reference material meaning in research

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Q. What are Reference materials and what are some examples?

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Answered By: Amanda Peach Last Updated: Oct 25, 2019     Views: 153637

Reference materials are various sources that provide background information or quick facts on any given topic. While there are many different types of resources, here are a few: almanacs, atlases, bibliographies, biographical resources, dictionaries, encyclopedias (both general and by subject), handbooks, indexes, statistics, and citation guides.

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Home » References in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

References in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

References in Research

Definition:

References in research are a list of sources that a researcher has consulted or cited while conducting their study. They are an essential component of any academic work, including research papers, theses, dissertations, and other scholarly publications.

Types of References

There are several types of references used in research, and the type of reference depends on the source of information being cited. The most common types of references include:

References to books typically include the author’s name, title of the book, publisher, publication date, and place of publication.

Example: Smith, J. (2018). The Art of Writing. Penguin Books.

Journal Articles

References to journal articles usually include the author’s name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date.

Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32(4), 87-94.

Web sources

References to web sources should include the author or organization responsible for the content, the title of the page, the URL, and the date accessed.

Example: World Health Organization. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public

Conference Proceedings

References to conference proceedings should include the author’s name, title of the paper, name of the conference, location of the conference, date of the conference, and page numbers.

Example: Chen, S., & Li, J. (2019). The Future of AI in Education. Proceedings of the International Conference on Educational Technology, Beijing, China, July 15-17, pp. 67-78.

References to reports typically include the author or organization responsible for the report, title of the report, publication date, and publisher.

Example: United Nations. (2020). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. United Nations.

Formats of References

Some common Formates of References with their examples are as follows:

APA (American Psychological Association) Style

The APA (American Psychological Association) Style has specific guidelines for formatting references used in academic papers, articles, and books. Here are the different reference formats in APA style with examples:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Smith, J. K. (2005). The psychology of social interaction. Wiley-Blackwell.

Journal Article

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Brown, L. M., Keating, J. G., & Jones, S. M. (2012). The role of social support in coping with stress among African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 218-233.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication or last update). Title of page. Website name. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, December 11). COVID-19: How to protect yourself and others. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html

Magazine article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Magazine, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. (2019, March 11). The power of positive thinking. Psychology Today, 52(3), 60-65.

Newspaper article:

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, page numbers.

Example: Johnson, B. (2021, February 15). New study shows benefits of exercise on mental health. The New York Times, A8.

Edited book

Editor, E. E. (Ed.). (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Thompson, J. P. (Ed.). (2014). Social work in the 21st century. Sage Publications.

Chapter in an edited book:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. page numbers). Publisher.

Example : Johnson, K. S. (2018). The future of social work: Challenges and opportunities. In J. P. Thompson (Ed.), Social work in the 21st century (pp. 105-118). Sage Publications.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Style

The MLA (Modern Language Association) Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the humanities. Here are the different reference formats in MLA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Smith, John. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Journal article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., et al. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence, vol. 22, no. 1, 2012, pp. 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name, Publication date, URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC, 11 Dec. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, Mar. 2019, pp. 60-65.

Newspaper article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, 15 Feb. 2021, p. A8.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Thompson, John P., editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Chapter in an edited book

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last name, Publisher, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, Sage Publications, 2014, pp. 105-118.

Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers, dissertations, and books in the humanities and social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Chicago style:

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Publication year): page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. Publication date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Sage Publications, 2014.

Harvard Style

The Harvard Style, also known as the Author-Date System, is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Harvard Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2005. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number (issue number): page numbers.

Example: Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. 2012. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22 (1): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL. Accessed date.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, month and date of publication.

Example : Smith, Mary. 2019. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, month and date of publication.

Example : Johnson, Bob. 2021. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. 2014. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. 2014. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Vancouver Style

The Vancouver Style, also known as the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, is a widely used style for writing academic papers in the biomedical sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Vancouver Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title. Year of publication; volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Example : Brown LM, Keating JG, Jones SM. The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents. J Res Adolesc. 2012;22(1):218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name [Internet]. Publication date. [cited date]. Available from: URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others [Internet]. 2020 Dec 11. [cited 2023 Apr 1]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Magazine. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Smith M. The Power of Positive Thinking. Psychology Today. 2019 Mar 1:32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Newspaper. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Johnson B. New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health. The New York Times. 2021 Feb 15:A4.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Chapter. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. page numbers.

Example : Johnson KS. The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities. In: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014. p. 105-118.

Turabian Style

Turabian style is a variation of the Chicago style used in academic writing, particularly in the fields of history and humanities. Here are the different reference formats in Turabian style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Year of publication): page numbers.

Example : Brown, LM, Keating, JG, Jones, SM. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” J Res Adolesc 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Publication date. Accessed date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Month Day, Year of publication, page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 1, 2019, 32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Month Day, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, B. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Thompson, JP, ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s Last name, First name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, KS. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by Thompson, JP, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. Here are the different reference formats in IEEE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Oppenheim, A. V., & Schafer, R. W. Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Abbreviated Journal Title, vol. number, no. issue number, pp. page numbers, Month year of publication.

Example: Shannon, C. E. “A Mathematical Theory of Communication.” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 379-423, July 1948.

Conference paper

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Paper.” In Title of Conference Proceedings, Place of Conference, Date of Conference, pp. page numbers, Year of publication.

