canada

You can consider the following language proficiency test for pursuing a Ph.D. program in Canada:

Student Visas in Canada

Canada is a kind and friendly country that is keen to attract international students. Its student visa and immigration systems reflect this. To enter Canada as a student and stay for your PhD, you’ll typically require two documents: • Electronic travel authorization • Study Permit

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Applying for an Electronic Travel Authorization (eTA)

The majority of overseas students will require permission for studying in Canada. You can obtain this by submitting an application for an Electronic Travel Authorization (eTA). This document serves as your visa, allowing you to enter Canada. The application process for an eTA is convenient and it is done online.

Along with your passport information and payment details, you would need to pay a fee of CAD 7 It’s important to note that while your eTA permits you to enter Canada, it doesn’t give you the right to stay there for the duration of your PhD. To do so, you must first apply for your Study Permit.

Cotutelle Programs in Canada

In addition to the traditional Ph.D. process, several Canadian universities collaborate with other international schools to offer a ‘cotutelle’ (French for ‘co-tutored’) route to a Ph.D. These programs require students to spend time at two distinct universities, each of which supervises, examines, and awards the Ph.D. project. A cotutelle agreement, unlike some other joint PhDs, is usually tailored to the student’s thesis rather than a long-term cooperation between two (or more) universities.

This option may or may not be available at each Canadian university. It is recommended to contact the University for More Information.

A Sneak Peek into the Ph.D. Application Process in Canada

The following documents are required:

  • College Transcripts
  • Detailed Resume
  • Scanned Copy of the Passport
  • Some universities additionally ask for a research proposal
  • Application Form
  • Statement of Purpose
  • Letters of Recommendation

Learn more on How to Apply for PhD Abroad .

Intake & Application Deadlines for PhD in Canada

Canadian PhDs follow a 3-semester deadline system

  • Fall (September to December)
  • Winter (January to April)
  • Summer (May to August)

The funding available to study in Canada is maximized for autumn, so it is preferred over the other two-semester intakes. The deadlines are different for all universities; nonetheless, the commencement dates for applications are more or less in September.

Know more about the Upcoming Intake to Study in Canada .

Student Visa Terms and Provisions for PhD in Canada

International students need study permits to pursue their PhD in Canada. You must submit a visa application online, and submit relevant documents to the VFS office. Additionally, an acceptance letter from the specific department of your university, proof of adequate funds, and a cover letter to the Canadian High Commission are also required.

Usually, students need to commit to specific hours of teaching or research as part of their assistantships and are generally not allowed to preoccupy themselves with any other form of employment on or off campus. Post-degree, a work permit must be applied for within 90 days and the student must carry a valid study permit to acquire this work permit.

Related Blog: Things to Consider Before Pursuing a Ph.D Abroad

How to Apply for Ph.D. in Canada?

Decide the type of ph.d. course you want to pursue.

You can pursue structured or open Ph.D. programs in Canada. The research studies for the Structured Ph.D. program are determined by the university. For an Open Ph.D., you must propose and outline your own research subject. You must choose a supervisor for one of the two courses who will guide you through the research process. Some colleges may require a letter of support from your supervisor in addition to your application.

Submit Research Outline

If you want to pursue open PhD programs in Canada, you’ll need to submit a research proposal outlining the scope of your subject and its relevance in today’s world. The proposal must be written in accordance with the university’s research requirements.

Apply Online and Submit Relevant Documents

Submit your application online with the university of your choice and pay the application fees. While submitting your application, make sure that you are submitting all the required documents in the correct sequence and order. Following is the list of documents that are generally required for PhD courses in Canada:

  • Academic transcripts
  • Score of language proficiency test
  • Portfolios (if required)

Give the Interview

Some universities in Canada conduct virtual interviews before selecting you.

Get Your Study Permit

After receiving your letter of acceptance you must start applying for a study permit. Following is the list of documents required for applying for study permit in Canada:

  • Health insurance
  • Proof of sufficient funds
  • Medical certificate
  • Acceptance letter from the university
  • Language proficiency test results
  • The intention of leaving back to home country

Tuition Fees for Ph.D. in Canada for Indian Students

Fees for Ph.D. programs in Canada typically range from CAD $2,500 to $17,000 per year, while certain programs of Ph.D. in Canada cost up to CAD $25,000.

Recent Fee Changes for International Students

From 2018, local and international Ph.D. students at the University of Toronto will be charged the same fees. This implies that you’ll pay the same as a local Canadian student for your Ph.D.

Brock University has started covering international Ph.D. expenses through its own grants.

Following is the list of Ph.D. fees in Canada at the top universities:

Ph.D. in Canada Scholarships

There are a number of top universities in Canada for PhD. Following is the list of most renowned scholarships to study PhD in Canada for Indian students:

  • Ontario Trillium Scholarship: 40,000 CAD a year (renewable)
  • Ontario Graduate Scholarship: 15,000 CAD
  • Robert Hartog Graduate Scholarship: 5,000 CAD (renewable)
  • UAlberta Izaak Walton Killam Memorial Scholarship: 45,000 CAD (for two years)
  • The University of Manitoba Graduate Fellowship: 18,000 CAD per year
  • UBC four-year Doctoral Scholarship: 18,200 CAD per year (stipend)
  • Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation Doctoral Scholarship: 40,000 CAD
  • Ontario Graduate Fellowship: 12,000 CAD (renewable)
  • Hira and Renu Ahuja International Graduate Scholarship: 20,000 CAD

So, these were some Ph.D. scholarships in Canada.

