representation in media

How 'seeing ourselves' on screen or on the page can effect cultural change

Targeted action on representation among specific identity groups can have an impact on the media & entertainment industries. Image:  Unsplash / @vanillabearfilms

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• Businesses in the media and entertainment industries must understand the potential impact of diversity, equity & inclusion (DE&I) in terms of both content and coporate inclusion initiatives.
• The Audience Representation Index 2022 was created to help measure and improve the state of DE&I in the content audiences consume.
• Efforts to boost representation are increasing across these industries but the index shows there is still room for improvement on representation.

Have you read?

Benchmarking diversity and inclusion in media and entertainment: the audience representation index.

The media and entertainment industry has a strong influence on society and the power to shape worldviews. Articulating precisely where and how that power and influence manifests can be a challenge, however. This is particularly true for issues around representation and, more specifically, how audiences feel – and what they care about – when it comes to diversity, equity and inclusion (DE&I) in the content they consume.

While this issue is often hard to define, it is extremely important for businesses to understand the potential impact of DE&I. New research from the World Economic Forum and Accenture shows that 59% of people who identify with a racial and ethnic minority tend to engage with brands more frequently if they are inclusive of diverse perspectives. Just over half (51%) of women are more likely to trust brands that represent a diverse range of people.

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In order to create a common standard to benchmark and address gaps in representation, the World Economic Forum, in collaboration with Accenture, has published Benchmarking Diversity and Inclusion in Media and Entertainment: The Audience Representation Index 2022 . This is a cross-sector report and index that provides a framework for measuring audience perception of in-content diversity and corporate inclusion initiatives.

It enables companies to measure their performance in DE&I against a benchmark of how well consumers of media and entertainment content see themselves represented in the four media sectors of film and TV, gaming, news and magazines, and sports. It shows whether those companies are contributing to community and society (see figure 1).

Measuring and rewarding good representation

The framework is a result of the World Economic Forum’s Power of Media Taskforce on Diversity, Equity and Inclusion in Media, which identified audience behaviours and sentiment as critical arbiters of progress on DE&I. Over 7,000 respondents were polled from audiences in the US, the UK and France across gender, race and ethnicity, heritage, ability, sexual orientation and age, as well as the intersections between these.

Participants across all sectors and geographies ranked societal impact as the most important of the four dimensions, underscoring that brand behaviour matters. The industry has both a powerful mandate to do better and significant opportunities to gain from doing so.

With no media sector displaying leading maturity (defined as scoring between 75 –100 on a 100-point scale), there is significant scope for improvement across the board. The average composite score across all four of the framework dimensions is 54.6, with the gaming sector lagging the rest of the industry at 49.1 while film & TV leads at 58.5.

Improving these scores can have immense impact. A 10-point increase in the audience representation index makes it 30% more likely that consumers will trust a brand, for example.

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4 ways media and entertainment could be more equitable and diverse, representation matters.

The index also reflects the impact that targeted action among specific identity groups can have on these industries. Film and TV’s lead in equitable representation (61.9 score) can be attributed to the significant efforts that this industry has made through more equitable casting policies. More than half (52%) of Netflix films and series from 2018 to 2019 had females in leading roles, and 36% of all leading roles were from under-represented groups. That compares with just 28% of the 100 top-grossing films in the same period.

Representation matters, of course, but the nuance and complexity of how that representation manifests is just as important. Here, news and magazines performed best (56.9 score) in avoiding stereotypes and presenting more complex, nuanced and complete accounts of the individuals they feature.

Inclusion also requires a rethink of how accessible media is to all audiences. Gaming has performed relatively well (scoring 52.7 on societal impact versus an average of 49.0) in designing ways to enable people with disabilities to play. This includes initiatives such as accessible controllers, increasing color-blind options, or having subtitles as the default screen mode.

Leveling up

Progress on the issue of representation is not only possible, it is happening across the industry, according to the report. It’s also clear that there is plenty of room for improvement, however. We recommend taking the following actions to help companies in the industry improve their performance across each of the four dimensions of the index:

• Build upon the Audience Representation Index 2022 and framework to incorporate audience viewing habits as an additional indication of successful representation.
• Harness audience perceptions and behaviours to identify shortcomings and set clear representation priorities within the organisation.
• Take a holistic view of all efforts across content, community, and corporate social responsibility.
• Connect DE&I to clear business metrics and use these to measure and report progress over time.
• Work collectively across the industry to develop talent and fund programmes that serve diverse groups.
• Look thoughtfully and deeply at multiple identity groups and seek to bring all on the journey equitably.

The COVID-19 pandemic and recent social and political unrest have created a profound sense of urgency for companies to actively work to tackle inequity.

The Forum's work on Diversity, Equality, Inclusion and Social Justice is driven by the New Economy and Society Platform, which is focused on building prosperous, inclusive and just economies and societies. In addition to its work on economic growth, revival and transformation, work, wages and job creation, and education, skills and learning, the Platform takes an integrated and holistic approach to diversity, equity, inclusion and social justice, and aims to tackle exclusion, bias and discrimination related to race, gender, ability, sexual orientation and all other forms of human diversity.

The Platform produces data, standards and insights, such as the Global Gender Gap Report and the Diversity, Equity and Inclusion 4.0 Toolkit , and drives or supports action initiatives, such as Partnering for Racial Justice in Business , The Valuable 500 – Closing the Disability Inclusion Gap , Hardwiring Gender Parity in the Future of Work , Closing the Gender Gap Country Accelerators , the Partnership for Global LGBTI Equality , the Community of Chief Diversity and Inclusion Officers and the Global Future Council on Equity and Social Justice .

The power of the media industry to shape and influence opinions and perceptions makes acting decisively an imperative. This will help to usher in the kind of society we all want to live in, where everyone is valued.

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World Economic Forum articles may be republished in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License, and in accordance with our Terms of Use.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum.

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Popular Representation Guides

Stuart Hall and Representation

• The Male Gaze
• David Gauntlett and Identity

What is Media Framing?

Representation and the media.

Theories of representation argue that media products are not faithful or accurate reflections of reality because producers will always have to make important decisions about how the text is constructed. Think about a news broadcast. The way people, places, ideas and events are presented to the audience can be shaped by which direction the cameras were pointing, how the footage is cut and spliced into a narrative, the words used to describe the situation, and the music that accompanies the piece.

Signs are selected and combined to encode a message. Editors edit. Even selfies posted on social media are filtered. Representation, therefore, is the mediated version of reality.

Feminist Theory and Theorists

Feminism analyses and explains the impact of social forces on gender, especially the experience of women. Do media representations of femininity and masculinity systematically reinforce inequality? Find out more in our guides.

• Liesbet van Zoonen

Judith Butler and Performativity

• bell hooks and Intersectionality

• The Bechdel Test

The Representation of Women on Magazine Covers

The Beauty Myth

Representation matters. The media can have a significant impact on how we see and understand each other. This is particularly important when the narratives convey hurtful and damaging misrepresentations. The following critical frameworks examines how ethnic-racial groups are depicted in the media.

• Paul Gilroy

Key Concepts in Post-colonial Theory

Audience positioning.

There is no doubt social and cultural contexts will affect the choices producers make when creating media texts. The following guides explore some of the processes which influence the representation of people, places and important issues.

Agenda-Setting Theory

Ideology and the Media

Stereotypes

• Exam Practice

Getting to grips with representation and the media is a challenge. If you want to develop your understanding of the key concepts, you need to analyse the representation of people, places and products in a broad range of media texts. The following examples are a good place to start.

Socialisation and Gender

Identity and Billie Eilish

Gladiator and the Representation of Masculinity

Recently added.

Rule of Thirds

The Classification of Advertisements

Narrative Functions

Key concepts.

• The Study of Signs

Clay Shirky and the End of Audience

Media Language Revision Questions

Media studies.

• Ferdinand de Saussure and Signs
• Roland Barthes
• Charles Peirce’s Sign Categories
• Jean Baudrillard’s Simulacra and Simulation
• Binary Opposition
• Vladimir Propp
• Tzvetan Todorov
• Quest Plots
• Barthes’ 5 Narrative Codes
• Key Concepts in Genre
• The Cultural Industries
• Hypodermic Needle Theory
• Two-Step Flow Theory
• Cultivation Theory
• Stuart Hall’s Reception Theory
• Abraham Maslow
• Uses and Gratifications
• Moral Panic
• Camera Shots
• Indicative Content
• Statement of Intent
• AQA A-Level

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1 Article 1 Set: What is Representation in Media?

There are THREE (3) article options in this set.

What Exactly is Media Representation Anyway?

Tawil, Y. (n.d.).  What exactly is media representation anyway? Arab Film & Media Institute. https://arabfilminstitute.org/what-exactly-is-media-representation-anyway/

The importance of representation in media has been a prominent topic as of late. From the 2015 Oscars “so white” to the heavy discourse surrounding this year’s remake of  Ghostbusters  with an all-woman leading cast, we’ve finally begun to see a shift in attitudes towards the representation of underserved demographics in a variety of media. Even this year’s Olympics in Rio has been a huge force for representation, especially for women of color from all over the world. It is important to understand representation, though truly understanding the depth of a seemingly simple concept can be tough. We’re going to take you through some of the basic concepts of media representation and its importance, both to underserved communities, and to our society at large.

2016 Summer Olympics.

What does representation in the media really mean?

The basic definition of representation in the media is simply how media, such as television, film and books, portray certain types of people or communities. There are a number of groups who are underrepresented in most Western media. They include women, people of color, LBGTQA+ people, people with a range of body shapes and types, people of non-Christian religions, and differently-abled people. There has been a steady increase of diversity in media, but progress has been long and slow.

Ghostbusters  (2016) image – Sony Pictures

But I see diversity in media all the time…

There are a few major ways producers of media can misrepresent a community, under the guise of creating diversity. The first is tokenism.  Tokenism  is when the inclusion of a minority or other underrepresented group is no more than a symbolic effort to make a story or environment seem equal or diverse. This can be seen in many different aspects of life, from the “diversity hires” at work, to the gay best friend in a television show. Another way to misrepresent people is through  stereotyping and typecasting , which are two concepts that are very closely related. Stereotyping can be seen in media through the assumptions of how a certain type of person is supposed to be due to their racial, ethnic, gender, sexual or religious identity. Stereotypes, even those that seem harmless or even positive, can have a profound effect on society as they create unrealistic, and often negative, expectations and assumptions.  Common stereotypes of Arabs in Western media include the Arab man as a terrorist or an oil-hungry sheikh.  Typecasting, which generally refers specifically to actors, is when a person is repeatedly assigned the same type of role due to success with that role in the past or because they “look like” a specific stereotype. This can happen to all types of people, but underrepresented people tend to find themselves pigeonholed into the same roles again and again. Actor and comedian Aziz Ansari wrote  a piece in the New York Times  about the struggles he’s experienced as an Indian actor, and he touched specifically on typecasting. He wrote, “Even though I’ve sold out Madison Square Garden as a standup comedian and have appeared in several films and TV series, when my phone rings, the roles I’m offered are often defined by ethnicity and often require accents.”

Film still from  Raiders of the Lost Ark  (1981) showcasing a stereotypical Arab character.

What’s the importance of representation?

Strong and positive representation can help fight and break down stereotypes that can be detrimental to individuals and limiting to society . When a group of people is only ever represented in negative ways, it adversely affects the way others see them, as well as the way they see themselves. Which means, on the flip side, positive representation can build self-confidence in individuals. It offers them role models to look up to and people and characters to be inspired by and reinforces that they are not lesser than. They can be the superhero, the doctor, the actor or whoever they want to be. The benefits of better representation are also not limited to the people represented. We all benefit from learning about different experiences and expanding our notion of what is “normal”, isn’t this one of the fundamental purposes of art?

More diverse representation also opens up new and better opportunities. For example, there is a specific lack of acting opportunities available to non-white actors, simply because scripts insist on white characters. More diverse scripts, create more diverse roles which create more opportunities for non-white actors. And when this diversity goes a step further, beyond tokenism, it also opens the door for more interesting and complex roles for these actors. All of this ultimately leads to richer stories, new voices and new perspectives in our media.

Film still from  Hidden Figures  (2017)

Well, media companies are just doing what makes them the most money…right?

Not so true. The  2016 Hollywood Diversity Report  from the Ralph J.Bunche Center for African American Studies at UCLA, found that in the United States “increasingly diverse audiences prefer diverse film and television content”. More specifically, the report found that  films with more diverse cast had the highest median global box office receipts and the highest median return on investment.  It also showed that social media engagement peaked for scripted broadcast and cable television shows that also had more diverse casts. So…that theory’s pretty much dead.

Still from  Orange is the New Black,  a show known for it’s diverse cast.

Want to learn more about diversity and representation in the media? Check out our  blog post on diversity reports .

About the Author:  Yasmina Tawil

Article ii:

Racial and cultural diversity in entertainment media.

MediaSmarts. (n.d.).  Racial and cultural diversity in entertainment media.  https://mediasmarts.ca/digital-media-literacy/media-issues/diversity-media/visible-minorities/racial-cultural-diversity-entertainment-media

In much the same way that racialized groups are under- or misrepresented in news media, they are also not accurately portrayed in entertainment media, which tends to reinforce themes that are conveyed in the news. Although positive change is occurring, it is important that media content more accurately and fairly reflect the reality of Canadian multiculturalism.

There is no question that entertainment media can have a profound effect on how young people see themselves and others. In a 2021 study, children aged nine to 12 who were asked how they would cast various roles were more than twice as likely to cast a White actor as the hero (52 percent, compared to 19 percent who would cast a Black actor and 12 percent who would cast an Asian actor) and more than twice as likely to cast a Black actor as poor. This held true no matter the race of the child: for example, only 16 percent of Black children cast a Black actor as the hero. [1]

Racialized groups in television

Dr. Minelle Mahtani, of the Institute for Social Justice at the University of British Columbia, argues that Canadian entertainment media shares many problems with American programming, exhibiting a similar tendency to under-represent and misrepresent racialized groups. According to Mahtani, this under-representation is “suggestive of [these groups’] unimportance or their non-existence.” [2]  More recent research suggests that this hasn’t changed much. A 2018 study which analyzed 780 films from 1970 to 2018 found that “white actors are just over three and a half times more likely to speak than their population size would predict, leading to the underrepresentation of all other groups.” [3]

The recent international success of Canadian TV programs such as  Anne with an E  and  Schitt’s Creek  echoes this trend. Despite improved diversity in other areas, these shows feature predominantly White actors. [4]  While racialized people make up 16.3 percent of speaking roles in Canadian television shows overall, [5]  it wasn’t until 2019 that a Black Canadian actor was cast in a lead role for a primetime Canadian television program (Vinessa Antoine, in  Diggstown. ) [6]  Even now, the launch or cancellation of a single show, such as  Kim’s Convenience [7]   or  The Porter, [8]  has a significant impact on the number of non-White roles onscreen.

Until recently, it was still fairly common for White actors to play non-White characters in animated TV shows such as  The Simpsons ,  Family Guy  and  Bojack Horseman.  This has begun to change, however: most notably, Hank Azaria, who voiced Apu on  The Simpsons  – possibly the most widely-seen South Asian character in North American TV over the last three decades – decided in 2021 to stop playing the role, saying “if it’s an Indian character, or a Latinx character, or a Black character, please, let’s have that person voice the character. It’s more authentic, they’ll bring their experience to it. Let’s not take jobs away from people who don’t have enough.” [9]

How  racialized characters are portrayed can be an issue, as well. Though negative stereotypes are still common [10]  – for example, immigrants on American TV shows are often portrayed as being less educated and more likely to commit crimes than they are in reality [11]   – an increasing trend is towards aggressively colour-blind casting. This can occur either in shows that simply pretend that race and ethnicity are no longer relevant to young people’s lives, like the CW’s  Riverdale , or ones that imagine alternate worlds where the concepts are meaningless such as Prime’s  Wheel of Time . While colour-blind casting provides more roles for non-White characters, treating colour-blindness as a positive value can, paradoxically, make viewers less sympathetic to the actual challenges faced by diverse communities: “Color-blindness is not just about showing and adding color to television; it is about assigning no meaning to color, positioning all ethnoracial groups in the same playing field.” [12]

Similarly, shows about law enforcement and crime typically offer a “colour-blind” vision of the justice system, rarely portraying things commonly experienced by racialized groups such as racial bias and racially-motivated police misconduct. [13]

While colour-blind casting may be a valuable starting point, a better standard would be shows that allow their characters to experience “mainstream” stories while recognizing and addressing their characters’ specific identities and the challenges associated with them, such as Netflix’s  Never Have I Ever  and CBC’s  Sort Of . Chris Van Dusen, creator and show-runner of the Netflix show  Bridgerton , took an approach he describes as “not color-blind [but] color-conscious” [14]  in which the producers had “freedom to give people from diverse backgrounds a role but where a character’s race can still play a part in their story.” [15]

The cast of the second season of Netflix’s  Bridgerton

Representation behind the screen is an issue, as well. A 2017 survey found that 91 percent of writers’ rooms in American TV were led by White showrunners, [16]  and 64 percent of diverse writers in television had experienced bias, discrimination and harassment while working. [17]

The advent of streaming platforms such as Netflix and Disney Plus has resulted in more diversity both onscreen and off, [18]  possibly because these services are better able to “narrowcast” to smaller audiences than traditional television. [19]   While streaming platforms do make it easier to access international content, such as the South Korean hit  Squid Game ,   because they feature little Canadian content they may provide a portrait of diversity just as inaccurate to Canadian audiences as American broadcast television.

Racialized groups in film

Film has a long history of racism and stereotyping. The first “blockbuster,”  Birth of a Nation , not only valorized the Ku Klux Klan but led to its revival (and inspired a number of activities, such as cross-burning, which the original incarnation of the group had not practiced.) [20]  It is true that there has been significant progress in the representation of racialized groups in film: compare, for instance, the original  West Side Story,  in which all but one of the Puerto Rican characters were played by White actors, to the 2021 remake, in which all are played by Latinx actors, and their Spanish dialogue is neither translated nor subtitled. [21]  Nevertheless, significant issues and challenges remain.

