research assignment adalah

A Lecturer, Researcher, Consultant, Author & Entrepreneur

Tony D. Susanto, Ph.D. (ITIL, COBIT, TOGAF)

e-Government, Smart City, IT Management, Technology Adoption, & IS Discipline

Apa itu RISET (“RESEARCH”)?

Pertama-tama, di awal kita mempelajari Metodologi Penelitian, kita perlu menyepakati dahulu: Apa itu RISET (Research) atau definisi dari Riset atau dalam bahasa Inggris “ Research “.

Kata “Research” dari kata “ Re-Search ” yang artinya Mencari Lagi, Lagi, dan Lagi. Lalu apa yang dicari? Pada dasarnya yang dicari oleh setiap Peneliti melalui kegiatan Penelitian atau Research -nya adalah pemahaman terhadap Kenyataan/Kebenaran/Fenomena ( Reality ).

Kata “Research” dalam Kamus Bahasa English Oxford diterjemahkan sebagai:

“ the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions .”

Dari referensi lain, yakni Office for Human Research Protection, “Basic HHS Policy for Protection of Human Research Subjects” (2009), available online at https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/regulations/45-cfr-46/index.html [accessed 23 January 2018], mendefinisikan Research sebagai

“ a systematic investigation intended to contribute to generalizable knowledge “

Dari definisi di atas terdapat 2 kata kunci sama dalam definisi Riset atau Penelitian (Research) yakni:

Penelitian adalah aktivitas sistematis untuk menggali/mengungkap fakta/pengetahuan baru .

Aktivitas sistematis artinya aktivitas-aktivitas yang dilakukan di dalam Penelitian bukanlah aktivitas tak beraturan, tak berpola, atau semau peneliti sendiri, namun aktivitas-aktivitas penelitian dirancang, direncanakan, dan dilaksanakan dengan urutan tertentu atau mengikuti prosedur teknis yang sudah disepakati secara umum.

Lebih lanjut, Allison Hossier (2019) di Jurnal Collage & Research Libraries Volume 80, Nomor 1, Tahun 2019 menjelaskan lebih lanjut cakupan dan karakteristik aktivitas yang dapat dikategorikan sebagai sebuat RISET, yakni:

• Riset dapat berupa proses formal (seperti aktivitas di kelas/universitas) mapun informal (seperti aktivitas dalam kehidupan sehari-hari) selama bertujuan untuk mengungkap pengetahuan yang sebelumnya belum diketahui, mengembangkan pengetahuan yang sudah ada sebelumnya, atau menciptakan pengetahuan baru.
• Tujuan penelitian dapat berupa menjawab Rumusan Masalah penelitian (research question), menguji hipotesis, atau sekedar menjawab rasa penasaran ingin tahu.
• Aktivitas riset dapat mencakup mereview literatur atau menerapkan metode ilmiah (scientific method) tertentu, atau aktivitas informal seperti searching via Google.
• Luaran sebuah kegiatan riset dapat berupa luaran akademik seperti tesis, disertasi, proceeding seminar, presentasi, atau luaran informal seperti berita, artikel majalah, atau posting blog.
• Yang terpenting dari setiap kegiatan Riset adalah menjamin bahwa data yang dikumpulkan dan kesimpulan dari riset benar-benar valid dan reliable (hasilnya berulang sama jika di lakukan dengan metode dan konteks yang sama) oleh karena itu setiap laporan riset wajib mencantumkan bukti proses, referensi, dan hasil riset, seperti: daftar sitasi dan referensi sumber penelitian, penjelasan metode penelitian yang dilakukan, data yang dikumpulkan.

Dari cakupan dan karakteristik Riset di atas, Allison Hossier (2019) membedakan jenis-jenis Riset/Penelitian sebagai berikut:

Dari klasifikasi riset/penelitian di atas dapat dikatakan bahwa tidak semua Penelitian adalah Penelitian Ilmiah (Scientific Research) , dan Penelitian Ilmiah (Scientific Research) hanyalah salah satu jenis Penelitian.

‘‘Scientific research is research, but not all research is Scientific.’’

Ciri PENELITIAN ILMIAH ( Scientific Research )

Setidaknya terdapat 10 karakteristik yang harus dipenuhi oleh setiap Penelitian Ilmiah, yakni:

• MEMILIKI TUJUAN ( Goal ): Setiap penelitian ilmiah pasti diawali dengan penentuan Tujuan penelitian yang jelas. Tujuan penelitian umumnya dapat berupa menemukan sebuah inovasi baru, penyelesaian sebuah permasalahan nyata, atau mengungkap sebuah pengetahuan baru.
• SISTEMATIS ( Systematic ): Aktivitas-aktivitas dalam sebuah penelitian ilmiah harus direncanakan dan dilakukan secara sistematis, bukan random tanpa pola tertentu, dan dikerjakan dengan teknis yang benar sesuai aturan/standar yang berlaku.
• AKURAT ( accurate ): Setiap penelitian ilmiah harus memenuhi tujuan penelitian dengan hasil seakurat mungkin (baik hipotesisnya terbukti ataupun tidak). Keakuratan hasil penelitian ini diantaranya akan dipengaruhi oleh ketepatan metode penelitian, ketepatan alat penelitian, keakuratan data, ketepatan metode dan alat analisis data, dan faktor lainnya.
• EMPIRIS ( Empirical ): Penelitian ilmiah harus didasarkan atas fakta empiris hasil observasi dunia yang hasilnya dapat diverifikasi oleh peneliti lain dengan metode yang sama. Penelitian ilmiah tidak boleh hanya berdasarkan logika saja, berdasarkan emosi atau persepsi saja, sehingga tidak dapat diverifikasi peneliti lain.
• DAPAT DITIRU/DIULANG ( Replicated ) dan DAPAT DIPERCAYA ( Reliable ): Penelitian ilmiah harus dapat diulangi oleh orang lain dengan metode yang sama dengan konteks yang saya ( Replicable ) dan menghasilkan hasil yang relatif sama ( Reliable ).
• HASIL BERSIFAT SEMENTARA (Provisional) : Hasil setiap penelitian ilmiah bersifat terbuka untuk diuji kembali dan diperdebatkan, dan kebenarannya bersifat sementara hingga terdapat penelitian berikutnya yang menyangkal/memperbaiki penelitian tersebut.
• OBJEKTIF ( Objective ): Penelitian ilmiah harus bersifat objektif, apa adanya, tidak boleh dipengaruhi oleh emosi, keinginan, atau hal-hal lain yang membuat proses dan hasil penelitian menjadi bias.
• ETIS ( Ethical ): setiap Penelitian Ilmiah harus mempertimbangkan dan memenuhi nilai-nilai moral dan etika kemanusiaan dan lingkungan di mana penelitian tersebut dilakukan.
• DAPAT DIPREDIKSI ( Predictable ): Hasil penelitian ilmiah um
• TERKONTROL ( Controlled ): Lingkungan penelitian ilmiah umumnya terdapat aspek/variabel yang dapat dikontrol oleh peneliti sehingga peneliti lain dapat mengulang metode dengan hasil yang relatif sama.

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• Knowledge Base
• Methodology

Research Design | Step-by-Step Guide with Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 20 March 2023.

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall aims and approach
• The type of research design you’ll use
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, frequently asked questions.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities – start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types. Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships, while descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends, and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analysing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study – plants, animals, organisations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region, or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalise your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study, your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalise to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question.

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviours, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews.

Observation methods

Observations allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviours, or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected – for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are reliable and valid.

Operationalisation

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalisation means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in – for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced , while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method, you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample – by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method, it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method, how will you avoid bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organising and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymise and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well organised will save time when it comes to analysing them. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings.

On their own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyse the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarise your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarise your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analysing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

Operationalisation means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioural avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalise the variables that you want to measure.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts, and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyse a large amount of readily available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how they are generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

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• Istilah Teknologi

Research Methodology: Apa itu Metodologi Riset dan Penelitian? Tujuan, Fungsi, Jenis, Cara Memilih, Menulis, Tips serta Pentingnya!

Blog » Umum » Research Methodology: Apa itu Metodologi Riset dan Penelitian? Tujuan, Fungsi, Jenis, Cara Memilih, Menulis, Tips serta Pentingnya!

Penjelasan Pengertian Research Methodology , Apa itu Metodologi Riset dan Penelitian? Tujuan, Fungsi, Jenis, Cara Memilih, Menulis, Tips serta Kenapa itu Penting!

Khusus para ahli atau para akademisi yang ingin menyelesaikan tugas akhir studi mereka terkait dalam bidang research (riset) ada beberapa hal yang ingin Kami sampaikan sebelumnya.

Setelah kita menguasai tinjauan pustaka, dalam melakukan penelitian, hal itu berarti sudah saatnya untuk mulai memikirkan studi yang akan Anda rancang untuk menjawab kesenjangan yang akan Anda identifikasi.

Sebagai contoh misalnya seperti metodologi mana yang akan Anda gunakan untuk mengumpulkan data dalam penelitian Anda?

Atau apakah Anda akan menggunakan metodologi kualitatif, kuantitatif, atau metode campuran? Anda akan memilih metode penelitian yang paling sesuai dengan pertanyaan riset Anda.

Baiklah, berkenaan akan hal tersebut, dalam postingan kali ini, Kami akan membahas secara lebih lengkap dan detail tentang apa itu pengertian research methodology atau metodologi riset atau penelitian.

Oke langsung saja, mari kita simak ulasannya berikut di bawah ini!

Daftar Isi Konten:

Pengertian Research Methodology

Apa itu metodologi riset dan penelitian.

• Apa itu Metodologi Penelitian Ilmiah atau Scientific Research Methodology?

Tujuan dan Fungsi Riset atau Research Methodology

A. qualitative research methodology, b. quantitative research methodology, c. mixed research methodology, cara memilih metodologi riset atau penelitian yang baik, 1. jelaskan pendekatan methodologic (metodologis) anda, 2. jelaskan metode pengumpulan data anda, 3. jelaskan metode analisis anda, 4. evaluasi dan justifikasi pilihan metodologis anda, tips menulis research methodology atau metodologi riset dan penelitian yang benar, kenapa research methodology itu penting, bagikan sekarang ke.

Berarti metodologi penelitian (dalam bahasa Indonesia), research methodology adalah prosedur atau teknik khusus yang digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi, memilih, memproses, dan menganalisis informasi tentang suatu topik atau masalah.

Seperti yang juga dijelaskan oleh Situs Witz.ac.za , dalam makalah penelitian, bagian metodologi pada research memungkinkan pembaca untuk mengevaluasi secara kritis validitas dan reliabilitas studi secara keseluruhan.

Ya! Bagian metodologi riset atau penelitian ini akan menjawab 2 (dua) pertanyaan utama Anda, yaitu bagaimana data dikumpulkan atau dihasilkan serta bagaimana cara menganalisisnya.

Jadi, apa itu sebenarnya yang dimaksud dengan metodologi riset dan penelitian ini?

Benar, seperti yang sudah Kami terangkan di atas, istilah kata ini juga sering dikenal dengan sebutan research methodology secara global.

Metodologi riset dan penelitian adalah kata mengacu pada “bagaimana” praktis yang terdapat dari setiap bagian penelitian.

Lebih khususnya lagi, metodologi riset dan penelitian atau research methodology ini adalah tentang bagaimana seorang peneliti secara sistematis merancang studi untuk memastikan hasil yang valid dan dapat diandalkan yang membahas tujuan dan sasaran penelitian.

Oke, sebagai contoh misalnya, berikut ini adalah beberapa cara bagaimana peneliti memutuskan:

• Data apa yang harus dikumpulkan serta data apa yang diabaikan.
• Dari siapa untuk mengumpulkannya atau yang sering disebut dengan desain pengambilan sampel dalam penelitian.
• Cara mengumpulkannya yang disebut “metode pengumpulan data”.
• Serta dengan cara menganalisisnya yang biasa disebut dengan “metode analisis data”.

Dalam disertasi untuk program Doktor, tesis untuk Magister, skripsi ( baca pengertian skripsi menurut para ahli di sini ) untuk Sarjana dan artikel jurnal akademik (atau hampir semua penelitian formal), Anda akan menemukan bab (atau bagian) metodologi penelitian yang mencakup aspek-aspek yang disebutkan di atas.

Benar! Yang penting, bab metodologi yang baik dalam disertasi atau tesis menjelaskan tidak hanya pilihan metodologis apa saja yang dibuat, tetapi juga menjelaskan mengapa itu dibuat.

Dengan kata lain, bab metodologi harus menjustifikasi pilihan desain, dengan menunjukkan bahwa metode dan teknik yang dipilih paling sesuai untuk maksud dan tujuan penelitian, dan akan memberikan hasil yang valid dan dapat diandalkan.

Yup! Metodologi atapenelitian ( research methodology ) yang baik akan memberikan temuan yang logic dan masuk akal secara ilmiah, sedangkan metodologi yang buruk tidak.

Apa itu Metodologi Penelitian Ilmiah atau Scientific Research Methodology ?

Kemudian, apa itu metodologi penelitian ilmiah atau scientific research methodology ?

Berkaitan erat dengan bidang penelitian, ini adalah cara lain untuk menyelesaikan proyek penelitian.

Metodologi penelitian ilmiah lebih bersifat teknis penulisan serta scientific research methodology ini dimulai dari pertanyaan umum yang diikuti dengan konsep khusus, di mana hipotesis umum dipersempit untuk menyoroti aspek tertentu dari topik tersebut.

Di samping itu, di dalamnya juga dikembangkan rancangan penelitian untuk mengamati dan menganalisis aspek fokus secara cermat.

Dan pada akhirnya, kesimpulan pun dikembangkan dan digeneralisasikan sesuai dengan real atau dunia nyata.