Government Scholarships for Indian Students in Canada

Following is the list of government scholarships to study PhD in Canada for Indian students:

  • IDRC Research Awards
  • Vanier Graduate Scholarships
  • Ontario Trillium

Non – Government Scholarships for PhD in Canada

Following is the list of non-government scholarships to study PhD in Canada for Indian students:

  • Anne Vale Ecological Fund
  • Canada Memorial
  • Trudeau Scholarship & Fellowship

Other Funding Opportunities for PhD in Canada

Teaching/Research Assistantship : In a research assistantship, you would have to assist a faculty member with data collection, lab organization, report writing, analysis, and other tasks.

Work-Study : With a study permit, you can work for ten hours per week while pursuing your PhD in Canada. The government sets the salaries for part-time employment to ensure that everyone receives a minimum wage.

Ph.D. in Canada Without IELTS

English proficiency is required for Ph.D. admission in Canada. Most major colleges require EILTS, while many university courses do not require IELTS scores.

Following is the list of some universities that allow students to pursue PhD in Canada without IELTS:

  • University of Winnipeg
  • University of Saskatchewan
  • University of Regina
  • Brock University
  • Memorial University

Ph.D. in Canada Without GRE

Despite the fact that many institutions require GRE scores for Ph.D. admission in Canada but there are some universities in Canada that do not require GRE scores. Following is the list of some universities that allow students to pursue Ph.D. in Canada without the GRE:

  • Trent University
  • Lake head University
  • Laval University
  • Carleton University
  • Royal Roads University
  • Laurentian University

Ph.D. in Canada Without GMAT

A GMAT score is required for pursuing Ph.D. in management in Canada. The GMAT is needed by nearly all major universities. On the other hand, several universities do not require the scores of GMAT.

Following is the list of some universities that allow students to pursue PhD in Canada without GMAT:

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PhD in Canada : Top Universities, Requirements & Jobs

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Updated on 09 November, 2023

Bulbul Sharma

Bulbul Sharma

Manager- content @upgrad.

Bulbul Sharma

When it comes to choosing a study destination for pursuing a PhD, Canada is most likely to rank high on the list. It is because the country has many benefits to offer, both academically and culturally.

Canada has some of the best PhD programs in the world. Covering subjects all the way from fine arts to science, Canada is the hub for PhD programs that offer the perfect blend of theoretical and research work. 

To delve deeper into the specifics for pursuing a PhD in Canada, read on!

Study & Settle in Canada – Know where to start!

Table of Contents

Course brief of phd in canada, eligibility criteria of phd in canada, documents required for phd in canada, how to apply for a phd in canada, top phd. universities in canada, average fees for pursuing phd in canada, expected remuneration after ph.d. in canada, study abroad with upgrad abroad, frequently asked questions.

Being one of the best countries to pursue a PhD, Canada has various programs and universities. Here, a student can take a maximum of six years to complete their degree. 

Moreover, you are expected to submit a comprehensive PhD thesis at the end of the course, which an assigned academic advisor will guide. 

Here are some reasons you should consider universities in Canada for PhD. 

  • Affordable tuition fees 
  • Brilliant university choices 
  • A large number of post-work opportunities 
  • Universities offer a great deal of flexibility 

Getting a PhD admission in Canada is not necessarily tricky, but there are certain things you must keep in mind.

The various eligibility criteria and requirements you need to meet for pursuing a PhD in Canada for Indian students are as follows.

  • English proficiency is proof in the form of good scores on language ability tests like IELTS/TOEFL
  • Postgraduate degree in a field that is closely related to the current PhD program in Canada you wish to pursue
  • A Letter of Recommendation (LOR) and research proposal from a supervisor of choice from the university you wish to pursue your PhD from
  • Required GRE or GMAT scores
  • A personal interview round to clear post submission of exam scores and grades

Here are the PhD in Canada for Indian students’ requirements for documents.

  • All transcripts from previous courses and degrees
  • Passport photocopy 
  • Resume 
  • Letter of Recommendation
  • Research Proposal 
  • Canadian Study Permit 
  • Scorecard for Competitive Exams
  • Other Relevant Transcripts and Certificates

So, how to apply for a PhD in Canada? The various steps involved in applying for PhD programs in Canada are as follows:

  • Visit the official website for the university you wish to spend your PhD duration in Canada 
  • Check out all the eligibility requirements and documents required
  • Create an account on the university portal 
  • Once you receive your login details via email or SMS, proceed to fill it
  • Submit all the required documents along with all your academic achievements
  • Take your pick from the various PhD courses in Canada
  • Next, you need to pay the application fee
  • Track the application status via your university portal account once the form is filled, submitted, and paid for
  • Most universities will ask you to attend a virtual interview to finalize the selection 

Do you wish to know the top universities in Canada for PhD? Here is a comprehensive list of the top five universities in Canada for PhD programs.

1. University Of Toronto 

One of the top-ranked universities for PhD admission in Canada, the University of Toronto offers a four-year PhD course. The university offers over 78 doctorate programs.

With a student acceptance rate of 22.66%, the university has the best scope for post-degree job opportunities. Some of the best PhD programs in Canada offered by the University of Toronto are as follows.

  • Aerospace and Science Engineering
  • Architecture
  • Astronomy and Astrophysics
  • Biomedical Engineering  
  • Cinema Studies
  • Civil Engineering 
  • Computer Science
  • Medical Science  
  • Psychology  
  • Statistics  

2. The University Of British Columbia 

The University of British Columbia is the second-best university in Canada for PhD. Backed by a plethora of research facilities and industrial connections, the university offers the following popular PhD courses. 