Example: Gupta, S., & Kumar, P. “An Improved System of Linear Discriminant Analysis for Face Recognition.” In Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Computer Science and Network Technology, Harbin, China, Dec. 2011, pp. 144-147.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Date of publication or last update. Accessed date. URL.

Example : National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “Apollo 11.” NASA. July 20, 1969. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html.

Technical report

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Report.” Name of Institution or Organization, Report number, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, J. R. “Development of a New Solar Panel Technology.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A20-51645, 2011.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Patent.” Patent number, Issue date.

Example : Suzuki, H. “Method of Producing Carbon Nanotubes.” US Patent 7,151,019, December 19, 2006.

Standard Title. Standard number, Publication date.

Example : IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic. IEEE Std 754-2008, August 29, 2008

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) style is commonly used in chemistry and related fields. Here are the different reference formats in ACS style:

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title Year, Volume, Page Numbers.

Example : Wang, Y.; Zhao, X.; Cui, Y.; Ma, Y. Facile Preparation of Fe3O4/graphene Composites Using a Hydrothermal Method for High-Performance Lithium Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012, 4, 2715-2721.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication.

Example : Carey, F. A. Organic Chemistry; McGraw-Hill: New York, 2008.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In Book Title; Editor’s Last name, First name, Ed.; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume number, Chapter number, Page Numbers.

Example : Grossman, R. B. Analytical Chemistry of Aerosols. In Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications; Baron, P. A.; Willeke, K., Eds.; Wiley-Interscience: New York, 2001; Chapter 10, pp 395-424.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name, URL (accessed date).

Example : National Institute of Standards and Technology. Atomic Spectra Database. https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database (accessed April 1, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Patent Number. Patent Date.

Example : Liu, Y.; Huang, H.; Chen, H.; Zhang, W. US Patent 9,999,999, December 31, 2022.

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. In Title of Conference Proceedings, Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume Number, Page Numbers.

Example : Jia, H.; Xu, S.; Wu, Y.; Wu, Z.; Tang, Y.; Huang, X. Fast Adsorption of Organic Pollutants by Graphene Oxide. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017; Volume 1, pp 223-228.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) style is commonly used in medical and scientific fields. Here are the different reference formats in AMA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Article Title. Journal Abbreviation. Year; Volume(Issue):Page Numbers.

Example : Jones, R. A.; Smith, B. C. The Role of Vitamin D in Maintaining Bone Health. JAMA. 2019;321(17):1765-1773.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Guyton, A. C.; Hall, J. E. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2015.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: Page Numbers.

Example: Rajakumar, K. Vitamin D and Bone Health. In: Holick, M. F., ed. Vitamin D: Physiology, Molecular Biology, and Clinical Applications. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2010:211-222.

Author’s Last name, First name. Webpage Title. Website Name. URL. Published date. Updated date. Accessed date.

Example : National Cancer Institute. Breast Cancer Prevention (PDQ®)–Patient Version. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/patient/breast-prevention-pdq. Published October 11, 2022. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Conference presentation title. In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Place of Conference.

Example : Smith, J. R. Vitamin D and Bone Health: A Meta-Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research; September 20-23, 2022; San Diego, CA.

Thesis or dissertation

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Thesis or Dissertation. Degree level [Doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis]. University Name; Year.

Example : Wilson, S. A. The Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women [Doctoral dissertation]. University of California, Los Angeles; 2018.

ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) Style

The ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) style is commonly used in civil engineering fields. Here are the different reference formats in ASCE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title, volume number, issue number (year): page numbers. DOI or URL (if available).

Example : Smith, J. R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering, vol. 146, no. 3 (2020): 04020010. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001668.

Example : McCuen, R. H. Hydrologic Analysis and Design. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education; 2013.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example : Maidment, D. R. “Floodplain Management in the United States.” In: Shroder, J. F., ed. Treatise on Geomorphology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2013: 447-460.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example: Smith, J. R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019: 156-163.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. “Hurricane Sandy Coastal Risk Reduction Program, New York and New Jersey.” Report No. P-15-001. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; 2015.

CSE (Council of Science Editors) Style

The CSE (Council of Science Editors) style is commonly used in the scientific and medical fields. Here are the different reference formats in CSE style:

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Year;Volume(Issue):Page numbers.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering. 2020;146(3):04020010.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial., ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year:Page numbers.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Bluebook Style

The Bluebook style is commonly used in the legal field for citing legal documents and sources. Here are the different reference formats in Bluebook style:

Case citation

Case name, volume source page (Court year).

Example : Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

Statute citation

Name of Act, volume source § section number (year).

Example : Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. § 7401 (1963).

Regulation citation

Name of regulation, volume source § section number (year).

Example: Clean Air Act, 40 C.F.R. § 52.01 (2019).

Book citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number (if applicable). Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example: Smith, J.R. Legal Writing and Analysis. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Aspen Publishers; 2015.

Journal article citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Volume number (year): first page-last page.

Example: Garcia, C. “The Right to Counsel: An International Comparison.” International Journal of Legal Information. 43 (2015): 63-94.

Website citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed month day, year).