Thanks to a number of factors, including the small size of Canada’s film industry and the prominence of the National Film Board (NFB), Canadian film has a fairly good history of racially and culturally diverse participation, both in front of and behind the camera. Canadian feature films such as  White Elephant  and  Night of the Kings  feature realistic and responsible fictional portrayals of racially and culturally diverse experience while the NFB has produced dozens of films on everything from hot-button multiculturalism issues to filmmakers’ family histories.

Still, these films make up a tiny portion of the movies watched by Canadian audiences, and too few to prevent actors from being lured away to the United States. As Fabienne Colas, founder of the Toronto Black Film Festival, put it, “in the U.S.A., you do have those roles for black people… we don’t have those roles; they don’t really exist.” [22]   As well, the smaller size of the Canadian film industry increases the power of a small number of gatekeepers who have been, for most of its history, primarily White. [23]

There continues to be a fairly narrow range of roles available to racialized actors in both the Canadian and American film industries. A study of the 1,300 top-grossing films released between 2007 and 2019, for instance, found just 44 – or 3.4 percent – featured an Asian actor in a leading role. [24]  (7.1 percent of the U.S. population identifies as “Asian or Pacific Islander”; [25]  14 percent of the Canadian population identifies as South Asian, Chinese, Filipino, Southeast Asian, Korean or Japanese.) [26]  Of those 44 roles, just 13 percent were considered three-dimensional – not being defined as a foreigner, sidekick or villain – by the study’s authors. [27]

This may be because while a small number of racially and culturally diverse actors, such as Viola Davis and Dwayne Johnson, are among Hollywood’s biggest box-office draws, nearly all of the faces behind the camera are White. The Writers Guild of America’s Inclusion Report 2020 detailed that racialized people make up 20 percent of screenwriters in the United States even though they make up 40 percent of the population. [28]  Racially and culturally diverse actors are also often only considered for parts specifically written as racialized, while parts of unspecified ethnicity are White by default. Kelly Edwards, vice-president of talent development and corporate diversity at NBC Universal, has said that casting directors and producers also tend to turn to actors with whom they’re already familiar, which often results in less diversity onscreen. [29]

Racialized groups in music

Canadian music has traditionally been a way through which minorities have been able to gain visibility, and this continues to the present day, with Ethiopian-Canadian artist The Weeknd and Drake, a biracial artist with a Black American father and Jewish Canadian mother, finding success both in Canada and internationally.

Popular music frequently displays certain racial themes. Toby Jenkins, professor of Integrative Studies and Higher Education, notes that rap and hip hop music express the realities of institutional racism and find their roots in the 1960s civil rights movement and integration of Black students into White society, giving these marginalized communities a way to express their thoughts and struggles at a time when they were often silenced and ignored in classrooms or social life. As Jenkins argues, “hip hop music tells the story of what it is like to be Black in America… hip hop music is one of the few cultural spaces where African Americans can voice their discontent with American power structures that make it difficult for Blacks to be successful.” [30]

Like American hip hop, much of Canadian hip hop is concerned with matters of race, culture and identity – but those of Black Canadians, whose origins, experiences and history are quite different from those of Black Americans. While it originated in close imitation of American hip hop, Canadian artists such as Kardinal Offishall and Boogat produce music which is much more influenced by the traditions of the Caribbean (two-thirds of African Canadians are of Caribbean origin) while first-generation immigrants such as K’naan express their personal and cultural experiences in producing their music and francophone hip hop performers such as Alaclair Ensemble draw on traditional Québécois folk music.

Other racially and culturally diverse groups have begun to make their presence known on the music scene, as well. The increasing prominence of South Asian culture, most visibly represented by “Bollywood” movies, has resulted in a greater visibility for groups like Delhi 2 Dublin which plays songs with lyrics in Punjabi and music played on instruments such as the sitar, dhol and tabla to mostly White audiences, with their 2019 album having more English lyrics. As with Canadian hip hop, this new wave of South Asian music isn’t just a transplant of traditional forms but a blend of influences – in this case South Asian banghra, Celtic folk and reggae. Raghav Mathur, whose music mashes Bollywood beats with hip hop and whose lyrics are equal parts English and Hindi, compares South Asian music in Canada to Latin artists such as Shakira and Camila Cabello, who’ve found success with both diverse and mainstream audiences.

Unfortunately, when it comes to diversity the move to streaming platforms has not had the same positive effects for diverse music as it has for film and television. This may be because users are more likely to allow the recommendation algorithm to make choices for them on music streaming platforms. This can result in a “rich get richer” cycle, which gives preference to mainstream acts even more than traditional media did. [31]  TikTok, which for many young people is the main means of discovering new music, [32]   has a history of preferentially boosting White creators who are performing Black performers’ music. [33]  At the same time, unlike in traditional media, diverse acts  can  be found on Spotify and similar platforms – though the need to find and curate them is a significant barrier. In some cases, those same algorithms have also promoted music that would never have been widely heard on traditional radio, such as gay and Black artist Lil Nas X’s  Old Town Road  (which went on to win a Country Music Association Award.)

Racialized groups in advertising

Advertising has historically been a medium particularly prone to stereotyping. [34]   Ads, which are by definition unwanted by their audience, have to make a strong impression in a brief exposure, [35]   and stereotypes provoke the emotional reactions that drive brand loyalty and purchase intention. [36]  While Aunt Jemima – the syrup mascot whose roots are in Nineteenth Century minstrel shows – has been retired, [37]   research from 2021 found that half of people from historically under-represented communities have seen ads that stereotype them. [38]

Advertisers were slow to directly appeal to racialized groups. For instance, in 1963 Pepsi became one of the first large companies to advertise directly to Black audiences. [39]  More recently, however, a growing number of advertisers have realized the value of appealing to racialized groups [40]  as well as to young audiences who expect the brands they support to reflect their values. [41]   As Allen Adamson, co-founder of marketing strategy firm Metaforce, explained, “it’s a cost-benefit thing. Most marketers have come to realize that no matter what they do, a certain segment is going to be offended. But the upside — seeming inclusive — outweighs the risk of ruffling feathers.” [42]

Ads do still draw on racial stereotypes, even from brands that have a long history with those communities. For example, in 2017, a Dove ad featured a Black woman transforming into a White woman and a Pepsi ad appeared to make light of Black Lives Matter protests. [43]   Online, Black influencers routinely earn less per post than their White counterparts, [44]  while the social networks that rely on their content also allow advertisers to target them with ads in ways that can be discriminatory [45]  and even illegal. [46]

Dove’s body wash ad, which was withdrawn in response to protests.

Racialized groups in video games

Unlike other media, there is no domestic Canadian video game industry. While a number of extremely successful video game publishers, such as BioWare and Ubisoft, are based in Canada, their work is created for the American market. As a result, racially and culturally diverse representation in video games can only be considered in an American context.

Video games have perhaps the worst record of racially and culturally diverse representation. While 87 percent of Black teenagers play video games – more than any other teen demographic [47]  – just two percent of game developers are Black. [48]   Most Black video game characters are given background roles or “roles that enforce racist stereotypes,” [49]  and when games do offer diverse characters they’re often reserved for downloadable add-ons sold separately. [50]

Violence, of course, is a frequent occurrence in video games, but while White characters are more likely to be shown engaging in fantasy violence – using swords or laser guns against monsters or aliens – racially and culturally diverse characters are much more likely to be part of realistic violent acts such as drive-by shootings, violent muggings and gang fights. [51]  Asian characters are stereotyped even further, as they are almost exclusively shown engaging in martial arts. Many racialized groups – such as South Asians or Hispanics – are nearly or entirely absent. [52]  Similarly, video games are, like animation, one of the few media where it is still common for White actors to voice non-White characters. [53]

Perhaps because the video game industry is overwhelmingly White, [54]   it’s often proven to be insensitive on racial topics. For instance, it took Nintendo two decades to make it possible to change a character’s skin tone in the popular game  Animal Crossing;  the character Alloy in  Horizon: Zero Dawn  sports “appropriative and gross” [55]  dreadlocks;  World of Warcraft  features characters called “Pandarens” with stereotypically Chinese clothing and mannerisms; [56]  and  Fortnite  has   reproduced dance moves created by Black artists without crediting or compensating them “despite being gaming’s biggest phenomenon.” [57]   Ian Sundstrom, an independent video game developer, comments on these instances saying, “when it comes to the bigger AAA games with huge budgets, there’s really not an excuse to not be hiring black artists and designers to work on your game…[the] bare minimum [is] spending the extra time with the people you do have to add those different options and let people embody a character that looks like them.” [58]

Unlike other media such as television and film, adding onscreen diversity to video games can be a technical challenge – though this can sometimes be overused as an excuse. Ion Hazzikostas, director of the  World of Warcraft  expansion  Shadowlands , explained why the game hadn’t previously offered a diverse range of facial features and hairstyles: “Some of it was technical constraints, going back to the way things were built, and the number of different textures that could be mapped onto a single model from the engine 15 years ago. But those are lines of code that can be changed. And yes, the real question is why didn’t we do it sooner? It’s a good question. We should’ve done this sooner, honestly.” [59]

New character creation options in  World of Warcraft: Shadowlands

Racialized groups in social media

Because of their  networked nature , social media have had a mixed impact on racialized groups. On the one hand, the ability to publish content more or less directly to audiences has allowed racialized communities to bypass the gatekeepers associated with traditional media. Black communities use Twitter as a news source and [60]  a resource for finding congenial businesses [61]  and both Black and Asian communities use social media to demonstrate to skeptical White audiences the reality of racism in Canada [62]  and elsewhere. [63]

But social networks are by no means free of racism themselves. There are many examples of White users making racist posts [64]  or participating in “digital Blackface,” either by appropriating other cultures or using filters to literally make themselves look Black or Asian. [65]  Other apps promote colourism by encouraging users to virtually lighten their skin. [66]   Some platforms’ recommendation algorithms downrank posts about racial justice issues such as Black Lives Matter, [67]   while many of those that allow users to earn revenue from advertising prevent them from monetizing those posts as a “brand safety” measure designed to keep ads from appearing alongside “controversial content. [68]

As with other media industries, this occurs in part because racialized communities are under-represented: just six percent of Twitter’s workforce, and four percent of Facebook’s, is Black. [69]   Among decision-makers, the numbers are even lower. A 2016 study of 177 large US technology companies found that just 1.4 percent of executives and senior managers were Black. [70]  Other forms of racial and ethnic prejudice can also limit participation and representation in the tech industry. While South Asians are well-represented in Silicon Valley, for example, workers from lower castes often experience caste-based discrimination and harassment and feel pressure to conceal their caste origins where possible. [71]

For more information on how to deal with hate directed towards racialized groups and other diverse communities, see our section on  online hate .

Article iii:

Representation of diversity in media – overview.

MediaSmarts. (n.d.).  Representation of diversity in media – Overview. https://mediasmarts.ca/digital-media-literacy/media-issues/diversity-media/representation-diversity-media-overview

Media representation issues

What we see – and  don’t  see – in media affects how we view reality. Media works can be imagined either as  mirrors  that reflect an audience’s own experience,  windows  that give them access to experiences they otherwise wouldn’t have known, or in some cases both. Rosemary Truglio, Senior Vice President of Sesame Workshop, described the diverse cast of  Sesame Street  as giving children “a mirror for them to see themselves, and (…) a window for them to learn about others.” [1]

Sesame Street  was a milestone in representation of race and disability in children’s media.

Media portrayals may provide different audiences with mirrors but not windows, or vice-versa, and a lack of either can have a negative impact. For members of historically under-represented groups, “when you have never seen yourself in books or movies or music, the first time you do is stunning.” [2]  Similarly, “for children from dominant groups, window moments in stories come when the children realize they hold a powerful place in society and that there is something unjust about this.” [3]  Unfortunately, fewer than half of Canadians feel that “Canadian media is a mirror in which all Canadians can see themselves.” [4]

In mass media, these issues typically play out in three ways:

Under-representation : Many groups have historically been  under-represented  in media. Even today, we are less likely to encounter many forms of diversity in mass media than we are in real life – and diverse communities are typically even less well-represented behind the scenes than onscreen. Under-representation can also make other representation issues worse because less representation means fewer opportunities for authentic representations of diversity  within  a group.

Besides being simply under-represented, groups may also be  de-centred.  That means making them or their culture a backdrop for more “mainstream” (e.g. White, abled, cisgender, etc.) protagonists. In some cases this may take the form of having a White character that excels in skills associated with a non-White culture, such as martial arts; stories where characters from under-represented groups need a White or other majority-culture character to “save” them; [5]  and cases where aspects of an under-represented culture literally act as a prop. [6]

Stereotyping : This means portraying members of a particular group in just one or a small number of roles. This is particularly worrying when the stereotype is a negative one, but stereotyping can also do harm by only portraying a group in a narrow way. Even so-called “positive stereotypes” can have a negative effect because they limit how we see members of that group, as well as how we see ourselves. For example, if you belong to a group that is stereotyped as being good at sports, but are not particularly athletic, you may feel inadequate for being bad at something you’re “supposed” to be good at.

Another form of stereotyping is  exoticizing , emphasizing the ways in which a character or culture are different from the (presumed) audience’s: for instance by overemphasizing aspects of a culture that mainstream audiences are most likely to find strange or disturbing, or by relying on things like accents or stereotyped characteristics for humour. Its most extreme form is  othering , in which groups are shown as being  fundamentally  different from the audience and, in some cases, even as not being fully human.

Stereotyping can also happen when diverse identities always play the same role in the story. Author Corinne Duyvis identifies three ways that a character’s identity may be part of a work: “issue” stories where the identity and the challenges that come with it are what the story is about; “incidental” stories where a character’s identity is apparent but not relevant to the story, such as the main character’s sexual orientation in the Disney film  Strange World,  which provides a romantic subplot but is never specifically commented on;   and “middle ground” stories where the identity is not the  focus  of the story but is recognized as always being  relevant . As Duyvis puts it, “ableism, homophobia, and racism influence countless aspects of people’s everyday lives.” None of these is necessarily better than the other: what is most important is that audiences see all three kinds of stories, so that while marginalized communities’ specific issues and challenges are reflected in media they are also allowed to simply  be . [7]

Whitewashing : While it has become rare for White actors to play Black or Asian characters, it remains common for disabled people, 2SLGBTQ+ people and other groups to be played by actors from outside those communities. Similarly, when works are adapted from one medium to another – such as when a book or comic is made into a movie or TV show – it is still fairly common for diverse characters to be changed into White ones, or for characters’ sexual orientation or disabilities to be downplayed or altered.

It’s important to point out that whitewashing only occurs when a character from a historically under-represented group is changed or recast so they are no longer part of that group, leading to reduced representation for that group and less diversity overall. For instance, the casting of a White actor to play an Asian character in the film  Doctor Strange  would count as whitewashing, while the casting of a Black actor to play a White character in the same film would not. [8]

These three issues are related, of course. Whitewashing contributes to both under-representation and stereotyping, as there are both fewer representations of historically under-represented groups in general and, in particular, fewer authentic representations. Similarly, under-representation contributes to and increases the impact of stereotypes because having fewer characters representing a particular group means fewer opportunities to show members of that group playing different roles in stories and in society.

For more examples of how these apply to different communities, see the specific articles on how each group is represented.

Impacts of media representation

All of these representation issues can have significant effects, both on audiences who are members of historically under-represented groups and those who aren’t. Seeing one’s own group stereotyped can lead to stress, negative self-image [9]  and impaired academic achievement, [10]  while being exposed to stereotyped portrayals of  others  can contribute to implicit or explicit prejudice. [11]  Even more than changing individual attitudes, media portrayals – because they are seen as representing how  others  view a group – can have an impact on broader social attitudes towards different groups. [12]  At the same time, exposure to  authentic  portrayals of oneself can improve self-esteem and promote a more positive view of one’s identity [13]  or even improve academic performance, [14]  while seeing authentic portrayals of other groups – which do not have to be uniformly positive ones [15]  – can actually reduce prejudice. [16]

“Works of art are the only silver bullet we have against racism and sexism and hatred […] Art engenders empathy in a way that politics doesn’t, and in a way that nothing else really does. Art creates change in people’s hearts. But it happens slowly.” [17]    Lin-Manuel Miranda

There can be significant impacts if different groups are not represented  behind  the scenes, as well. In mass media, under-representation behind the scenes generally results in under-representation on the screen, but it can also contribute to stereotyping as the portrayals are less likely to be authentic. [18]  In digital media, not having historically under-represented groups involved at the design and management levels can lead to their experiences and concerns being ignored or treated as afterthoughts.

For more examples of how these affect different communities, see the specific articles on how each group is represented.

Intersectionality

While the other articles in this section address media portrayals of different groups separately, it’s important to point out that for many people they are not experienced that way. Many people identify with more than one historically marginalized or under-represented group, particularly when  gender  is added to the equation. Legal scholar Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw coined the term “intersectionality” to conceptualize “the way that different identity markers, such as race, gender, sexuality, and class, interact and affect each other.” [19]

Intersectionality does not mean that the impacts of different identities (including stereotyping) simply add on to one another, but that they transform and sometimes conflict with one another. East Asian women are frequently hypersexualized in media, [20]  for example, while for East Asian men the stereotype is often the reverse. [21]  However, audiences tend to consider just one aspect of intersectional identities. [22]  When the stereotypes associated with two identities conflict with one another, people who identify with both may face confusion [23]  or even hostility [24]  from others.