  • Astronomy 
  • Bioinformatics 
  • Cinema and Media Studies 
  • Counselling Psychology 
  • Electrical and Computer Engineering

3. McGill University 

McGill University is another top medical/doctorate university in Canada. With a comprehensive PhD program list, the university also makes it to the top three universities in Canada for PhD.

Some of the most popular subjects offered by McGill University are as follows.

  • Animal Sciences  
  • Biochemistry
  • Rehabilitation Science 
  • Social Work  
  • Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry

4. McMaster University

McMaster University is one of the oldest universities in Canada and bags a spot in the list of top five universities in Canada for PhD. McMaster University offers the following popular PhD courses: 

  • Biochemistry and Medical Sciences 
  • Biomedical Engineering 
  • Neuroscience  
  • Chemical Biology 
  • Health Research Methodology

Ranking: 

5. university of montreal .

Montreal is placed in the list of top 10 university cities globally. To keep up with this reputation, the University of Montreal offers the fifth-best PhD program in Canada. 

Moreover, to support their reputed PhD programs, their cumulative research revenue surpasses half a billion dollars. Some of the popular PhD subjects offered at the University of Montreal are as follows.

  • Microbiology and Immunology 
  • Neurological Sciences
  • Pharmacology
  • Biomedical Engineering
  • Molecular, Cellular, and Integrative Physiology

After knowing about the various universities and their general eligibility requirements, we move on to the next question, what does the average PhD in Canada cost? 

Here are the estimated fees for the universities mentioned above in Canada for PhD

Job Prospects after PhD in Canada

On top of delivering top-notch education via some of the best PhD programs globally, Canada is also home to an abundance of post-work job opportunities. 

Additionally, Canada is always looking for people who add significant value to specific fields due to its cultural diversity and accommodating nature. Ergo, they offer quite a generous post-study work-visa scheme, which you should take advantage of. 

Here are some of the top job prospects in Canada post a PhD.

  • Research Scientist 
  • Research Engineer
  • Principal Scientist

The average remuneration salary in Canada post a Ph.D. is roughly around CAD 88,000, with a freshers salary starting from CAD 58,032.

upGrad Abroad offers flexible study solutions to help aspirants achieve their foreign education dreams through collaborations with top international universities. You can pursue the most in-demand courses at one-fifth the cost. To know more, get in touch with our counsellors.

Which PhD stream has the most demand in Canada?

Engineering, business studies, education and health, and computer science happen to be the most in-demand PhD in Canada programs.

Is getting a job after your PhD in Canada easy?

Yes, getting a job after a PhD in Canada for Indian students is relatively easier because of the PGWPP (Post-Graduation Work Permit Program). The average salary after a PhD in Canada is estimated to be about CAD 88,000

How long can you stay in Canada after your PhD?

Thanks to the PGWPP, you can stay in Canada for up to three years after completing your PhD in Canada. 

Bulbul is a self-driven professional and an expert writer & editor. She has been a part of the ed-tech industry for the past 2 years now and is motivated to provide study abroad aspirants with factually correct and relevant information. Her knack for impactful writing makes her blogs worth a read!

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Top study abroad destinations, important resources to read, interested in studying abroad, similar articles.

phd in canada vs phd in usa

The USA and Canada are among the most popular study destinations.

In 2019, Canada hosted about 642,000 international students, while the USA hosted over 1 million. Both countries have excellent universities and have more or less similar entry requirements, so if you are just looking for top quality education abroad, you can choose either and be sure of a world-leading learning experience.

But many students struggle to choose between the Study in USA and Study in Canada as both countries have their own unique attractions and opportunities. If you are one such prospective student, don’t worry, we’ve got you covered.

Table of Contents

  • Tuition fees and cost of living
  • Post-study work opportunities
  • Permanent residence and citizenship
  • Language and food

1. Tuition fees and cost of living

Studying abroad is a costly affair, which is why expenditure is a major factor in students' study abroad plans.

Though you will have to spend a solid sum of money to study in both the USA and Canada, the USA typically costs more. The breakdown of the average expenses is as follows:

Note: The figures mentioned above are just an estimate. Tuition fees can vary largely based on the university and course. The cost of living and accommodation costs can also largely vary based on your university's city.

  • How much does it cost to study in USA
  • How much does it cost to study in Canada

2. Post-study work opportunities

The USA and Canada host some of the world's top brands. There are some great work opportunities available for international students in both study destinations - the real difference is the type of post-study work visas offered in each country.

Canada offers a post-study work permit (PSWP) to all its international students. If your course's duration is more than 8 months and less than two years, your PSWP's length will be the same as your course. If your course's duration is two years or more, your PSWP will be 3 years long.

The United States of America offers optional practical training (OPT) for international students who want to stay and work. You can only apply if you hold an F1 student visa with the duration of an OPT being 1 year. If you are a STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) graduate, you can apply and extend your OPT for an additional 24 months.

3. Permanent residence and citizenship

Canada is well known as one of the most welcoming countries, but both the USA and Canada serve as homes to many people from many cultures, races and countries.

The USA currently has about 40 million immigrants accounting for almost one-fifth of the country's total population, and Canada has planned to welcome 1 million new migrants between 2020 and 2023.

Many international students aim to move to their study destination after finishing their course. If you are one such person, this is an important factor you need to consider before choosing either the USA or Canada as your study destination.