Example : United Nations. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Oxford Style

The Oxford style, also known as the Oxford referencing system or the documentary-note citation system, is commonly used in the humanities, including literature, history, and philosophy. Here are the different reference formats in Oxford style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Smith, John. The Art of Writing. New York: Penguin, 2020.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue (year): page range.

Example: Garcia, Carlos. “The Role of Ethics in Philosophy.” Philosophy Today 67, no. 3 (2019): 53-68.

Chapter in an edited book citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Lee, Mary. “Feminism in the 21st Century.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed 3 January 2023).

Dissertation or thesis citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name, Year of Publication.

Example : Brown, Susan. “The Art of Storytelling in American Literature.” PhD diss., University of Oxford, 2020.

Newspaper article citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day, Year.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. “New Developments in Climate Change Research.” The Guardian, September 15, 2022.

AAA (American Anthropological Association) Style

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) style is commonly used in anthropology research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AAA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2019. The Anthropology of Food. New York: Routledge.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue: page range.

Example : Garcia, Carlos. 2021. “The Role of Ethics in Anthropology.” American Anthropologist 123, no. 2: 237-251.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example: Lee, Mary. 2018. “Feminism in Anthropology.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name.

Example : Brown, Susan. 2022. “The Art of Storytelling in Anthropology.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. 2021. “New Developments in Anthropology Research.” The Guardian, September 15.

AIP (American Institute of Physics) Style

The American Institute of Physics (AIP) style is commonly used in physics research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AIP style:

Example : Johnson, S. D. 2021. “Quantum Computing and Information.” Journal of Applied Physics 129, no. 4: 043102.

Example : Feynman, Richard. 2018. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. New York: Basic Books.

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Future of Quantum Computing.” In The Handbook of Physics, edited by John Smith, 125-136. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Conference proceedings citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Paper.” Proceedings of Conference Name, date and location: page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Chen, Wei. 2019. “The Applications of Nanotechnology in Solar Cells.” Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Nanotechnology, July 15-17, Tokyo, Japan: 224-229. New York: AIP Publishing.

Example : American Institute of Physics. 2022. “About AIP Publishing.” AIP Publishing. https://publishing.aip.org/about-aip-publishing/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Patent citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Patent Number.

Example : Smith, John. 2018. US Patent 9,873,644.

References Writing Guide

Here are some general guidelines for writing references:

• Follow the citation style guidelines: Different disciplines and journals may require different citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). It is important to follow the specific guidelines for the citation style required.
• Include all necessary information : Each citation should include enough information for readers to locate the source. For example, a journal article citation should include the author(s), title of the article, journal title, volume number, issue number, page numbers, and publication year.
• Use proper formatting: Citation styles typically have specific formatting requirements for different types of sources. Make sure to follow the proper formatting for each citation.
• Order citations alphabetically: If listing multiple sources, they should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name.
• Be consistent: Use the same citation style throughout the entire paper or project.
• Check for accuracy: Double-check all citations to ensure accuracy, including correct spelling of author names and publication information.
• Use reputable sources: When selecting sources to cite, choose reputable and authoritative sources. Avoid sources that are biased or unreliable.
• Include all sources: Make sure to include all sources used in the research, including those that were not directly quoted but still informed the work.
• Use online tools : There are online tools available (e.g., citation generators) that can help with formatting and organizing references.

Purpose of References in Research

References in research serve several purposes:

• To give credit to the original authors or sources of information used in the research. It is important to acknowledge the work of others and avoid plagiarism.
• To provide evidence for the claims made in the research. References can support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research by citing relevant studies, data, or theories.
• To allow readers to find and verify the sources used in the research. References provide the necessary information for readers to locate and access the sources cited in the research, which allows them to evaluate the quality and reliability of the information presented.
• To situate the research within the broader context of the field. References can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge, and can help readers to identify gaps in the literature that the research seeks to address.

Importance of References in Research

References play an important role in research for several reasons:

• Credibility : By citing authoritative sources, references lend credibility to the research and its claims. They provide evidence that the research is based on a sound foundation of knowledge and has been carefully researched.
• Avoidance of Plagiarism : References help researchers avoid plagiarism by giving credit to the original authors or sources of information. This is important for ethical reasons and also to avoid legal repercussions.
• Reproducibility : References allow others to reproduce the research by providing detailed information on the sources used. This is important for verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
• Context : References provide context for the research by situating it within the broader body of knowledge in the field. They help researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
• Evaluation : References provide a means for others to evaluate the research by allowing them to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.

Advantages of References in Research

There are several advantages of including references in research:

• Acknowledgment of Sources: Including references gives credit to the authors or sources of information used in the research. This is important to acknowledge the original work and avoid plagiarism.
• Evidence and Support : References can provide evidence to support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research. This can add credibility and strength to the research.
• Reproducibility : References provide the necessary information for others to reproduce the research. This is important for the verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
• Context : References can help to situate the research within the broader body of knowledge in the field. This helps researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
• Evaluation : Including references allows others to evaluate the research by providing a means to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.
• Ongoing Conversation: References allow researchers to engage in ongoing conversations and debates within their fields. They can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Information

Inf 6120 - access to information.