Agar lebih memahami tentang apa itu arti research methodology , maka juga merupakan hal yang penting bagi kita untuk mengetahui apa tujuan dan fungsi metodologi riset atau penelitian ini secara khusus.

Benar! Seperti yang sudah Kami jelaskan di atas, terkait tujuan utamanya sendiri, adapun research methodology atau metodologi penelitian seringkali digunakan untuk identify (mengidentifikasi), choose (memilih), process (memproses), dan analyze (menganalisis) informasi ( baca pengertian informasi di sini ).

Kemudian, perlu untuk diketahui bahwa metodologi penelitian ( research methodology ) ini tentunya menjalankan banyak fungsi.

Well , fungsi ini tersebut pastinya berlaku untuk sejumlah pekerjaan yang dilakukan dalam proses penelitian.

Baiklah di bawah ini adalah fungsi-fungsi yang terdapat dalam research methodology yang harus kalian ketahui:

• Mengidentifikasi aktivitas penelitian dalam arti yang sebenarnya.
• Secara lebih lanjut menentukan dan mendefinisikan konsep yang sebenarnya.
• Metodologi penelitian ini selanjutnya akan menyatakan metode seperti apa yang akan diperlukan untuk penyelidikan lebih lanjut, terlebih. Apalagi, bagaimana kemajuan bisa diukur.
• Research methodology , mereka menawarkan platform ( baca pengertian platform di sini ) untuk mendemonstrasikan bagaimana kita dapat mengkomunikasikan aktivitas penelitian dalam arti yang sebenarnya.

Jenis-Jenis Research Methodology (Metodologi Penelitian)

Setelah kita mengetahui arti dari research methodology , apa itu metodologi riset atau penelitian di atas, selanjutnya dalam subbagian kali ini, Kami juga akan menjelaskan terkait jenisnya.

Perlu kalian ketahui, research methodology ini memiliki beberapa jenis metodologi yang berbeda.

Mereka dibedakan berdasarkan apakah metodologi tersebut berfokus pada kata, angka, atau keduanya.

Di bawah ini akan Kami jelaskan secara lebih lanjut terkait jenis-jenis tipe research methodology (metodologi riset atau penelitian) tersebut.

Jenis research methodology yang pertama yaitu metode riset dan penelitian kualitatif atau qualitative research methodology .

Penelitian kualitatif ini mengacu pada penelitian yang berfokus pada pengumpulan dan analisis kata (tertulis atau lisan) dan data tekstual.

Sedangkan lawannya, yaitu penelitian kuantitatif berfokus pada pengukuran dan pengujian dengan menggunakan data numerik.

Analisis qualitative (kualitatif) juga dapat berfokus pada poin data yang “lebih lembut”, seperti bahasa tubuh atau elemen visual.

Jenis macam berikutnya yaitu metodologi penelitian kualitatif atau quantitative research methodology .

Tipe penelitian kuantitatif ini terbilang cukup umum digunakan ketika maksud dan tujuan penelitian bersifat eksploratif.

Sebagai contoh misalnya, qualitative methodology (metodologi kualitatif) dapat digunakan untuk memahami persepsi masyarakat tentang suatu peristiwa yang terjadi, atau kandidat yang mencalonkan diri sebagai presiden.

Berbeda dengan ini, metodologi quantitative atau kuantitatif biasanya digunakan ketika tujuan dan sasaran penelitian bersifat konfirmatori.

Contohnya misalnya, metodologi kuantitatif dapat digunakan untuk mengukur hubungan antara 2 (dua) variabel seperti tipe kepribadian dan kemungkinan melakukan kejahatan atau untuk menguji serangkaian hipotesis.

Tipe research methodology terakhir yang dapat Kami jelaskan kali ini yaitu adalah metodologi penelitian campuran atau mixed research methodology .

Seperti yang mungkin sudah Anda duga, metodologi penelitian dengan metode campuran mencoba menggabungkan yang terbaik dari metodologi kualitatif dan kuantitatif.

Betul! Dan perlu kalian ketahui bahwa hal tersebut seringkali dilakukan untuk mengintegrasikan perspektif dan menciptakan gambaran yang rich (kaya).

Ketika membahas tentang arti dan pengertian dari research methodology (metodologi penelitian), maka akan muncul pertanyaan umum seperti bagaimana cara saya memilih metodologinya yang baik?

Oke, perlu Kami tekankan sekali lagi di sini, seperti yang mungkin sudah Anda pelajari sekarang, maksud dan tujuan penelitian Anda memiliki pengaruh besar pada research methodology atau metodologi penelitian kalian.

Yup! Jadi, titik awal untuk mengembangkan research methodology Anda adalah dengan mundur selangkah dan melihat gambaran besar penelitian Anda, sebelum Anda membuat keputusan metodologi.

Adapun pertanyaan pertama yang perlu Anda tanyakan pada diri sendiri adalah apakah penelitian Anda bersifat eksplorasi atau konfirmatori.

Betul! Jika tujuan dan sasaran penelitian Anda terutama bersifat eksplorasi, penelitian Anda kemungkinan besar akan bersifat qualitative (kualitatif).

Dan oleh karena itulah Anda dapat mempertimbangkan metode pengumpulan data kualitatif, sebagai contoh misalnya seperti wawancara dan metode analisis seperti analisis isi kualitatif.

Sebaliknya, jika tujuan dan sasaran penelitian Anda ingin mengukur atau menguji sesuatu (dalam hal ini seperti konfirmatori), maka penelitian Anda kemungkinan besar akan bersifat kuantitatif.

Ya! Anda dapat mempertimbangkan metode pengumpulan data qualitative atau kuantitatif dalam research methodology , sebagai contoh misalnya survei dan analisis seperti misalnya analisis statistik atau statistics ( baca pengertian statistics di sini ).

Cara Menulis Metodologi Penelitian atau Research Methodology

Sekarang kita semua pastinya sudah memahami apa saja dasar-dasar yang dalam research methodology ini.

Oke, dalam postingan kali ini selain membahas tentang artinya, di sini Kami juga akan menjelaskan terkait bagaimana cara menulis metodologi penelitian atau riset.

Memang, dalam tesis atau disertasi Anda, Anda pastinya harus mendiskusikan metode yang Anda gunakan untuk melakukan penelitiannya.

Bab methodology (metodologi) akan menjelaskan apa yang Anda lakukan dan bagaimana Anda melakukannya.

Hal itu memungkinkan pembaca untuk mengevaluasi reliabilitas dan validitas penelitian kalian, di mana ini harus mencakup:

• Jenis penelitian yang Anda lakukan.
• Bagaimana Anda mengumpulkan data Anda.
• Bagaimana Anda menganalisis data Anda.
• Alat atau bahan apa pun yang Anda gunakan dalam penelitian.
• Alasan Anda memilih metodenya.

Oke langsung saja, di bawah ini akan Kami jelaskan bagaimana cara menulis research methodology atau metodologi penelitian (riset) yang tepat.

Pertama-tama, mulailah dengan memperkenalkan pendekatan keseluruhan Anda pada penelitian .

Masalah penelitian atau pertanyaan apa yang Anda selidiki?

Sebagai contoh misalnya, apakah Anda bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan karakteristik sesuatu secara sistematis, mengeksplorasi topik yang belum diteliti.

Atau untuk membangun hubungan sebab-akibat? Dan jenis data apa yang Anda butuhkan untuk mencapai tujuan ini?

Setelah memperkenalkan pendekatan metodologis keseluruhan dalam research methodology Anda, Anda harus memberikan rincian lengkap tentang metode pengumpulan atau data collection ( baca selengkapnya arti dari data collection di sini ) Anda .

Selanjutnya, Anda harus menunjukkan bagaimana Anda memproses dan menganalisis data dengan menjelaskan metode analisis Anda .

Dalam menerapkan langkah ini, saran Kami pribadi, hindari menjelaskan terlalu banyak detail — Anda tidak boleh mulai mempresentasikan atau mendiskusikan hasil apa pun pada tahap ini.

Langkah terakhir dalam cara menulis research methodology yaitu dengan mengevaluasi dan menjustifikasi pilihan metodologis Anda .

Metodologi Anda harus menjelaskan alasan Anda memilih metode khusus ini, terutama jika Anda tidak mengambil pendekatan yang paling standar untuk topik Anda.

Diskusikan mengapa metode lain tidak cocok untuk tujuan Anda, dan tunjukkan bagaimana pendekatan ini dapat memberikan kontribusi pengetahuan atau pemahaman baru.

Selain bagaimana cara untuk menulis research methodology atau metodologi penelitian (riset) di atas, kemudian apa saja kiat atau tips-tipsnya?

Well , ingatlah bahwa tujuan Anda bukan hanya untuk mendeskripsikan metode Anda, tetapi untuk menunjukkan bagaimana dan mengapa Anda menerapkannya dan untuk menunjukkan bahwa penelitian Anda dilakukan dengan ketat.

Untuk kiat-kiatnya sendiri, di bawah ini adalah beberapa tips dalam menulis research methodology yang baik dan benar yang perlu kalian ketahui:

• Fokus pada tujuan dan pertanyaan penelitian ; Bagian metodologi harus dengan jelas menunjukkan mengapa metode Anda sesuai dengan tujuan Anda dan meyakinkan pembaca bahwa Anda memilih pendekatan terbaik untuk menjawab pernyataan masalah dan pertanyaan penelitian Anda. Sepanjang bagiannya, hubungkanlah kembali pilihan Anda ke tujuan utama disertasi Anda.
• Kutip sumber yang relevan ; Benar! Metodologi Anda dapat diperkuat dengan mengacu pada penelitian di lapangan yang baik.
• Konfirmasikan bahwa Anda mengikuti praktik yang sudah mapan untuk jenis penelitian ; Diskusikan bagaimana Anda mengevaluasi metodologi yang berbeda dan memutuskan pendekatan Anda Tunjukkan bahwa Anda menggunakan pendekatan metodologis baru untuk mengatasi kesenjangan dalam literatur.
• Tulislah untuk audiens Anda ; Pertimbangkan seberapa banyak informasi yang perlu Anda berikan, dan jangan membahas detail yang tidak perlu. Jika Anda menggunakan metode yang standar untuk disiplin Anda, Anda mungkin tidak perlu memberikan banyak latar belakang atau pembenaran. Tetapi jika Anda mengambil pendekatan yang kurang umum di bidang Anda, Anda mungkin perlu menjelaskan dan membenarkan pilihan metodologis Anda kepada audience ( baca pengertian audience di sini ) serta, dalam ke-2 (dua) kasus tersebut, metodologi Anda harus berupa teks yang jelas dan terstruktur dengan baik yang menjadi argumen untuk pendekatan Anda, bukan hanya daftar detail teknis dan prosedur.
• Diskusikan hambatan yang ada ; Jika Anda mengalami kesulitan dalam mengumpulkan atau menganalisis data, jelaskan cara Anda menanganinya. Ya! Tunjukkan bagaimana Anda meminimalkan dampak dari adanya rintangan yang tidak terduga. Singkirkan kritik besar apa pun dari pendekatan Anda dan tunjukkan bahwa Anda akan membuat penelitian seketat mungkin.

Terkait penjelasan arti dan pengertian sebelumnya di atas, lalu, mengapa research methodology atau metodologi penelitian ini merupakan hal yang penting?

Oke, sebelumnya perlu kalian ketahui, jika kalian yang kebetulan sedang membaca postingan Kami di sini dan kebetulan sedang menanyakan pentingnya research methodology , maka dapat Kami katakan bahwa kalian berada di tempat yang tepat.

Mengapa? Tentu saja karena di sini Kami akan berusaha dalam menjawabnya secara singkat, padat dan jelas.

Yup! Memang, seringkali ini merupakan pertanyaan yang sangat penting karena apa kita mengadopsi metodologi penelitian.

Adapun jawaban dari pertanyaan itu sebenarnya tidak terlalu sulit.

Perlu Kami tekankan di sini bawah sebuah teori selalu perlu diperiksa relevansinya.

Research methodology atau metodologi penelitian diadopsi untuk memeriksa teori tertentu dan aplikasinya sepanjang serangkaian standar akademik tertentu.

Benar! Ini merupakan hal yang wajib agar semua penelitian memenuhi standar dalam spesifik lapangan.

Baiklah, Kami pikir pembahasannya sudah cukup jelas untuk sekarang.

Jadi, berdasarkan penjelasan dan pembahasan tentang Pengertian Research Methodology , Apa itu Metodologi Riset dan Penelitian? Tujuan, Fungsi, Jenis, Cara Memilih, Menulis, Tips serta Kenapa itu Penting di atas, dapat kita simpulkan bahwa metodologi riset dan penelitian atau research methodology adalah sesuatu yang melibatkan teknik tertentu yang diadopsi dalam proses penelitian untuk mengumpulkan, mengumpulkan dan mengevaluasi data.

Metodologi penelitian mendefinisikan alat-alat yang digunakan untuk mengumpulkan informasi yang relevan dalam studi penelitian tertentu.

Seperti survey (survei), kuesioner dan wawancara merupakan alat penelitian yang umum dalam pengumpulan datanya.

Sebuah methodology atau metodologi ini dapat dengan tepat mengacu pada analisis teoritis dari metode yang sesuai dengan bidang studi atau tubuh metode dan prinsip tertentu dalam sebuah cabang pengetahuan.

Pertanyaan dan eksplorasi terorganisir baik dengan pembentukan hipotesis atau pengujian ilmiah dari setiap penyelidikan atau permintaan dengan mengikuti seperangkat aturan dan prosedur standar didefinisikan sebagai metodologi riset atau penelitian.

Merancang penelitian Anda dan mengerjakan metodologi Anda adalah topik besar, yang pastinya juga akan kita bahas dan singgung di postingan lainnya.