You will need a green card to be a permanent resident in the USA. You also need to stay for a minimum of 5 years in the USA on employment grounds to be eligible to apply, and the process is often slow and long.

Canada offers many easy pathways for international students who want to become permanent residents of the country. You can even start your application process to become a permanent resident before your PSWP ends.

You might also like:

  • Differences Between Studying in the UK vs USA
  • Differences between US and UK Uni Culture
  • UK vs US universities, which should you choose?
  • What is the difference between a school, college and university in the UK?

Is climate an important factor? It definitely is! It would be best to choose a place with an overall climate you enjoy or where you know you can be comfortable.

When we think about Canada, we think about freezing cold winds and beautiful white snow, and when we think about the USA, we think about pleasant temperate climates and a day out at the beach.

But both the USA and Canada are huge countries with large landmasses and varied climate conditions.

Though, in general, the USA is warmer than Canada, different places within each country have different climatic conditions. Certain parts of Canada have very hot summers, while certain parts of the USA have very cold winters.

5. Language and food

English is predominantly spoken in the USA and Canada, but Canada also has a large French-speaking population. Even many universities in provinces like Quebec require international students to speak French fluently.

As for food, both the USA and Canada celebrate cuisines from all over the world. So, you can go out with your friends and eat any type of food you want. And in Canada, you don’t even have to worry about splitting the bill because most restaurants offer individual bills for friends eating as a group.

And did you know that Canadians buy milk in packets while Americans get it in cartons? Why, you ask? Because packets are more environmentally friendly than cartons.

So, which is the better study destination? the USA or Canada? Think wisely and choose the country that best fits your preferences. You can’t go wrong!

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8 big differences between the US and UK PhD experience

And one important similarity. 

Helen Robertson

phd in canada vs phd in usa

Credit: Malte Mueller/Getty

And one important similarity.

11 March 2020

phd in canada vs phd in usa

Malte Mueller/Getty

In 2019, I took a risk by moving halfway around the world as a postdoctoral researcher in molecular evolution.

Since then, I’ve been struck by how different the grad school experience is here at the University of Chicago in the US, compared with my time at the University College London in the UK, where I completed my PhD in 2017.

Here’s what I’ve noticed:

1. UK grad school interviews are shorter and more lab-specific

In the UK, you’re likely to apply directly to a lab for an advertised project or one that you develop with your supervisor.

In the US, the application process is more centralized. You usually apply to a school instead of a lab. Some programs even require you to take a standardized Graduate Entry Program test, though this seems to be on the decline .

Grad school interviews in the US tend to be longer. They can involve a series of interviews, tours, and faculty events over a number of days.

2. In the US, a work-life balance is harder to achieve

I’ve been surprised by how all-encompassing a US doctorate can be. Even after the first year of teaching, the number of seminars, journal clubs, and university-related activities make the US PhD experience very grad school-centric.

I was fortunate during my UK-based PhD to approach it more like a full-time job than a continuation of my masters year. There were intense periods that required late nights in the lab, but I had time to pursue other interests , which provided some balance and made me more productive at work.

Of course, it’s difficult to generalize about working patterns. Demanding schedules are not wholly dictated by the country you’re studying in. A recent study found that 76% of surveyed grad students spent more than 41 hours a week on their project.

3. It takes longer to complete a PhD in the US

Probably the best-known difference is the time it takes to complete a PhD.

UK PhD programs tend towards three years in length, although it’s increasingly getting closer to four years – a trend that might soon be reflected in funding arrangements .

It’s a different story in the US, where, according to the Survey of Earned Doctorates , students take an average of 5.7 years to graduate.

4. UK PhD fees tend to be lower

Fees err on the more expensive side in the US, as they do for undergraduate degrees – although this isn’t always true for international students.

US PhD fees, coupled with the longer study time, means that the costs associated with grad school are generally higher than in the UK, even before living costs are considered.

If you have a funding body attached to your project, it will likely pay your tuition fees as part of its finance package. But this flags a major difference between the two countries: funding and scholarships.

5. Many US students need to apply for their own funding

From my understanding, most advertised science-based PhD projects in the UK are attached to funding, which covers tuition fees, bench costs, and living expenses. The tax-free PhD stipend set by all UK Research Councils is £15,285 (approximately US$20,000), although other funding bodies pay more.

In the US, there is no national funding level – your level of financial support will be dictated by your school or lab. This means there is generally much more encouragement for US PhD students to apply for their own funding than there is in the UK.

This is good experience for a future scientific career, but if you have to work additional hours to supplement scholarships, you’ll ultimately end up with less time for your project.

6. US PhD programs are more structured

This is particularly true in the first year for US PhDs, which includes lectures, exams, and lab rotations. Only at the end of the first year, after passing your qualifying exam, do you have the opportunity to pick the lab you’re going to pursue your PhD research in.

In the UK, I started in the lab that I spent the duration of my studies in. This meant no structured classes or rotations in my first year, and I began my own research right away.

PhDs that are run through a Doctoral Training Centre (DTC) – centres that manage the Research Council-funded PhD degrees – are increasingly popular in the UK, and include classes and rotations during the first year, but often without the frequent exams and coursework that characterize grad school in the US.

7. There is more focus on defending your thesis in the UK

Writing my thesis was the final hurdle of my UK PhD experience. It gave me the opportunity to document my ideas, successes (and failures), and the context of my project. I defended my thesis in a closed session with two examiners: one internal to my institution, and one external.

