101 "What If..." Story Prompts To Inspire Your Writing

what if history assignment

Do you need some help conjuring compelling ideas? Sometimes reading simple story prompts is the easiest way to find them.

Why Use Story Prompts?

Building story prompts into your writing routine can make you a better writer. Not only will they get the creative juices flowing, but story prompts can also help warm-up your brain for a productive writing session and help you develop a wider writing skill-set.

If you want to explore new writing styles, storylines, and characters in a small, safe test environment, story prompts can definitely take you into unfamiliar territory. They can also push you to be more creative as you concentrate at a high level on a relatively short writing task.

Drawing Inspiration from Story Prompts 

Most writers are often asked, “Where do you get your ideas from?” Or “Do you have any favorite story prompts that inspire you?” A majority of the time, writers find it difficult to answer that question.

We get our ideas from a plethora of sources — news headlines, novels, television shows, movies, our lives, our fears, our phobias, etc. They can come from a scene or moment in a film that wasn’t fully explored. They can come from a single visual that entices the creative mind — a seed that continues to grow and grow until the writer is forced to finally put it to paper or screen.

One of the best ways to find compelling and engaging story concepts is to come up with intriguing "What if..." story prompts. Some of the greatest cinematic stories have come from the answers to some of those questions.

Story Prompts in Action

Story Prompt: What if a nuclear submarine was ordered to launch their nuclear arsenal onto the world? Movie: Crimson Tide

Story Prompt: What if a little boy could see dead people when nobody else could? Movie: The Sixth Sense

Story Prompt: What if the world we live in is actually a computer simulation? Movie: The Matrix

Story Prompt: What if the males in a family could travel back in time to right their own wrongs, have greater success, or visit with lost loved ones? Movie: About Time

The answers to story prompts that you conjure may inspire screenplays, novels, short stories, or even smaller moments that you can include in what stories you are already writing or what you will create in your upcoming projects.

We've previously offered terrifying horror story prompts that writers could use.

Read ScreenCraft's  101 Terrifying Horror Story Prompts !

Now we open the story prompts possibilities up to all genres. You can use these seeds and apply them to any genre of your choosing. Here we offer 101 "What if..." story prompts to get those creative juices flowing.

Note: Because we're all connected to the same pop culture, news headlines, and inspirations, any similarity to any past, present, or future screenplays, novels, short stories, television pilots, television series, plays, or any other creative works is purely coincidence. These story prompts were conceived on the fly without any research or Google search for inspiration.