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Collection Strategy & Assessment Librarian

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Reference Desks

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A reference book is often defined as "a book designed by the arrangement and treatment of its subject matter to be consulted for definite items of information rather than to be read consecutively," and a reference collection as a "collection of reference books and other materials in a library, useful for supplying authoritative information or identifying sources, kept together for convenience in providing information service, and generally not allowed to circulate." ( ALA Glossary… 1998 ) 

This page contains definitions of and examples of different types of reference sources including:.

Almanacs and Yearbooks

Bibliographies, biographies, chronologies and timelines, dictionaries and thesauri, directories, encyclopedias, handbooks and manuals.

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Almanacs are usually published annually.  Though they are not usually used for extensive research, they contain specific facts, statistics, tables and lists about people, places, events, countries, organizations, zip codes, and popular culture such as sports and entertainment. Generally, almanacs cover a broad period of time.   Yearbooks contain similar information, but cover just a given year.

Examples include:.

Atlases contain an organized group of pictorial or illustrated political, cultural, physical, road, and/or thematic maps. Atlases may be organized around a specific subject, theme, or geographic area.

Specialty Map Resource:

Directories contain an organized list of people and/or organizations, and help one to find information such as addresses, phone numbers, and email addresses, etc. for the organizations or people included within the scope of that directory. 

Indexes are compilations on information, generally arranged either alphabetically or numerically, that indicate the location of related information either within or outside of the same resource.

Learn more about Indexes and Abstracts.

Chronologies and timelines summarize the advancement of an event or happening by supplying brief milestones in the progression of the event. the summaries will be presented day-by-day, year-by-year, or by another chronological breakdown. .

 A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary that includes brief descriptive, geographical, historical, and/or statistical information on specific places. Occasionally, a gazetteer may focus on a specific subject area.

Standard dictionaries give an alphabetical list of words and their definitions, but there are several useful variations also classified as dictionaries. Thesauri contain synonyms and antonyms (opposites) but usually don't define the words.  There are also dialect and slang dictionaries, dictionaries of abbreviations and acronyms, dictionaries of quotations, and picture dictionaries. Dictionaries can be unabridged (general) or can be thematically organized in some way.

Encyclopedias contain full coverage of information about an area of knowledge. They can be general or can cover a specific subject, and contain alphabetically organized entries with varying detail. These are great starting points for fact-finding, getting background topic information, learning of key events and individuals, or starting a research project.

Bibliographies compile comprehensive lists of resources that share one or more common attributes about a particular subject, person, geographical area, etc. Some bibliographies also briefly describe the resources that are listed. One should consult a bibliography when they want citations that will guide them to specific resources.

Biographies contain information about people, both living and deceased - they can contain brief summaries of data about individuals, contain lists of citations of resources about a person, or be full length books detailing the life of one particular person. Biographies may cover general important figures, or may be organized thematically/geographically, etc. One would use a biography to look up facts or detailed information about a person or group of people. 

A handbook contains facts about a specific subject or instructions that can be used to accomplish something. A handbook can come in several forms, such as a manual for completing tasks, or a guidebook providing information about a subject, region, etc. (such as a travel guidebook). Handbooks are often designed for quick consultation and easy portability. 

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Reference Sources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Handbooks, and More!: Types of Reference Materials

• Types of Reference Materials
• Subject Specific Reference Sources

Explanation

This page contains definitions of and examples of different types of reference sources including almanacs, atlases, bibliographies, biographies, chronologies, dictionaries, directories, encyclopedias, handbooks, and indexes.

Almanacs are not usually used for extensive research , but are good for looking up specific facts, statistics, tables and lists about people, places, events, countries, organizations, zip codes, and popular culture such as sports and entertainment. Generally, almanacs cover a broad period of time, while Yearbooks, which contain similar information, only cover a given year.

Atlases contain an organized group of pictorial or illustrated political, cultural, physical, road, and/or thematic maps. Atlases may be organized around a specific subject, theme, or geographic area. 

Bibliographies

Bibliographies compile comprehensive lists of resources that share one or more common attributes about a particular subject, person, geographical area, etc. Some bibliographies also briefly describe the resources that are listed. One should consult a bibliography when they want citations that will guide them to specific resources.

Biographies

Biographies contain information about people, both living and deceased - they can contain brief summaries of data about individuals, contain lists of citations of resources about a person, or be full length books detailing the life of one particular person. Biographies may cover general important figures, or may be organized thematically/geographically, etc. One would use a biography to look up facts or detailed information about a person or group of people.

Chronologies / Timelines

Chronologies and timelines summarize the advancement of an event or happening by supplying brief milestones in the progression of the event. The summaries will be presented day-by-day, year-by-year, or by another chronological breakdown.

Dictionaries

Standard dictionaries give an alphabetical list of words and their definitions, but there are several useful variations also classified as dictionaries. Thesauri contain synonyms and antonyms (opposites) but usually don't define the words.  There are also dialect and slang dictionaries, dictionaries of abbreviations and acronyms, dictionaries of quotations, and picture dictionaries. Dictionaries can be unabridged (general) or can be thematically organized in some way.

Directories

Directories contain an organized list of people and/or organizations, and help one to find information such as addresses, phone numbers, and email addresses, etc. for the organizations or people included within the scope of that directory.