From what I’ve seen, finishing a doctorate in the US is less focused on a thesis. Instead, your committee determines that you have completed sufficient work and skill attainment to warrant your defense. Only then can you write your thesis, and defend it in a public session.

In the UK, it’s unlikely you’ll know your examiners well, but a US PhD defense is assessed by the same thesis committee that have known you for the duration of your studies.

8. Teaching is an added bonus in the UK

My UK PhD funding set no teaching requirements: instead, I was free to teach labs and mark coursework at the discretion of my supervisor. And I was paid for any teaching hours I did.

Teaching requirements in the US vary from school to school. For some students, working as a teaching assistant is necessary to pay fees and living expenses – particularly if you don’t have comprehensive funding.

There might also be minimum teaching requirements for the duration of your PhD in the US. In this respect, the time commitment and financial compensation of teaching is very institution-specific.

One important similarity: The lab you join will determine your experience

Despite the differences in structure and requirements between UK and US PhDs, one thing that is common to them all is that, ultimately, your PhD is going to be shaped by the lab you decide to join.

If have a positive working environment and appropriate guidance and support from your supervisor, and you’re interested in and motivated by your thesis topic, then your grad school experience will likely be rewarding.

And that’s true regardless of the country you’re studying in.

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Top 11 phd scholarships in the usa for 2024-25.

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Top 11 PhD Scholarships in the USA for 2024-25

Where Dreams Meet Doctorates

Dreaming of getting into doctoral research but worried about the cost? The USA boasts a treasure trove of scholarships waiting to fuel your academic journey. From full funding to program-specific awards, there's a golden ticket out there with your name on it. So, grab your research proposal, and get ready to explore the top 11 PhD scholarships in the USA for 2024-25! 

1. Yale University Scholarships USA

Level of Study: Undergraduate, Masters, PhD

Program Period: 2 to 5 years

Yale University offers a variety of PhD scholarships in the USA for both domestic and international students. These scholarships are designed to recognize academic excellence, financial need, and diverse backgrounds.

Eligibility Criteria:

1. TOEFL scores must meet the following minimums:

  • Internet-based TOEFL: 100
  • Paper-based TOEFL: 600
  • Computer-based TOEFL: 250

2. IELTS scores should be 7 or above, while Pearson Test scores must be 70 or higher.

Scholarship Coverage:

1. Yale University scholarship covers 100% of demonstrated financial need.

2. Parent's income, assets, and finances are considered for scholarship assessment.

3. Scholarship amount ranges from a few hundred dollars to over $70,000 annually.

4. Students with parents earning under $65,000 annually pay no tuition, room, or board fees.

2. Fulbright Scholarships

Level of Study: Masters, PhD

Program Period: 12 months

The Fulbright Foreign Student Program facilitates PhD scholarships in the USA from overseas to pursue studies and research at American universities or academic institutions. Scholars from 155 nations worldwide partake in this initiative annually.

1. Eligibility requires U.S. citizenship or nationality, excluding permanent residents. Dual citizens should review specific award criteria.

2. A conferred bachelor's degree or equivalent is mandatory before the grant period commences.

3. In creative and performing arts, four years of professional training suffice. Arts applicants lacking a BA should email to confirm eligibility.

4. Language proficiency matching award requirements is essential for project completion and adaptation to the host country.

5. Holding a J.D. at the time of application is acceptable.

1. Tuition exemption

2. Financial support for living expenses

3. Health insurance for illness and accidents

3. AAUW International Fellowships

Level of Study: Graduate, Postgraduate

Program Period: 1 year

The AAUW International Fellowships, among the most established and expansive global PhD scholarships in the USA, have a rich tradition of aiding women in their pursuit of education. Its dedication to empowering women and fostering international cooperation renders it an unparalleled and invaluable opportunity for its beneficiaries.

1. Former recipients of AAUW national fellowships or grants (excluding local awards or Community Action Grants) are ineligible for International Fellowships.

2. AAUW board members, committees, staff, and interns can't apply for fellowships.

3. Women, including those who identify as women, from any field can apply for International Fellowships at accredited institutions.

4. Must be citizens of countries other than the U.S. or hold nonimmigrant visas if in the U.S. Dual citizens with the U.S. are ineligible.

1. Master’s/first professional degree: $20,000

2. Doctoral: $25,000

3. Postdoctoral: $50,000

The International Fellowship covers:

  • Educational costs
  • Living expenses
  • Childcare for dependents

4. Anita Borg Memorial Scholarship

Level of Study: Undergraduate, Graduate

Aligned with Dr. Anita Borg's vision, this PhD scholarship in the USA was founded to advance women in STEM . It embraces Anita's ideals, encouraging global student engagement in addressing gender equality in technology.

1. Women showcasing outstanding technical abilities and academic achievements.

2. Studying courses like computer science or computer engineering.

3. Enrolled as full-time students in accredited universities.

4. Recent graduates from the previous academic year.

Will be given 7,000 Euros

5. Franklin Mosher Baldwin Memorial Fellowship

Program Period: 2 years

This fully funded scholarship targets students hailing from countries with restricted access to advanced education in human origins research. These PhD scholarships in the USA enable scholars to pursue studies or training either domestically or abroad.