1. What if the past and present timelines began to merge?

2. What if the Greek Gods truly did use to walk the earth? 

3. What if your stepfather or stepmother is actually your future self?

4. What if the sun began to die?

5. What if the universe as we know it is actually someone's imagination?

what if history assignment

6. What if the Big Bang was actually nothing more than someone coming up with the idea of our solar system?

7. What if an alien invasion was actually meant to stop humans from destroying themselves?

8. What if a young boy or young girl could hear everyone's inner thoughts?

9. What if a newly elected President came to power because they could hear everyone's inner thoughts?

10. What if technology was a test given to us by aliens to see what we'd do with it?

11. What if a portal opened to another world during a child's sleepover?

12. What if the human mind suddenly went through an extreme form of evolution?

what if history assignment

13. What if robots were actually here first?

14. What if we are actually the descendants of another planet, brought here long ago?

15. What if an executioner was suddenly granted the ability to bring people back from the dead?

16. What if the dream world is the actual world?

17. What if World War I never happened?

18. What if World War II never happened?

19. What if the space program never stopped going to the moon?

what if history assignment

20. What if there are still people in bunkers from the buildup to the Y2K scare?

21. What if a worldwide EMP destroyed all electronics?

22. What if a woman was elected President?

23. What if the oceans began to dry up?

24. What if dinosaurs are still alive somewhere?

25. What if vampires are real?

26. What if ghosts were the ones that were alive... not us?

what if history assignment

27. What if some scientist has been successfully cloning humans for years?

28. What if you had the powers of God for one day? 

29. What if you could relive your childhood in exchange for your life? 

30. What if the Creator has been in a coma? 

31. What if Christ has been among us for 32 years? 

32. What if someone could possess anyone's body for 24 hours?

33. What if God came down as a human to explore his or her creation?

what if history assignment

34. What if Bruce Lee never died?

35. What if someone came out to the press claiming to be Andy Kaufman?

36. What if Hitler survived World War II? 

37. What if Hitler was discovered living in an American suburb in the 1950s?

38. What if someone unlocked the secret to immortality? 

39. What if Christ was an alien... and he returned?

40. What if the remaining superpowers decided to invade America?

41. What if a humanoid underwater civilization was discovered in the ocean depths?

what if history assignment

42. What if magicians were actually part of a secret society that could use real magic?

43. What if every human being had the same dream at the same time?

44. What if the world suddenly became a musical and people could only communicate in song?

45. What if dogs and humans switched bodies?

46. What if cats and dogs ruled the earth?

47. What if there was a scientifical explanation to ghosts?

48. What if a wormhole opened up just outside of Earth's atmosphere?

what if history assignment

49. What if the moon was once Earth's equivalent?

50. What if Mars is already populated by a species living underground?

51. What if you could stop time at will?

52. What if someone had the ability to morph into anyone, anytime?

53. What if a comatose patient could communicate with their loved ones through their dreams?

54. What if a comatose patient started to haunt the dreams of their nurse?

what if history assignment

55. What if Mark Twain was brought into the present from the past to experience how life has changed?

56. What if time travel was real?

57. What if time travel was discovered long ago by the elite New Order?

58. What if all conspiracy theories are actually true?

59. What if President Kennedy had never died?

60. What if a small town in the middle of nowhere was actually a human zoo on an alien world?

what if history assignment

61. What if someone from Oz was left in Kansas after a tornado?

62. What if the cure for cancer was found, but the government doesn't want us to know?

63. What if every male in the world dropped dead because of some chromosome-related disease?

64. What if Area 51 hides a wormhole to alien worlds?

65. What if Area 51 is a cover site?

66. What if a reporter discovered that an unknown astronaut went missing in space during the Gemini and Apollo missions?  

what if history assignment

67. What if angels lived among us?

68. What if children were now angels born into man?

69. What if a police officer discovered that his whole precinct was actually aliens in disguise?

70. What if humans are all organic robots that killed off their makers long ago?

71. What if the memories of every living human on Earth were erased?

72. What if all of the adults disappeared, leaving only children to fend for themselves?

73. What if there are monsters living under our beds?

74. What if a poor man or woman discovered an actual money tree that only they could see?

what if history assignment

75. What if someone woke up to discover that they were living in their parent's bodies during their own childhood?

76. What if video game consoles could control real soldiers?

77. What if a boy or girl realizes that their family has been replaced by aliens?

78. What if rooms in a huge mansion were portals to people's nightmares?

79. What if a serial killer found out that they had a long lost child? 

80. What if someone woke up in a remote forest with no recollection of how they got there?

what if history assignment

81. What if a brother and sister, fighting over who gets to play Fortnite, were sucked into the game? 

82. What if someone discovered that they could email their past self?

83. What if hackers erased everyone's debt?

84. What if an earthquake unleashed a series of underground monsters?

85. What if a professional thief was blackmailed into stealing a haunted artifact from King Tut's tomb?

86. What if a newly elected President of the United States tried to find out the truth about the Kennedy Assassination?

87. What if a newly elected President of the United States tried to find out the truth about Roswell?

88. What if humans began to age backward? 

89. What if Star Wars was not a figment of George Lucas's imagination?

90. What if the Titanic suddenly appeared... with no people onboard?

91. What if the Titanic suddenly appeared... with all of the original passengers and crew members onboard?

92. What if someone woke up in a strange spaceship with no recollection of how they got there?

what if history assignment

93. What if someone kept waking up from dream after dream with no end and no way to determine what was real and what was a dream?

94. What if the late night layover in a deserted airport was actually the gateway to heaven or hell?

95. What if an island suddenly appeared off of the coast of New York?

96. What if you suddenly woke up in the process of getting an MRI with no recollection of who you are and how you got there?

97. What if you started to take on the characteristics and personality of your organ donor?

98. What if the medical field performed the first brain transplant... with drastic results?

99. What if a writer's words came to life?

100. What if filmmakers could produce a film by merely imagining it in their heads? 

101. What if you are actually the character that someone conjured after reading these story writing prompts? 

what if history assignment

Share this with your writing peers or anyone that loves a good story. Have some prompts of your own? Share them through comments on Facebook posts or Twitter retweets!

Keep writing.

For more writing resources, sign up for the ScreenCraft's Screenwriting Newsletter Here !

Ken Miyamoto has worked in the film industry for nearly two decades, most notably as a studio liaison for Sony Studios and then as a script reader and story analyst for Sony Pictures.

He has many studio meetings under his belt as a produced screenwriter, meeting with the likes of Sony, Dreamworks, Universal, Disney, Warner Brothers, as well as many production and management companies. He has had a previous development deal with Lionsgate, as well as multiple writing assignments, including the produced miniseries  Blackout , starring Anne Heche, Sean Patrick Flanery, Billy Zane, James Brolin, Haylie Duff, Brian Bloom, Eric La Salle, and Bruce Boxleitner. Follow Ken on Twitter  @KenMovies

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what if history assignment

Teaching History Blog

Sunday, January 17, 2010

"what if" assignment.