• Writers Directory by Gale Cengage Learning Staff (Editor) Publication Date: 2017-06-02 eBook

Encyclopedias

Encyclopedias contain full coverage of information about an area of knowledge. They can be general or can cover a specific subject, and contain alphabetically organized entries with varying detail. These are great starting points for fact-finding, getting background topic information, learning of key events and individuals, or starting a research project. Below is a major general encyclopedia.  See Best Practices on this guides Home page to pinpoint valuable subject-specific encyclopedias.

• Britannica ACADEMIC This link opens in a new window Encyclopedia Britannica online includes topic overviews, biographies, word and concept definitions, a world atlas, historical timelines, quotations, illustrations, photos, videos, links to relevant articles and websites, primary sources, and the World Data Analyst.

Handbooks / Manuals

A handbook contains facts about a specific subject or instructions that can be used to accomplish something. A handbook can come in several forms, such as a manual for completing tasks, or a guidebook providing information about a subject, region, etc. (such as a travel guidebook). Handbooks are often designed for quick consultation and easy portability.

Indexes are compilations on information, generally arranged either alphabetically or numerically, that indicate the location of related information either within or outside of the same resource.

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Reference Materials: Significance, General Requirements, and Demand

Affiliation.

• 1 a Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics , Nicolaus Copernicus University , Toruń , Poland.
• PMID: 26042643
• DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2015.1045120

Reference materials play an important part in the quality control of measurements. Rapid development of such new scientific disciplines as proteomics, metabolomics, and genomics also necessitates development of new reference materials. This is a great challenge due to the complexity of the production of new reference materials and difficulties associated with achieving their homogeneity and stability. CRMs of tissue are of particular importance. They can be counted among the matrices that are most complex and time consuming in preparation. Tissue is the place of transformation and accumulation of many substances (e.g., metabolites, which are intermediate or end products resulting from metabolic processes). Trace amounts of many substances in tissues must be determined with adequate precision and accuracy. To meet the needs stemming from research and from problems and challenges faced by chemists, analysts, and toxicologists, the number of certified reference materials should be continuously increased.

Keywords: Biological matrices; certification; certified reference material; homogeneity; metabolomics; uncertainty.

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General Reference

The general reference collection comprises materials that serve one or more of the following purposes:

• factual information (e.g., dictionaries, atlases, statistical yearbooks, biographical dictionaries)
• overview of a topic (e.g., handbooks, encyclopedias)
• guides to in-depth research on a topic (e.g., bibliographies, indices)       

Subject-focused reference materials are collected across subject areas and are addressed in subject-specific collection development statements. The general reference collection includes those materials that are not subject-specific, are of general interest, or are broadly multidisciplinary. 

Formats collected

The preferred format is electronic. Online resources that are optimized for use within the library’s discovery system are preferred.

Reference materials are not collected for which there are reliable, free, online alternatives. 

Languages collected

Materials are primarily collected in English. Other languages are collected as needed for subject-specific reference collections. 

Chronological and geographical focus

Current materials are emphasized.

No geographic areas are excluded.

Subject Librarian

Emily Horning Director of Undergraduate Research Education and Outreach Undergraduate Teaching and Learning Access Services - Sterling Memorial Library / Bass (203) 432-8211

Linguistics

• Finding Articles
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About this page

General reference material resources can help you:

• get an overview of a topic;
• define terms, theories, and persons in the field;
• and provide you with further readings on each subject.

Using a reference resource in your research is especially useful at the beginning of a project, when it can help you focus your activities. Within the "Specialized Reference" tab, you'll find resources divided into subsections like applied, computational, historical, morphology, neurolinguistics, philosophy, phonetics, pragmatics, semantics, semiotics, sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology, and syntax.

General Works

Disclaimer: many print reference materials may be unavailable during the pandemic-related limitations on the library services.

• The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Pergamon, 2007- (Note: Also in print, Ref1 P29 .E48 1994)
• International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003-
• The handbook of linguistics . Vol. 43. Wiley-Blackwell, 2003.
• The handbook of English linguistics . Blackwell Pub., 2006.
• Oxford University Press Linguistics , Oxford, ebook collection with titles in many areas of linguistics
• The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics , Oxford, 2008-
• The World Atlas of Language Structures Online . Munich: Max Planck Digital Library, 2011.
• International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences , Elsevier, 2006- 
• Handbook of Psycholinguistics , Elsevier, 2006. 
• Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics . London & New York: Routledge, 1996. Ref1 P29 .B982 1996
• An Encyclopaedia of Language. London & New York: Routledge, 1990. Ref1 P106 .A46 1990 
• The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 3rd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Ref1 P29 .C64 2010 
• A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics . London & New York: Routledge, 1993. Ref1 P152 .T7 1993
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Education (K-12 & Higher Ed): Find Reference Materials

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What are Reference Materials?

 Reference materials are things like encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, almanacs, and guides. They are typically books or e-books that are not meant to be read cover-to-cover, but rather, are consulted to gather specific pieces of information or to find quick facts.

The ERC Reference Collection contains numerous research handbooks in many content areas (English and language arts, reading, social studies, math and science, special education, and educational administration).

We also have specialized resources such as Tests in Print and Mental Measurements Yearbook , as well as a varied collection of reference sources related to children's literature, and much more.