It’s important to consider intersectionality both when making media and when critiquing it. For media makers, “shows and movies that attempt to lift up marginalized communities without thinking about intersectionality are only perpetuating different systems of prejudice and oppression.” [25]  As well, some intersections may be an easier “sell” than others, both to audiences and the media industry. While the title character of  House M.D.  (2004-2012) both had a physical disability and was an outspoken atheist, he was also White; conversely, the showrunner of the currently running (2022) series  Abbott Elementary  said of one character’s canonical but unseen agnosticism “I honestly don’t know if we would be able to present that on ABC. It may not seem a big deal, but for a Black girl in Philadelphia — there are very few agnostic people.” [26]

When critiquing media, we should consider not just whether individual characters are stereotyped but whether a broad range of diversity, including intersecting identities, is represented. [27]  As well, we should make a point of recognizing authentic portrayals of intersectionality in media, such as  Reservation Dogs  and  Hawkeye.  Finally, taking an intersectional approach to media education means considering  other  digital media issues – from cyberbullying to advertising to digital access and privacy – through an intersectional lens: not assuming, for example, that only White youth suffer from body image issues, and giving all young people a chance to confront the distinct ways that those issues affect them. [28]

Maya Lopez from the Disney Plus series  Hawkeye  is Deaf and Indigenous, as is the actor who plays her, Alaqua Cox.

The importance of media education

Young people’s attitudes towards media representation changes over time. Children under nine don’t generally question whether what they see in media reflects their reality unless they are prompted to by parents or teachers. Tween and teens typically begin to become aware of media representation issues, especially if they are members of under-represented or stereotyped groups. By their later teens many actively seek out works with better representation. [29]

Media education can help young people put current images and messages into perspective by helping them understand how the media work, why stereotyping exists, how decisions are made and why it matters who is involved in making media works. Digital media literacy, especially if it explicitly addresses stereotyping and other media representation issues, can correct misperceptions of and prejudices towards other groups. [30]  For young people who see stereotyped depictions of themselves in media works, media literacy can also mitigate negative effects on their self-esteem. [31]

Media education has also been shown to be an effective way of approaching issues like racism, providing a way of discussing difficult topics that feels safer while still challenging students’ assumptions and preconceptions [32]  and can also help students affected by stereotyping deal with its effects. [33]  Talking about media portrayals of diversity, especially positive ones, can also be a way of affirming students’ identities and encouraging them to create works that reflect those identities.

Positive portrayals don’t just avoid stereotyping, under-representation and the other issues identified above. They also:

• take the extra step of authentically portraying the challenges that members of under-represented communities face, such as racism or accessibility issues;
• tell stories of characters’ accommodations, resilience and agency in the face of those challenges; and
• show characters in the context of, and connected to, their communities. [34]

Media education is not about learning the right answers; it’s about consuming media images with an active, critical mind and asking the right questions.

Here are a few examples of the types of questions that could lead to a better understanding of how different groups are represented depicted in media:

Who selected or created these images and stories? Why does it matter who made these selections?

The first principle in media education is that nothing is objective—each and every media production is created with a viewpoint and for a purpose. The “reality” depicted in film or television productions is the result of many choices and each of these choices is based on the experience, knowledge and bias of the producers involved. More important than any conscious choices are the questions media makers  don’t  ask – the things they believe they already know. When members of historically marginalized groups are not involved in making shows, movies, news coverage or other media featuring them, it shows.

It’s also important to understand that media can have very different meanings depending on who made them, and that marginalized groups may “reclaim” stereotyped portrayals for their own purposes.

Whose voices are being heard? Whose voices are absent? Why?

Who is interviewed on a current affairs program? Which “experts” are chosen for sound bites on an issue? Whose perspectives are ignored completely? If characters or cultures representing a historically marginalized group are represented in a media text, have the creators of that text made significant efforts to consult with those communities, as Disney did when making  Frozen II  and  Moana ? [35]

The question of whose voices are heard isn’t just important in mass media. While digital technology has made it easier than ever for people to make and share their own media, the online platforms where they share their work – whose ownership and workforce remain overwhelmingly White [36]  – do not provide sufficient moderation and tools to push back against hate speech, they may fall silent in the face of online harassment. [37]

Why are certain stories selected or privileged and others not? Are some groups only represented in a small number of frames or contexts? Are characters representing diverse communities shown as real human beings in media, or are they defined exclusively by their identity? Do depictions respect differences and diversity within these communities?

Media producers, especially those in Hollywood, have used members of historically marginalized groups to tell mainstream cultures’ stories for generations. Rarely are diverse characters given complex personalities or autonomous roles. Rarely do they rely on their own values and judgements, or act upon their own motivations. Although efforts have been made to undo this tradition, old stereotypes die hard. [38]

This question highlights why it’s important not to look just as specific media works, but at the bigger picture. Each individual game, movie, or TV show with a White, non-disabled, cisgender, heterosexual, non-denominational Christian protagonist does not necessarily matter by itself, but when all of these are seen as the  default  identity for a main character it sends a powerful message about who can be the “main character” and who cannot.

How do commercial considerations, including the “conventional wisdom” in the industry, lead to issues around stereotyping and representation?

Commercial considerations are often given as a reason for excluding members of historically under-represented communities, whether explicitly (such as the assumption that White audiences won’t see movies with non-White leads) [39]  or implicitly (by saying, for instance, that a movie needs a “big-name” lead to be successful – without saying out loud that most of those big names are White, non-disabled, heterosexual and cisgender). [40]  While this industry conventional wisdom has been proven to be false, it’s still widely held. [41]

Characteristics of different media industries, in different countries, can also have an impact on whether diversity is represented. The Canadian television industry is often described as highly risk-averse, with licensing American shows seen as a safer bet than developing Canadian ones. As a result, when diversity does appear on private Canadian channels such as Global and CTV, it more often reflects the population of the United States than Canada’s. When private broadcasters do make original programming, they tend to play it safe – which usually means making shows aimed at White audiences. [42]  As the report  Deciding on Diversity  puts it, “Risk narratives about equity-seeking stories and storytellers persist to preserve the status quo.” [43]  Nathalie Younglai, founder of BIPOC TV and Film, paraphrases TV executives’ attitudes more bluntly: “How is this Canadian? How does someone in Saskatchewan relate to this?” [44]

Similarly, digital technology companies claim to be motivated by market pressures in deciding things like which languages digital assistants should be able to speak; this, too, often fails to hold true in the light of accurate data – Apple’s Siri, for instance, is offered in Finnish (which has about five million native speakers) but not Swahili (which has nearly a hundred million). [45]

How can different audiences “read against” or negotiate the meaning of a work with representation issues?

Some audiences, especially those from groups that have traditionally been marginalized in media industries, may engage in “resistant reading,” interpreting works in ways that are directly contrary to the generally received meaning. Nevertheless, it is true that, as bell hooks put it, “While audiences are clearly not passive and are able to pick and choose, it is simultaneously true that there are certain ‘received’ messages that are rarely mediated by the will of the audience.” [46]

In other words, while we don’t automatically accept the surface meaning of media works, most of us will take away a meaning that is fairly close to it. Only a small number of people, mostly those whose identity or experience lead them to a resistant reading, will have a significantly different interpretation. Until members of these groups have more meaningful participation in the media industries, however, neither the portrayals nor the mainstream audience’s interpretation of them are likely to change.

Resistant reading is also easier in some media than others: in most video games, for instance, ‘resistant play’ – choosing actions other than the ones the designers assume you will take – will prevent you from progressing very far in the game. [47]

How may the codes and conventions of the medium and genre perpetuate stereotyping and representation issues?

Both different  media  (such as TV, film or video games) and different  genres  (science fiction, advertising, animation, et cetera) have their own codes and conventions that may lead media makers to fall into stereotyping or under-representation, often unconsciously. For example, both advertising and news (especially headlines) have to grab the audience’s attention right away and communicate information in a small amount of time. As a result they often use stereotypes as a kind of “shorthand” that allows the audience to fill in what they already know (or think they know). Similarly, animation and comics – and works in other media that are based on comic or cartoon characters – often have characters whose racist origins are still apparent, or for whom traits like facial scarring, prosthetic limbs or stereotypically Jewish features serve as visual markers of villainy.

Even when media works try to confront racism, homophobia and other issues, there may be fundamental features of certain media, like the episodic nature of news and the focus in fictional media on individual characters, that lead them to portray these primarily as something perpetrated by individuals and downplay their systemic qualities. [48]

How can digital tools and platforms give voice to historically marginalized communities? How may they contribute to marginalization?

Unlike traditional media, there are no one-way connections in digital media. You can share content with other people as easily as a producer or distributor shares it with you. As a result, the barriers to participation are much lower than in traditional media and anyone can publish content and find an audience. But while power in networks is not hierarchical, neither is it evenly distributed: it rests in the nodes with the most links. This means that those who had gatekeeping power in the old media environment have had their influence reduced, but not eliminated.

For instance, while online publishing has made it possible for historically under-represented groups to “restory themselves” by making versions of popular culture works that include and even centre their own experiences, [49]  online platforms also have tremendous power to either promote or suppress the same voices through the algorithms that determine what is shown or recommended to users. [50]  As the historian of science Melvin Kranzberg put it, different technologies are neither inherently good nor inherently bad, but neither are they neutral: [51]  like mass media, they reflect the beliefs, unconscious biases and unquestioned assumptions of their creators.

As a result, the impacts that networked technology have had on historically under-represented groups are complex. Online spaces can provide diverse communities, especially those that are geographically far-flung, with an ‘ecosystem’ that would not be possible with traditional media; [52]  at the same time, content moderation systems can apply censorship that is more absolute than was ever found in film and television, limiting the ability of marginalized youth to access relevant health information, [53]  to monetize content that reflects their community [54]  and even to speak the name of their identity. [55]

Technical tools have an impact on how we use them not just through their  affordances  (what  can  be done with them) but also their  defaults  (what we are  expected  to do with them). For example, one study of video games found that while 23 percent had  affordances  that allowed players to choose their character’s race, 60 percent of those  defaulted  to a White character unless the player actively changed it. [56]  Whether or not members of diverse communities were involved in the design of those affordances and defaults may determine whether they work successfully when used in or by those communities: a review of facial algorithms found that they were at least ten times as likely to mis-identify a Black or East Asian face as a White one, [57]  for example, and many digital assistants such as Siri and Alexa routinely misunderstand Black users. [58]

Networked media can also make it possible, or easier, for marginalized groups to experience harms that were not possible or less likely with traditional media. One of these is  amplification: [59]   for example, the frictionless quality of networked media allows  hate groups  to broadcast their messages more widely and to tailor them to potential audiences at different levels of the “radicalization pyramid.” Amplification does not only apply to intentional acts, though. It can also reflect a harm that already exists and make it more widespread by embedding it in the operation of a networked tool – for example, for many years Google searches for terms such as “Asian girls” and “Black girls” returned primarily pornographic results, reflecting how they were most often used in the wider internet, while “White girls” did not. [60]  Questions as simple as who appears in an image search for “doctor” or “happy family” can have a huge impact on how different groups are perceived.  [61]

A Google image search for “happy family” conducted in March 2022.

As with the other search terms mentioned above, Google has taken some positive steps in this regard as a result of consumer pressure. [62]  This demonstrates why a key part of media education is empowering young people to make their voices heard through making and publishing their own media, as well as to push back against stereotypes and other misrepresentations in media and to use digital tools to make a difference in their online and offline communities.

• MediaSmarts lessons that teach students to make their voices heard through media making include  Representing Ourselves Online ,  Avatars and Body Image ,  Bias in News Sources ,  First Person   and  Art Exchange .
• MediaSmarts’ guide  Talk Back! How to Take Action on Media Issues   explains the rules and codes that apply to different media industries on issues such as stereotyping and representation and includes some advice on how to use social networks to speak out on a media issue.
• Speak Up! Your Guide to Changing the World, Online and Off   explains how to use digital tools like social networks to share your views and organize others in making change.

How can educators limit resistance and backlash when addressing diversity in media?

Two of the most common risks of addressing diversity representation in media are  resistance  – in which students challenge the validity of media education as practice, such as by dismissing the work under study as “just an ad” or suggesting that the teacher is reading meaning into a work that isn’t there – and  backlash , in which students feel the teacher is pushing their own views or interpretations, rather than encouraging students to articulate and argue their own.

One way of minimizing these is having young people explore  questions,  such as the ones listed above, rather than leading them towards a pre-ordained conclusion. While it is important to make them aware of the facts of representation in media, conclusions about the implications of those facts – and appropriate responses – should emerge from critical thinking and discussion.

Another important approach is to help students understand the key concept that  all  media have social and political implications – and that when they appear not to, it’s because they reinforce how you already see the world. Similarly, while we may be tempted to dismiss the importance of entertainment media relative to things like news, we are actually more likely to be persuaded by works that “transport” us and bypass our critical minds. [63]

As well, highlight to students that it is possible for a media work to be problematic in some aspects of its portrayal of diversity but successful in others. The 2016 film  Doctor Strange , for instance, had many problematic elements in its portrayal of cultural diversity but also a fairly nuanced representation of the main character’s disability and his efforts to accommodate it. [64]

Perhaps most importantly, it’s important to teach students from early on that critiquing a part of something doesn’t mean you don’t like it, nor does critiquing a work mean that you’re criticizing anyone who likes it. Criticizing our children’s media choices can easily make them feel we’re criticizing  them.  There is a difference between a media work that was  motivated  by racism or sexism and one where it’s the result of the media-maker not questioning their assumptions or the “conventional wisdom” of their industry. Most of the time, the messages in the things they make aren’t on purpose but because of things they assumed or questions they didn’t think to ask. (It’s important to understand that the people who make media aren’t necessarily media  literate  in the critical sense.)

As Turner Classic Movies host Jacqueline Stewart points out, this is a distinction that people in historically under-represented groups often learn early. Describing a childhood viewing of  Gone With the Wind,  Stewart notes that “Black audiences have always juggled the pleasures and problems of mainstream media. I was learning that you can enjoy a film even as you are critiquing it.” [65]  Of course, we also have to make a habit of studying accurate representations as well as critiquing negative ones – and recognize that a work may be positive in some aspects but problematic in others.

There may also be backlash from students relating specifically to the topic of diversity representation. This can be a result of a belief in the value of colour-blindness; though generally well-meaning, this attitude has been shown to contribute to prejudice, rather than reducing it, because it denies the identities and experiences of historically under-represented groups and prevents us from addressing the challenges and injustices they face. [66]  Instead, stereotypes need to be acknowledged and faced head-on. As Jeffrey Adam Smith, author of  Are We Born Racist? , puts it, “When we encounter a ‘slant-eyed, Oriental mastermind’ (to quote one old comic of mine), I stop, close the book, and tell [my son] that image is a product of prejudice, and that I think prejudice is wrong. I try to answer any questions he has. Then I re-open the book… and keep reading.” [67]

Young people may also want to distance themselves from a sense that  they  are accused of being prejudiced, or that they benefit from a prejudiced system. To explore different ways of addressing this, see our article on  Privilege in the Media  and our guide to  Complicated Conversations in the Classroom .

For more tips on how to approach digital media literacy, see our article on  Digital Media Literacy Fundamentals .

CS 050: College Writing Media Theme Copyright © by Confederation College Communications Department and Paterson Library Commons is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Visibility and Empathy: How Media Representation Affects Our Interactions

December 7, 2018 December 7, 2018

By Alejandro Ortega

[dropcap]N[/dropcap]early three years ago, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences faced criticism for failing to nominate actors of color for acting awards in the 2016 #OscarsSoWhite controversy. Spike Lee and Will Smith were among the actors who boycotted the awards ceremony and pushed questions of media representation of minorities to the forefront of public conscience. Although the United States is projected to become a majority-minority country by 2045, media representation of racial and ethnic minorities continues to lag. A study conducted by the University of Southern California’s Annenberg School found that only 28.3% of characters with dialogue in four hundred films released between September 2014 and August 2015 were non-white. In a time where cultural diversity is becoming more pronounced in the United States, media representation has become an essential tool in shaping intercultural understanding and critical empathy between ethnic groups.

    Recently, films that center around cultures of ethnic minorities have been heavily criticized for their use of stereotypes. Many criticized the 2016 animated film Moana for conglomerating distinct Polynesian cultures into an over-simplified portrayal to cater to Western audiences. Depictions of these cultures to promote tourism in the Pacific faced backlash. Disney’s decision to partner with Hawaiian airlines as part of the film’s marketing caused critics to further question Disney’s intentions behind centering the film around Polynesian culture. A survey conducted by YouGov, a data analytics firm, found that a majority of Latinx and black respondents expressed that they felt on-screen representations of the groups they belong to were inauthentic.

         Such inauthentic representations manifest as stereotypes and cliched storytelling. In reference to the Disney animated film Princess and the Frog , Alicia Schmidt Camacho, professor at Yale University’s Department of Ethnicity, Race, and Migration, states that “at the end of the day there are some very tired tricks of storytelling… that interfere with the most promising parts of the story which is about the honor of hard work.”

      A lack of media representation can have detrimental psychosocial effects on how members of a given ethnic minority perceive themselves. George Gerbner, a professor of communications at the University of Pennsylvania, coined the term “symbolic annihilation” in 1976, which refers to the manner in which a failure to represent a group in mainstream media can lead to members of such a group not seeing themselves as holding importance in the social spaces which they occupy. A lack of media representation can  influence the way members of a given group perceive themselves: excluding these people from media representation can lead a given group to perceive themselves as having limited membership in society. These psychological and sociological phenomena pose an obstacle to intercultural understanding by affecting the concept of self held by members of such group. Further research has demonstrated similar psychological and social effects of a lack of media representation of minorities. In his study of the psychological impact of media representation on Native Americans, Peter A Leavitt of the Department of Psychology at the University of Arizona found that “media invisibility” and the use of stereotypical representations of ethnic groups can lead to deindividuation—the phenomenon where members of a given social group lose their individual identity and adopt the collective identity assigned to that group.