Namun, untuk saat ini, kesimpulan utamanya adalah Anda harus selalu memulai dengan tujuan dan sasaran penelitian Anda.

Yup! Setiap keputusan metodologi akan mengalir dari situ.

Demikianlah postingan artikel yang dapat Kami bagikan kali ini, di mana Kami membahas terkait Pengertian Research Methodology , Apa itu Metodologi Riset dan Penelitian? Tujuan, Fungsi, Jenis, Cara Memilih, Menulis, Tips serta Kenapa itu Penting.

Semoga apa yang sudah Kami coba sampaikan serta jelaskan di sini dapat bermanfaat dan juga dapat menambah wawasan dan pengetahuan kita semua terutama dalam bidang teknologi web.

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• rifqimulyawan.com
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Compliance status

We firmly believe that the internet should be available and accessible to anyone, and are committed to providing a website that is accessible to the widest possible audience, regardless of circumstance and ability.

To fulfill this, we aim to adhere as strictly as possible to the World Wide Web Consortium’s (W3C) Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.1 (WCAG 2.1) at the AA level. These guidelines explain how to make web content accessible to people with a wide array of disabilities. Complying with those guidelines helps us ensure that the website is accessible to all people: blind people, people with motor impairments, visual impairment, cognitive disabilities, and more.

This website utilizes various technologies that are meant to make it as accessible as possible at all times. We utilize an accessibility interface that allows persons with specific disabilities to adjust the website’s UI (user interface) and design it to their personal needs.

Additionally, the website utilizes an AI-based application that runs in the background and optimizes its accessibility level constantly. This application remediates the website’s HTML, adapts Its functionality and behavior for screen-readers used by the blind users, and for keyboard functions used by individuals with motor impairments.

If you’ve found a malfunction or have ideas for improvement, we’ll be happy to hear from you. You can reach out to the website’s operators by using the following email

Screen-reader and keyboard navigation

Our website implements the ARIA attributes (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) technique, alongside various different behavioral changes, to ensure blind users visiting with screen-readers are able to read, comprehend, and enjoy the website’s functions. As soon as a user with a screen-reader enters your site, they immediately receive a prompt to enter the Screen-Reader Profile so they can browse and operate your site effectively. Here’s how our website covers some of the most important screen-reader requirements, alongside console screenshots of code examples:

Screen-reader optimization: we run a background process that learns the website’s components from top to bottom, to ensure ongoing compliance even when updating the website. In this process, we provide screen-readers with meaningful data using the ARIA set of attributes. For example, we provide accurate form labels; descriptions for actionable icons (social media icons, search icons, cart icons, etc.); validation guidance for form inputs; element roles such as buttons, menus, modal dialogues (popups), and others. Additionally, the background process scans all of the website’s images and provides an accurate and meaningful image-object-recognition-based description as an ALT (alternate text) tag for images that are not described. It will also extract texts that are embedded within the image, using an OCR (optical character recognition) technology. To turn on screen-reader adjustments at any time, users need only to press the Alt+1 keyboard combination. Screen-reader users also get automatic announcements to turn the Screen-reader mode on as soon as they enter the website.

These adjustments are compatible with all popular screen readers, including JAWS and NVDA.

Keyboard navigation optimization: The background process also adjusts the website’s HTML, and adds various behaviors using JavaScript code to make the website operable by the keyboard. This includes the ability to navigate the website using the Tab and Shift+Tab keys, operate dropdowns with the arrow keys, close them with Esc, trigger buttons and links using the Enter key, navigate between radio and checkbox elements using the arrow keys, and fill them in with the Spacebar or Enter key.Additionally, keyboard users will find quick-navigation and content-skip menus, available at any time by clicking Alt+1, or as the first elements of the site while navigating with the keyboard. The background process also handles triggered popups by moving the keyboard focus towards them as soon as they appear, and not allow the focus drift outside of it.

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Effective Research Assignments

Identify learning goals., clarify expectations., "scaffold" the assignment., test the assignment., collaborate with librarians..

• Assignment Ideas
• Studies on Student Research

Acknowledgement

These best practices were adapted from the handout "Tips for Designing Library Research Assignments" developed by Sarah McDaniel, of the Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries. Many thanks to her for permission to reuse this resource.

See  Assignment Ideas  to explore different possible approaches beyond a traditional research paper. 

• What abilities would you like students to develop through the assignment?
• How will the learning goals and their importance be communicated in the assignment?

Your students may not have prior experience with academic research and resources. State (in writing) details like:

• the assignment's purpose,
• the purpose of research and sources for the assignment,
• suggested resources for locating relevant sources,
• expected citation practices,
• terminology that may be unclear (e.g. Define terms like "database," "peer reviewed"),
• assignment length and other parameters, and
• grading/evaluation criteria ( Rubrics are one way to communicate assessment criteria to students. See, for example, AAC&U's VALUE rubric for information literacy .)

Also consider discussing how research is produced and disseminated in your discipline, and how you expect your students to participate in academic discourse in the context of your class. 

Breaking a complex research assignment down into a sequence of smaller, more manageable parts:

• models how to approach a research question and how to manage time effectively,
• empowers students to focus on and to master key research and critical thinking skills,
• provides opportunities for feedback, and
• deters plagiarism.

Periodic class discussions about the assignment can also help students

• reflect on the research process and its importance
• encourage questions, and
• help students develop a sense that what they are doing is a transferable process that they can use for other assignments.

By testing an assignment, you may identify practical roadblocks  (e.g., too few copies of a book for too many students, a source is no longer available online).

Librarians can help with this process (e.g., suggest research strategies or resources, design customized supporting materials like handouts or course research guides).

Subject librarians can explore with you ways to support students in their research.

• Next: Assignment Ideas >>
• Last Updated: Oct 20, 2022 8:56 AM
• URL: https://libguides.rowan.edu/research_assignments

Understanding Research Assignments

Before you begin researching and writing, you should spend some time understanding your assignment and preparing your process and workflows. To make the most productive use of your time, you'll need to know what you're trying to accomplish and have a consistent process for gathering information, reading, and note-taking.

1) About Research Assignments

2) avoiding plagiarism, 3) organizing your readings, about research assignments.

Most of your courses will require you to complete a research assignment of one kind or another. In general, the goal of a research assignment is to get you to gather information about a certain topic, analyze that information, and report what you’ve learned as part of a class presentation or research paper/essay.

Types of Research Assignments

You can find useful information about the different types of research and writing assignments at the Online Writing Lab .

Important Things to Note About Your Assignment

Relationship to other assignments : Some professors will design their assignments to flow together. You may find that each assignment requires you to do a little bit more work towards writing a big final paper.

Choice of topic : You may be given a list of possible research topics, or you may be asked to choose a topic of interest to you. In either case, it’s a good idea to chat with your prof and do some preliminary research before deciding.

Number and Type of Sources : Often, professors will ask that you use a minimum number of sources in your paper. Information sources can be almost anything, but you may be required to use only, or mostly, academic/peer-reviewed sources.

Citation/Referencing Style : There are many different styles for referencing your sources. The most commonly used styles are APA, MLA, Chicago, and CSE. Make sure you know which you are expected to use, and take a moment to learn the basics of the style.

Length : You will usually be asked to write a paper of specified length. Be sure to start early and give yourself enough time to do the appropriate amount of research and writing.

Library Access

Completing your assignments will require access to the library’s collection. These are specialized resources you won’t find available freely on the Internet. You can access the library’s online collections (databases) through our website. If you are off-campus, you’ll be required to authenticate with your WebAdvisor username and password.

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Avoiding Plagiarism

The following definition of plagiarism can be found in the University of Winnipeg Academic Misconduct Policy :

“Plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty in which students present published or unpublished work (written, digital, or other) of another person or persons, or one’s own prior work, in its entirety or in part, as their own original work.”

Every student is expected to produce work that follows the rules of academic integrity, so avoiding plagiarism is a fundamental skill in university. To be clear, you will generally be expected to use other people’s ideas to support the points in your paper, but the source of every idea that isn’t your own needs to be cited in a suitable format.

There are two ways that plagiarism can happen: intentionally and unintentionally. We’ll talk about each here.

Intentional Plagiarism

With the abundance of information available online, it’s incredibly easy to take credit for something you didn’t write, if that’s your intention. However, simply copying information from a website or blog and pasting it into your paper without crediting the source is considered plagiarism. Add this to the act of getting someone (or paying them) to write your paper for you, which is clearly unethical, and you have an idea of how intentional plagiarism happens.

As easy as it is, though, it’s also very easy to detect. If you plagiarize something, your professor only needs to do a couple of simple Google searches or use a plagiarism detection software to figure it out. Plus, your professors often craft their assignments to see how you develop as a researcher and writer during the course. If you are not producing original work, you won’t be effectively demonstrating your development and your grades may suffer, even if you don’t get caught.

Unintentional Plagiarism

Plagiarism can also happen by accident. This usually results from sloppy note-taking or by writing your paper in a rush. Even if you accidentally use another person’s idea without credit, you are still plagiarizing them. Also, most students don’t realize it’s possible to plagiarize yourself, by using your own published ideas without citation.

Basically, any idea that comes from a source (books, articles, websites, videos, previous papers, etc.) needs to be cited.

There can be serious penalties for plagiarism (again, see the Academic Misconduct Policy ). It isn’t worth it to try, and taking the time to properly cite and reference your sources isn’t too difficult once you get in the habit.

Tips for Avoiding Plagiarism

• Don’t procrastinate.
• Create a reference for all your sources, in the format outlined by your prof.
• Take detailed notes as your read each source, noting the page numbers for each idea.
• Paraphrase major points and indicate if an idea is a direct quote.
• In your paper, properly cite all the ideas from your sources.
• Create a bibliography or works cited, including references for all your sources.

Organizing Your Readings

Writing a research paper can be difficult and frustrating if you don’t keep your sources organized. Here’s some advice to keep your readings, notes, and bibliographies organized so you don’t run into trouble later.

• Create a separate folder on your computer for each research project you’re working on.
• Place all your full-text articles (PDFs) in this folder.
• Create a complete bibliography entry for each of your sources (including books and other non-digital sources) and save the file to this folder.
• As you read your sources, take notes under the bibliography entry. Be sure to note the page numbers as appropriate.

When it comes time to put these ideas together into a first draft of your paper, it will be easy to see which ideas came from which source. This will make writing a lot easier, but also help you to see how your sources agree or disagree on your topic, and make sure you avoid accidentally plagiarizing any of your sources.

Many students and researchers like to use a citation management tool to help keep their sources organized, and to create citations and references. If you're interested in this, you may want to have a look at this information about using Zotero , which is one example of a citation manager.

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Research Design 101

Everything You Need To Get Started (With Examples)

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewers: Eunice Rautenbach (DTech) & Kerryn Warren (PhD) | April 2023

Navigating the world of research can be daunting, especially if you’re a first-time researcher. One concept you’re bound to run into fairly early in your research journey is that of “ research design ”. Here, we’ll guide you through the basics using practical examples , so that you can approach your research with confidence.

Overview: Research Design 101

What is research design.

• Research design types for quantitative studies
• Video explainer : quantitative research design
• Research design types for qualitative studies
• Video explainer : qualitative research design
• How to choose a research design
• Key takeaways

Research design refers to the overall plan, structure or strategy that guides a research project , from its conception to the final data analysis. A good research design serves as the blueprint for how you, as the researcher, will collect and analyse data while ensuring consistency, reliability and validity throughout your study.

Understanding different types of research designs is essential as helps ensure that your approach is suitable  given your research aims, objectives and questions , as well as the resources you have available to you. Without a clear big-picture view of how you’ll design your research, you run the risk of potentially making misaligned choices in terms of your methodology – especially your sampling , data collection and data analysis decisions.

The problem with defining research design…

One of the reasons students struggle with a clear definition of research design is because the term is used very loosely across the internet, and even within academia.

Some sources claim that the three research design types are qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods , which isn’t quite accurate (these just refer to the type of data that you’ll collect and analyse). Other sources state that research design refers to the sum of all your design choices, suggesting it’s more like a research methodology . Others run off on other less common tangents. No wonder there’s confusion!

In this article, we’ll clear up the confusion. We’ll explain the most common research design types for both qualitative and quantitative research projects, whether that is for a full dissertation or thesis, or a smaller research paper or article.

Research Design: Quantitative Studies

Quantitative research involves collecting and analysing data in a numerical form. Broadly speaking, there are four types of quantitative research designs: descriptive , correlational , experimental , and quasi-experimental . 

Descriptive Research Design

As the name suggests, descriptive research design focuses on describing existing conditions, behaviours, or characteristics by systematically gathering information without manipulating any variables. In other words, there is no intervention on the researcher’s part – only data collection.

For example, if you’re studying smartphone addiction among adolescents in your community, you could deploy a survey to a sample of teens asking them to rate their agreement with certain statements that relate to smartphone addiction. The collected data would then provide insight regarding how widespread the issue may be – in other words, it would describe the situation.

The key defining attribute of this type of research design is that it purely describes the situation . In other words, descriptive research design does not explore potential relationships between different variables or the causes that may underlie those relationships. Therefore, descriptive research is useful for generating insight into a research problem by describing its characteristics . By doing so, it can provide valuable insights and is often used as a precursor to other research design types.

Correlational Research Design

Correlational design is a popular choice for researchers aiming to identify and measure the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them . In other words, this type of research design is useful when you want to know whether a change in one thing tends to be accompanied by a change in another thing.

For example, if you wanted to explore the relationship between exercise frequency and overall health, you could use a correlational design to help you achieve this. In this case, you might gather data on participants’ exercise habits, as well as records of their health indicators like blood pressure, heart rate, or body mass index. Thereafter, you’d use a statistical test to assess whether there’s a relationship between the two variables (exercise frequency and health).