1. Associated or employed with an organization in their native land.

2. Conditional admission (or proof of application) to the host institution.

3. Monetary support from the host institution.

4. Plans to go back and contribute to their home country after finishing the program.

1. Cover costs for tuition, travel, and living expenses

2. Include student fees, insurance, and book expenses

3. Account for other relevant spending categories

6. Josephine de Karman Fellowship Trust

Level of Study: Undergraduate, Graduate, PhD

Started in 1954 by the late Dr. Theodore Van Karman, this PhD scholarship in the USA was his initiative to support students who shared his values and academic pursuits. It assists high-achieving students with their educational endeavors.

1. Only students currently attending a U.S. university are eligible.

2. PhD candidates must plan to defend their dissertation within two years.

3. Undergraduates entering their senior year can also be considered.

Scholarship Coverage: Will receive $25,000.

7. NCITD International Trade Scholarships

Started in 2010, this doctorate scholarship in USA targets students at various educational levels, who exhibit a passion for international trade. This dedication is evidenced by their academic pursuits, work engagements, volunteerism, or relevant extracurricular involvements.

1. Must be currently enrolled in an undergraduate or graduate program related to international trade studies

2. Enrollment must be at an accredited U.S. college or university

3. Undergraduates should have at least "junior" status for the 2023-2024 academic year

4. Demonstrated interest or experience in international trade required

5. Open to both U.S. and Non-U.S. students at accredited U.S. institutions

6. Minimum GPA of 3.0 or equivalent required

Scholarship Coverage: Covers tuition fee

8. Campbell Fellowships for Transformative Research

Level of Study: PhD

Program Period: 6 or 9 months

The School for Advanced Research (SAR) offers doctorate scholarships in USA for every academic year. These awards, known as Campbell Fellowships, are bestowed upon diligent, skilled, and deserving students.

1. Restricted to female applicants

2. Open to candidates of any nationality

3. Research must focus on improving women's health, well-being, and prosperity in developing nations

4. Requires a completed doctorate in anthropology, economics, geography, history, law, political science, psychology, sociology, or an interdisciplinary field combining two or more of these areas.

Scholarship Coverage: Will receive $4,500 per month.

9. IBM PhD Fellowship Awards Program

This doctorate scholarships in USA is a highly competitive global initiative that recognizes outstanding doctoral candidates aspiring to innovate in emerging and transformative technologies.

1. Nomination by a doctoral faculty member required; self-nomination not permitted.

2. Full-time enrollment in a PhD program during the award year is mandatory.

3, Nominees must have at least two years left in their program to apply for the fellowship to the final year.

4. Nominees must remain in the same program throughout the award duration.

1. Within the US, students awarded fellowships during school will receive a stipend covering living costs, travel expenses, and conference attendance.

2. Internationally, fellowship recipients during their academic years will receive a competitive stipend for living expenses, travel, and conference participation.

10. Texas A&M University’s Hertz Fellowship

Program Period: 5 years

The primary goal of these doctorate scholarships in USA is to offer distinctive financial aid and fellowship opportunities to exceptional doctoral candidates.

1. Candidates must be either college seniors, first-year graduate students, or in a gap year gearing up for graduate school applications.

2. They should have the intention to pursue a PhD in applied physical and biological sciences, mathematics, or engineering .

3. Their academic focus should align with addressing significant societal challenges.

4. Applicants must hold citizenship or permanent residency status in the United States.

1. Offers help for up to 5 years.

2. Also includes a stipend of $34,000 for every 9 months.

11. University of lowa’s PhD Programs

Iowa hosts a substantial graduate student population of 7,667, providing 119 graduate programs, including 13 online options. It is one of the best PhD scholarships in USA for international students.

Aspiring graduate students need to have completed a bachelor's degree program with a GPA of 3.00 or higher out of 4.00.

1. Complete coverage of tuition fees

2. A stipend of at least 9 months (around $20,041, with yearly updates)

3. Extensive health insurance (90% covered for students)

Tips to Apply a Scholarships for PhD Students in USA 2024

Now that you're informed about the top PhD scholarships in the USA, it's crucial to keep in mind these helpful tips before proceeding with your application.

1. Start Early: Initiate your fully funded PhD in USA search as soon as possible. This allows ample time for researching various options, understanding eligibility requirements, and preparing your application.

2. Understand Eligibility Criteria: Every fully funded PhD program in USA comes with unique eligibility criteria. Ensure thorough comprehension of these criteria to confirm your eligibility before applying.

3. Prepare a Strong Application: Your application for scholarships for PhD students in USA serves as a platform to showcase your academic prowess, skills, and potential. Ensure it's flawlessly written, error-free, and highlights your strengths effectively.

4. Obtain Letters of Recommendation: Letters of recommendation from professors add weight to your fully funded PhD in USA for international students. Request these letters well in advance to ensure timely submission.

5. Apply for Multiple Scholarships: Expand your horizons by applying for multiple fully funded PhD scholarships in USA. This enhances your chances of securing funding opportunities.

6. Meet Deadlines: Adhere strictly to the deadlines set for each PhD scholarships in the USA. Timely submission is crucial to avoid missing out on potential opportunities.

7. Follow Application Instructions: Each PhD scholarships in the USA presents its own set of application instructions. Pay close attention to these instructions and ensure compliance for a successful application.

With these diverse doctorate scholarships in USA at your fingertips, the path to doctoral success feels more easy. So, don't hesitate and take the first step towards achieving your academic goals.

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Stanford Medicine study identifies distinct brain organization patterns in women and men

Stanford Medicine researchers have developed a powerful new artificial intelligence model that can distinguish between male and female brains.