     Despite media representation of minorities still lagging behind, significant strides have been made made over the past year. The Walt Disney Pictures animated film Coco, which featured an all-Latino cast of voice-over actors, centered around the Mexican tradition of the Day of the Dead and went on to become of the top grossing Pixar films of all time. Professor Schmidt Camacho said of the film, “What’s recognizably powerful about [Coco] is that it deals with loss and separation. It is an artifact of the struggle over migrants’ rights because there’s that whole crossing into the land of the dead that’s like going through the border patrol…There’s the sense of the resourcefulness of people to circumvent those rules.” The film was praised for its ability to respectfully depict Mexican culture for a global audience; it is now translated into forty languages and has become the highest grossing film of all time in Mexico.

   Yuko Kuwai, an intercultural communication researcher examined the manner in which multicultural empathy can be fostered through ethnic minorities’ self-representation in the media. Kuwai examined how a group of Japanese students’ response to the documentary Permanencia, which details the experiences of Japanese Brazilians in a society that prides itself on an assumed ethnic homogeneity. Even though many of the students expressed many of their responses from the perspective of the dominant ethnic group, Kuwai found that multiple students had never been exposed to Japanese Brazilians and thus began to perceive the emotions they expressed regarding their struggles as valid. Kuwai also found that the documentary had particularly powerful effects on students who came from multicultural backgrounds; although they themselves were not Japanese Brazilian, they could relate to the social stigma associated with being “ torn between the two identities.” Kuwai’s study is indicative of the transformative power media representation can have on multicultural empathy, particularly for those individuals who live in ethnically homogeneous communities.

        Professor Schmidt Camacho says she greatly benefited from growing up in a multicultural Philadelphia. She states, “I was in school with teachers who had been generations involved in the civil rights movement. Many of them were African Americans. They shared a lot of literature and art related to black life, black experience, and music… My parents were involved in immigrants’ rights work that covered different topics such as farm workers and people fleeing Central America from the civil wars.” Professor Camacho proudly proclaims that her interactions with such individuals and experiences of “shared cultural life” greatly enriched her life.

      As media platforms become more accessible in the future and America grows increasingly diverse, authentic media representation will need to accompany other measures of inclusion in order to create social environments conducive to intercultural understanding and empathy.  Professor Camacho says of this “A child needs a doll that looks like her… but more [of] what a child needs is a society that offers her the full possibility to find community and create community.”

Alejandro is a first-year in Benjamin Franklin College. You can contact him at [email protected].

RACE TO A CURE

• Jun 12, 2021

The Importance of Representation in Media

The comfort of finding a character you relate to. The pride of seeing your beliefs, culture, and traditions embraced on the big screens. The joy of seeing a hero that looks just like you. How many of us have experienced this, and how many have not?

Media, especially in the form of film and television, is at the forefront of the entertainment industry. Over the past century, it has rapidly evolved into a widespread medium for storytelling, art, knowledge, and enjoyment. We engage in these forms of media because they share something special—whether opening our eyes to a life vastly different than ours, enforcing a lesson previously beyond our perception, or unearthing our roots as individuals, society, and humanity as a whole. Yet too often, the media fails to accurately represent the people they portray. Too often is inclusivity swept aside by the Hollywood norm —the exclusion of diversity rather than its opposition. Misrepresentation and a lack of diversity in media negatively impacts marginalized communities, including racial, ethnic, and religious minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, disabled people, and women. This issue is prevalent and important, and in this article, we will take a deeper look at media representation from the thoughts, experiences, and perspectives of today’s youth.

Image is courtesy of FOX .

Definition and Importance

The BBC defines representation as how societal aspects such as race, gender, age, ethnicity, nationality, and social issues are presented. When it comes to media, especially film and television, this audience is vast. Mass media broadens our scope of perception when it comes to society, multiculturalism, and the world. It holds, for many, an educational impact as it showcases unique experiences otherwise beyond reach. This is why representation is crucial. In a multicultural, diverse, multifaceted society, it is vital to amplify the voices and share the stories of all.

The Harmful Effects of Stereotypes

While a lack of representation is harmful in itself, the misrepresentation of underserved communities is a significant issue with damaging consequences. This concept is evident through stereotyping. The Arab Film & Media Institute describes stereotyping as assumptions or generalizations made and depicted of individuals due to their racial, ethnic, gender, sexual, religious, or other identities.

Stereotypes in media are often inaccurate and portray underrepresented groups in a negative light. These flawed portrayals can be easily internalized by both the individuals of a group being stereotyped and other members of society. All in all, it influences public opinion and the societal view of underrepresented communities.

“As a child, stereotypes that were portrayed in the media went over my head. I was just there to be entertained. However, as I got older and began to truly understand what it meant to be Black in society, those stereotypes that I once looked at with a blind eye began to get a little glaring. When I was younger, I always found myself drawn to shows with a Black character, but now that I look back, those shows never had a lot of Black actors. In addition, the beauty standards of those characters were quite Eurocentric. I didn’t look like the girls in that show. This was disheartening as a little girl, to not see people like me at that level of fame. Presently, I see more representation of Black people in the media but I struggle with the narrative. When I want to watch TV, I want to laugh, get lost in a story, relax, and forget about my troubles. Not be thrust into a world of discrimination and hardship that, although quite relevant, does not represent all aspects of life.”

- Lola, grade 12

As Lauren Washington discusses in an examination of film and media representation, stereotypical depictions create unconscious bias in viewers which can directly impact an individual’s thoughts and behaviours towards others. It is especially dangerous when bias is institutionalized, perpetuating the issues of discrimination and hate crimes, police brutality, mass incarceration of disadvantaged communities, and others.

“In my experience, stereotypes are the most prevalent issue in the media. They are literally everywhere, and create a very toxic environment for young people. Even the most positive stereotypes have negative connotations that are used to divide and hurt people who do not fit the standards that society expects from us. Whether it is racial stereotypes, gender stereotypes or others, it creates a playground for prejudice to grow throughout our society and formulates the idea that people do not need to think through their behaviour or give opportunities to certain people based on what they seem to be.

In most of the TV shows and movies I watched when I was younger, the woman would always fall in love and that would make her happy, or white people would always save the day. It made me feel like I had to be saved instead of taking action on my own and for the longest time, I just accepted it. It was not until I saw characters who were like me that I started to truly grow as a person. To imagine what I might’ve been like if I had those influences when I was younger hurts me a little because I always wish I could have more goals to reach, more determination, and that is swayed the most by what I take in through the media. In our media, schools, music and experiences, we need leaders to break these stereotypes and show that people are more than they are expected to be.”

- Tia, grade 11

The Arab Film & Media Institute further defines the issues of tokenism and typecasting. Tokenism is when individuals from minority groups are included for the sole purpose of exhibiting a seemingly diverse environment. This infamous tactic does not equate to equal representation, but is rather a demeaning concept that utilizes minority characters to fulfill an agenda. Typecasting in the entertainment industry occurs when individuals are consistently assigned roles due to their ability to fit a certain stereotype. This often targets actors belonging to underrepresented groups and limits their ability to grow in the industry beyond playing stereotypical roles.

Image is courtesy of Netflix Junkie.

Children and Teens

Underrepresentation, as a result, has the potential to establish harmful views and negative perceptions. For children who are developing their thoughts and behaviours, and for teenagers who are searching for identity and their place in society, media takes the role of a significant influence.

“I have felt a tremendous lack of diversity in the media while growing up. Often when characters looked like me, they fit a certain stereotype as the ‘supporting character’ or the ‘comedic relief.’ Rarely were Black and Brown characters seen as the protagonist or desirable and intelligent individuals and honestly, that took a toll on my self-esteem. A lack of diversity is harmful not only to the people being misrepresented but also to others who watch those shows or movies who then base their perception of a group solely on the media they consume. Luckily, there has been an increase in the diversity of characters of colour! But we have a long way to go to dismantle the many stereotypes that have been engraved in the history of television and film.”

- Hanna, 2nd year undergraduate

According to an article by Forbes , general media can escalate racial tensions and affect confidence and self-esteem. The author describes how predictions in the study of prolonged television exposure involve decreased self-esteem for girls and Black boys, which correlates with racial and gender biases in popular media. With the effects of underrepresentation so prevalent and impactful to youth, diverse and inclusive media representation must be prioritized as we move forward.

“Growing up, I definitely felt like it was hard to see myself represented in the media. Especially in the case of beauty standards, I feel that it has now become such a common story for Black women to go through a stage of not liking their features, and more specifically, their hair. For me, this was straightening my hair often, for others, it might have been relaxing their hair, but for many of us the cause was what was portrayed as ‘beautiful’ in the media. However, within the last few years, I have become a lot more comfortable in my identity and in wearing my hair out, as big as it is!

As far as we’ve come already, what I’m really waiting for is a coming-of-age movie starring a young Black girl that is not solely about her identity as a Black person. There is certainly a time and place for these kinds of movies, but I am so excited for when I can see myself represented in the media without having to think about all the problems that I may face as a Black woman.”

- Leah, grade 12

Image is courtesy of Girl Museum .

The Push for Greater On-Screen Diversity

The youth of today are passionate about inclusive representation, and they are making their voices heard on what they want to see more of in modern media.

“I feel like the groups that really need to be represented in the film, television, and the entertainment industry are minorities such as Black, Asian, Brown, LGBTQ, and people with disabilities. Especially people with disabilities because I hardly ever see them represented in the industry.

- Lemuela, grade 10

Progress is underway, but for representation to be achieved in all aspects, there must be greater inclusivity of underrepresented groups both on-screen and behind the scenes as writers, directors, producers, and more. The entertainment industry, media creators, and society can benefit significantly by confronting implicit bias and stereotypes and actively commit to fostering inclusive environments. Through this, may we begin the journey towards media that includes representation for all.

Article Author: Victoria Huang

Article Contributors: Lola Oyefeso, Tia Rose Desouza, Hanna Asheber, Leah Daniel, Lemuela Ajuwon

Article Editors: Maria Giroux, Stephanie Sahaeo

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Tackling the Underrepresentation of Women in Media

• Aneeta Rattan,
• Siri Chilazi,
• Oriane Georgeac,
• Iris Bohnet

Inside the BBC’s 50:50 project.

Around the world, women are far less likely than men to be seen in the media. This gender-imbalanced picture of society can reinforce and perpetuate harmful gender stereotypes. For over two years, journalists and producers across the BBC have been tackling the gender representation issue by rethinking whom they put in front of the camera, with the goal of achieving 50:50 gender representation every month. 500 BBC shows and teams have joined the so-called 50:50 Project. In April 2019, 74% of the English-language programs that had been involved in 50:50 for a year or more reached 50%+ female contributors on their shows. How did an initiative that started in the news room (not the board room), by a white British man (not a D&I expert), come to thrive in an organization that has ongoing, public challenges related to gender equity (e.g., their gender pay gap)? Three key lessons are relevant for any manager or leader aiming to shake up the status quo and improve diversity, equality and inclusion in their organization. First, start with yourself. Second, follow the data. Third, believe in others’ ability to change.

Around the world , women are far less likely than men to be seen in the media. As subjects of stories, women only appear in a quarter of television, radio, and print news. In a 2015 report, women made up a mere 19% of experts featured in news stories and 37% of reporters telling stories globally. As behavioral scientists studying women’s underrepresentation in the workplace, we know that this gender-imbalanced picture of society can reinforce and perpetuate harmful gender stereotypes . It is clear that the media must change how it reflects the world – but who can change media itself?

• AR Aneeta Rattan , Ph.D. is an Associate Professor of Organizational Behavior at London Business School. Her research, teaching, and consulting focus on mindsets and diversity — addressing stereotyping, prejudice, and inequity in the workplace. She works to identify messages that improve and equalize the stigmatized groups’ belonging at work, and to illustrate how mindsets can improve people’s responses to and experiences with overt and subtle biases at work.
• Siri Chilazi is a research fellow at the Women and Public Policy Program at the Harvard Kennedy School, where she studies gender equality in the workplace. Her work focuses on de-biasing organizational processes and structures through behavioral design. She is the co-author, with Iris Bohnet, of a forthcoming book on the topic.
• OG Oriane Georgeac , Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of Organizational Behavior at Yale School of Management. Her research focuses on organizations’ diversity rhetoric, and perceptions of social progress. She specifically investigates the paradoxical consequences of instrumentality in organizations’ justifications for  why  they care about diversity. She also studies the psychological mechanisms that shape people’s perceptions of social progress. Follow her on Twitter at @oriane_georgeac.
• Iris Bohnet is the Albert Pratt Professor of Business and Government, co-director of the Women and Public Policy Program and the Academic Dean at Harvard Kennedy School. She is the author of the award-winning book What Works: Gender Equality by Design .

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Why Representation Matters and Why It’s Still Not Enough

Reflections on growing up brown, queer, and asian american..

Posted December 27, 2021 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• Positive media representation can be helpful in increasing self-esteem for people of marginalized groups (especially youth).
• Interpersonal contact and exposure through media representation can assist in reducing stereotypes of underrepresented groups.
• Representation in educational curricula and social media can provide validation and support, especially for youth of marginalized groups.

Growing up as a Brown Asian American child of immigrants, I never really saw anyone who looked like me in the media. The TV shows and movies I watched mostly concentrated on blonde-haired, white, or light-skinned protagonists. They also normalized western and heterosexist ideals and behaviors, while hardly ever depicting things that reflected my everyday life. For example, it was equally odd and fascinating that people on TV didn’t eat rice at every meal; that their parents didn’t speak with accents; or that no one seemed to navigate a world of daily microaggressions . Despite these observations, I continued to absorb this mass media—internalizing messages of what my life should be like or what I should aspire to be like.

Because there were so few media images of people who looked like me, I distinctly remember the joy and validation that emerged when I did see those representations. Filipino American actors like Ernie Reyes, Nia Peeples, Dante Basco, and Tia Carrere looked like they could be my cousins. Each time they sporadically appeared in films and television series throughout my youth, their mere presence brought a sense of pride. However, because they never played Filipino characters (e.g., Carrere was Chinese American in Wayne's World ) or their racial identities remained unaddressed (e.g., Basco as Rufio in Hook ), I did not know for certain that they were Filipino American like me. And because the internet was not readily accessible (nor fully informational) until my late adolescence , I could not easily find out.

Through my Ethnic Studies classes as an undergraduate student (and my later research on Asian American and Filipino American experiences with microaggressions), I discovered that my perspectives were not that unique. Many Asian Americans and other people of color often struggle with their racial and ethnic identity development —with many citing how a lack of media representation negatively impacts their self-esteem and overall views of their racial or cultural groups. Scholars and community leaders have declared mottos like how it's "hard to be what you can’t see," asserting that people from marginalized groups do not pursue career or academic opportunities when they are not exposed to such possibilities. For example, when women (and women of color specifically) don’t see themselves represented in STEM fields , they may internalize that such careers are not made for them. When people of color don’t see themselves in the arts or in government positions, they likely learn similar messages too.

Complicating these messages are my intersectional identities as a queer person of color. In my teens, it was heartbreakingly lonely to witness everyday homophobia (especially unnecessary homophobic language) in almost all television programming. The few visual examples I saw of anyone LGBTQ involved mostly white, gay, cisgender people. While there was some comfort in seeing them navigate their coming out processes or overcome heterosexism on screen, their storylines often appeared unrealistic—at least in comparison to the nuanced homophobia I observed in my religious, immigrant family. In some ways, not seeing LGBTQ people of color in the media kept me in the closet for years.

How representation can help

Representation can serve as opportunities for minoritized people to find community support and validation. For example, recent studies have found that social media has given LGBTQ young people the outlets to connect with others—especially when the COVID-19 pandemic has limited in-person opportunities. Given the increased suicidal ideation, depression , and other mental health issues among LGBTQ youth amidst this global pandemic, visibility via social media can possibly save lives. Relatedly, taking Ethnic Studies courses can be valuable in helping students to develop a critical consciousness that is culturally relevant to their lives. In this way, representation can allow students of color to personally connect to school, potentially making their educational pursuits more meaningful.

Further, representation can be helpful in reducing negative stereotypes about other groups. Initially discussed by psychologist Dr. Gordon Allport as Intergroup Contact Theory, researchers believed that the more exposure or contact that people had to groups who were different from them, the less likely they would maintain prejudice . Literature has supported how positive LGBTQ media representation helped transform public opinions about LGBTQ people and their rights. In 2019, the Pew Research Center reported that the general US population significantly changed their views of same-sex marriage in just 15 years—with 60% of the population being opposed in 2004 to 61% in favor in 2019. While there are many other factors that likely influenced these perspective shifts, studies suggest that positive LGBTQ media depictions played a significant role.

For Asian Americans and other groups who have been historically underrepresented in the media, any visibility can feel like a win. For example, Gold House recently featured an article in Vanity Fair , highlighting the power of Asian American visibility in the media—citing blockbuster films like Crazy Rich Asians and Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings . Asian American producers like Mindy Kaling of Never Have I Ever and The Sex Lives of College Girls demonstrate how influential creators of color can initiate their own projects and write their own storylines, in order to directly increase representation (and indirectly increase mental health and positive esteem for its audiences of color).

When representation is not enough

However, representation simply is not enough—especially when it is one-dimensional, superficial, or not actually representative. Some scholars describe how Asian American media depictions still tend to reinforce stereotypes, which may negatively impact identity development for Asian American youth. Asian American Studies is still needed to teach about oppression and to combat hate violence. Further, representation might also fail to reflect the true diversity of communities; historically, Brown Asian Americans have been underrepresented in Asian American media, resulting in marginalization within marginalized groups. For example, Filipino Americans—despite being the first Asian American group to settle in the US and one of the largest immigrant groups—remain underrepresented across many sectors, including academia, arts, and government.

Representation should never be the final goal; instead, it should merely be one step toward equity. Having a diverse cast on a television show is meaningless if those storylines promote harmful stereotypes or fail to address societal inequities. Being the “first” at anything is pointless if there aren’t efforts to address the systemic obstacles that prevent people from certain groups from succeeding in the first place.

Instead, representation should be intentional. People in power should aim for their content to reflect their audiences—especially if they know that doing so could assist in increasing people's self-esteem and wellness. People who have the opportunity to represent their identity groups in any sector may make conscious efforts to use their influence to teach (or remind) others that their communities exist. Finally, parents and teachers can be more intentional in ensuring that their children and students always feel seen and validated. By providing youth with visual representations of people they can relate to, they can potentially save future generations from a lifetime of feeling underrepresented or misunderstood.