As you can see, correlational research design is useful when you want to explore potential relationships between variables that cannot be manipulated or controlled for ethical, practical, or logistical reasons. It is particularly helpful in terms of developing predictions , and given that it doesn’t involve the manipulation of variables, it can be implemented at a large scale more easily than experimental designs (which will look at next).

That said, it’s important to keep in mind that correlational research design has limitations – most notably that it cannot be used to establish causality . In other words, correlation does not equal causation . To establish causality, you’ll need to move into the realm of experimental design, coming up next…

Need a helping hand?

Experimental Research Design

Experimental research design is used to determine if there is a causal relationship between two or more variables . With this type of research design, you, as the researcher, manipulate one variable (the independent variable) while controlling others (dependent variables). Doing so allows you to observe the effect of the former on the latter and draw conclusions about potential causality.

For example, if you wanted to measure if/how different types of fertiliser affect plant growth, you could set up several groups of plants, with each group receiving a different type of fertiliser, as well as one with no fertiliser at all. You could then measure how much each plant group grew (on average) over time and compare the results from the different groups to see which fertiliser was most effective.

Overall, experimental research design provides researchers with a powerful way to identify and measure causal relationships (and the direction of causality) between variables. However, developing a rigorous experimental design can be challenging as it’s not always easy to control all the variables in a study. This often results in smaller sample sizes , which can reduce the statistical power and generalisability of the results.

Moreover, experimental research design requires random assignment . This means that the researcher needs to assign participants to different groups or conditions in a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group (note that this is not the same as random sampling ). Doing so helps reduce the potential for bias and confounding variables . This need for random assignment can lead to ethics-related issues . For example, withholding a potentially beneficial medical treatment from a control group may be considered unethical in certain situations.

Quasi-Experimental Research Design

Quasi-experimental research design is used when the research aims involve identifying causal relations , but one cannot (or doesn’t want to) randomly assign participants to different groups (for practical or ethical reasons). Instead, with a quasi-experimental research design, the researcher relies on existing groups or pre-existing conditions to form groups for comparison.

For example, if you were studying the effects of a new teaching method on student achievement in a particular school district, you may be unable to randomly assign students to either group and instead have to choose classes or schools that already use different teaching methods. This way, you still achieve separate groups, without having to assign participants to specific groups yourself.

Naturally, quasi-experimental research designs have limitations when compared to experimental designs. Given that participant assignment is not random, it’s more difficult to confidently establish causality between variables, and, as a researcher, you have less control over other variables that may impact findings.

All that said, quasi-experimental designs can still be valuable in research contexts where random assignment is not possible and can often be undertaken on a much larger scale than experimental research, thus increasing the statistical power of the results. What’s important is that you, as the researcher, understand the limitations of the design and conduct your quasi-experiment as rigorously as possible, paying careful attention to any potential confounding variables .

Research Design: Qualitative Studies

There are many different research design types when it comes to qualitative studies, but here we’ll narrow our focus to explore the “Big 4”. Specifically, we’ll look at phenomenological design, grounded theory design, ethnographic design, and case study design.

Phenomenological Research Design

Phenomenological design involves exploring the meaning of lived experiences and how they are perceived by individuals. This type of research design seeks to understand people’s perspectives , emotions, and behaviours in specific situations. Here, the aim for researchers is to uncover the essence of human experience without making any assumptions or imposing preconceived ideas on their subjects.

For example, you could adopt a phenomenological design to study why cancer survivors have such varied perceptions of their lives after overcoming their disease. This could be achieved by interviewing survivors and then analysing the data using a qualitative analysis method such as thematic analysis to identify commonalities and differences.

Phenomenological research design typically involves in-depth interviews or open-ended questionnaires to collect rich, detailed data about participants’ subjective experiences. This richness is one of the key strengths of phenomenological research design but, naturally, it also has limitations. These include potential biases in data collection and interpretation and the lack of generalisability of findings to broader populations.

Grounded Theory Research Design

Grounded theory (also referred to as “GT”) aims to develop theories by continuously and iteratively analysing and comparing data collected from a relatively large number of participants in a study. It takes an inductive (bottom-up) approach, with a focus on letting the data “speak for itself”, without being influenced by preexisting theories or the researcher’s preconceptions.

As an example, let’s assume your research aims involved understanding how people cope with chronic pain from a specific medical condition, with a view to developing a theory around this. In this case, grounded theory design would allow you to explore this concept thoroughly without preconceptions about what coping mechanisms might exist. You may find that some patients prefer cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) while others prefer to rely on herbal remedies. Based on multiple, iterative rounds of analysis, you could then develop a theory in this regard, derived directly from the data (as opposed to other preexisting theories and models).

Grounded theory typically involves collecting data through interviews or observations and then analysing it to identify patterns and themes that emerge from the data. These emerging ideas are then validated by collecting more data until a saturation point is reached (i.e., no new information can be squeezed from the data). From that base, a theory can then be developed .

As you can see, grounded theory is ideally suited to studies where the research aims involve theory generation , especially in under-researched areas. Keep in mind though that this type of research design can be quite time-intensive , given the need for multiple rounds of data collection and analysis.

Ethnographic Research Design

Ethnographic design involves observing and studying a culture-sharing group of people in their natural setting to gain insight into their behaviours, beliefs, and values. The focus here is on observing participants in their natural environment (as opposed to a controlled environment). This typically involves the researcher spending an extended period of time with the participants in their environment, carefully observing and taking field notes .

All of this is not to say that ethnographic research design relies purely on observation. On the contrary, this design typically also involves in-depth interviews to explore participants’ views, beliefs, etc. However, unobtrusive observation is a core component of the ethnographic approach.

As an example, an ethnographer may study how different communities celebrate traditional festivals or how individuals from different generations interact with technology differently. This may involve a lengthy period of observation, combined with in-depth interviews to further explore specific areas of interest that emerge as a result of the observations that the researcher has made.

As you can probably imagine, ethnographic research design has the ability to provide rich, contextually embedded insights into the socio-cultural dynamics of human behaviour within a natural, uncontrived setting. Naturally, however, it does come with its own set of challenges, including researcher bias (since the researcher can become quite immersed in the group), participant confidentiality and, predictably, ethical complexities . All of these need to be carefully managed if you choose to adopt this type of research design.

Case Study Design

With case study research design, you, as the researcher, investigate a single individual (or a single group of individuals) to gain an in-depth understanding of their experiences, behaviours or outcomes. Unlike other research designs that are aimed at larger sample sizes, case studies offer a deep dive into the specific circumstances surrounding a person, group of people, event or phenomenon, generally within a bounded setting or context .

As an example, a case study design could be used to explore the factors influencing the success of a specific small business. This would involve diving deeply into the organisation to explore and understand what makes it tick – from marketing to HR to finance. In terms of data collection, this could include interviews with staff and management, review of policy documents and financial statements, surveying customers, etc.

While the above example is focused squarely on one organisation, it’s worth noting that case study research designs can have different variation s, including single-case, multiple-case and longitudinal designs. As you can see in the example, a single-case design involves intensely examining a single entity to understand its unique characteristics and complexities. Conversely, in a multiple-case design , multiple cases are compared and contrasted to identify patterns and commonalities. Lastly, in a longitudinal case design , a single case or multiple cases are studied over an extended period of time to understand how factors develop over time.

As you can see, a case study research design is particularly useful where a deep and contextualised understanding of a specific phenomenon or issue is desired. However, this strength is also its weakness. In other words, you can’t generalise the findings from a case study to the broader population. So, keep this in mind if you’re considering going the case study route.

How To Choose A Research Design

Having worked through all of these potential research designs, you’d be forgiven for feeling a little overwhelmed and wondering, “ But how do I decide which research design to use? ”. While we could write an entire post covering that alone, here are a few factors to consider that will help you choose a suitable research design for your study.

Data type: The first determining factor is naturally the type of data you plan to be collecting – i.e., qualitative or quantitative. This may sound obvious, but we have to be clear about this – don’t try to use a quantitative research design on qualitative data (or vice versa)!

Research aim(s) and question(s): As with all methodological decisions, your research aim and research questions will heavily influence your research design. For example, if your research aims involve developing a theory from qualitative data, grounded theory would be a strong option. Similarly, if your research aims involve identifying and measuring relationships between variables, one of the experimental designs would likely be a better option.

Time: It’s essential that you consider any time constraints you have, as this will impact the type of research design you can choose. For example, if you’ve only got a month to complete your project, a lengthy design such as ethnography wouldn’t be a good fit.

Resources: Take into account the resources realistically available to you, as these need to factor into your research design choice. For example, if you require highly specialised lab equipment to execute an experimental design, you need to be sure that you’ll have access to that before you make a decision.

Keep in mind that when it comes to research, it’s important to manage your risks and play as conservatively as possible. If your entire project relies on you achieving a huge sample, having access to niche equipment or holding interviews with very difficult-to-reach participants, you’re creating risks that could kill your project. So, be sure to think through your choices carefully and make sure that you have backup plans for any existential risks. Remember that a relatively simple methodology executed well generally will typically earn better marks than a highly-complex methodology executed poorly.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. Let’s recap by looking at the key takeaways:

• Research design refers to the overall plan, structure or strategy that guides a research project, from its conception to the final analysis of data.
• Research designs for quantitative studies include descriptive , correlational , experimental and quasi-experimenta l designs.
• Research designs for qualitative studies include phenomenological , grounded theory , ethnographic and case study designs.
• When choosing a research design, you need to consider a variety of factors, including the type of data you’ll be working with, your research aims and questions, your time and the resources available to you.

If you need a helping hand with your research design (or any other aspect of your research), check out our private coaching services .

Psst… there’s more (for free)

This post is part of our dissertation mini-course, which covers everything you need to get started with your dissertation, thesis or research project. 

You Might Also Like:

Is there any blog article explaining more on Case study research design? Is there a Case study write-up template? Thank you.

Thanks this was quite valuable to clarify such an important concept.

Thanks for this simplified explanations. it is quite very helpful.

This was really helpful. thanks

Thank you for your explanation. I think case study research design and the use of secondary data in researches needs to be talked about more in your videos and articles because there a lot of case studies research design tailored projects out there.

Please is there any template for a case study research design whose data type is a secondary data on your repository?

This post is very clear, comprehensive and has been very helpful to me. It has cleared the confusion I had in regard to research design and methodology.

This post is helpful, easy to understand, and deconstructs what a research design is. Thanks

how to cite this page

Thank you very much for the post. It is wonderful and has cleared many worries in my mind regarding research designs. I really appreciate .

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Research Design: What it is, Elements & Types

Can you imagine doing research without a plan? Probably not. When we discuss a strategy to collect, study, and evaluate data, we talk about research design. This design addresses problems and creates a consistent and logical model for data analysis. Let’s learn more about it.

What is Research Design?

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research methods suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies for success.

Creating a research topic explains the type of research (experimental,  survey research ,  correlational , semi-experimental, review) and its sub-type (experimental design, research problem , descriptive case-study). 

There are three main types of designs for research:

• Data collection
• Measurement
• Data Analysis

The research problem an organization faces will determine the design, not vice-versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they are used.

The Process of Research Design

The research design process is a systematic and structured approach to conducting research. The process is essential to ensure that the study is valid, reliable, and produces meaningful results.

• Consider your aims and approaches: Determine the research questions and objectives, and identify the theoretical framework and methodology for the study.
• Choose a type of Research Design: Select the appropriate research design, such as experimental, correlational, survey, case study, or ethnographic, based on the research questions and objectives.
• Identify your population and sampling method: Determine the target population and sample size, and choose the sampling method, such as random , stratified random sampling , or convenience sampling.
• Choose your data collection methods: Decide on the methods, such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments, and select the appropriate instruments or tools for collecting data.
• Plan your data collection procedures: Develop a plan for data collection, including the timeframe, location, and personnel involved, and ensure ethical considerations.
• Decide on your data analysis strategies: Select the appropriate data analysis techniques, such as statistical analysis , content analysis, or discourse analysis, and plan how to interpret the results.

The process of research design is a critical step in conducting research. By following the steps of research design, researchers can ensure that their study is well-planned, ethical, and rigorous.

Research Design Elements

Impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the slightest margin of error in experimental research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential elements are:

• Accurate purpose statement
• Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
• The method applied for analyzing collected details
• Type of research methodology
• Probable objections to research
• Settings for the research study
• Measurement of analysis

Characteristics of Research Design

A proper design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four key characteristics:

• Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data you expect to collect. The results projected in the research should be free from research bias and neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the results.
• Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects similar results every time. You’ll only be able to reach the desired results if your design is reliable. Your plan should indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard of results.
• Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the research. The  questionnaire  developed from this design will then be valid.
• Generalization:  The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a restricted sample . A generalized method implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of a population with similar accuracy.

The above factors affect how respondents answer the research questions, so they should balance all the above characteristics in a good design. If you want, you can also learn about Selection Bias through our blog.

Research Design Types

A researcher must clearly understand the various types to select which model to implement for a study. Like the research itself, the design of your analysis can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

Qualitative research

Qualitative research determines relationships between collected data and observations based on mathematical calculations. Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative observation research methods that conclude “why” a particular theory exists and “what” respondents have to say about it.

Quantitative research

Quantitative research is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a better perspective for making critical business decisions. Quantitative research methods are necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights drawn from complex numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when making decisions about the business’s future.

Qualitative Research vs Quantitative Research

Here is a chart that highlights the major differences between qualitative and quantitative research:

In summary or analysis , the step of qualitative research is more exploratory and focuses on understanding the subjective experiences of individuals, while quantitative research is more focused on objective data and statistical analysis.