February 20, 2024

sex differences in brain

'A key motivation for this study is that sex plays a crucial role in human brain development, in aging, and in the manifestation of psychiatric and neurological disorders,' said Vinod Menon. clelia-clelia

A new study by Stanford Medicine investigators unveils a new artificial intelligence model that was more than 90% successful at determining whether scans of brain activity came from a woman or a man.

The findings, published Feb. 20 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, help resolve a long-term controversy about whether reliable sex differences exist in the human brain and suggest that understanding these differences may be critical to addressing neuropsychiatric conditions that affect women and men differently.

“A key motivation for this study is that sex plays a crucial role in human brain development, in aging, and in the manifestation of psychiatric and neurological disorders,” said Vinod Menon , PhD, professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences and director of the Stanford Cognitive and Systems Neuroscience Laboratory . “Identifying consistent and replicable sex differences in the healthy adult brain is a critical step toward a deeper understanding of sex-specific vulnerabilities in psychiatric and neurological disorders.”

Menon is the study’s senior author. The lead authors are senior research scientist Srikanth Ryali , PhD, and academic staff researcher Yuan Zhang , PhD.

“Hotspots” that most helped the model distinguish male brains from female ones include the default mode network, a brain system that helps us process self-referential information, and the striatum and limbic network, which are involved in learning and how we respond to rewards.

The investigators noted that this work does not weigh in on whether sex-related differences arise early in life or may be driven by hormonal differences or the different societal circumstances that men and women may be more likely to encounter.

Uncovering brain differences

The extent to which a person’s sex affects how their brain is organized and operates has long been a point of dispute among scientists. While we know the sex chromosomes we are born with help determine the cocktail of hormones our brains are exposed to — particularly during early development, puberty and aging — researchers have long struggled to connect sex to concrete differences in the human brain. Brain structures tend to look much the same in men and women, and previous research examining how brain regions work together has also largely failed to turn up consistent brain indicators of sex.

test

Vinod Menon

In their current study, Menon and his team took advantage of recent advances in artificial intelligence, as well as access to multiple large datasets, to pursue a more powerful analysis than has previously been employed. First, they created a deep neural network model, which learns to classify brain imaging data: As the researchers showed brain scans to the model and told it that it was looking at a male or female brain, the model started to “notice” what subtle patterns could help it tell the difference.

This model demonstrated superior performance compared with those in previous studies, in part because it used a deep neural network that analyzes dynamic MRI scans. This approach captures the intricate interplay among different brain regions. When the researchers tested the model on around 1,500 brain scans, it could almost always tell if the scan came from a woman or a man.

The model’s success suggests that detectable sex differences do exist in the brain but just haven’t been picked up reliably before. The fact that it worked so well in different datasets, including brain scans from multiple sites in the U.S. and Europe, make the findings especially convincing as it controls for many confounds that can plague studies of this kind.

“This is a very strong piece of evidence that sex is a robust determinant of human brain organization,” Menon said.

Making predictions

Until recently, a model like the one Menon’s team employed would help researchers sort brains into different groups but wouldn’t provide information about how the sorting happened. Today, however, researchers have access to a tool called “explainable AI,” which can sift through vast amounts of data to explain how a model’s decisions are made.

Using explainable AI, Menon and his team identified the brain networks that were most important to the model’s judgment of whether a brain scan came from a man or a woman. They found the model was most often looking to the default mode network, striatum, and the limbic network to make the call.

The team then wondered if they could create another model that could predict how well participants would do on certain cognitive tasks based on functional brain features that differ between women and men. They developed sex-specific models of cognitive abilities: One model effectively predicted cognitive performance in men but not women, and another in women but not men. The findings indicate that functional brain characteristics varying between sexes have significant behavioral implications.

“These models worked really well because we successfully separated brain patterns between sexes,” Menon said. “That tells me that overlooking sex differences in brain organization could lead us to miss key factors underlying neuropsychiatric disorders.”

While the team applied their deep neural network model to questions about sex differences, Menon says the model can be applied to answer questions regarding how just about any aspect of brain connectivity might relate to any kind of cognitive ability or behavior. He and his team plan to make their model publicly available for any researcher to use.

“Our AI models have very broad applicability,” Menon said. “A researcher could use our models to look for brain differences linked to learning impairments or social functioning differences, for instance — aspects we are keen to understand better to aid individuals in adapting to and surmounting these challenges.”

The research was sponsored by the National Institutes of Health (grants MH084164, EB022907, MH121069, K25HD074652 and AG072114), the Transdisciplinary Initiative, the Uytengsu-Hamilton 22q11 Programs, the Stanford Maternal and Child Health Research Institute, and the NARSAD Young Investigator Award.

About Stanford Medicine

Stanford Medicine is an integrated academic health system comprising the Stanford School of Medicine and adult and pediatric health care delivery systems. Together, they harness the full potential of biomedicine through collaborative research, education and clinical care for patients. For more information, please visit med.stanford.edu .

Artificial intelligence

Exploring ways AI is applied to health care

Stanford Medicine Magazine: AI

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    Updated August 6, 2023 Read our guide on how to find and fund a PhD abroad An increasingly attractive and multicultural study destination, Canada is a great option to consider for your PhD studies, offering a wealth of research opportunities to help you expand your expertise.

  8. PhD in USA

    In general, however, the typical annual tuition fee for a PhD in the US is between $12,000 and $45,000 per academic year. As with any doctoral degree, additional costs may include travel for collaborations, bench fees, accommodation and living expenses. A PhD in USA takes 5-6 years, costs between $12-45k per year and has a different structure ...