Kevin Leo Yabut Nadal, Ph.D., is a Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the City University of New York and the author of books including Microaggressions and Traumatic Stress .

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Media misrepresentation has lasting effects

August 23, 2016 Trista Sullivan Columns , Editorial

As popular culture in the form of media has grown throughout the decades, along with our ability to access it, the effects it has on our society and the way we view the world have morphed with it. In a culture that is so in tune with what is going on around us near and far, through apps like Twitter, Facebook and Snapchat, or access to the Huffington Post, New York Times and Washington Post on our phones, it doesn’t take long for opinions and ideas to develop. But a new danger that lies in this double-edged form of communication and media consumption is misrepresentation. Misrepresentation comes in many forms. Under-representation or exclusion, discrimination, and even the words we use to label individuals and groups of people all fall under what I’m going to refer to as the umbrella of misrepresentation.

I was inspired to write about this subject after tweeting a joke about a Manic Pixie Dream Girl character, which then turned into a discussion of women’s representation in media. The MPDG is described as a female character whose only purpose is to help the male romantic lead grow and develop as an individual. The MPDG is also not given much depth as a character and given very little backstory — I always think of Zooey Deschanel’s character in the movie “Yes Man.” While speaking with a friend about the existence of the MPDG, I began to realize it was just a small cog in the machine of misrepresentation of women in mass media. I found myself upset, and almost in tears by the end of our conversation because I realized how much I felt that the effects of this misrepresentation affected my daily life. When women are misrepresented, the standards that are developed for how these female characters should act, look and speak are then mirrored onto what we expect from real women. And this is a major problem.

We live in a society that has been shown to uphold its members to unrealistic standards all because of how concepts and ideas are presented to us through the media. How are the ways we are discussing black lives changing the way we treat black individuals and other marginalized groups of people? We’ve all heard words like thug, gangster and vicious used as stock words to describe black individuals on the news, by politicians, in music — everywhere. But how seriously are we taking this? Do you think it is a problem? When the only images we are creating of these individuals are of violent criminals, how does this affect how we approach each other in reality?

I find it a problem, an even bigger one than we might think. The use of this kind of language in mass media, which is so accessible and influential in this day, is a form of violence. This is an issue that is not being taken seriously. This form of misrepresentation is leading to the perpetuation and strengthening of racism, and racist apologists. This form of misrepresentation is leading to violence in the way we speak about each other. This form of misrepresentation is creating a fear that millions are using to justify the murder of thousands of Americans during the last five years alone.

When we preach to the world that terror is spreading through our nation and we find a group of people to point our fingers at in blame, we are creating a death sentence for those people. It is our job to break down these stereotypes and misrepresentations within our communities. One of the only ways we can attempt to change the representation of others in media is to first correct how we represent others.

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Gender and Media Representations: A Review of the Literature on Gender Stereotypes, Objectification and Sexualization

Media representations play an important role in producing sociocultural pressures. Despite social and legal progress in civil rights, restrictive gender-based representations appear to be still very pervasive in some contexts. The article explores scientific research on the relationship between media representations and gender stereotypes, objectification and sexualization, focusing on their presence in the cultural context. Results show how stereotyping, objectifying and sexualizing representations appear to be still very common across a number of contexts. Exposure to stereotyping representations appears to strengthen beliefs in gender stereotypes and endorsement of gender role norms, as well as fostering sexism, harassment and violence in men and stifling career-related ambitions in women. Exposure to objectifying and sexualizing representations appears to be associated with the internalization of cultural ideals of appearance, endorsement of sexist attitudes and tolerance of abuse and body shame. In turn, factors associated with exposure to these representations have been linked to detrimental effects on physical and psychological well-being, such as eating disorder symptomatology, increased body surveillance and poorer body image quality of life. However, specificities in the pathways from exposure to detrimental effects on well-being are involved for certain populations that warrant further research.

1. Introduction

As a social category, gender is one of the earliest and most prominent ways people may learn to identify themselves and their peers, the use of gender-based labels becoming apparent in infants as early as 17 months into their life [ 1 ]. Similarly, the development of gender-based heuristics, inferences and rudimentary stereotypes becomes apparent as early as age three [ 2 , 3 ]. Approximately at this age, the development of a person’s gender identity begins [ 4 ]—that is, the process through which a person tends to identify as a man, as a woman or as a vast spectrum of other possibilities (i.e., gender non-conforming, agender, genderfluid, etc.). These processes continue steadily throughout individuals’ lives as they receive and elaborate information about women and men and what it means to belong to either category, drawing from direct and indirect observations, social contact, personal elaborations and cultural representations [ 5 , 6 ]. As a result, social and mental representations of gender are extremely widespread, especially as a strictly binary construct, and can be argued to be ubiquitous in individual and social contexts.

Among the many sources of influence on gender representations, media occupies an important space and its relevance can be assessed across many different phenomena [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. The ubiquity of media, the chronicity of individuals’ exposure to it and its role in shaping beliefs, attitudes and expectations have made it the subject of scientific attention. In fact, several theories have attempted to explore the mechanisms and psychological processes in which media plays a role, including identity development [ 12 , 13 , 14 ], scripts and schemas [ 15 ], cultivation processes [ 16 , 17 , 18 ] and socialization processes [ 5 , 6 ].

The public interest in the topic of gender has seen a surge in the last 10 years, in part due to social and political movements pushing for gender equality across a number of aspects, including how gender is portrayed in media representations. In the academic field as well, publications mentioning gender in their title, abstract or keywords have more than doubled from 2012 to 2022 [ 19 ], while publications mentioning gender in media representations have registered an even more dramatic increase, tripling in number [ 20 ]. Additionally, the media landscape has had a significant shift in the last decade, with the surge in popularity and subsequent addition of social media websites and apps to most people’s mediatic engagement [ 21 ].

The importance of media use in gender-related aspects, such as beliefs, attitudes, or roles, has been extensively documented. As reported in a recent review of the literature [ 22 ], several meta-analyses [ 17 , 23 , 24 ] showed support for the effects of media use on gender beliefs, finding small but consistent effect sizes. These effects appear to have remained present over the decades [ 25 ].

Particular attention has been given to stereotypical, objectifying and sexualizing representations, as portrayals that paint a restrictive picture of the complexity of human psychology, also producing sociocultural pressures to conform to gender roles and body types.

Gender stereotypes can be defined as an extremely simplified concept of attitudes and behaviors considered normal and appropriate for men and women in a specific culture [ 26 ]. They usually span several different areas of people’s characteristics, such as physical appearance, personality traits, behaviors, social roles and occupations. Stereotypical beliefs about gender may be divided into descriptive (how one perceives a person of a certain gender to be; [ 27 ]), prescriptive (how one perceives a person of a certain gender should be and behave; [ 28 , 29 ]) or proscriptive (how one perceives a person of a certain gender should not be and behave; [ 28 , 29 ]). Their content varies on the individual’s culture of reference [ 30 ], but recurring themes have been observed in western culture, such as stereotypes revolving around communion, agency and competence [ 31 ]. Women have stereotypically been associated with traits revolving around communion (e.g., supportiveness, compassion, expression, warmth), while men have been more stereotypically associated with agency (e.g., ambition, assertiveness, competitiveness, action) or competence (e.g., skill, intelligence). Both men and women may experience social and economic penalties (backlash) if they appear to violate these stereotypes [ 29 , 32 , 33 ].

Objectification can be defined as the viewing or treatment of people as objects. Discussing ways in which people may be objectified, Nussbaum first explored seven dimensions: instrumentality (a tool to be employed for one’s purposes); denial of autonomy (lacking self-determination, or autonomy); inertness (lacking in agency or activity); fungibility (interchangeable with others of the same type); violability (with boundaries lacking integrity and permissible to break into); ownership (possible to own or trade); denial of subjectivity (the person’s feelings or experiences are seen as something that does not need to be considered) [ 34 ].

In its initial definition by Fredrickson and Roberts [ 35 ], objectification theory had been offered as a framework to understand how the pervasive sexual objectification of women’s bodies in the sociocultural context influenced their experiences and posed risks to their mental health—a phenomenon that was believed to have uniquely female connotations. In their model, the authors theorized that a cultural climate of sexual objectification would lead to the internalization of objectification (viewing oneself as a sexual and subordinate object), which would in turn lead to psychological consequences (e.g., body shame, anxiety) and mental health risks (e.g., eating disorders, depression). Due to the pervasiveness of the cultural climate, objectification may be difficult to detect or avoid, and objectification experiences may be perceived as normative.

Sexual objectification, in which a person is reduced to a sexual instrument, can be construed to be a subtype of objectification and, in turn, is often defined as one of the types of sexualization [ 36 ]. As previously discussed by Ward [ 37 ], it should be made clear that the mere presence of sexual content, which may be represented in a positive and healthy way, should not be conflated with sexualized or objectifying representations.

The American Psychological Association’s 2007 report defines sexualization as a series of conditions that stand apart from healthy sexuality, such as when a person’s value is perceived to come mainly from sexual appeal or behavior, when physical attractiveness is equated to sexual attractiveness, when a person is sexually objectified or when sexuality is inappropriately imposed on a person [ 36 ]. Sexualization may involve several different contexts, such as personal, interpersonal, and cultural. Self-sexualization involves treating oneself as a sexual object [ 35 ]. Interpersonal contributions involve being treated as sexual objects by others, such as family or peers [ 38 , 39 ]. Finally, contributions by cultural norms, expectations and values play a part as well, including those spread by media representations [ 36 ]. After this initial definition, sexualization as a term has also been used by some authors (e.g., Zurbriggen & Roberts [ 40 ]) to refer to sexual objectification specifically, while others (e.g., Bigler and colleagues [ 41 ]) stand by the APA report’s broader meaning. In this section, we will explore scientific literature adopting the latter.

These portrayals have been hypothesized to lead to negative effects on people’s well-being on a mental and physical level, as well as bearing partial responsibility for several social issues, such as sexism, gender discrimination and harassment. However, the pathways that lead from an individual’s relationship with media to these detrimental effects can be complex. Furthermore, they seem to involve specificities for men and women, as well as for different sexual orientations. A wealth of publications has been produced on these themes and, to the authors’ knowledge, no recent review has attempted to synthesize their findings.

The present article aims to summarize the state of the art of research on stereotyping, sexualization and objectification in gender and media representations. A focus will be placed on the definitions of these concepts, the media where they occur, and verifying whether any changes over time are detectable or any specificities are present. The possible effects of these representations on people’s well-being will be explored as well.

A search of the literature was conducted on scientific search engines (APA PsycArticles, CINAHL Complete, Education Source, Family Studies Abstracts, Gender Studies Database, MEDLINE, Mental Measurements Yearbook, Sociology Source Ultimate, Violence & Abuse Abstracts, PUBMED, Scopus, Web of Science) to locate the most relevant contributions on the topic of media and gender representation, with a particular focus on stereotypes, objectification and sexualization, their presence in the media and their effects on well-being. Keywords were used to search for literature on the intersection of the main topics: media representation (e.g., media OR representation* OR portrayal*), gender (e.g., gender OR sex OR wom* OR m*n) and stereotypes, objectification and sexualization (e.g., stereotyp*, objectif*, sexualiz*). In some cases, additional keywords were used for the screening of studies on specific media (e.g., television, news, social media). When appropriate, further restrictions were used to screen for studies on effects or consequences (e.g., effect* OR impact* OR consequence* OR influence* OR outcome*). Inclusion criteria were the following: (a) academic articles (b) pertaining to the field of media representations (c) pertaining to gender stereotypes, objectification or sexualization. A dataset of 195 selected relevant papers was created. Thematic analysis was conducted following the guidelines developed by Braun and Clarke [ 42 ], in order to outline patterns of meaning across the reviewed studies. The process was organized into six phases: (1) familiarization with the data; (2) coding; (3) searching for themes; (4) reviewing themes; (5) defining and naming themes; and (6) writing up. After removing duplicates and excluding papers that did not meet the inclusion criteria, a total of 87 articles were included in the results of this review. The findings were discussed among researchers (LR, FS, MNP and TT) until unanimous consensus was reached.

2.1. Stereotypical Portrayals

Gender stereotypes appear to be flexible and responsive to changes in the social environment: consensual beliefs about men’s and women’s attributes have evolved throughout the decades, reflecting changes in women’s participation in the labor force and higher education [ 31 , 43 ]. Perceptions of gender equality in competence and intelligence have sharply risen, and stereotypical perceptions of women show significant changes: perceptions of women’s competence and intelligence have surpassed those relative to men, while the communion aspect appears to have shifted toward being even more polarized on being typical of women. Other aspects, such as perceptions of agency being more typical of men, have remained stable [ 31 ].

Despite these changes, gender representation in the media appears to be frequently skewed toward men’s representation and prominently features gender stereotypes. On a global scale, news coverage appears to mostly feature men, especially when considering representation as expert voices, where women are still underrepresented (24%) despite a rise in coverage in the last 5 years [ 44 ]. Underrepresentation has also been reported in many regional and national contexts, but exact proportions vary significantly in the local context. Male representation has been reported to be greater in several studies, with male characters significantly outnumbering female characters [ 45 ], doing so in male-led and mixed-led shows but not in female-led shows [ 46 ] in children’s television programming—a key source of influence on gender representations. Similar results have been found regarding sports news, whose coverage overwhelmingly focuses on men athletes [ 47 , 48 ] and where women are seldom represented.

Several analyses of television programs have also shown how representations of men and women are very often consistent with gender stereotypes. Girls were often portrayed as focusing more on their appearance [ 45 ], as well as being judged for their appearance [ 49 ]. The same focus on aesthetics was found in sports news coverage, which was starkly different across genders, and tended to focus on women athletes’ appearance, featuring overly simplified descriptions (vs. technical language on coverage of men athletes) [ 48 ]. In addition, coverage of women athletes was more likely in sports perceived to be more feminine or gender-appropriate [ 47 , 48 , 50 ]. Similarly, women in videogames appear to be both underrepresented and less likely to be featured as playable characters, as well as being frequently stereotyped, appearing in the role of someone in need of rescuing, as love interests, or cute and innocent characters [ 51 ]. In advertising as well, gender stereotypes have often been used as a staple technique for creating relatability, but their use may lead to negative cross-gender effects in product marketing [ 52 ] while also possibly furthering social issues. Hust and colleagues found that in alcohol advertisements, belief in gender stereotypes was the most consistent predictor of intentions to sexually coerce, showing significant interaction effects with exposure to highly objectifying portrayals [ 53 ]. Representation in advertising prominently features gender stereotypes, such as depicting men in professional roles more often, while depicting women in non-working, recreational roles, especially in countries that show high gender inequality [ 54 ]. A recent analysis of print ads [ 55 ] confirmed that some stereotypes are still prominent and, in some cases, have shown a resurgence, such as portraying a woman as the queen of the home; the study also found representations of women in positions of empowerment are, however, showing a relative increase in frequency. Public support, combined with market logic, appears to be successfully pushing more progressive portrayals in this field [ 56 ].

Both skewed representation and the presence of stereotypes have been found to lead to several negative effects. Gender-unequal representation has been found to stifle political [ 57 ] and career [ 58 ] ambition, as well as foster organizational discrimination [ 59 ]. Heavy media use may further the belief in gender stereotypes and has been found to be linked to a stronger endorsement of traditional gender roles and norms [ 60 ], which in turn may be linked to a vast number of detrimental health effects. In women, adherence and internalization of traditional gender roles have been linked to greater symptoms of depression and anxiety, a higher likelihood of developing eating disorders, and lower self-esteem and self-efficacy [ 36 , 61 , 62 , 63 ]. In men as well, adherence to traditional masculine norms has been linked to negative mental health outcomes such as depression, psychological distress and substance abuse [ 64 ], while also increasing the perpetration of risky behaviors [ 65 , 66 ] and intimate partner violence [ 65 , 67 ].

2.2. Objectifying Portrayals

Non-sexual objectifying representations appear to have been studied relatively little. They have been found to be common in advertising, where women are often depicted as purely aesthetic models, motionless and decorative [ 68 ]. They may also include using a woman’s body as a supporting object for the advertised product, as a decorative object, as an ornament to draw attention to the ad, or as a prize to be won and associated with the consumption of the advertised product [ 55 ].

The vast majority of the literature has focused on the sexual objectification of women. This type of representation has been reported to be very common in a number of contexts and across different media [ 69 ], and several studies (see Calogero and colleagues’ or Roberts and colleagues’ review [ 69 , 70 ]) have found support for the original model’s pathway [ 35 ]. Following experimental models expanded on the original (e.g., Frederick and colleagues or Roberts and colleagues [ 69 , 71 ]), highlighting the role of factors such as the internalization of lean or muscular ideals of appearance, finding evidence for negative effects on well-being and mental health through the increase in self-objectification and the internalization of cultural ideals of appearance [ 71 , 72 ].

Sexual objectification also appears to be consistently linked to sexism. For both women and men, the perpetration of sexual objectification was significantly associated with hostile and benevolent sexism, as well as the enjoyment of sexualization [ 73 ]. Enjoyment of sexualization, in turn, has been found to be positively associated with hostile sexism in both men and women, positively associated with benevolent sexism in women and negatively in men [ 74 ].

Exposure to objectifying media in men has been found to increase the tendency to engage in sexual coercion and harassment, as well as increasing conformity to gender role norms [ 75 ]. Consistently with the finding that perpetration of objectification may be associated with a greater men’s proclivity for rape and sexual aggression [ 76 ], a study conducted by Hust and colleagues found that exposure to objectifying portrayals of women in alcohol advertising was also a moderator in the relationship between belief in gender stereotypes and intentions to sexually coerce. Specifically, participants who had a stronger belief in gender stereotypes reported stronger intentions to sexually coerce when exposed to slightly objectifying images of women. Highly objectifying images did not yield the same increase—a result interpreted by the authors to mean that highly objectified women were perceived as sexually available and as such less likely to need coercion, while slightly objectified women could be perceived as more likely to need coercion [ 53 ].