You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:

1. Descriptive: In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research. 

2. Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design where one observes the impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is an efficient research method as it contributes to solving a problem.

The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. Social sciences often use it to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups. Researchers can have participants change their actions and study how the people around them react to understand social psychology better.

3. Correlational research: Correlational research  is a non-experimental research technique. It helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two other variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them. This type of research requires two different groups.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables whose values range between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship between the variables, and -1 means a negative relationship between the two variables. 

4. Diagnostic research: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the factors that create troublesome situations. 

This design has three parts of the research:

• Inception of the issue
• Diagnosis of the issue
• Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research : Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories. The study explains unexplored aspects of a subject and details the research questions’ what, how, and why.

Benefits of Research Design

There are several benefits of having a well-designed research plan. Including:

• Clarity of research objectives: Research design provides a clear understanding of the research objectives and the desired outcomes.
• Increased validity and reliability: To ensure the validity and reliability of results, research design help to minimize the risk of bias and helps to control extraneous variables.
• Improved data collection: Research design helps to ensure that the proper data is collected and data is collected systematically and consistently.
• Better data analysis: Research design helps ensure that the collected data can be analyzed effectively, providing meaningful insights and conclusions.
• Improved communication: A well-designed research helps ensure the results are clean and influential within the research team and external stakeholders.
• Efficient use of resources: reducing the risk of waste and maximizing the impact of the research, research design helps to ensure that resources are used efficiently.

A well-designed research plan is essential for successful research, providing clear and meaningful insights and ensuring that resources are practical.

QuestionPro offers a comprehensive solution for researchers looking to conduct research. With its user-friendly interface, robust data collection and analysis tools, and the ability to integrate results from multiple sources, QuestionPro provides a versatile platform for designing and executing research projects.

Our robust suite of research tools provides you with all you need to derive research results. Our online survey platform includes custom point-and-click logic and advanced question types. Uncover the insights that matter the most.

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Research with Chris

Prinsip Utama Membuat Research Planning Apa Saja ya?

Dalam sebuah project research, hal pertama yang perlu dilakukan adalah membuat research plan. gimana ya prinsip membuat research plan yang baik.

Research plan punya 2 fungsi utama:

Membantu seorang researcher menjabarkan isi pikirannya terkait project yang akan dijalankan dengan runut.

Memastikan semua pihak yang terlibat paham dan setuju terkait rencana yang akan dijalankan.

Oleh karena itu, ada 3 prinsip utama waktu kita akan membuat dokumen research plan.

Cari urgensi researchnya

Setiap project research kemungkinan besar adalah salah satu bagian dari sebuah project lain. Makanya, kita perlu tahu apa latar belakang dan tujuan akhir projectnya supaya tahu apa sih urgensi dan tujuan research untuk project tersebut. Dengan tahu apa peran research, kita jadi bisa membayangkan info apa yang harus dicari agar hasil research berguna untuk bisnis. Cara terbaik untuk ini adalah wawancara/ ngobrol dengan pihak terkait. Lewat ngobrol itu, kita bisa menggali semua latar belakang, aspirasi, dan agenda-agenda (termasuk agenda tersembunyi bila ada dan memungkinkan) dari pihak terkait berkaitan dengan projectnya.

Hindari asumsi bahwa orang paham maksud kita

Ini prinsip untuk setiap dokumen tertulis sebenarnya. Kita perlu memastikan bahwa siapapun yang baca dokumen kita. Siapapun - baik yang terlibat di projectnya ataupun tidak, harus bisa paham apa yang kita maksud dan kenapa kita mengambil keputusan demikian. Untuk itu, selain mencantumkan segala info terkait projectnya di dalam dokumen, kita juga wajib tuliskan semua pertimbangan kita dalam memilih tujuan dan cakupan research, metode, sampel, dll. Dengan begitu, kita dan orang lain akan mudah menelusuri apa yang terjadi di dalam perencanaan sebuah project.

Pastikan semua pihak sudah setuju dengan planningnya

Sesuai fungsi kedua dari research plan, seorang researcher harus memastikan semua pihak yang terkait di projectnya sudah membaca dokumen research plan. Bahkan, adakan sesi presentasi bila perlu. Ini penting supaya tidak ada miskomunikasi setelah project dieksekusi. Itu akan sangat menyebalkan karena bisa jadi harus rombak segala rencana yang dibuat. Jadi, lebih baik memastikan semuanya dari awal sudah setuju sebelum mulai, kan?

Berikut ini adalah contoh template research plan, baik untuk UX maupun marketing. Template hanyalah template. Yang penting kita menyesuaikan kebutuhan kita selama masih sesuai prinsip utamanya.

Terima kasih sudah membaca. Subscribe ya agar tidak ketinggalan post terbaru. :)

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Research Basics: Understanding the Assignment

• Understanding the Assignment
• Choosing a Research Topic
• Refining a Research Topic
• Developing a Research Question
• Deciding What Types of Sources You Will Need
• Types of Sources
• Search Techniques
• Find Books & eBooks This link opens in a new window
• Choose a Database / Find Articles
• Find Articles Using the EBSCO Articles tab
• Find Journals
• Find Websites using Google
• Find Articles Using Google Scholar
• Find Government Documents This link opens in a new window
• Find Statistics This link opens in a new window
• Interlibrary Loan This link opens in a new window
• How to evaluate your sources This link opens in a new window
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources This link opens in a new window
• Popular vs. Scholary This link opens in a new window
• Wheel of Sources
• Incorporate Sources into Your Research Paper
• Paraphrasing
• Voice Markers
• Using Source Material to Develop/Support an Argument
• Reasons to Cite Your Sources
• Citation & Style Guides This link opens in a new window
• Learning Checks
• Open Access Educational Resources
• Research Help

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Read the Assignment Carefully

Reading your assignment carefully can make a huge difference. Here are things to look for in the assignment instructions:

• Purpose of the assignment.  What should your research project accomplish? What is the role of research and of information sources in the assignment? This will help you determine your research process and timeline. (If you still have questions after closely reading the assignment, ask your instructor.)  
• Topic guidance and suggestions . Some instructors offer specific suggestions, while others provide guidelines to help you choose a topic yourself. Check for points and questions the instructor wants you to address in your assignment.  
• Type(s) of recommended sources  for supporting your research.  Think about where you might need to look for the recommended sources. Some will be available through the Benedictine Library collection, and some may be freely available on the Web. For more information see What Types of Sources Do You Need? .  
• Due date . This will help you determine when you need to start finding sources, reading and analyzing them, and developing your paper or project. Some assignments have different parts due at different times, so check all the due dates.  To help you manage your time, you may wish to use the Benedictine Library Research Project Calculator  
• Length of the assignment . This will help you determine the scope of your  topic.   
• Style and formatting information , such as font size, spacing, and citation style. This Citation Guides  guide can help with this.

Highlight and Underline

Highlight or underline the elements that are key to understanding your assignment. If you cannot describe what your assignment is about to someone else, re-read the assignment sheet or talk with your instructor.

Source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

• Understanding Assignments (handout)
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• Next: Choosing a Research Topic >>
• Last Updated: Feb 2, 2024 11:54 AM
• URL: https://researchguides.ben.edu/research-basics

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What is Scientific Research and How Can it be Done?

Scientific researches are studies that should be systematically planned before performing them. In this review, classification and description of scientific studies, planning stage randomisation and bias are explained.

Research conducted for the purpose of contributing towards science by the systematic collection, interpretation and evaluation of data and that, too, in a planned manner is called scientific research: a researcher is the one who conducts this research. The results obtained from a small group through scientific studies are socialised, and new information is revealed with respect to diagnosis, treatment and reliability of applications. The purpose of this review is to provide information about the definition, classification and methodology of scientific research.

Before beginning the scientific research, the researcher should determine the subject, do planning and specify the methodology. In the Declaration of Helsinki, it is stated that ‘the primary purpose of medical researches on volunteers is to understand the reasons, development and effects of diseases and develop protective, diagnostic and therapeutic interventions (method, operation and therapies). Even the best proven interventions should be evaluated continuously by investigations with regard to reliability, effectiveness, efficiency, accessibility and quality’ ( 1 ).

The questions, methods of response to questions and difficulties in scientific research may vary, but the design and structure are generally the same ( 2 ).

Classification of Scientific Research

Scientific research can be classified in several ways. Classification can be made according to the data collection techniques based on causality, relationship with time and the medium through which they are applied.

• Observational
• Experimental
• Descriptive
• Retrospective
• Prospective
• Cross-sectional
• Social descriptive research ( 3 )

Another method is to classify the research according to its descriptive or analytical features. This review is written according to this classification method.

I. Descriptive research

• Case series
• Surveillance studies

II. Analytical research

• Observational studies: cohort, case control and cross- sectional research
• Interventional research: quasi-experimental and clinical research
• Case Report: it is the most common type of descriptive study. It is the examination of a single case having a different quality in the society, e.g. conducting general anaesthesia in a pregnant patient with mucopolysaccharidosis.
• Case Series: it is the description of repetitive cases having common features. For instance; case series involving interscapular pain related to neuraxial labour analgesia. Interestingly, malignant hyperthermia cases are not accepted as case series since they are rarely seen during historical development.
• Surveillance Studies: these are the results obtained from the databases that follow and record a health problem for a certain time, e.g. the surveillance of cross-infections during anaesthesia in the intensive care unit.

Moreover, some studies may be experimental. After the researcher intervenes, the researcher waits for the result, observes and obtains data. Experimental studies are, more often, in the form of clinical trials or laboratory animal trials ( 2 ).

Analytical observational research can be classified as cohort, case-control and cross-sectional studies.

Firstly, the participants are controlled with regard to the disease under investigation. Patients are excluded from the study. Healthy participants are evaluated with regard to the exposure to the effect. Then, the group (cohort) is followed-up for a sufficient period of time with respect to the occurrence of disease, and the progress of disease is studied. The risk of the healthy participants getting sick is considered an incident. In cohort studies, the risk of disease between the groups exposed and not exposed to the effect is calculated and rated. This rate is called relative risk. Relative risk indicates the strength of exposure to the effect on the disease.

Cohort research may be observational and experimental. The follow-up of patients prospectively is called a prospective cohort study . The results are obtained after the research starts. The researcher’s following-up of cohort subjects from a certain point towards the past is called a retrospective cohort study . Prospective cohort studies are more valuable than retrospective cohort studies: this is because in the former, the researcher observes and records the data. The researcher plans the study before the research and determines what data will be used. On the other hand, in retrospective studies, the research is made on recorded data: no new data can be added.

In fact, retrospective and prospective studies are not observational. They determine the relationship between the date on which the researcher has begun the study and the disease development period. The most critical disadvantage of this type of research is that if the follow-up period is long, participants may leave the study at their own behest or due to physical conditions. Cohort studies that begin after exposure and before disease development are called ambidirectional studies . Public healthcare studies generally fall within this group, e.g. lung cancer development in smokers.

• Case-Control Studies: these studies are retrospective cohort studies. They examine the cause and effect relationship from the effect to the cause. The detection or determination of data depends on the information recorded in the past. The researcher has no control over the data ( 2 ).

Cross-sectional studies are advantageous since they can be concluded relatively quickly. It may be difficult to obtain a reliable result from such studies for rare diseases ( 2 ).

Cross-sectional studies are characterised by timing. In such studies, the exposure and result are simultaneously evaluated. While cross-sectional studies are restrictedly used in studies involving anaesthesia (since the process of exposure is limited), they can be used in studies conducted in intensive care units.

• Quasi-Experimental Research: they are conducted in cases in which a quick result is requested and the participants or research areas cannot be randomised, e.g. giving hand-wash training and comparing the frequency of nosocomial infections before and after hand wash.
• Clinical Research: they are prospective studies carried out with a control group for the purpose of comparing the effect and value of an intervention in a clinical case. Clinical study and research have the same meaning. Drugs, invasive interventions, medical devices and operations, diets, physical therapy and diagnostic tools are relevant in this context ( 6 ).

Clinical studies are conducted by a responsible researcher, generally a physician. In the research team, there may be other healthcare staff besides physicians. Clinical studies may be financed by healthcare institutes, drug companies, academic medical centres, volunteer groups, physicians, healthcare service providers and other individuals. They may be conducted in several places including hospitals, universities, physicians’ offices and community clinics based on the researcher’s requirements. The participants are made aware of the duration of the study before their inclusion. Clinical studies should include the evaluation of recommendations (drug, device and surgical) for the treatment of a disease, syndrome or a comparison of one or more applications; finding different ways for recognition of a disease or case and prevention of their recurrence ( 7 ).

Clinical Research

In this review, clinical research is explained in more detail since it is the most valuable study in scientific research.

Clinical research starts with forming a hypothesis. A hypothesis can be defined as a claim put forward about the value of a population parameter based on sampling. There are two types of hypotheses in statistics.

• H 0 hypothesis is called a control or null hypothesis. It is the hypothesis put forward in research, which implies that there is no difference between the groups under consideration. If this hypothesis is rejected at the end of the study, it indicates that a difference exists between the two treatments under consideration.
• H 1 hypothesis is called an alternative hypothesis. It is hypothesised against a null hypothesis, which implies that a difference exists between the groups under consideration. For example, consider the following hypothesis: drug A has an analgesic effect. Control or null hypothesis (H 0 ): there is no difference between drug A and placebo with regard to the analgesic effect. The alternative hypothesis (H 1 ) is applicable if a difference exists between drug A and placebo with regard to the analgesic effect.

The planning phase comes after the determination of a hypothesis. A clinical research plan is called a protocol . In a protocol, the reasons for research, number and qualities of participants, tests to be applied, study duration and what information to be gathered from the participants should be found and conformity criteria should be developed.