  9. PhD in Canada: Elevate Your Academic Journey

    A student who wants to pursue PhD programs in Canada must meet the eligibility criteria mentioned below: Master's degree with excellent academic records. Strong GRE or GMAT score. Scores of language proficiency test: IELTS: 6.5. TOEFL: 100 (iBT) , 600 (pBT) Know more about Entry Requirements for Canadian Universities.

  10. PhD in Canada : Top Universities, Requirements & Jobs

    1. University Of Toronto. One of the top-ranked universities for PhD admission in Canada, the University of Toronto offers a four-year PhD course. The university offers over 78 doctorate programs. With a student acceptance rate of 22.66%, the university has the best scope for post-degree job opportunities.

  11. Why Might You Choose To Do A PhD In Canada Vs. USA?

    I talk about the differences between American and Canadian schools for their PhD. I talk about how research is quite a bit different in both of these places,...

  12. Doing a PhD in Canada versus in the USA : r/academia

    Doing a PhD in Canada versus in the USA Hey everyone, I am an international student who did their bachelor's in the US.

  13. Funding disparities are pushing Canadians to enrol in U.S. doctoral

    One study, by Boston College professor Eric Weiskott, found that the 2021-2022 annual stipends for English PhD students in the U.S. ranged from $41,520 (about $53,890 CDN) on the high end at Columbia University, to $16,000 (about $20,750 CDN) at universities in North Carolina and Alabama. At first glance, the stipends at Canadian universities ...

  14. Insider's guide: PhD requirements in USA for international students

    International students who are accepted into a PhD program in the USA will typically need to obtain an F-1 student visa. To begin the visa application process, students will need to provide proof of acceptance into a program, typically in the form of an acceptance letter from the university. In addition, students will need to demonstrate proof ...

  15. Top Universities for PhD Study in Canada

    There are 10 Canadian provinces whose universities offer PhD study: Alberta is a landlocked province in western Canada, famous for its vast forests, prairies and mountain ranges. There are 5 universities offering PhDs in Alberta and the official language is English. British Columbia is Canada's westernmost province.

  16. Workload of PhD in US/Europe/Canada

    In Singapore, NUS and NTU, in Canada the University of Toronto, the University of Alberta and McGill. In the US, CMU, University of Chicago and UNiversity of Minnesota . In Europe I'm specifically looking at colleges in the UK ( like the Imperial College of London, Oxford and UCL) and Switzerland (EPFL and ETH Zurich).

  17. Applying for a PhD in Canada

    The minimum requirement for a PhD in Canada will normally be a Masters degree in a related subject. Unlike in the UK and USA it is quite rare to go straight from undergraduate study to a doctorate. Some universities may allow you to do so if you do some additional Masters-level training.

  18. PhD in Canada or USA? : r/PhD

    49 Anony_213 • 1 yr. ago I see, thank you so much. forcedtojoinr • 1 yr. ago Both schools are great. All things equal, Canada will be easier for long term immigration. However, you could still immigrate to Canada with a PhD from Princeton or hope for the best in the US 22 Anony_213 • 1 yr. ago That's what I was thinking. Thank you for the advice!

  19. PhD in Canada vs USA : r/PhD

    PhD in Canada vs USA : r/PhD r/PhD • 3 hr. ago by Falnor PhD in Canada vs USA Canadian researcher here. I've been debating two competing PhD offers for the last few weeks, one in Canada and one in the States. Does anyone here have experience going from one country to the other for a PhD or post doc? Do you think one trains better researchers?

  20. Studying in Canada vs the USA: 5 differences you must watch out for

    5. Language and food. English is predominantly spoken in the USA and Canada, but Canada also has a large French-speaking population. Even many universities in provinces like Quebec require international students to speak French fluently. As for food, both the USA and Canada celebrate cuisines from all over the world.

  21. 8 big differences between the US and UK PhD experience

    It's a different story in the US, where, according to the Survey of Earned Doctorates, students take an average of 5.7 years to graduate. 4. UK PhD fees tend to be lower. Fees err on the more ...

  22. Top 11 PhD Scholarships in the USA for 2024-25

    So, grab your research proposal, and get ready to explore the top 11 PhD scholarships in the USA for 2024-25! 1. Yale University Scholarships USA. Level of Study: Undergraduate, Masters, PhD. Program Period: 2 to 5 years. Yale University offers a variety of PhD scholarships in the USA for both domestic and international students. These ...

  23. Applying for a PhD in the USA

    To apply for a PhD at an American university, you'll need to submit a list of documents which include: academic transcripts; personal statement; letters of recommendation; CV; research statements - A research statement is different from a research proposal (required if you're applying for a PhD in most other countries).

  24. Best Master's In Education Online Of 2024

    Comparatively, the National Center for Education Statistics reports that tuition and fees for graduate school in the U.S. cost $19,749 per year on average, or nearly $40,000 for a two-year master ...

  25. PhD in Europe vs US and Canada : r/PhD

    PhD in Europe vs US and Canada : r/PhD r/PhD • 1 yr. ago Level_Ad_439 PhD in Europe vs US and Canada Need Advice I had a debate with a friend of mine who insisted that doing a Ph.D. in Europe is a mistake.

  26. Stanford Medicine study identifies distinct brain organization patterns

    The lead authors are senior research scientist Srikanth Ryali, PhD, and academic staff researcher Yuan Zhang, PhD. "Hotspots" that most helped the model distinguish male brains from female ones include the default mode network, a brain system that helps us process self-referential information, and the striatum and limbic network, which are ...