Research on objectification has primarily focused on women, in part due to numerous studies suggesting that women are more subject to sexual objectification [ 73 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 ], as well as suffering the consequences of sexual objectification more often [ 81 ]. However, sexually objectifying portrayals seem to have a role in producing negative effects on men as well, although with partially different pathways. In men, findings about media appearance pressures on body image appear to be mixed. Previous meta-analyses found either a small average effect [ 82 ] or no significant effect [ 72 ]. A recent study found them to be significantly associated with higher body surveillance, poorer body image quality of life and lower satisfaction with appearance [ 71 ]. Another study, however, found differing relationships regarding sexual objectification: an association was found between experiences of sexual objectification and internalization of cultural standards of appearance, body shame and drive for muscularity, but was not found between experiences of sexual objectification and self-objectification or body surveillance [ 83 ]: in the same study, gender role conflict [ 84 ] was positively associated to the internalization of sociocultural standards of appearance, self-objectification, body shame and drive for muscularity, suggesting the possibility that different pathways may be involved in producing negative effects on men. Men with body-image concerns experiencing gender role conflict may also be less likely to engage in help-seeking behaviors [ 85 , 86 ]. This is possibly due to restrictive emotionality associated with the male gender role leading to more negative attitudes toward help-seeking, as found in a recent study by Nagai, [ 87 ], although this study finds no association with help-seeking behavior, conflicting with previous ones, and more research is needed.

Finally, specificities related to sexual orientation regarding media and objectification appear to be present. A set of recent studies by Frederick and colleagues found that gay men, lesbian women and bisexual people share with heterosexual people many of the pathways that lead from sociocultural pressures to internalization of thin/muscular ideals, higher body surveillance and a lower body image quality of life [ 71 , 88 ], leading the authors to conclude that these factors’ influence applies regardless of sexual orientation. However, their relationship with media and objectification may vary. Gay and bisexual men may face objectification in social media and dating apps rather than in mainstream media and may experience more objectification than heterosexual men [ 89 ]. In Frederick and colleagues’ studies, gay men reported greater media pressures, body surveillance, thin-ideal internalization, and self-objectification compared to heterosexual men; moreover, bisexual men appeared to be more susceptible to ideal internalization, displaying stronger paths from media appearance pressures to muscular-ideal internalization compared to heterosexual men; lesbian women, instead, demonstrated weaker relationships between media pressures and body image outcomes [ 71 , 88 ]. Consistently with previous studies suggesting a heightened susceptibility to social pressures [ 90 ], bisexual women appeared to be more susceptible to media pressures relative to other groups [ 88 ]. Another recent study of lesbian and bisexual women supported previous evidence for the pathway from the internalization of cultural appearance standards to body surveillance, body shame and eating disorder symptoms; however, it found no significant connection between experiences of objectification and eating disorder symptoms [ 91 ].

2.3. Sexualized Portrayals

Several studies have found sexualizing media representations to be commonplace across a number of different media contents and across different target demographics (i.e., children, adolescents or adults) and genres. Reports of common sexualized representations of women are found in contexts such as television programs [ 92 ], movies [ 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 ], music videos [ 97 , 98 ], advertising [ 54 , 55 ], videogames [ 51 , 99 , 100 ], or magazines [ 101 ].

Exposure to sexualized media has been theorized to be an exogenous risk factor in the internalization of sexualized beliefs about women [ 41 ], as well as one of the pathways to the internalization of cultural appearance ideals [ 102 ]. Daily exposition to sexualized media content has been consistently linked to a number of negative effects. Specifically, it has been found to lead to higher levels of body dissatisfaction and distorted attitudes about eating through the internalization of cultural body ideals (e.g., lean or muscular) in both men and women [ 71 ]. It has also been associated with a higher chance of supporting sexist beliefs in boys [ 103 ], and of tolerance toward sexual violence in men [ 104 ]. Furthermore, exposure to sexualized images has been linked to a higher tolerance of sexual harassment and rape myth acceptance [ 76 ]. Exposure to reality TV programs consistently predicted self-sexualization for both women and men, while music videos did so for men only [ 103 ]. Internalized sexualization, in turn, has been linked to a stronger endorsement of sexist attitudes and acceptance of rape myths [ 105 ], while also being linked to higher levels of body surveillance and body shame in girls [ 106 ]. Internalization of media standards of appearance has been linked to body surveillance in both men and women, as well as body surveillance of the partner in men [ 107 ].

As a medium, videogames have been studied relatively little and have produced less definite results. This medium can offer the unique dynamic of embodiment in a virtual avatar, which has been hypothesized to be able to lead to a shift in self-perception (the “Proteus effect”, as formulated by Yee & Bailenson, [ 108 ]). While some studies have partially confirmed this effect, showing that exposure to sexualized videogame representations can increase self-objectification [ 109 , 110 , 111 ], others [ 112 ] have not found the same relationship. Furthermore, while a study has found an association between sexualized representations in videogames, tolerance of sexual abuse of women and rape myth acceptance [ 113 ], and in another, it was linked to a decreased real-life belief in women’s competence [ 114 ], a recent meta-analysis [ 115 ] found no effect of the presence of sexualized content on well-being, sexism or misogyny.

Research on social media has also shown some specificities. Social media offers the unique dynamic of being able to post and disseminate one’s own content and almost always includes built-in mechanisms for user-generated feedback (e.g., likes), as well as often being populated by one’s peers, friends and family rather than strangers. Sites focusing on image- or video-based content (e.g., Instagram, TikTok) may be more prone to eliciting social comparison and fostering the internalization of cultural appearance ideals, resulting in more associations to negative body image when compared to others that have the same capabilities but offer text-based content as well (e.g., Facebook) [ 116 ]. Social media appears to foster social comparison, which may increase appearance-based concerns [ 117 ]. Consistently with previous research, exposure to sexualized beauty ideals on social media appeared to be associated with lower body satisfaction; exposure to more diverse standards of appearance, instead, was associated with increased body satisfaction and positive mood, regardless of image sexualization [ 116 , 118 ].

3. Discussion

3.1. critical discussion of evidence.

The reviewed evidence (summarized in Table 1 ) points to the wide-ranging harmful effects of stereotyping, objectifying and sexualizing media portrayals, which are reported to be still both common and pervasive. The links to possible harms have also been well documented, with a few exceptions.

Summary of findings.

These representations, especially but not exclusively pertaining to women, have been under social scrutiny following women’s rights movements and activism [ 119 ] and can be perceived to be politically incorrect and undesirable, bringing an aspect of social desirability into the frame. Positive attitudes toward gender equality also appear to be at an all-time high across the western world [ 120 , 121 ], a change that has doubtlessly contributed to socio-cultural pressure to reduce harmful representations. Some media contexts (e.g., advertising and television) seem to have begun reflecting this change regarding stereotypes, attempting to either avoid harmful representations or push more progressive portrayals. However, these significant changes in stereotypes (e.g., regarding competence) have not necessarily been reflected in women’s lives, such as their participation in the labor force, leadership or decision-making [ 31 , 122 , 123 ]. Objectifying or sexualizing representations do not seem to be drastically reduced in prevalence. Certainly, many influences other than media representations are in play in this regard, but their effect on well-being has been found to be pervasive and consistent. Despite widespread positive attitudes toward gender equality, the persistence of stereotypical, objectifying and sexualizing representations may hint at the continued existence of an entrenched sexist culture which can translate into biases, discrimination and harm.

Despite some conflicting findings, the literature also hints at the existence of differences in how media pressures appear to affect men and women, as well as gay, lesbian and bisexual people. These may point to the possibility of some factors (e.g., objectification) playing a different role across different people in the examined pathways, an aspect that warrants caution when considering possible interventions and clinical implications. In some cases, the same relationship between exposure to media and well-being may exist, but it may follow different pathways from distal risk factors to proximal risk factors, as in the case of gender role conflict for men or body shame for lesbian and bisexual women. However, more research is needed to explore these recent findings.

Different media also appear to feature specificities for which more research is needed, such as videogames and social media. The more interactive experiences offered by these media may play an important role in determining their effects, and the type of social media needs to be taken into consideration as well (image- or video-based vs. text-based). Moreover, the experiences of exposure may not necessarily be homogenous, due to the presence of algorithms that determine what content is being shown in the case of social media, and due to the possibility of player interaction and avatar embodiment in the case of videogames.

Past findings [ 37 , 69 ] about links with other social issues such as sexism, harassment and violence appear to still be relevant [ 67 , 73 , 103 , 105 ]. The increases in both tolerance and prevalence of sexist and abusive attitudes resulting from exposure to problematic media representations impact the cultural climate in which these phenomena take place. Consequently, victims of discrimination and abuse living in a cultural climate more tolerant of sexist and abusive attitudes may experience lower social support, have a decreased chance of help-seeking and adopt restrictive definitions for what counts as discrimination and abuse, indirectly furthering gender inequalities.

Exploring ways of reducing risks to health, several authors [ 22 , 41 , 75 ] have discussed media literacy interventions—that is, interventions focused on teaching critical engagement with media—as a possible way of reducing the negative effects of problematic media portrayals. As reported in McLean and colleagues’ systematic review [ 124 ], these interventions have been previously shown to be effective at increasing media literacy, while also improving body-related outcomes such as body satisfaction in boys [ 125 ], internalization of the thinness ideal in girls [ 125 ], body size acceptance in girls [ 126 ] and drive for thinness in girls and boys [ 127 ]. More recently, they were also shown to be effective at reducing stereotypical gender role attitudes [ 128 ], as well as fostering unfavorable attitudes toward stereotypical portrayals and lack of realism [ 129 ]. Development and promotion of these interventions should be considered when attempting to reduce negative media-related influences on body image. It should be noted, however, that McLean and colleagues’ review found no effect of media literacy interventions on eating disorder symptomatology [ 124 ], which warrants more careful interventions.

Furthermore, both internal (e.g., new entrants’ attitudes in interpersonal or organizational contexts) and external (e.g., pressure from public opinion) sociocultural pressures appear to have a strong influence in reducing harmful representations [ 55 , 56 ]. Critically examining these representations when they appear, as well as voicing concerns toward examples of possibly harmful representations, may promote more healthy representations in media. As documented by some studies, the promotion of diverse body representations in media may also be effective in reducing negative effects [ 70 , 118 ].

3.2. Limitations

The current review synthesizes the latest evidence on stereotyping, objectifying and sexualizing media representations. However, limitations in its methodology are present and should be taken into consideration. It is not a systematic review and may not be construed to be a complete investigation of all the available evidence. Only articles written in the English language have been considered, which may have excluded potentially interesting findings written in other languages. Furthermore, it is not a meta-analysis, and as such cannot be used to draw statistical conclusions about the surveyed phenomena.

3.3. Future Directions

While this perception is limited by the non-systematic approach of the review, to what we know, very few studies appear to be available on the relationship between media representation and non-sexual objectification, which may provide interesting directions to explore in relation to autonomy, violability or subjectivity, as was attempted in the context of work and organizations [ 130 ].

More cross-cultural studies (e.g., Tartaglia & Rollero [ 54 ]) would also prove useful in exploring differences between cultural contexts, as well as the weight of different sociocultural factors in the relationship between media representation and gender.

More studies focusing on relatively new media (e.g., social media, videogames) would possibly help clear up some of the identified discrepancies and explore new directions for the field that take advantage of their interactivity. This is particularly true for niche but growing media such as virtual reality, in which the perception of embodiment in an avatar with different physical features than one’s own could prove to be important in sexualization and objectification. Only preliminary evidence [ 131 ] has been produced on the topic.

Studies to further explore the relationship between media representations, gender and sexual orientation would also be beneficial. As already highlighted by Frederick and colleagues [ 132 ], gay, lesbian and bisexual people may deal with a significantly different set of appearance norms and expectations [ 133 ], and face minority-related stresses [ 134 ] that can increase susceptibility to poorer body image and disordered eating [ 135 , 136 ]. Additionally, none of the reviewed studies had a particular focus on trans people, who may have different experiences relating to media and body image, as suggested by the differences in pathways found in a recent study [ 137 ]. Sexual orientation and gender identity should be kept into consideration when investigating these relationships, as their specificities may shed light on the different ways societal expectations influence the well-being of sexual minorities.

The examined literature on the topic also appears to feature specificities that need to be taken into account. As previously reported by Ward [ 37 ], the vast majority of the studies continue to be conducted in the United States, often on undergraduates, which limits the generalizability of the results to the global population. Given the abundance and complexity of the constructs, more studies examining the pathways from media exposure to well-being using methodologies such as path analysis and structural equation modeling may help clarify some of the discrepancies found in the literature about the same relationships.

Finally, as previously reported by many authors [ 37 , 69 , 138 ], sexualization, self-sexualization, objectification and self-objectification are sometimes either treated as synonymous or used with different definitions and criteria, which may add a layer of misdirection to studies on the subject. Given the divergences in the use of terminology, clearly stating one’s working definition of sexualization or objectification would possibly benefit academic clarity on the subject.

4. Conclusions

Consistent empirical evidence highlights the importance of media representations as a key part of sociocultural influences that may have consequences on well-being. Despite some notable progress, harmful representations with well-researched links to detrimental effects are still common across a number of different media. Exposure to stereotyping, objectifying and sexualized representations appears to consistently be linked to negative consequences on physical and mental health, as well as fostering sexism, violence and gender inequity. On a clinical level, interventions dealing with body image and body satisfaction should keep their influence into account. The promotion of institutional and organizational interventions, as well as policies aimed at reducing their influence, could also prove to be a protective factor against physical and mental health risks.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.S. and L.R.; methodology, T.T. and M.N.P.; writing—original draft preparation, F.S.; writing—review and editing, T.T. and M.N.P.; supervision, L.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Trans Representation in The Media

GLSEN research consistently highlights the profound significance of positive LGBTQ+ representations in classrooms, emphasizing their role in creating safer and more inclusive school environments for all students. But what happens beyond the school bell?

In educational settings where LGBTQ+ history, individuals, and events are positively represented, students experience enhanced educational outcomes. They feel more at ease engaging in conversations about LGBTQ+ topics with their teachers, and they develop stronger connections within their school communities. Representation becomes a powerful tool for dispelling stereotypes, empowering students, and validating their unique experiences and identities. When trans youth encounter authentic portrayals, it sends a resounding message: their lives, stories, and contributions matter.

As we mark Trans Awareness Week this year, both current and former members of the National Student Council have come together to shed light on the paramount importance of trans youth representation in the media. NSC member Selena wrote an insightful essay exploring the significance of trans youth representation in the media. NSC Alumni Ambassadors Eris and Via curated a list of recommended media and current NSC member Scar spotlighted the work of trans actors and activists who leverage their platforms to amplify trans awareness and ignite meaningful conversations. Additionally, we provide a practical guide on how GSAs can organize movie screenings or book clubs based on our media recommendations.

Despite prevailing assumptions, research unveils a concerning trend – the representation of LGBTQ+ individuals in the media is actually on the decline, not the rise. This underscores the urgency of supporting transgender musicians, writers, and actors who work diligently to amplify their voices.

Join us in celebrating the power of representation & advocacy during Trans Awareness Week!

Why we should extend media representation to trans youth.

By Selena, 23-24 NSC

It is 100% no question that Trans representation in the media has vastly approved from it used to be; whether that be the practice of having non-trans actors playing trans roles no longer being used in hollywood, or, trans people no longer having their transness as something to be villainized and seen as something negative, we have to give media outlets their 10’s for crafting stories that feature trans people in meaningful and impactful roles that are crafted with love, respect and sensitivity.

While trans representation in the media has come a long way, there are of course, areas that need improvement. One of these areas where growth is needed, is to include trans youth in these stories.

When we look at some of the most well known Trans characters in media, how many of those characters are 18 or younger? I can think of one–Jules Vaughn from Euphoria. Jules Vaughn is a unique, multifaceted character whose transness is seen as something positive, with a whole episode being centered around her desire to not conform to cisgender and heteronormative standards. This is an incredible and genuine portrayal of a trans character, but it's one portrayal out of many.

Looking at other well known trans characters in media that have been commended for pushing the envelope (such as Elektra Evangelista from Pose, Viktor Hargreaves from The Umbrella Academy, Sophia Bursett from Orange is The New Black, Sin-Dee Rella from Tangerine, etc), none of them are youth.

Representing marginalized people in the media we consume is extremely important, not only for visibility purposes, but also due to the fact that when the public is exposed to diverse and positive portrayals of trans people, it inspires change and leads to a more inclusive society. In a time where trans kids are constantly villainized by the right wing media, we must combat this toxic and extremely harmful rhetoric. One of the ways that we can combat this, is simply by exposing the public to trans kids and having stories that include them, because it’s important for people to see themselves in the media and because it’s important to combat harmful rhetoric.

Trans Kids deserve to be able to see themselves and their transness represented in characters that are just like them, we deserve the same thing our cisgender peers have. We must call on various media institutes such as Film Studios, TV Networks and Publishers to start cranking out stories that feature trans characters in meaningful and impactful roles, with honest and non-harmful portrayal.

Eris and Via’s Not-At-All-Complete List of Our Favorite Trans Representations

By Via & Eris, NSC Alumni Ambassadors

Living in southern, conservative states, we both were forced to reckon with the fact that we were often the only (or one of very few) openly LGBTQ+ kids in a room. Because of this, we, like many other queer and trans youth in non-accepting areas, turned to LGBTQ+ representation in the media to feel more connected to a sense of community and learn more about ourselves and our own identities.

Although all books, movies, shows, etc. that feature queer and trans characters do a lot in helping raise visibility for LGBTQ+ issues, this Trans Awareness Week, we would like to compile a short list of trans media we loved, by trans creators or actors and centered on trans experiences to highlight authentic and inspiring work within the community. Our list is not at all exhaustive—there are so many examples of positive representation for trans youth out there, but the ones below are some that meant a lot to us and we want to share with all of you!