The selection of participant groups to be included in the study is important. Inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study for the participants should be determined. Inclusion criteria should be defined in the form of demographic characteristics (age, gender, etc.) of the participant group and the exclusion criteria as the diseases that may influence the study, age ranges, cases involving pregnancy and lactation, continuously used drugs and participants’ cooperation.

The next stage is methodology. Methodology can be grouped under subheadings, namely, the calculation of number of subjects, blinding (masking), randomisation, selection of operation to be applied, use of placebo and criteria for stopping and changing the treatment.

I. Calculation of the Number of Subjects

The entire source from which the data are obtained is called a universe or population . A small group selected from a certain universe based on certain rules and which is accepted to highly represent the universe from which it is selected is called a sample and the characteristics of the population from which the data are collected are called variables. If data is collected from the entire population, such an instance is called a parameter . Conducting a study on the sample rather than the entire population is easier and less costly. Many factors influence the determination of the sample size. Firstly, the type of variable should be determined. Variables are classified as categorical (qualitative, non-numerical) or numerical (quantitative). Individuals in categorical variables are classified according to their characteristics. Categorical variables are indicated as nominal and ordinal (ordered). In nominal variables, the application of a category depends on the researcher’s preference. For instance, a female participant can be considered first and then the male participant, or vice versa. An ordinal (ordered) variable is ordered from small to large or vice versa (e.g. ordering obese patients based on their weights-from the lightest to the heaviest or vice versa). A categorical variable may have more than one characteristic: such variables are called binary or dichotomous (e.g. a participant may be both female and obese).

If the variable has numerical (quantitative) characteristics and these characteristics cannot be categorised, then it is called a numerical variable. Numerical variables are either discrete or continuous. For example, the number of operations with spinal anaesthesia represents a discrete variable. The haemoglobin value or height represents a continuous variable.

Statistical analyses that need to be employed depend on the type of variable. The determination of variables is necessary for selecting the statistical method as well as software in SPSS. While categorical variables are presented as numbers and percentages, numerical variables are represented using measures such as mean and standard deviation. It may be necessary to use mean in categorising some cases such as the following: even though the variable is categorical (qualitative, non-numerical) when Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) is used (since a numerical value is obtained), it is classified as a numerical variable: such variables are averaged.

Clinical research is carried out on the sample and generalised to the population. Accordingly, the number of samples should be correctly determined. Different sample size formulas are used on the basis of the statistical method to be used. When the sample size increases, error probability decreases. The sample size is calculated based on the primary hypothesis. The determination of a sample size before beginning the research specifies the power of the study. Power analysis enables the acquisition of realistic results in the research, and it is used for comparing two or more clinical research methods.

Because of the difference in the formulas used in calculating power analysis and number of samples for clinical research, it facilitates the use of computer programs for making calculations.

It is necessary to know certain parameters in order to calculate the number of samples by power analysis.

• Type-I (α) and type-II (β) error levels
• Difference between groups (d-difference) and effect size (ES)
• Distribution ratio of groups
• Direction of research hypothesis (H1)

a. Type-I (α) and Type-II (β) Error (β) Levels

Two types of errors can be made while accepting or rejecting H 0 hypothesis in a hypothesis test. Type-I error (α) level is the probability of finding a difference at the end of the research when there is no difference between the two applications. In other words, it is the rejection of the hypothesis when H 0 is actually correct and it is known as α error or p value. For instance, when the size is determined, type-I error level is accepted as 0.05 or 0.01.

Another error that can be made during a hypothesis test is a type-II error. It is the acceptance of a wrongly hypothesised H 0 hypothesis. In fact, it is the probability of failing to find a difference when there is a difference between the two applications. The power of a test is the ability of that test to find a difference that actually exists. Therefore, it is related to the type-II error level.

Since the type-II error risk is expressed as β, the power of the test is defined as 1–β. When a type-II error is 0.20, the power of the test is 0.80. Type-I (α) and type-II (β) errors can be intentional. The reason to intentionally make such an error is the necessity to look at the events from the opposite perspective.

b. Difference between Groups and ES

ES is defined as the state in which statistical difference also has clinically significance: ES≥0.5 is desirable. The difference between groups is the absolute difference between the groups compared in clinical research.

c. Allocation Ratio of Groups

The allocation ratio of groups is effective in determining the number of samples. If the number of samples is desired to be determined at the lowest level, the rate should be kept as 1/1.

d. Direction of Hypothesis (H1)

The direction of hypothesis in clinical research may be one-sided or two-sided. While one-sided hypotheses hypothesis test differences in the direction of size, two-sided hypotheses hypothesis test differences without direction. The power of the test in two-sided hypotheses is lower than one-sided hypotheses.

After these four variables are determined, they are entered in the appropriate computer program and the number of samples is calculated. Statistical packaged software programs such as Statistica, NCSS and G-Power may be used for power analysis and calculating the number of samples. When the samples size is calculated, if there is a decrease in α, difference between groups, ES and number of samples, then the standard deviation increases and power decreases. The power in two-sided hypothesis is lower. It is ethically appropriate to consider the determination of sample size, particularly in animal experiments, at the beginning of the study. The phase of the study is also important in the determination of number of subjects to be included in drug studies. Usually, phase-I studies are used to determine the safety profile of a drug or product, and they are generally conducted on a few healthy volunteers. If no unacceptable toxicity is detected during phase-I studies, phase-II studies may be carried out. Phase-II studies are proof-of-concept studies conducted on a larger number (100–500) of volunteer patients. When the effectiveness of the drug or product is evident in phase-II studies, phase-III studies can be initiated. These are randomised, double-blinded, placebo or standard treatment-controlled studies. Volunteer patients are periodically followed-up with respect to the effectiveness and side effects of the drug. It can generally last 1–4 years and is valuable during licensing and releasing the drug to the general market. Then, phase-IV studies begin in which long-term safety is investigated (indication, dose, mode of application, safety, effectiveness, etc.) on thousands of volunteer patients.

II. Blinding (Masking) and Randomisation Methods

When the methodology of clinical research is prepared, precautions should be taken to prevent taking sides. For this reason, techniques such as randomisation and blinding (masking) are used. Comparative studies are the most ideal ones in clinical research.

Blinding Method

A case in which the treatments applied to participants of clinical research should be kept unknown is called the blinding method . If the participant does not know what it receives, it is called a single-blind study; if even the researcher does not know, it is called a double-blind study. When there is a probability of knowing which drug is given in the order of application, when uninformed staff administers the drug, it is called in-house blinding. In case the study drug is known in its pharmaceutical form, a double-dummy blinding test is conducted. Intravenous drug is given to one group and a placebo tablet is given to the comparison group; then, the placebo tablet is given to the group that received the intravenous drug and intravenous drug in addition to placebo tablet is given to the comparison group. In this manner, each group receives both the intravenous and tablet forms of the drug. In case a third party interested in the study is involved and it also does not know about the drug (along with the statistician), it is called third-party blinding.

Randomisation Method

The selection of patients for the study groups should be random. Randomisation methods are used for such selection, which prevent conscious or unconscious manipulations in the selection of patients ( 8 ).

No factor pertaining to the patient should provide preference of one treatment to the other during randomisation. This characteristic is the most important difference separating randomised clinical studies from prospective and synchronous studies with experimental groups. Randomisation strengthens the study design and enables the determination of reliable scientific knowledge ( 2 ).

The easiest method is simple randomisation, e.g. determination of the type of anaesthesia to be administered to a patient by tossing a coin. In this method, when the number of samples is kept high, a balanced distribution is created. When the number of samples is low, there will be an imbalance between the groups. In this case, stratification and blocking have to be added to randomisation. Stratification is the classification of patients one or more times according to prognostic features determined by the researcher and blocking is the selection of a certain number of patients for each stratification process. The number of stratification processes should be determined at the beginning of the study.

As the number of stratification processes increases, performing the study and balancing the groups become difficult. For this reason, stratification characteristics and limitations should be effectively determined at the beginning of the study. It is not mandatory for the stratifications to have equal intervals. Despite all the precautions, an imbalance might occur between the groups before beginning the research. In such circumstances, post-stratification or restandardisation may be conducted according to the prognostic factors.

The main characteristic of applying blinding (masking) and randomisation is the prevention of bias. Therefore, it is worthwhile to comprehensively examine bias at this stage.

Bias and Chicanery

While conducting clinical research, errors can be introduced voluntarily or involuntarily at a number of stages, such as design, population selection, calculating the number of samples, non-compliance with study protocol, data entry and selection of statistical method. Bias is taking sides of individuals in line with their own decisions, views and ideological preferences ( 9 ). In order for an error to lead to bias, it has to be a systematic error. Systematic errors in controlled studies generally cause the results of one group to move in a different direction as compared to the other. It has to be understood that scientific research is generally prone to errors. However, random errors (or, in other words, ‘the luck factor’-in which bias is unintended-do not lead to bias ( 10 ).

Another issue, which is different from bias, is chicanery. It is defined as voluntarily changing the interventions, results and data of patients in an unethical manner or copying data from other studies. Comparatively, bias may not be done consciously.

In case unexpected results or outliers are found while the study is analysed, if possible, such data should be re-included into the study since the complete exclusion of data from a study endangers its reliability. In such a case, evaluation needs to be made with and without outliers. It is insignificant if no difference is found. However, if there is a difference, the results with outliers are re-evaluated. If there is no error, then the outlier is included in the study (as the outlier may be a result). It should be noted that re-evaluation of data in anaesthesiology is not possible.

Statistical evaluation methods should be determined at the design stage so as not to encounter unexpected results in clinical research. The data should be evaluated before the end of the study and without entering into details in research that are time-consuming and involve several samples. This is called an interim analysis . The date of interim analysis should be determined at the beginning of the study. The purpose of making interim analysis is to prevent unnecessary cost and effort since it may be necessary to conclude the research after the interim analysis, e.g. studies in which there is no possibility to validate the hypothesis at the end or the occurrence of different side effects of the drug to be used. The accuracy of the hypothesis and number of samples are compared. Statistical significance levels in interim analysis are very important. If the data level is significant, the hypothesis is validated even if the result turns out to be insignificant after the date of the analysis.

Another important point to be considered is the necessity to conclude the participants’ treatment within the period specified in the study protocol. When the result of the study is achieved earlier and unexpected situations develop, the treatment is concluded earlier. Moreover, the participant may quit the study at its own behest, may die or unpredictable situations (e.g. pregnancy) may develop. The participant can also quit the study whenever it wants, even if the study has not ended ( 7 ).

In case the results of a study are contrary to already known or expected results, the expected quality level of the study suggesting the contradiction may be higher than the studies supporting what is known in that subject. This type of bias is called confirmation bias. The presence of well-known mechanisms and logical inference from them may create problems in the evaluation of data. This is called plausibility bias.

Another type of bias is expectation bias. If a result different from the known results has been achieved and it is against the editor’s will, it can be challenged. Bias may be introduced during the publication of studies, such as publishing only positive results, selection of study results in a way to support a view or prevention of their publication. Some editors may only publish research that extols only the positive results or results that they desire.

Bias may be introduced for advertisement or economic reasons. Economic pressure may be applied on the editor, particularly in the cases of studies involving drugs and new medical devices. This is called commercial bias.

In recent years, before beginning a study, it has been recommended to record it on the Web site www.clinicaltrials.gov for the purpose of facilitating systematic interpretation and analysis in scientific research, informing other researchers, preventing bias, provision of writing in a standard format, enhancing contribution of research results to the general literature and enabling early intervention of an institution for support. This Web site is a service of the US National Institutes of Health.

The last stage in the methodology of clinical studies is the selection of intervention to be conducted. Placebo use assumes an important place in interventions. In Latin, placebo means ‘I will be fine’. In medical literature, it refers to substances that are not curative, do not have active ingredients and have various pharmaceutical forms. Although placebos do not have active drug characteristic, they have shown effective analgesic characteristics, particularly in algology applications; further, its use prevents bias in comparative studies. If a placebo has a positive impact on a participant, it is called the placebo effect ; on the contrary, if it has a negative impact, it is called the nocebo effect . Another type of therapy that can be used in clinical research is sham application. Although a researcher does not cure the patient, the researcher may compare those who receive therapy and undergo sham. It has been seen that sham therapies also exhibit a placebo effect. In particular, sham therapies are used in acupuncture applications ( 11 ). While placebo is a substance, sham is a type of clinical application.

Ethically, the patient has to receive appropriate therapy. For this reason, if its use prevents effective treatment, it causes great problem with regard to patient health and legalities.

Before medical research is conducted with human subjects, predictable risks, drawbacks and benefits must be evaluated for individuals or groups participating in the study. Precautions must be taken for reducing the risk to a minimum level. The risks during the study should be followed, evaluated and recorded by the researcher ( 1 ).

After the methodology for a clinical study is determined, dealing with the ‘Ethics Committee’ forms the next stage. The purpose of the ethics committee is to protect the rights, safety and well-being of volunteers taking part in the clinical research, considering the scientific method and concerns of society. The ethics committee examines the studies presented in time, comprehensively and independently, with regard to ethics and science; in line with the Declaration of Helsinki and following national and international standards concerning ‘Good Clinical Practice’. The method to be followed in the formation of the ethics committee should be developed without any kind of prejudice and to examine the applications with regard to ethics and science within the framework of the ethics committee, Regulation on Clinical Trials and Good Clinical Practice ( www.iku.com ). The necessary documents to be presented to the ethics committee are research protocol, volunteer consent form, budget contract, Declaration of Helsinki, curriculum vitae of researchers, similar or explanatory literature samples, supporting institution approval certificate and patient follow-up form.

Only one sister/brother, mother, father, son/daughter and wife/husband can take charge in the same ethics committee. A rector, vice rector, dean, deputy dean, provincial healthcare director and chief physician cannot be members of the ethics committee.