Some events happen so quickly but have a tremendous significance at the time and later. For the “What If” Assignment, students reflect on a quick moment in time like an assassination or even a near miss of a key historical figure. Then based on their knowledge of the event, that person’s role in history prior to the assassination attempt, and the impact of their loss on history, students predict what might be different in history and today had the attempt failed or succeeded.

1. Pose this question to students “What if Booth missed?” or “What if Lincoln had survived the assassination attempt?” Then ask them to brainstorm all the thought that come to mind in 5 minutes.

2. Conduct a discussion in the class around the Lincoln assassination as this is already a popular topic. Even at one medical convention they discussed what if medicine could have saved him.

3. Student picks a key historical figure’s assignation or attempted assassination. Here are a few to suggest for US History: Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, Robert F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan, James Garfield, William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D Roosevelt, Harry S Truman, Richard M. Nixon, John F Kennedy, John Lennon (If you conduct the Lincoln Discussion, you probably won’t offer this one to students)

4. Student researches biography of key historical figure, events prior to the assassination, the assassination, the biography of the assassinator, and the outcome and effect of that attempt.

5. Based on their understanding of the person, events surrounding the assassination, and later the outcomes, the student writes a paper or presentation predicting what might have occurred differently then and now had the result of the assassination had been changed.

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Changing history.

Students will research a historical event, “change history” by asking a “What if…” question.  The students will rewrite new information based on their research using the same era and people involved to realistically alter the outcome of the event(s).

Grade Level: 8 - 10th

Length of time: about 2 - 4 class periods, sponsored school(s), objectives & outcomes.

The students will be able to research a past historical event, identify key decisions or aspects of the event, and then realistically alter it by responding to a “What if…” question.  The students will be able to effectively communicate the information using a written report, essay, or oral presentation.

Materials Needed

  • Internet access or other research resources, historical event

Prepare ahead of time :  Example essay w/historical event along with a “What if…” question and possible responses, alternate outcomes, changes in history.  Prepare written instructions for the assignment.

Opening to Lesson

  • Read the prepared example essay in its alternative history form (For example: The essay may start- “On April 14 th in 1865, following the trip to Ford’s Theatre President Lincoln headed back to the White House…”
  • Ask students if they notice any unusual facts about the event(s)
  • Discuss their responses and ask for other suggestions of what may have changed in American history

Body of Lesson

  • Ask several “What if…” questions: What if America di not land on the moon?  What if Adolph Hitler had never lived?  What if the Internet was never invented?
  • Ask students to think about other “What if…” questions in history
  • Assign students, or allow them to choose, a historical event to research

Guided Practice

  • Distribute the instructions for the assignment
  • Explain to student they are to research as much information as possible about the event
  • While doing the research, reflect on some of the decisions or choices made by some of the key figures
  • Encourage students to create several “What if…” questions based on the research
  • Direct students to reflect on how history may have changed if the figures made different choices or events were altered (What if 9/11 never happened?)
  • Allow students time to do further research if necessary related to the altered history or changes in the historical event
  • Inform students to write an essay or report with the “new story” about the historical event
  • The story must include as much detail as possible and be written effectively to communicate the “What if…” results
  • Once all students are completed assign schedule some or all students for a class presentation for an opportunity to read the essays
  • Following each presentation, have a short class discussion to debate the realistic possibility of the alternate history

Independent Practice

  • For homework: Ask students to write an essay for “What if…” question related to their personal lives.  (Example:  “What if I had attended another school?”

Use a follow-up class session to discuss the variables involved in the choices, and even daily decisions, made by political leaders and individuals in all periods of history.  The difficulties involved and the judgements made by others, etc.

Assessment & Evaluation

Final written report with conclusions and insights and/or class presentation evaluation using expectations/rubrics prepared ahead of time.

Modification & Differentiation

Students may work in pairs; one student researching the actual event, the other student altering the future; eliminate the class presentation, instead have it completed only as a written assignment; use event from one century only, or one event for the entire class leading to a variety of outcomes; assign each student a “What if… question/event in advance

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In This Section

  • Classroom Materials: Digitized Primary Sources
  • Classroom Materials: Rubrics and Syllabi
  • Classroom Materials: Sample Assignments
  • Classroom Materials: Teaching Modules
  • Classroom Materials: History Skills
  • Classroom Materials: Reflections on Teaching
  • Classroom Materials: History Lessons and Background Materials

Sample Assignments

Sample assignment showcasing the importance of local/regional history in the early american survey course.