About Research Handbooks, Encyclopedias, and Dictionaries

Subject-specific encyclopedias and research handbooks provide an excellent way for you to gather background information for your research paper or project.  Encyclopedias tend to provide broad (less detailed) information on more general topics, while handbooks provide greater depth on narrower topics.  Encyclopedias and handbooks help you to:

• learn about a topic that is new to you,
• focus in on a topic for your paper or project,
• find additional sources on a topic (via included bibliographies and references)
• come up with search terms to use when looking for journal articles and books 

Although dictionaries generally provide brief definitions of terms, some may provide lengthier definitions or explanations of concepts that can help you to better understand a topic.

Print Reference Sources in the ERC

Find encyclopedias and handbooks in the ERC Reference collection (print collection) by using the search box below (the search will be limited to the ERC Reference collection).

You can do title or keyword searches on the following words and phrases, among others:

• encyclopedia
• educational research
• mathematics
• language arts

Search the ERC Reference Collection:

ERC Reference Keyword Title Author Subject

Advanced Search

Online Education & Psychology Reference Sources

The following sources are part of Maxwell Library's subscriptions to Credo Reference and Gale Virtual Reference Library .

[ Complete List of Credo Reference Titles ] [ Complete List of Gale eBooks (formerly Gale Virtual Reference Library Titles) ]

• Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science
• Identifying and Educating Poor and Under-represented Gifted Students from International Handbook of Giftedness and Talent

General Encyclopedias Online

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https://www.nist.gov/srm/srm-definitions

Standard Reference Materials

Srm definitions.

Reference Material (RM) - Material, sufficiently homogeneous and stable with respect to one or more specified properties, which has been established to be fit for its intended use in a measurement process

RM is a generic term.

Properties can be quantitative or qualitative, e.g. identity of substances or species.

Uses may include the calibration of a measurement system, assessment of a measurement procedure, assigning values to other materials, and quality control.

A single RM cannot be used for both calibration and validation of results in the same measurement procedure.

International Vocabulary of Metrology – Basic and General Concepts and Associated Terms has an analogous definition (VIM - ISO/IEC Guide 99:2007, 5.13), but restricts the term "measurement" to apply to quantitative values and not to qualitative properties. However, Note 3 of ISO/IEC Guide 99:2007, 5.13, specifically includes the concept of qualitative attributes, called "nominal properties".

(ISO Guide 30:1992/Amd 1:2008)

Certified Reference Material (CRM) - Reference material characterized by a metrologically valid procedure for one or more specified properties, accompanied by a certificate that provides the value of the specified property, its associated uncertainty, and a statement of metrological traceability

The concept of value includes qualitative attributes such as identity or sequence. Uncertainties for such attributes may be expressed as probabilities.

Metrologically valid procedures for the production and certification of reference materials are given in, among others, ISO Guides 34 and 35.

ISO Guide 31 gives guidance on the contents of certificates.

VIM has an analogous definition (ISO/IEC Guide 99:2007, 5.14).

Reference Material Certificate - Document accompanying a certified reference material stating one or more property values and their uncertainties, and confirming that the necessary procedures have been carried out to ensure their validity and traceability. (ISO Guide 30: 1992)

NIST Standard Reference Material® (SRM) - A CRM issued by NIST that also meets additional NIST-specific certification criteria and is issued with a certificate or certificate of analysis that reports the results of its characterizations and provides information regarding the appropriate use(s) of the material (NIST SP 260-136). Note: An SRM is prepared and used for three main purposes: (1) to help develop accurate methods of analysis; (2) to calibrate measurement systems used to facilitate exchange of goods, institute quality control, determine performance characteristics, or measure a property at the state-of-the-art limit; and (3) to ensure the long-term adequacy and integrity of measurement quality assurance programs. The term "Standard Reference Material" is registered with the United States Patent and Trademark Office.

NIST Reference Material - Material issued by NIST with a report of investigation instead of a certificate to: (1) further scientific or technical research; (2) determine the efficacy of a prototype reference material; (3) provide a homogeneous and stable material so that investigators in different laboratories can be ensured that they are investigating the same material; and (4) ensure availability when a material produced and certified by an organization other than NIST is defined to be in the public interest or when an alternate means of national distribution does not exist. A NIST RM meets the ISO definition for a RM and may meet the ISO definition for a CRM (depending on the organization that produced it).

NIST Research Grade Test Material (RGTM) - A material evaluated during the SRM/RM development phase.  RGTMs may be distributed in a NIST-sponsored interlaboratory inter-comparison to determine the fit for purpose of the candidate SRM/RM material.  It is prepared to be homogeneous and stable but typically has not been quantitatively evaluated for all properties of potential interest.

NIST Traceable Reference Material TM (NTRM TM ) - A commercially-produced reference material with a well-defined traceability linkage to existing NIST standards for chemical measurements. This traceability linkage is established via criteria and protocols defined by NIST to meet the needs of the metrological community to be served (NIST SP 260-136). Reference materials producers adhering to these requirements are allowed use of the NTRM trademark. A NIST NTRM may be recognized by a regulatory authority as being equivalent to a CRM .