Members of the ethics committee can work as researchers or coordinators in clinical research. However, during research meetings in which members of the ethics committee are researchers or coordinators, they must leave the session and they cannot sign-off on decisions. If the number of members in the ethics committee for a particular research is so high that it is impossible to take a decision, the clinical research is presented to another ethics committee in the same province. If there is no ethics committee in the same province, an ethics committee in the closest settlement is found.

Thereafter, researchers need to inform the participants using an informed consent form. This form should explain the content of clinical study, potential benefits of the study, alternatives and risks (if any). It should be easy, comprehensible, conforming to spelling rules and written in plain language understandable by the participant.

This form assists the participants in taking a decision regarding participation in the study. It should aim to protect the participants. The participant should be included in the study only after it signs the informed consent form; the participant can quit the study whenever required, even when the study has not ended ( 7 ).

Peer-review: Externally peer-reviewed.

Author Contributions: Concept - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Design - C.Ö.Ç.; Supervision - A.D.; Resource - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Materials - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Analysis and/or Interpretation - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Literature Search - C.Ö.Ç.; Writing Manuscript - C.Ö.Ç.; Critical Review - A.D.; Other - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.

Conflict of Interest: No conflict of interest was declared by the authors.

Financial Disclosure: The authors declared that this study has received no financial support.

Selecting Research Area

Selecting a research area is the very first step in writing your dissertation. It is important for you to choose a research area that is interesting to you professionally, as well as, personally. Experienced researchers note that “a topic in which you are only vaguely interested at the start is likely to become a topic in which you have no interest and with which you will fail to produce your best work” [1] . Ideally, your research area should relate to your future career path and have a potential to contribute to the achievement of your career objectives.

The importance of selecting a relevant research area that is appropriate for dissertation is often underestimated by many students. This decision cannot be made in haste. Ideally, you should start considering different options at the beginning of the term. However, even when there are only few weeks left before the deadline and you have not chosen a particular topic yet, there is no need to panic.

There are few areas in business studies that can offer interesting topics due to their relevance to business and dynamic nature. The following is the list of research areas and topics that can prove to be insightful in terms of assisting you to choose your own dissertation topic.

Globalization can be a relevant topic for many business and economics dissertations. Forces of globalization are nowadays greater than ever before and dissertations can address the implications of these forces on various aspects of business.

Following are few examples of research areas in globalization:

• A study of implications of COVID-19 pandemic on economic globalization
• Impacts of globalization on marketing strategies of beverage manufacturing companies: a case study of The Coca-Cola Company
• Effects of labour migration within EU on the formation of multicultural teams in UK organizations
• A study into advantages and disadvantages of various entry strategies to Chinese market
• A critical analysis of the effects of globalization on US-based businesses

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is also one of the most popular topics at present and it is likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. CSR refers to additional responsibilities of business organizations towards society apart from profit maximization. There is a high level of controversy involved in CSR. This is because businesses can be socially responsible only at the expense of their primary objective of profit maximization.

Perspective researches in the area of CSR may include the following:

• The impacts of CSR programs and initiatives on brand image: a case study of McDonald’s India
• A critical analysis of argument of mandatory CSR for private sector organizations in Australia
• A study into contradictions between CSR programs and initiatives and business practices: a case study of Philip Morris Philippines
• A critical analysis into the role of CSR as an effective marketing tool
• A study into the role of workplace ethics for improving brand image

Social Media and viral marketing relate to increasing numbers of various social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube etc. Increasing levels of popularity of social media among various age groups create tremendous potential for businesses in terms of attracting new customers.

The following can be listed as potential studies in the area of social media:

• A critical analysis of the use of social media as a marketing strategy: a case study of Burger King Malaysia
• An assessment of the role of Instagram as an effective platform for viral marketing campaigns
• A study into the sustainability of TikTok as a marketing tool in the future
• An investigation into the new ways of customer relationship management in mobile marketing environment: a case study of catering industry in South Africa
• A study into integration of Twitter social networking website within integrated marketing communication strategy: a case study of Microsoft Corporation

Culture and cultural differences in organizations offer many research opportunities as well. Increasing importance of culture is directly related to intensifying forces of globalization in a way that globalization forces are fuelling the formation of cross-cultural teams in organizations.

Perspective researches in the area of culture and cultural differences in organizations may include the following:

• The impact of cross-cultural differences on organizational communication: a case study of BP plc
• A study into skills and competencies needed to manage multicultural teams in Singapore
• The role of cross-cultural differences on perception of marketing communication messages in the global marketplace: a case study of Apple Inc.
• Effects of organizational culture on achieving its aims and objectives: a case study of Virgin Atlantic
• A critical analysis into the emergence of global culture and its implications in local automobile manufacturers in Germany

Leadership and leadership in organizations has been a popular topic among researchers for many decades by now. However, the importance of this topic may be greater now than ever before. This is because rapid technological developments, forces of globalization and a set of other factors have caused markets to become highly competitive. Accordingly, leadership is important in order to enhance competitive advantages of organizations in many ways.

The following studies can be conducted in the area of leadership:

• Born or bred: revisiting The Great Man theory of leadership in the 21 st century
• A study of effectiveness of servant leadership style in public sector organizations in Hong Kong
• Creativity as the main trait for modern leaders: a critical analysis
• A study into the importance of role models in contributing to long-term growth of private sector organizations: a case study of Tata Group, India
• A critical analysis of leadership skills and competencies for E-Commerce organizations

COVID-19 pandemic and its macro and micro-economic implications can also make for a good dissertation topic. Pandemic-related crisis has been like nothing the world has seen before and it is changing international business immensely and perhaps, irreversibly as well.

The following are few examples for pandemic crisis-related topics:

• A study into potential implications of COVID-19 pandemic into foreign direct investment in China
• A critical assessment of effects of COVID-19 pandemic into sharing economy: a case study of AirBnb.
• The role of COVID-19 pandemic in causing shifts in working patterns: a critical analysis

Moreover, dissertations can be written in a wide range of additional areas such as customer services, supply-chain management, consumer behaviour, human resources management, catering and hospitality, strategic management etc. depending on your professional and personal interests.

[1] Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for Business Students” 6th edition, Pearson Education Limited.

John Dudovskiy

Apa Itu Assignment: Pengertian, Contoh, dan Task

Ketika kita mendengar kata assignment, seringkali kita membayangkan tumpukan tugas yang menunggu untuk diselesaikan. Lalu, apa itu arti sebenarnya dari istilah assignment?

Pada artikel ini, kita akan membahas lebih dalam tentang arti dan makna dari istilah assignment. Mari kita simak penjelasan tentang artinya assignment berikut ini.

Apa Itu Assignment?

Assignment dalam berbagai hal, tujuan assignment secara umum, perbedaan antara assignment dan task.

Secara umum, arti assignment jika diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Indonesia adalah “tugas” atau “penugasan.”

Namun, makna dari kata ini lebih dalam daripada sekadar tugas biasa. Sebuah “assignment” merupakan instruksi atau pekerjaan yang diberikan kepada seseorang untuk menyelesaikan suatu tugas tertentu.

Baca juga:  Pengertian Treasure

Berikut ini merupakan beberapa contoh assingnment dalam berbagai hal yang berbeda.

1. Pendidikan

Dalam dunia pendidikan, “assignment” merujuk kepada tugas yang diberikan oleh guru atau instruktur kepada siswa atau mahasiswa.

Tugas ini bisa berupa penulisan esai, proyek penelitian, atau tugas lain yang dirancang untuk mengukur pemahaman dan kemampuan siswa.

Di lingkungan kerja, “assignment” bisa merujuk kepada tugas atau proyek yang diberikan kepada karyawan atau tim kerja.

Bisa berupa proyek-proyek khusus, tanggung jawab rutin, atau pekerjaan yang harus diselesaikan dalam batas waktu tertentu.

Dalam konteks militer, “assignment” mengacu pada penugasan atau tugas khusus yang diberikan kepada personel militer.

Hal ini dapat berupa penugasan tugas di wilayah tertentu atau dalam unit militer tertentu.

4. Keuangan

Dalam dunia keuangan, “assignment” bisa merujuk kepada penyerahan atau pemberian hak kepemilikan atas suatu aset atau hutang kepada pihak lain.

Hal ini terkait dengan pengalihan hak atau tanggung jawab atas sesuatu kepada pihak lain.

Dengan adanya assignment tentu memiliki tujuan tertentu yang ingin dicapai. Berikut ini beberapa di antaranya.

1. Evaluasi Kemampuan dan Pemahaman

Melalui penugasan, seorang pengajar, manajer, atau pemberi tugas dapat menilai kemampuan seseorang untuk menerapkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang telah dipelajari atau diberikan.

2. Pengembangan Keterampilan

Dengan menyelesaikan tugas-tugas ini, individu dapat mengasah keterampilan yang relevan untuk pekerjaan atau bidang studi mereka. Ini membantu dalam perkembangan pribadi dan profesional.

3. Pengalokasian Tanggung Jawab

Melalui assignment, seorang manajer, guru, atau pemimpin proyek dapat memastikan bahwa setiap anggota tim atau individu memiliki peran atau fungsi yang jelas dan sesuai dengan keahlian mereka.

4. Pemantauan dan Evaluasi Kinerja

Dengan membandingkan hasil pekerjaan atau pencapaian tugas dengan standar yang telah ditetapkan, seseorang atau organisasi dapat menilai kinerja dan membuat perbaikan jika diperlukan.

5. Pencapaian Tujuan

Melalui penugasan, individu atau tim memiliki arahan konkret untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu. Assignment membantu dalam mengorganisir tugas-tugas yang harus diselesaikan.

6. Pengalokasian Sumber Daya

Dengan mengidentifikasi siapa yang bertanggung jawab atas apa, organisasi dapat mengelola sumber daya dengan lebih efisien dan efektif.

Secara umum, assignment digunakan untuk tugas yang lebih kompleks, berfokus pada proyek besar, memerlukan waktu lama, dan sering digunakan dalam pendidikan atau pekerjaan yang melibatkan tugas mendalam.

Sementara itu, task digunakan untuk hal-hal yang lebih sederhana, berfokus pada tugas sehari-hari, diselesaikan dalam waktu singkat, dan umumnya terjadi dalam konteks pekerjaan operasional atau kegiatan harian.

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A New Chapter for Irish Historians’ ‘Saddest Book’

A globe-spanning research project has turned the catalog of a public archive destroyed in Ireland’s civil war into a model for reconstruction.

By Ed O’Loughlin

Reporting from Dublin

In the first pitched battle of the civil war that shaped a newly independent Ireland, seven centuries of history burned.

On June 30, 1922, forces for and against an accommodation with Britain, Ireland’s former colonial ruler, had been fighting for three days around Dublin’s main court complex. The national Public Record Office was part of the complex, and that day it was caught in a colossal explosion . The blast and the resulting fire destroyed state secrets, church records, property deeds, tax receipts, legal documents, financial data, census returns and much more, dating back to the Middle Ages.

“It was a catastrophe,” said Peter Crooks, a medieval historian at Trinity College Dublin. “This happened just after the First World War, when all over Europe new states like Ireland were emerging from old empires. They were all trying to recover and celebrate their own histories and cultures, and now Ireland had just lost the heart of its own.”

But perhaps it was not lost forever. Over the past seven years, a team of historians, librarians and computer experts based at Trinity has located duplicates for a quarter of a million pages of these lost records in forgotten volumes housed at far-flung libraries and archives, including several in the United States. The team then creates digital copies of any documents that it finds for inclusion in the Virtual Record Treasury of Ireland , an online reconstruction of the archive. Still a work in progress, the project says its website has had more than two million visits in less than two years.

Funded by the Irish government as part of its commemorations of a century of independence, the Virtual Treasury relies in part on modern technologies — virtual imaging, online networks, artificial intelligence language models and the growing digital indexes of archives around the world — but also on dusty printed catalogs and old-school human contacts. Key to the enterprise has been a book, “A Guide to the Records Deposited in the Public Record Office of Ireland,” published three years before the fire by the office’s head archivist, Herbert Wood.

“For a long time, Wood’s catalog was known to Irish historians as the saddest book in the world, because it only showed what was lost in the fire,” Dr. Crooks said. “But now it has become the basis for our model to recreate the national archive. There were 4,500 series of records listed in Wood’s book, and we went out to look for as many of them as we could find.”

A major partner in this hunt was the National Archives in Britain, to which centuries of Irish government records — notably tax receipts — had been sent in duplicate. The Public Record Office of Northern Ireland, which remains part of the United Kingdom, has also been a major partner, contributing records from the centuries before Ireland was partitioned in 1921.

A considerable haul of documents has also been uncovered in the United States. The Library of Congress, for example, dug up dozens of volumes of lost debates from Ireland’s 18th-century Parliament. According to David Brown, who leads the Virtual Treasury’s trawl through domestic and overseas archives, before this trove of political history came into Congress’s possession, one previous owner had tried to sell it as fuel. Serendipity has often played a role in such U.S. discoveries, he said.

“You would have old family records stored away in some gentleman’s library, and he’d move to the colonies, and take the books with him,” Dr. Brown said. “Or else heirs would eventually sell the old library off to collectors, and eventually an American university or library might buy the collection, maybe because they wanted something important in it, and they took everything else that came with it. Archivists may not always know what they have, but they never throw anything out.”

The Huntington Library in California, and libraries of the universities of Kansas, Chicago, Notre Dame, Yale and Harvard are among around a dozen U.S. organizations to respond positively to the hopeful request from the Irish: “Do you have anything there that might be of interest to us?” And in the process of hunting down material that is already on its radar, the Virtual Treasury team is also uncovering, and incorporating, unexpected treasures.