• POSE  - There’s no better way to start our list than with Pose– this show made history as the first scripted show to center on trans people of color and their experiences, as well as placing trans people in the actors, writers, and director positions.
• HEARTSTOPPER -  A favorite among queer teens in 2023, Heartstopper is one of the most successful and positive LGBTQ+ shows of the year. It also features an entirely LGBTQ+ cast and crew.
• ONE DAY AT A TIME  - Okay, we’re already breaking the rules a little… This one isn’t created by trans people but the non-binary representation with Elena Alvarez was so good and the lesbian coming out plotline felt so real that it must be included on this list. Plus, this show is heartwarming and hilarious for all four seasons and should definitely be on your to-watch list.
• Felix Ever After by Kacen Callender  - This book is so amazingly honest, real, and fascinating. I got through this in one sitting and highly suspect others read it similarly… I would go on a limb and say this is probably one of the best trans books of the last decade. Also, any novel with a Stonewall Book Award is guaranteed to be incredible and amazing queer representation
• If I was Your Girl by Meredith Russo  - This book was actually the first queer book I ever read and it had such a large impact on my interests in YA LGBTQ+ lit. It’s an easy, but also deep read, and I cannot recommend it enough. Also, the Stonewall Award doesn’t hurt!
• Pet by Akwaeke Emezi  - If you’re looking for a queer fantasy novel with magic, monsters, and tons of positive and central trans representation, Pet is the book for you. Oh, and you might be noticing a bit of a pattern with this book as well… What can I say? I love the Stonewall picks!
• The Cemetery Boys by Aiden Thomas  - ANOTHER QUEER FANTASY NOVEL??? This is your lucky day. Beautiful, brilliant, and a page-turner. Enough said!
• The Matrix -  This trilogy was written and directed by trans sisters, Lana and Lilly Wachowski, and is often referred to as one of the most famous trans allegories ever. It’s a must-watch.
• Paris is Burning -  This documentary is all about drag, the femme-presenting community, and trans people! It showcases “house” culture, ballroom, and voguing while connecting it to the intersectionality of racism and socioeconomic issues. If you’re all about queer history, give this one a watch!
• Boy Bowser (he/him)  - Transmasc rapper, Boy Bowser, is a California native who is passionate about performing and trans rights. This creator makes electric, up beat with heavy hip-hop influences! Check out his song “Yes Ma’am” released in 2022.
• Sam Smith (they/them)  - Nonbinary superstar, Sam Smith, was just on the Top 100 earlier this year for his song “Unholy” featuring Kim Petras, another transgender artist! Their music can either pump you up or get you all in your feels! Check out their most recent album “Gloria”!
• Shea Diamond (she/her)  - This soulful r&b singer-songwriter embodies transfemme joy in everything she does. Shea Diamond’s songs speak to her journey being trans as well as her activism here in America. Check out, “I Am Her,” her 2016 hit!
• Ryan Cassata (he/him)  - This transmasc singer has had a recent charting album, a remarkable number of performances internationally, and many features from his seven albums for his pop, rock, and alternative music genre. Ryan Cassata has also been an outstanding advocate for the trans community since his teens! Check out his most recent album, “Magic Miracle Mile!”
• King Princess (she/they/it)  - King Princess is a genderqueer pop icon for the queer community. She is a multi-instrumentalist as well as a singer-songwriter. Two of her most popular songs "Make My Bed" and “Talia” have been certified platinum and gold internationally, respectively. Check out their most recent album “Hold On Baby!”

5 Modern Day Trans Activists to Keep Your Eyes On

By Scar, NSC 23-24

With more and more transphobic legislators and policies being put in place, many trans students are unable to feel safe in school. Now that trans awareness week is in full swing it’s important to acknowledge the trans activists who are continuing to fight for better treatment for trans youth. The following list of activists represents five trans activists that we are keeping our eyes on!

• Zooey Zephyr (she/her) is an American Politician who represents Missoula in the 100th district in the Montana House of Representatives. She is a bisexual, trans woman fighting for legislation that is human rights orientated. Zooey Zephyr has proven to be an unmoving force fighting for trans youth. She was banned from speaking on the chamber floor by the house speaker as of April 20th, because she refused to apologize for saying her colleagues who supported a gender affirming care ban for minors had “blood on their hands”
• You may know Bella Ramsey (Any Pronouns) from their acting career, as they starred in The Last of Us and Game of Thrones, but they have been an outspoken advocate for trans rights ever since they came out as non-binary. Being a trans youth himself, he has been outspoken on his desire to highlight trans joy. Currently, they have put their focus on improving the clothing industry to allow trans individuals to wear gender affirming and comfortable clothing that allows them to express their joy in their identity.
• Laverne Cox (She/her) has been an outspoken trans advocate for years. She was the first trans woman to win a Daytime Emmy as the executive producer of Laverne Cox Presents: The T Word. Laverne often speaks openly about her experiences as a trans individual and disassembling stereotypical expectations of how one should express their gender identity.
• Dominique Morgan (she/her) is the first trans woman to have a street named after her. Morgan is the executive director of the Okra Project which is a black trans led mutual aid organization. She strives to dismantle the systems that maintain violence against black trans people.
• Ever since Elliott Page (he/him) came out as a trans man, he has advocated for the psychological benefits of transitioning. Elliott Page, through his advocacy work, has always tried to strike a balance between the harsh realities of being trans, and the joy that comes with it. Currently, Elliott has been focusing on representing trans people through media, specifically film.

Organize a movie screening or book club with your GSA!

Organizing a book club or screening is a great way to elevate trans youth in the media. Choose a book, show, or film from “Eris and Via’s Not-At-All-Complete List…” or check out the IMDB page of the actors from Scar’s list of “5 Modern Day Trans Activists to Keep Your Eyes On.”

Here's a step-by-step guide to help your GSA get started

• Gather Your Squad:  Decide if you will organize this with your GSA, another club, or with your friends. Find a core group of people who are excited and willing to put in the work necessary.
• Choose Your Medium: Decide whether you want to host a movie screening, TV show binge-watching session, or a book club. You can rotate between these options for variety.
• Pick Your First Piece: Select one item from Eris and Via’s recommended media list to kick things off. Make sure it's easily accessible to all members, whether it's available on streaming platforms, at your local library, or affordable for everyone to buy.
• Set a Date and Venue: Coordinate with your group to find a suitable date and venue. Whether it's a cozy classroom, a community center, or an outdoor space for a movie night, ensure everyone can attend comfortably. Consider accessibility needs and provide those details in the fliers. If organizing it with your GSA, check with your advisor and school calendar.
• Snack Attack: Plan some tasty snacks and drinks to keep everyone fueled and in the mood. Include vegetarian/vegan, gluten-free, kosher and halal options so that everyone can enjoy!
• Promote Your Event: Spread the word among your classmates and friends. Use social media, posters, or word of mouth to let everyone know about your upcoming gathering. Use this as an opportunity to invite people who share an interest in the recommended movies, TV shows, or books to join your GSA.
• Host Your Event: On the day of your screening, set up your chosen medium and create a cozy viewing atmosphere. Don't forget blankets and cushions for maximum comfort! For book clubs, read a designated number of chapters/pages before your meeting.
• Engage in Discussion: Gather for a discussion. Share your thoughts, favorite moments, and any questions you have about the story. Organizers should prepare questions to facilitate discussion. During the gathering, take turns discussing your impressions, favorite quotes, and any questions or theories you have.
• Rotate and Repeat: Keep the momentum going by rotating the responsibility of choosing the next movie, TV show, or book.
• Reflect and Adapt: After each event, take a moment to reflect on what went well and what could be improved. Use this feedback to make your future screenings and book club meetings even more enjoyable.

Empowering Dyslexia Representation The Impact of ‘Will Trent’ and the Renewed Focus on Inclusive Storytelling

A BC’s decision to renew “Will Trent” for a third season not only signifies the show’s continued success but also underscores the significance of diverse and inclusive storytelling in today’s media landscape. At the heart of “Will Trent” lies a compelling portrayal of its titular character, a top agent at the Georgia Bureau of Investigation who grapples with dyslexia—a neurodevelopmental disorder often overlooked in mainstream narratives. This article explores the impact of “Will Trent” in fostering dyslexia representation, examines the broader implications of inclusive storytelling, and advocates for a more diverse and authentic portrayal of neurodiversity in entertainment.

Breaking Barriers: The Representation of Dyslexia “Will Trent” breaks new ground by featuring a protagonist with dyslexia, a learning difference that affects millions of individuals worldwide. Through the character of Will Trent, the show challenges stereotypes and misconceptions surrounding dyslexia, portraying it not as a limitation but as a unique perspective that enhances Trent’s abilities as a detective. By highlighting Trent’s resilience, resourcefulness, and problem-solving skills, “Will Trent” offers a nuanced and empowering depiction of dyslexia, resonating with audiences who may see themselves reflected in the character’s journey.

The Power of Representation: The renewal of “Will Trent” for a third season signifies a growing recognition of the importance of representation in media. In an industry historically plagued by lack of diversity and inclusion, the success of shows like “Will Trent” demonstrates the demand for authentic and multifaceted storytelling that reflects the diversity of human experiences. By centering marginalized voices and experiences, television series like “Will Trent” not only entertain but also educate and empower audiences, fostering empathy, understanding, and social change.

Beyond Dyslexia: The Need for Intersectional Representation While “Will Trent” makes strides in representing dyslexia, it is crucial to recognize the intersectionality of identity and advocate for broader representation of neurodiversity in entertainment. Intersectionality acknowledges that individuals may experience multiple forms of marginalization simultaneously, such as race, gender, sexuality, and disability. Therefore, inclusive storytelling should strive to portray diverse experiences across intersecting identities, ensuring that no group is overlooked or marginalized in media representations.

Challenges and Opportunities: Despite progress, challenges persist in achieving authentic and inclusive representation in entertainment. From industry gatekeepers to societal biases, systemic barriers continue to hinder the full inclusion of diverse voices in storytelling. However, these challenges also present opportunities for advocacy, collaboration, and innovation. By amplifying diverse voices, advocating for equitable opportunities, and challenging stereotypes, creators, audiences, and industry stakeholders can collectively drive positive change and transform the media landscape into a more inclusive and representative space.

The renewal of “Will Trent” for a third season signifies not only a triumph for the show but also a milestone for dyslexia representation in media. By centering the experiences of its neurodivergent protagonist, “Will Trent” paves the way for more inclusive storytelling that celebrates diversity, challenges stereotypes, and fosters empathy and understanding. As we celebrate the success of “Will Trent,” let us also recognize the ongoing work needed to ensure that all voices are heard, all stories are told, and all experiences are valued in the rich tapestry of human storytelling.

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NPR defends its journalism after senior editor says it has lost the public's trust

David Folkenflik

NPR is defending its journalism and integrity after a senior editor wrote an essay accusing it of losing the public's trust. Saul Loeb/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

NPR is defending its journalism and integrity after a senior editor wrote an essay accusing it of losing the public's trust.

NPR's top news executive defended its journalism and its commitment to reflecting a diverse array of views on Tuesday after a senior NPR editor wrote a broad critique of how the network has covered some of the most important stories of the age.

"An open-minded spirit no longer exists within NPR, and now, predictably, we don't have an audience that reflects America," writes Uri Berliner.

A strategic emphasis on diversity and inclusion on the basis of race, ethnicity and sexual orientation, promoted by NPR's former CEO, John Lansing, has fed "the absence of viewpoint diversity," Berliner writes.

NPR's chief news executive, Edith Chapin, wrote in a memo to staff Tuesday afternoon that she and the news leadership team strongly reject Berliner's assessment.

"We're proud to stand behind the exceptional work that our desks and shows do to cover a wide range of challenging stories," she wrote. "We believe that inclusion — among our staff, with our sourcing, and in our overall coverage — is critical to telling the nuanced stories of this country and our world."

NPR names tech executive Katherine Maher to lead in turbulent era

She added, "None of our work is above scrutiny or critique. We must have vigorous discussions in the newsroom about how we serve the public as a whole."

A spokesperson for NPR said Chapin, who also serves as the network's chief content officer, would have no further comment.

Praised by NPR's critics

Berliner is a senior editor on NPR's Business Desk. (Disclosure: I, too, am part of the Business Desk, and Berliner has edited many of my past stories. He did not see any version of this article or participate in its preparation before it was posted publicly.)

Berliner's essay , titled "I've Been at NPR for 25 years. Here's How We Lost America's Trust," was published by The Free Press, a website that has welcomed journalists who have concluded that mainstream news outlets have become reflexively liberal.

Berliner writes that as a Subaru-driving, Sarah Lawrence College graduate who "was raised by a lesbian peace activist mother ," he fits the mold of a loyal NPR fan.

Yet Berliner says NPR's news coverage has fallen short on some of the most controversial stories of recent years, from the question of whether former President Donald Trump colluded with Russia in the 2016 election, to the origins of the virus that causes COVID-19, to the significance and provenance of emails leaked from a laptop owned by Hunter Biden weeks before the 2020 election. In addition, he blasted NPR's coverage of the Israel-Hamas conflict.

On each of these stories, Berliner asserts, NPR has suffered from groupthink due to too little diversity of viewpoints in the newsroom.

The essay ricocheted Tuesday around conservative media , with some labeling Berliner a whistleblower . Others picked it up on social media, including Elon Musk, who has lambasted NPR for leaving his social media site, X. (Musk emailed another NPR reporter a link to Berliner's article with a gibe that the reporter was a "quisling" — a World War II reference to someone who collaborates with the enemy.)

When asked for further comment late Tuesday, Berliner declined, saying the essay spoke for itself.

The arguments he raises — and counters — have percolated across U.S. newsrooms in recent years. The #MeToo sexual harassment scandals of 2016 and 2017 forced newsrooms to listen to and heed more junior colleagues. The social justice movement prompted by the killing of George Floyd in 2020 inspired a reckoning in many places. Newsroom leaders often appeared to stand on shaky ground.

Leaders at many newsrooms, including top editors at The New York Times and the Los Angeles Times , lost their jobs. Legendary Washington Post Executive Editor Martin Baron wrote in his memoir that he feared his bonds with the staff were "frayed beyond repair," especially over the degree of self-expression his journalists expected to exert on social media, before he decided to step down in early 2021.

Since then, Baron and others — including leaders of some of these newsrooms — have suggested that the pendulum has swung too far.

Author Interviews

Legendary editor marty baron describes his 'collision of power' with trump and bezos.

New York Times publisher A.G. Sulzberger warned last year against journalists embracing a stance of what he calls "one-side-ism": "where journalists are demonstrating that they're on the side of the righteous."

"I really think that that can create blind spots and echo chambers," he said.

Internal arguments at The Times over the strength of its reporting on accusations that Hamas engaged in sexual assaults as part of a strategy for its Oct. 7 attack on Israel erupted publicly . The paper conducted an investigation to determine the source of a leak over a planned episode of the paper's podcast The Daily on the subject, which months later has not been released. The newsroom guild accused the paper of "targeted interrogation" of journalists of Middle Eastern descent.

Heated pushback in NPR's newsroom

Given Berliner's account of private conversations, several NPR journalists question whether they can now trust him with unguarded assessments about stories in real time. Others express frustration that he had not sought out comment in advance of publication. Berliner acknowledged to me that for this story, he did not seek NPR's approval to publish the piece, nor did he give the network advance notice.

Some of Berliner's NPR colleagues are responding heatedly. Fernando Alfonso, a senior supervising editor for digital news, wrote that he wholeheartedly rejected Berliner's critique of the coverage of the Israel-Hamas conflict, for which NPR's journalists, like their peers, periodically put themselves at risk.

Alfonso also took issue with Berliner's concern over the focus on diversity at NPR.

"As a person of color who has often worked in newsrooms with little to no people who look like me, the efforts NPR has made to diversify its workforce and its sources are unique and appropriate given the news industry's long-standing lack of diversity," Alfonso says. "These efforts should be celebrated and not denigrated as Uri has done."

After this story was first published, Berliner contested Alfonso's characterization, saying his criticism of NPR is about the lack of diversity of viewpoints, not its diversity itself.

"I never criticized NPR's priority of achieving a more diverse workforce in terms of race, ethnicity and sexual orientation. I have not 'denigrated' NPR's newsroom diversity goals," Berliner said. "That's wrong."

Questions of diversity

Under former CEO John Lansing, NPR made increasing diversity, both of its staff and its audience, its "North Star" mission. Berliner says in the essay that NPR failed to consider broader diversity of viewpoint, noting, "In D.C., where NPR is headquartered and many of us live, I found 87 registered Democrats working in editorial positions and zero Republicans."

Berliner cited audience estimates that suggested a concurrent falloff in listening by Republicans. (The number of people listening to NPR broadcasts and terrestrial radio broadly has declined since the start of the pandemic.)

Former NPR vice president for news and ombudsman Jeffrey Dvorkin tweeted , "I know Uri. He's not wrong."

Others questioned Berliner's logic. "This probably gets causality somewhat backward," tweeted Semafor Washington editor Jordan Weissmann . "I'd guess that a lot of NPR listeners who voted for [Mitt] Romney have changed how they identify politically."

Similarly, Nieman Lab founder Joshua Benton suggested the rise of Trump alienated many NPR-appreciating Republicans from the GOP.

In recent years, NPR has greatly enhanced the percentage of people of color in its workforce and its executive ranks. Four out of 10 staffers are people of color; nearly half of NPR's leadership team identifies as Black, Asian or Latino.

"The philosophy is: Do you want to serve all of America and make sure it sounds like all of America, or not?" Lansing, who stepped down last month, says in response to Berliner's piece. "I'd welcome the argument against that."

"On radio, we were really lagging in our representation of an audience that makes us look like what America looks like today," Lansing says. The U.S. looks and sounds a lot different than it did in 1971, when NPR's first show was broadcast, Lansing says.