NIST Certified Value - A value reported on an SRM certificate or certificate of analysis for which NIST has the highest confidence in its accuracy in that all known or suspected sources of bias have been fully investigated or accounted for by NIST. (NIST SP 260-136)

NIST Reference Value - A best estimate of the true value provided on a NIST certificate, certificate of analysis, or report of investigation where all known or suspected sources of bias have not been fully investigated by NIST. (NIST SP 260-136)

NIST SRM Certificate or Certificate of Analysis - In accordance with ISO Guide 31: 2000, a NIST SRM certificate is a document containing the name, description, and intended purpose of the material, the logo of the U.S. Department of Commerce, the name of NIST as a certifying body, instructions for proper use and storage of the material, certified property value(s) with associated uncertainty(ies), method(s) used to obtain property values, the period of validity, if appropriate, and any other technical information deemed necessary for its proper use. A Certificate is issued for an SRM certified for one or more specific physical or engineering performance properties and may contain NIST reference, information, or both values in addition to certified values. A Certificate of Analysis is issued for an SRM certified for one or more specific chemical properties. Note: ISO Guide 31 is updated periodically; check with ISO for the latest version.

NIST Certificate of Traceability - Document stating the purpose, protocols, and measurement pathways that support claims by an NTRM to specific NIST standards or stated references. No NIST certified values are provided, but rather the document references a specific NIST report of analysis, bears the logo of the U.S. Department of Commerce, the name of NIST as a certifying body, and the name and title of the NIST officer authorized to accept responsibility for its contents.

NIST RM Report of Investigation - Document issued with a NIST RM that contains all the technical information necessary for proper use of the material, the logo of the U.S. Department of Commerce, and the name and title of the NIST officer authorized to issue it. There are no NIST certified values provided, and authorship of a report's contents may be by an organization other than NIST.

NIST Report of Analysis (ROA) - Document containing the certification of the material and including such information as the base material used, how the SRM was manufactured, the certification method(s) and description of procedures, outside collaborators, instructions for use, special instructions for packaging, handling, and storage, and plan for stability testing. The ROA is intended for internal NIST use only

Status - SRM/RMs can have one the following status values:

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Physical standards and reference materials are substances or materials produced in a controlled environment that are used as a “calibrator” to produce additional substances or materials (e.g., materials of documented purity certified by an analytical laboratory or other noncommercial establishment). FDA scientists may develop standards and reference materials and may depend on internal or external lab consortia for validation and distribution. In addition, external parties (e.g., U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology and National Institute of Biological Standards and Control in the United Kingdom) develop standards and reference materials and depend on FDA laboratories to participate in validation studies. For example, annually, FDA develops, validates, and distributes the strain-matched standard of the seasonal and pandemic strains of the influenza vaccine for potency (effectiveness) testing. The Agency also participates in developing standards for a variety of regulated products that are often later adopted as international standards by the World Health Organization (WHO). Currently, FDA laboratories are involved in an international multi-laboratory study endorsed by WHO to validate reference materials for SARS-CoV-2 ribonucleic acid (RNA) and antibody detection assays. Some of FDA’s laboratories also function as a WHO Collaborating Center .

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• J Res Natl Bur Stand (1977)
• v.93(3); May-Jun 1988

Accuracy in Analysis: The Role of Standard Reference Materials

1. introduction.

What one question haunts the best of analytical chemists when their day’s work is done? Four of the main questions that arise regarding any analytical method are:

• —Is it sensitive enough for the level of detection required?
• —Is it free of interferences for the desired analyte?
• —Is it precise, so that the results are reproducible?
• —Is it accurate, so that the results approach true values?

Probably it is the last of these questions that brings the greatest difficulty and the most soul searching to the analyst. If this were not the case, why are there so many cars in chemistry building parking lots on weekends and holidays? Why are analysts often reluctant to report results without “just one more retest”?

This paper will attempt to pick apart some of these questions. While it may answer none of them conclusively, it is aimed at demonstrating the role of Standard Reference Materials (SRMs) in the analyst’s pursuit of accuracy. In the case of trace analysis near the detection limit of state-of-the-art methods, certifiers of reference materials face a very special problem: certified error limits often seem unacceptably high when considered on a relative basis. This paper will include a brief discussion of this problem.

2. Role of Standard Reference Materials (SRMs)

Simply stated, the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) produces SRMs to help people bring quality assurance to their measurements. In some cases instruments require SRMs for calibration. In most cases measurement accuracy should be validated by use of a certified reference material.

In the mining and manufacturing industries, at least four major stages of activity require measurements and thus some form of measurement quality assurance:

• —Raw Materials.
• —Finished Materials.
• —Subcomponents.
• —Products.

At the first two stages, the measurements are most likely to be chemical analyses. At later production stages, measurements are more apt to be physical or engineering tests. Increasingly, SRMs are also being produced for use in these later stages of production.

Today, the U.S. economy has shifted from manufacturing to an emphasis on the service sector. Chemical analysis plays an important role in this sector, too. Here we often find measurement quality assurance needs for analyses in such service areas as: environmental, clinical, geological, and energy. SRMs are underutilized by the service sector and could be very helpful to future improvements in quality assurance of measurements.

A third community that has a heavy focus on measurements is the academic and R&D community. Here is where we get most of our new concepts for instrumentation and measurement methods. When new developments are tried out in the lab and reported in the literature, SRMs have a critical role in helping the researchers assess the accuracy of what they have wrought.