One is a previously unnoticed 1595 letter shown to Dr. Brown late last year while he was visiting Yale’s Lewis Walpole Library to view some other material. In it, Sir Ralph Lane — a founder and survivor of the infamous lost colony of Roanoke, off North Carolina, which had vanished in the decade before this letter was written — petitions Queen Elizabeth I to order the conquest of Ulster, then a Gaelic stronghold in the north of English-ruled Ireland.

Dr. Brown, a specialist in early modern Atlantic history, said the letter — long overlooked because it was bound in a volume with much later documents — showed the close connection between England’s colonial conquests in North America and Ireland, both in the personalities involved and their motivation. The letter suggests conquering Ulster primarily so that the English could seize the inhabitants’ land, and it proposes paying for the war by looting the Ulster chiefs’ cattle. The area was ultimately conquered and colonized in 1609, six years after Lane’s death.

“For the Elizabethan adventurers, colonialism was a branch of piracy. All they wanted was land,” Dr. Brown said. “Roanoke hadn’t worked out for Lane, and Elizabeth had just granted Sir Walter Raleigh 10,000 acres of land in Munster,” in the south of Ireland. “So Lane thought, if Raleigh got 10,000 acres in Munster, why can’t I have 10,000 acres in Ulster?”

Another contribution to the project could be seen in contemporary Northern Ireland, at the Public Record Office in Belfast. The head of conservation, Sarah Graham, was restoring and preserving a collection of records and letters kept by Archbishop John Swayne, who led the church in Ireland in the 15th century. Watching her at work was Lynn Kilgallon, research fellow in medieval history for the Virtual Treasury. Once preserved, its pages will be digitized and added to Dublin’s online archive.

“If you don’t understand the words in a book, it becomes just an object,” Ms. Graham said. “You need someone to read it — medievalists like Lynn here, to bring it to life.”

You do not necessarily need to be a specialist to read the documents in the Virtual Treasury, however. New artificial intelligence models developed for the project allow archivists to turn ancient handwriting into searchable digital text, with modern translations.

The site went online in June 2022, the 100th anniversary of the records office fire, and is aiming for 100 million searchable words by 2025, a target it says it is three-quarters of the way to reaching. Eventually, it hopes to recover 50 to 90 percent of records from some priority areas, such as censuses from before and after Ireland’s Great Famine in the mid-19th century, which are of particular value to historians, and to people of Irish descent tracing their roots. More than half of the details of the first nationwide census of Ireland, a religious head count in 1766, have been retrieved and published.

“Cultural loss is sadly a very prominent theme in the world right now, and I don’t think there is an example like this, where there’s been so much international cooperation in the reconstruction of a lost archive,” Dr. Crooks said. “It shows that the collective culture of many countries can be brought together to achieve a goal. Borders are fluid.”

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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First-Year Students Expand Research Interests through Compendium Project at the MCSC

April 3, 2024

Through the MIT Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP), first-year students have been working with the MIT Climate & Sustainability Consortium (MCSC) on a compendium project that allows them to explore diverse sustainability topics. The UROP program at the MCSC is an opportunity for undergraduate students to work with postdoctoral impact fellows and representatives from member companies on sustainability-related issues they are passionate about. The flexible model of this program allows students to chose project topics that resonate with their academic studies, interests, and passions. The projects align with the MCSC’s pathways and the students have the opportunity to collaborate with the Impact Fellows leading the work. A compendium, or collection of concise but detailed information about a particular subject, is typically used to summarize a larger body of work in a succinct manner. In this case, at the MCSC, students each contributed to the compendium through a literature review, which resulted in an entry to a larger piece that will be used by researchers at the MCSC in the future. The document features overviews of the topics so that future UROPs and Impact Fellows who are unfamiliar with the topics can learn more. 

Students, who worked with the MCSC throughout MIT’s recent Independent Activities Period (IAP) in January, ended up preparing their own entry for the compendium. This consisted of reaching out to MIT Libraries,  as well as completing revisions in collaboration with Impact Fellows and other subject matter experts. They completed their work with a five-minute lightning talk on their topic to MCSC Impact Fellows, staff, MCSC community undergraduate researchers and their supervisors, and other students participating in the compendium project. A few students also got the opportunity to present the outcome of their research at MIT’s 2024 Winter Climate Showcase earlier this month. The MCSC News team caught up with a few of the students who recently completed their projects to learn more about their experience working with the MCSC, main takeaways, and future aspirations.

Green bonds and climate finance

Elise Echarte, a first-year student with an interest in the intersection of finance and sustainability, chose to focus on green bonds for her compendium entry, working with Aneil Tripathy, the MCSC Impact Fellow leading the Climate Finance pathway. Green bonds are debt securities that are used to finance or refinance green projects, and Elise found them particularly interesting because they make up a relatively small and new market. Her goal was to analyze their future potential. 

Elise Echarte Undergraduate Researcher, MCSC

When she began her work, she was focusing more narrowly on defining green bonds, but as her research continued, she began to expand her research to  include their impact and the pricing differences they exhibited. 

“So far, I have been very indecisive when it comes to deciding my major, and my work at MCSC reaffirmed this indecision,” Elise explained. “I have always known I wanted to work in climate and sustainability in some capacity, but working at the MCSC showed me the endless forms that this can take on. Despite doing a lot of work in the climate finance field, Aneil Tripathy’s PhD was in anthropology, and I found this trend of interdisciplinary work at MCSC to be quite common. It encouraged me to continue exploring before committing to a major.”

Although Elise was focused on the climate finance pathway, she had the opportunity to gain exposure to the other work happening throughout the Consortium. 

“It was great to mentor Elise on a financial instrument that has been central to my research,” said Aneil. “We were able to cover a range of green bond research topics from definitions to pricing and reporting. Elise was also able to support developing research on green bond use of proceeds at MIT. The IAP compendium format gave her the chance to synthesize these topics and research into a focused writeup on green bonds.”

“The MCSC worked to create a space for undergraduates to feel comfortable asking questions and partaking in conversations,” Elise concluded.“This experience of getting to not only hear postdocs discuss their research, but also being involved myself, was really exciting.”

Read more about Elise’s compendium entry on LinkedIn.

Evaluating the environmental impact of polymers

Emma Hickman, majoring in Mechanical Engineering, was another undergraduate researcher with the MCSC, and she chose to focus on the differences between synthetic polymers, biopolymers, and recycled polymers in terms of their environmental impact, cost, and availability. Emma worked with Amanda Bischoff , an MCSC Impact Fellow working on the Nature-based solutions pathway. When looking at different papers and life cycle assessments in order to discover these qualities for each polymer type, Emma made sure to embrace the perspectives of three main entities: producers, consumers, and the environment. For example, when looking at the production of synthetic polymers, producers value their cheap production costs, while consumers prioritize high quality over low environmental impact. These trade-offs are very important to highlight when comparing polymer types.

Emma Hickman Undergraduate Researcher, MCSC

One realization that Emma had throughout her research period was that there is no such thing as an ideal green polymer. 

“When comparing biopolymers and recycled polymers with two of my measured quantities, biopolymers have better biodegradability, but recycled polymers have a lower energy consumption,” she explained. “It is up to the producer and consumer to decide what they want to prioritize in terms of environmental impact, cost, and availability when choosing a polymer type.”

Emma’s research has a lot of real-world implications, which was one of the reasons she chose to focus on polymers. 

“This research is very applicable to the modern day because modern consumption of goods is increasing, meaning a correlated increase in textiles and plastics,” she said.“There is a need for a more sustainable alternative to synthetic polymers as synthetic polymers are fossil fuel-based and damaging to the environment. I was drawn to the subject because I took solid state chemistry in the fall and had learned a little bit about materials that can and cannot be recycled in terms of their bond type. I found this really interesting, and when I saw this topic, I wanted to learn more”. 

“Mentoring Emma allowed us to explore a topic of interest to myself and MCSC member companies, but which I am not involved in day-to-day in my work,” explained Amanda. “The format of this IAP really gave us the opportunity to learn from other fellows and researchers in the consortium and draw on previous work evaluating recycled polymers. It was really a win-win because Emma got to learn about the research process through exploring a topic that interested her, and she produced a great overview contrasting synthetic polymers, biopolymers, and recycled polymers that will act as a good reference for future projects.”

Read more about Emma’s compendium entry on LinkedIn .

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Apa Terjemahan dari "assignment" di bahasa Indonesia?

"assignment" bahasa indonesia terjemahan, assignment {kt bnd}.

• volume_up tugas
• pengangkatan
• penyerahan hak atau milik

assign {kt krj dgn obj.}

• volume_up menyebutkan dg pasti
• menempatkan
• menyerahkan

assignation {kt bnd}

• volume_up perjanjian
• penunjukkan

assignment {kata benda}

• open_in_new Tautan ke sumber
• warning Request revision

assign [ assigned|assigned ] {kata kerja transitif/dengan objek}

Assignation {kata benda}, contoh penggunaan, english indonesian contoh kontekstual "assignment" di bahasa indonesia.

Kalimat ini berasal dari sumber eksternal dan mungkin tidak akurat. bab.la tidak bertanggung jawab atas isinya.

Contoh Monolingual

English cara menggunakan "assignment" dalam kalimat, english cara menggunakan "assign" dalam kalimat, english cara menggunakan "assignation" dalam kalimat, persamaan kata, sinonim (bahasa inggris) untuk "assignment":.

• appointment
• designation
• duty assignment
• apportioning
• apportionment
• assignation
• association

Terjemahan lebih lanjut di kamus bahasa Indonesia-bahasa Inggris bab.la.

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Aria is Your AI Research Assistant Powered by GPT Large Language Models

lifan0127/ai-research-assistant

Folders and files, repository files navigation, a.r.i.a. (aria) - your ai research assistant.

Aria is a Zotero plugin powered by Large Language Models (LLMs). A-R-I-A is the acronym of "AI Research Assistant" in reverse order.

The easist way to get started with Aria is to try one of the interactive prompts in the prompt library.

Use Drag-and-Drop to Reference Your Zotero Items and Collections

Autocompletion for creators (authors), tags, items and more, visual analysis (gpt-4 vision).

How to use Zotero area annotation to create a draggable area in PDF?

Save Chat as Notes and Annotations

Zotero and gpt requirements.

• Currently, only Zotero 6 is supported. Compatibility with Zotero 7 has not been tested.
• Aria requires the OpenAI GPT-4 model family. ( how can I access GPT-4? )
• The visual analysis feature requires the preview access to the GPT-4 Vision model.

Installation

For a detailed walkthrough of the installation process, please check out: https://twitter.com/MushtaqBilalPhD/status/1735221900584865904 (credit: Mushtaq Bilal, PhD - Syddansk Universitet)

• Download the latest release (.xpi file) from GitHub: https://github.com/lifan0127/ai-research-assistant/releases/latest
• In Zotero select Tools from the top menu bar, and then click on Addons .
• On the Add-ons Manager panel, click the gear icon at the top right corner and select Install Add-on From File
• Select the .xpi file you just downloaded and click Open which will start the installation process.

Before using Aria, you need to provide an OpenAI API Key . Follow the in-app instruction to add a key and restart Zotero . ( screenshots )

After restart, you should see the activated Aria window (as shown above) and can start using it through conversations.

Preferences

Aria is configurable through Edit > Preferences > Aria. Please note that some changes require Zotero restart.

• Model Selection : Choose between the base GPT-4 model and the new GPT-4 Turbo model (Preview).
• Zoom Level : Adjust the zoom level to fit your screen resolution
• Keyboard shortcut : Change the keyboard shortcut combination to better fit your workflow.

• Aria can perform automatic update when internet access is available. To check for available update, select Tools from the top menu bar, and then click on Addons .
• To manually update ARIA, click More under Aria and then click the gear icon at the top right corner. Select Check for Updates . ( screenshots )

Limitations

The following are known limitations based on user feedback.

• Currently Aria can query your Zotero library through the Zotero search API. The ability to query the Zotero SQLite database for document count and other metrics will be delivered in a future release.
• Aria has limited awareness of your Zotero application state (selected item, current tab, highlighted text). However, you can use the drag-n-drop and the autocompeltion features to provide such context within your message.

Troubleshooting

Interaction with Zotero, in an open conversational manner and through a probabilistic model, can lead to many different, often unexpected outcomes. If you experience any error, please create an GitHub issue with a screenshot of the error message from your Aria chat window. Thank you!

"Agent stopped due to max iterations": For certain questions, the bot will make multiple API calls iteratively for response synthesis. Sometimes, it may fail to produce an answer before reaching the max iterations.

Aria tab not in Preferences panel: You may choose the Advanced tab in Preferences and open the Configuration Editor Under Advanced Configuration. From there, please search for "aria" and then double-click on the "extensions.zotero.aria.OPENAI_API_KEY" entry to add your OpenAI API Key.

Development

Refer to the Zotero Plugin Development guide to find instructions on how to setup the plugin in your local environment.

You can now submit feedback and share your chat session to help improve Aria. Let's make Aria better together!

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Online Guide to Writing and Research

The research process, explore more of umgc.

• Online Guide to Writing

The Research Assignment

Why perform research.

When you engage in research, you build valuable critical skills that serve you in other areas of your daily life. You learn to ask probing and thoughtful questions, gather and interpret data, read critically, form intelligent opinions, and manage and understand conflicting information. In addition, when you write about your discoveries, your voice is then added to a scholarly community that you are now a part of.    

Professors assign academic research papers to give you experience in

finding and understanding data and information

formulating informed opinions through the study of what you found researching

adding your voice to the academic conversation of other writers and scholars in your field

learning how others in your field use primary and secondary resources  

Key Takeaways

The purpose of a research paper is to show a student how to enter the stream of discourse within an academic community.

Research papers also give you experience in manipulating raw data and information, formulating informed opinions, and learning how others in your field use primary and secondary resources. 

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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