A network spokesperson says new NPR CEO Katherine Maher supports Chapin and her response to Berliner's critique.

The spokesperson says that Maher "believes that it's a healthy thing for a public service newsroom to engage in rigorous consideration of the needs of our audiences, including where we serve our mission well and where we can serve it better."

Disclosure: This story was reported and written by NPR Media Correspondent David Folkenflik and edited by Deputy Business Editor Emily Kopp and Managing Editor Gerry Holmes. Under NPR's protocol for reporting on itself, no NPR corporate official or news executive reviewed this story before it was posted publicly.

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New journalism school in London sets out to improve diversity

Founder of Cocoa Girl magazine says children will also be taught creative writing, music and illustration

The founder of the first major Black children’s magazine in the UK is to open a journalism school to combat representation problems in the creative industries.

Serlina Boyd, who founded Cocoa Girl magazine with her daughter Faith, then aged six, during lockdown in 2020, will open the Cocoa School of Journalism and Creative Arts on Monday.

The school, based in Beckenham, south London , will teach children about news reporting, video editing and illustration.

“We don’t just teach journalism, we teach creative writing and music, and it will be a hub that champions creativity,” said Boyd.

“Doing this journalism school, it’s going to inspire the next generation to see that there is a whole new avenue that they can go down instead of the normal stereotypical routes that they may pick, and we do it in a fun way.”

The unique hub will also have a parents’ and guardians’ storytelling centre and offer a fashion styling course, with adult evening classes for people who want to learn a new skill.

Feeling disillusioned with the lack of representation in journalism and the creative industries, Boyd was moved to do something to challenge it. She said: “It’s the statistics that got me. They are quite shocking and I feel that there need to be more journalists telling our stories.

“According to the Sutton Trust, 80% of editors went to private school; only 11% of journalists are from working-class backgrounds, and a measly 0.2% of journalists are Black.”

Cocoa magazine is put together by a team of journalists aged 10 and above and is distributed in 500 schools across the UK. Soon after founding Cocoa for girls in 2020, a Cocoa for boys was launched.

Boyd said the impact of teaching journalistic skills to the next generation of Black children had been amazing.

“A group of our girls interviewed Halle Bailey, who starred in the recent Little Mermaid movie as the first Black depiction of Ariel, and that video went absolutely viral,” she said.

“It allowed children that are normally seen in a positive light to be seen as such and to tell their story, and basically fit their own narrative and not wait for the world to paint a picture which is not necessarily true.”

after newsletter promotion

The school, which will run every day during after-school hours and throughout the day during half-term, will have a “no phone” policy.

“With the school we are going back to basics, children are so used to just scrolling, and they are not picking up the pen and interacting, so we are changing that,” Boyd said.

The response to the announcement of the school has been overwhelming, Boyd says, with more than 300 signups from parents wanting to enrol their children.

“Parents have been crying out for this. This school is a chance for children from under-represented backgrounds to improve their social skills and we are all just really excited,” she said.

This headline has been amended to better reflect the content of the article.

• Journalism education
• Discrimination at work
• Halle Bailey

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LGBTQ South Asians are celebrating 'Monkey Man' for its representation of India's trans community

Fans are raving about Dev Patel’s “Monkey Man” for its thrilling action sequences and poignant revenge storyline, but for LGBTQ South Asians, the film holds a particular significance.

The film features a transgender woman character, as well as India’s diverse third-gender, or “hijra,” community.

On his journey to get revenge on the corrupt guru and police chief who killed his mother, Patel’s character “Kid” is saved by Alpha, a transgender woman and hijra community leader. Other trans characters featured throughout the film eventually become allies to Kid, emerging in colorful saris and masks to fight alongside him during an epic battle scene.

“This is an anthem for the underdog, the voiceless, the marginalized,” Patel said in an interview with Variety. “I really wanted to include the hijra community, the third gender in India. … You look at the old carvings in these temples in India and the freedom, the sexuality, the philosophy, all of it, was so ahead of its time.”

Hijras have a long history in South Asia, including playing important roles in Hindu religious ceremonies, but in today’s India they’re often demonized and denied access to work and good housing. Reports on their representation in media have found that they’re usually portrayed as villains, victims or comic relief .

Fans on social media praised the inclusion.

“MONKEY MAN is an incredible action film featuring INDIAN TRANS PEOPLE as a major part of the plot! I can’t stop screaming it from the rooftops! Dev Patel ilysm,” one fan said.

Others said they loved that members of the hijra community were represented as fighters against evil and corruption.

“Just watched ‘Monkey Man’ and loved the representation of the Hijra, India’s third gender people. They were badass!” another viewer said on X.

Indian actor Vipin Sharma, who played Alpha, told Variety he painted his nails and grew out his hair for the role. He described the care Patel put into developing the character.

“I am a male; he saw me as a female character, which was quite amazing actually, that he saw something about me that he thought I will be good to play this role,” he said.

Sakshi Venkatraman is a reporter for NBC Asian America.

Blake Griffin, Ryan Kalil’s Mortal Media Signs With WME (EXCLUSIVE)

By Joe Otterson

Joe Otterson

TV Reporter

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Mortal Media, the film and TV production company co-founded by Blake Griffin and Ryan Kalil, has signed with WME for representation, Variety has learned exclusively.

WME will rep Mortal Media’s scripted and unscripted slate, while also helping the company expand into brand partnerships and creative marketing services. In addition, Griffin has signed with WME for theatrical representation.

Popular on Variety

Griffin is a six-time NBA All-Star. He played for the Los Angeles Clippers from 2009-2018 and has also played for the Detroit Pistons, the Brooklyn Nets, and the Boston Celtics. He has made multiple guest appearances in the comedy world, including stints on “Kidding” at Showtime and both “Broad City” and “Roast Battle” at Comedy Central. Griffin also previously hosted the Audible podcast “The Pursuit of Healthiness,” which featured guests like Michael B. Jordan, Deepak Chopra, Kevin Durant, and Malcolm Gladwell.

Mortal Media is also repped by Ziffren Brittenham and Metro Public Relations. Griffin is repped by Excel Sports Management, WME and 3Arts.

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The Fallout TV series is more like a great sequel to the games than just an adaptation

Fallout is the rare adaptation that adds to its source material

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Fallout is a franchise that’s held together by tone just as much as any unifying story beats or canon. The series’ distinct post-apocalyptic vision of an America that never escaped the wide eyes, fake smiles, and faker optimism of the Cold War has become iconic, and its version of Americana shot through with radioactive black humor is more identifiable than any single character from the games will ever be (except Vault Boy, of course). It’s a series that revels in its ability to be funny, touching, sad, sweet, and disgusting all in a single moment. And that tone is what Amazon Prime Video’s new Fallout TV series captures best, and what makes it an excellent addition to the franchise, rather than just an adaptation.

The new show, created by Geneva Robertson-Dworet and Graham Wagner, smartly adapts Fallout’s world and setting without attempting to retell any of the stories from the game series directly. There are Vaults, where cheery survivors of the nuclear blasts that destroyed most of America wait out the apocalypse. We’ve got the militaristic Brotherhood of Steel, along with irradiated surface-dwellers known as ghouls. And just about everything in the vast Wasteland and out is run by Vault-Tec. In other words, it’s a world that’s unmistakably rooted in Fallout’s canon. It’s a loving re-creation of the icons of the Fallout universe, but it’s also more than that, pushing the entire franchise forward into a new story and bigger world.

Fallout ’s story is mostly centered around Lucy (Ella Purnell), a Vault Dweller who leaves her home to find her father (Kyle MacLachlan). In her travels through the Wasteland, she meets Maximus (Aaron Moten), a squire in the Brotherhood of Steel; a bounty hunter simply known as The Ghoul (Walton Goggins); and plenty of other very strange denizens.

The show follows all of these characters as their paths cross and converge in the Wasteland of Los Angeles in search of a scientist who has escaped the Enclave with a dangerous technology that could change the balance of power in the Wasteland forever. In typical Fallout fashion, this story is mostly here to help push our heroes further into the world of the Wasteland to see all the strangeness it has to offer.

That world is one of the things Fallout nails from its earliest moments. The live-action Vaults have the same steel-caged Americana atmosphere that made them immediately effective in Fallout 3 ’s opening, with long, artificially bright hallways lined with cheerful mailboxes and blast-proof doors. But it’s on the surface where the show really starts to shine. Fallout was filmed on location and with gorgeous and grimy practical sets that make the Wasteland feel real and alive. Clothes are ripped and torn, walls are rough and patched, and everything from the guns to the technology feels cobbled together from the scrap of the world that used to be. All of this comes into sharp focus anytime the Brotherhood of Steel appears in its power-armored glory, looking terrifying in its completeness.

There are plenty of Easter eggs, as you might expect from a video game adaptation, but Fallout manages to make them seem like part of the world, too. It all feels real and believable as pieces of a whole existence that these people have scraped together, which goes a long way toward helping the show’s humor land. Even the Easter eggs feel carefully designed to fit into the world and the lives of the characters, rather than drawing focus away from them or sticking out as a glaring distraction. But as well-drawn as Fallout ’s world is, it’s the characters that really make the show stand both head and shoulders above other video game adaptations, and over most TV shows released so far this year.

In the show’s first few episodes, Lucy greets the Wasteland with nothing but fascination and kindness, giving us a window to experience the horrors of the surface by proxy. This too-innocent schtick is one that constantly threatens to wear thin but never does, thanks in large part to Purnell’s winning charm and laser-precise delivery of the show’s many punchlines. But even more impressive is the show’s commitment to giving her an arc. She constantly meets characters who tell her that the Wasteland changes people, sucks the humanity and goodness out of them until nothing is left but survival. A lesser show might use Lucy as a big-eyed, bumbling example of how goodness and kindness can win out in the end, but the Fallout creators strive to examine something more interesting: How can you keep your humanity when kindness is off the table? Her pluckiness and can-do attitude never die, but her values shift — sometimes subtly, as she realizes she can’t help everyone she sees in the Wasteland, and other times more abruptly, like when she meets a pair of cannibals on the road. It’s a literal and metaphorical journey, one that deepens a character that easily could have ended up as the boring and naïve archetype she seems like on paper.

This kind of impressive depth and creativity is all over Fallout ’s characters. Maximus gets a fascinating arc about coming to terms with the fact that the members of the Brotherhood of Steel might not be the paragons of virtue that he thought, and even Lucy’s little brother back in Vault 33 gets a fun mystery story about the nature of his Vault’s relationship to those around them. The show also excels in its brief, silly one-off stories about eccentric survivors that are nicer (or crazier) than our main characters originally assumed.

It’s no surprise that the characters are the strongest part of Fallout ; after all, it’s the shared middle ground between the game series and the medium of television. For all the qualities of their main stories, the real joy of Fallout games is exploring the Wasteland, finding its strangest inhabitants, and hearing their ridiculous stories and bizarre beliefs, or witnessing their comically absurd feats of violence and survival. Robertson-Dworet and Wagner’s Fallout captures this feeling perfectly, with characters in every episode stumbling into new situations that feel like they could easily be side quests taken straight from the games, like an organ-harvesting ring in an old supermarket or an open Vault where things are much stranger than they appear.

While all of this makes for an excellent and entertaining TV show — and a surprisingly effective adaptation of the series — Fallout ’s biggest coup is how much it effortlessly adds to the world of the games. Most of the series’ deeper lore implications come by way of flashbacks of The Ghoul’s life before the war. These snippets make up a very small part of the show’s run time, but they tell a compelling mystery story centered around Vault-Tec, giving us our best look yet at its origins and the political murkiness of Fallout ’s prewar period. It’s a thoughtful look at how Fallout’s world came to be so broken, all told through the lens of the kind of ’50s Hollywood noir film that would feel right at home as a reference in one of the games.

Fallout justifies its existence by bringing new things to the universe it’s set in, without setting itself apart from that universe. Unlike other recent video game adaptations, such as The Last of Us , which capably and elegantly retell the story of their source material, Fallout expands on it by building out the world of the games that fans already love. The Fallout series’ open-world design makes any adaptation complicated, considering how much content the games can pack into their massive settings that players could spend hundreds of hours on. But building on a preexisting world like this is difficult. Fans are fiercely protective of the worlds they love — which is why a show like Halo built a separate timeline for its adaptation , or why Twisted Metal totally changed the lore of its bygone franchise. But Fallout pulls off the high-wire act brilliantly. Robertson-Dworet and Wagner’s admiration for the video game series is obvious, but what’s more important here is their ability to make a good TV show with a well-told story and interesting characters, which just happens to be deeply rooted in Fallout’s world and signature so-dark-you-have-to-laugh tone.

In the press tour for the show, its creators have frequently said that they thought of the Prime Video series more like Fallout 5 than just an adaptation of the video game franchise. And perhaps the highest praise the show earns is that it absolutely feels like a game sequel that happens to be transposed into another medium. And after a fantastic first season, it’s hard to be anything but excited for the next chapter of Fallout, whether that’s a new season of TV or a return to video games .

Fallout season 1 drops on Prime Video on April 10.

Your guide to Fallout’s vaults and wastelands

• All the Fallout season 2 news we’ve heard so far
• Fallout’s violence and gore are part of its charm
• Fallout’s first look has a Vault Dweller-Ghoul-Brotherhood showdown
• New Fallout trailer gives us our best look yet at Walton Goggins’ fascinating Ghoul
• Digging through the Fallout TV series’ trailer and everything else we know about the show
• Amazon’s Fallout TV series starts a new plot in the same universe as the games
• Amazon’s Fallout series gives us a look at power armor, ghouls, and a new vault
• Here’s a first look at Amazon’s Fallout TV series
• Everything Fallout has revealed about the NCR
• Every Fallout Easter egg in the Prime Video show
• Fallout fans spent years debating who dropped the bombs — then the show made a call
• Fallout’s glimpse of the Enclave is just the beginning
• The Fallout TV show gives the game’s mascot an origin story that matters
• The Fallout TV show reminds us: Vault-Tec really is that bad
• The Fallout timeline
• Bethesda and Microsoft: A tight relationship over two decades
• Bethesda sues Warner Bros, calls its Westworld game ‘blatant rip-off’ of Fallout Shelter
• A brief history of Bethesda’s many legal tangles
• Fallout: New Vegas endures because of big clunky story swings
• Fallout 76 will be free when the Fallout TV show debuts through Amazon Prime
• I spent 453 hours in Fallout 4 and all I got was this stinkin’ inner peace
• Fallout 76 still has a fan base that’s committed to the core
• How Fallout 76 handles the Brotherhood of Steel

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OCA Moscow Representation Church hosts World Aids Day service, roundtable

MOSCOW, RUSSIA [OCA Communications] — The need to educate people about the dangers of HIV/AIDS and to offer loving and non-judgmental ministry to those suffering from the disease was emphasized at a roundtable discussion sponsored by the Orthodox Church in America’s Representation Church of the Great Martyr Catherine here on World AIDS Day, December 1, 2005.

The gathering opened with the celebration of a Service of Intercession for those suffering from the disease, celebrated by Archimandrite Zacchaeus, OCA representative to the Moscow Patriarchate, who organized the gathering. At the conclusion of the service, a statement marking World AIDS Day from His Beatitude, Metropolitan Herman , was read. Archimandrite Zacchaeus also delivered a sermon in which he emphasized the importance of ministering to the disease’s victims in a compassionate manner.

Following the prayer service, Archimandrite Zacchaeus hosted a roundtable discussion was held at a local conference center, at which specialists in the prevention of HIV/AIDS, including the Priestmonk Anatoly [Berestev], discussed ways in which the Russian Orthodox Church, the Orthodox Church in America’s Representation in Moscow, the US Embassy in Moscow, and other healthcare organizations could collaborate in the distribution of HIV/AIDS prevention information and in ministering to those infected with the disease.

“The rapid spread of HIV/AIDS in eastern and central Europe has been widely reported,” said the Very Rev. John Matusiak, OCA communications director. “The need to address the issue, not only in terms of educating the public in the area of prevention but also in providing compassionate ministry to those already infected, is crucial. The roundtable was an important step in bringing together the healthcare community and the Church in tackling the pandemic in a wholistic and balanced manner, ministering to the soul as well as the body.”

Among those attending the service were representatives of the US Embassy in Moscow, including Ms. Lisa Carty, the wife of the US Ambassador to the Russian Federation; Mrs. Ludmilla V. Stebelkova, Deputy of the Moscow Duma; Mr. Terry Myers, the Director of the US Agency for International Development [USAID]; Ms. Margarita Nelubova of the Center for the War on AIDS of the Department of External Church Relations of the Moscow Patriarchate; Mr. Alexei Nikiforov, of the organization “Doctors without Borders”; and numerous representatives of Alcoholics Anonymous, St. Seraphim House of Mercy, Healthy Russia, the International Women’s Club, and other organizations.

Click here for additional coverage of this event.

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Title: reft: representation finetuning for language models.

Abstract: Parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) methods seek to adapt large models via updates to a small number of weights. However, much prior interpretability work has shown that representations encode rich semantic information, suggesting that editing representations might be a more powerful alternative. Here, we pursue this hypothesis by developing a family of $\textbf{Representation Finetuning (ReFT)}$ methods. ReFT methods operate on a frozen base model and learn task-specific interventions on hidden representations. We define a strong instance of the ReFT family, Low-rank Linear Subspace ReFT (LoReFT). LoReFT is a drop-in replacement for existing PEFTs and learns interventions that are 10x-50x more parameter-efficient than prior state-of-the-art PEFTs. We showcase LoReFT on eight commonsense reasoning tasks, four arithmetic reasoning tasks, Alpaca-Eval v1.0, and GLUE. In all these evaluations, LoReFT delivers the best balance of efficiency and performance, and almost always outperforms state-of-the-art PEFTs. We release a generic ReFT training library publicly at this https URL .

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The honorary consulates support the Swiss representations in safeguarding Switzerland’s interests and in emergencies involving Swiss citizens abroad. In an emergency the representation responsible (embassy or consulate-general) must be contacted immediately.

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