3. Concern About Accuracy

In certifying SRMs, the goal at the NBS is to give a true value at a stated level of accuracy for each property certified [ 1 ]. Notice the word accuracy rather than precision. The concept of accuracy is focused on arriving at the “true” or “actual” value of a property. Real world materials are usually not completely uniform, so the true value may differ for different samples taken from the material. Provided the differences are small, they may be covered in an accuracy statement representative of the entire lot. Large differences require rejection of the lot or individual certification of each sample.

Conversely, precision gives no indication of how closely a set of measurements approaches the true value. The concept of precision is focused on how tightly clustered a set of measurements is. Said another way, one can have a set of measurements which is extremely precise, but also extremely wrong. Precision may be viewed as a necessary but not sufficient precursor of accuracy.

I have tried to establish an estimate of accuracy that a wide range of chemists and methods realize at trace levels. To do this, I have used a literature survey [ 2 ] which has reviewed more than 100 papers citing results of analysis of SRM 1571, Orchard Leaves. In table 1 are summarized the results found for two elements (iron and aluminum) which are present at about 300 μg/g. Note that iron is certified by NBS, while aluminum is not. Similarly, one certified element (strontium) and one element not certified (titanium) in SRM 1571 are shown and are at about one order of magnitude lower concentration. A more detailed view of the analytical accuracy is given in the next two tables.

1571 Orchard Leaves (μg/g)

Table 2 shows that the range of values for the 109 determinations of iron (certified) is no greater than the range of 41 determinations of aluminum (not certified). For each element the three highest and three lowest values reported are shown together with the certified or mean value. What is critical to note is that uncertainty statements provided in the literature may be unfoundedly optimistic but are substantially improved when a certified value is available.

1571 Orchard Leaves (μg/g) literature [ 2 ]

The situation is similar for lower concentrations, as shown in table 3 . Here uncertainty estimates for titanium are in error by as much as 5000%. Note from tables 1 and ​ and3 3 that at least six of the seven analysts reporting titanium do not include, within their uncertainties, the mean of the seven determinations.

4. Concern that SRMs Are Underutilized

It is very difficult to estimate the degree to which SRMs are utilized when their use is warranted. Review of sales records gives the rather imprecise “feeling” that usage in mining and manufacturing may exceed 10% of the applicable occasions. However, in the service sector, a 1% usage rate may be a better estimate. An open question is, “Are chemists receiving an adequate education in the use of Standard Reference Materials?”

In the academic and R&D sector a very rough idea of the rate of usage can be established by examining papers where the use of SRMs would have been helpful to validate new work. In tables 4 and ​ and5, 5 , we have a survey of SRM use taken from periodicals spaced 10 years apart.

Survey of three August 1977 periodicals to compare potential and actual use of SRMs

Survey of three August 1987 periodicals to compare potential and actual use of SRMs

The precision of the data probably does not warrant concluding that usage rates have changed between 1977 and 1987. However, the data do provide gratifying evidence that researchers realize some value in reporting validation of new work by SRMs. I feel that a usage factor of at least 50% should be obtainable in this sector. Could it be obtained if reviewers of papers were a bit more insistent that reported results include SRMs when available?

5. Certification of SRMs

At NBS, we cannot rely only on assessments of measurement precision to set uncertainty limits [ 1 ]. Instead, an individually tailored program is set up for the project design, measurement, and certification of each SRM. Typically, this program will include measurement by more than one method and in more than one laboratory. Unless SRM units are individually certified, the program also must assess the homogeneity of the lot of material.

At each step of the program careful attention is given to precision of results from each method and each laboratory. Statistical assessments are made of homogeneity, which can be considered the material component to imprecision, in contrast to the precision of various measurements made on the material.

By the end of the measurement process, the measurement experts and the project manager have in hand far too much data to put onto a certificate. Their job is to distill those data into one meaningful uncertainty statement for each value certified. Obviously, they must take into account the precision of all the measurements and the homogeneity of the material, but, more importantly, they must zero in on the true value. They must crosscornpare data from different, independent methods. They often need to evaluate data from different laboratories. They must probe for systematic errors or bias in methods and instruments, including examination of such questions as recoveries and results on control samples.

Finally, they decide on the best possible description of the stated level of accuracy for the certification. Sometimes this parameter is stated as a tolerance interval; more often, it is simply given as an estimated uncertainty. The important factor to reiterate is that the uncertainty statement is more than a precision statement. Typically, the uncertainty will include the combined effects of method imprecision, possible systematic errors among methods, and material variability.

In cases where certification is for an element near the detection limit of state-of-the-art methods, it is usual for relative uncertainties to be large. For example, an element that can be certified at 1 ± 0.8 ng/g may seem to have an unacceptably high relative uncertainty of ±80%. However, the absolute error is quite small and defines the presence of one more element in the SRM to within ±0.8 ng/g. Until the methods for that particular element are improved, a certification with large relative uncertainty is all that is possible.

6. Consideration for SRM Users

As instrumental methods become very precise, users of a single, precise method begin to question why that method is so much more precise than the uncertainties on NBS certificates [ 1 ]. They wonder why NBS is “working at such low precision.” NBS uncertainty limits will always be wider than the precision obtained in any of the individual measurement methods used in certification.

It is good for users to have highly precise methods because they serve as a precursor to their attaining accurate measurement. In a sense it means they are ready to make full and effective use of SRMs to calibrate or validate their measurements. But users must be cautioned never to assume that good precision implies accuracy, without the confirmation by SRMs.