Brittany Adams focuses on incorporating more regional history into the early survey. She also emphasizes the importance of de-centering the British colonial narrative when teaching students who identify more with western US history, as do many of her students at UC Irvine.

Assignment: Social History of the Atlantic Slave Trade

Shannon Bontrager not only incorporated global contexts into his survey, but he also used non-traditional and digital pedagogical tools to engage his students.

Chinese Immigrants in America in the 19th Century: A Study Module

These materials, produced by Vincent A. Clark as a result of his work in the Bridging Cultures program, consist of an illustrated introduction, excerpts from four contemporaneous articles, an online quiz (not included in these materials), and an assignment for an e-mail discussion. The introduction describes not only the life of the immigrants in the United States but their economic and cultural background in China. The goal is to expand the students’ knowledge to include the China from which these immigrants came. Two of the articles oppose Chinese immigrants; two praise them. They are designed to let students see the varying perceptions of the immigrants, the arguments for and against Chinese immigration, and the complex class and ethnic dimensions of this controversy.

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Extra Credit Assignment

As part of her work in the Bridging Cultures program, Cheryll Cody designed a course assignment using the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database. It requires students to answer a series of questions by looking at the database’s extensive collection of maps and charts.

The US Becomes an Empire, Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries

As part of his work in the Bridging Cultures program, Carlos Contreras provided some classroom assignments and activities that challenge students to think "Atlantically" and "Pacifically" as they think broadly about American history. This set of discussion questions focuses on the expansion of the US as it becomes an imperial power and has students critically examine the US-Caribbean relationship, Hawaii and the Philippines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Discussion Questions on the Film Manifest Destiny

History and policy education program.

Oct. 2, 2015 -  Modeled on the National History Center's Congressional Briefings by Historians program, the History and Policy Education Program aims to help students appreciate the importance of bringing historical perspectives to contemporary policy conversations.  Designed to be adaptable to many courses and teaching styles, the Mock Policy Briefing initiative provides a guide for history educators to develop and host briefings about the historical dimensions of current policy questions.  Read more about the background of the initiative in the October issue of  Perspectives on History. 

Paper Assignment: Encountering Commodities in the Atlantic and the Pacific Worlds

This sample assignment requires students to use primary and secondary sources to connect American history with the Atlantic and Pacific worlds and write a paper that focuses on the circulation of commodities, peoples, and ideas throughout those worlds. This paper assignment has three major parts: a list of sources for students to read and study along with guiding questions on each reading; a mapping exercise; and the five page paper.

Paper Assignment: Localizing Global Encounters, Case Study: New Netherland/New York (Suffolk County Community College)

This sample assignment requires students to use primary and secondary sources to connect American history with the Atlantic and Pacific worlds and write a paper that focuses on encounters between different groups of Europeans in New Netherland/New York. This paper assignment has three major parts: a list of sources for students to read and study along with guiding questions on each reading; a mapping exercise; and the five page paper.

Sample Assignments from Globalized US History Courses

As part of her work in the Bridging Cultures program, Amy Forss employed wide-ranging techniques such as PechaKucha presentations, oral history research, and greater study of maps to engage her students in their globalized US history courses. She even had her students find historical recipes and try them out.

Revolutions, Independence and New Nations: The Great Transformation

As part of his work in the Bridging Cultures program, Carlos Contreras provided some classroom assignments and activities that challenge students to think "Atlantically" and "Pacifically" as they think broadly about American history. This set of discussion questions helps students consider the implications of revolution in the Atlantic world.

Discussion Questions on the Film Black in Latin America

As part of his work in the Bridging Cultures program, Carlos Contreras provided some classroom assignments and activities that challenge students to think "Atlantically" and "Pacifically" as they think broadly about American history. This set of readings and discussion questions helps students consider the complexities of the Transatlantic slave trade and the broader Atlantic world during the colonial era, particularly considering the film "Black in Latin America."

Films and Readings on the African Slave Trade and the Atlantic World

As part of his work in the Bridging Cultures program, Carlos Contreras provided some classroom assignments and activities that challenge students to think "Atlantically" and "Pacifically" as they think broadly about American history. This set of discussion questions helps students consider the complexities of the Transatlantic slave trade and the broader Atlantic world during the colonial era.

Africans in the Americas: Discussion Questions from Lepore, Benjamin, Articles, and Film

Video assignment based on isabel allende's daughter of fortune.

Oscar Cañedo crafted this creative assignment about the California Gold Rush and the experiences of people traveling from South America to get to California. He used a story from prominent Latin American novelist Isabel Allende as a backdrop for the assignment. Students craft their own characters based on Isabelle Allende's novel Daughter of Fortune and produce videos to explain why they wished to make the arduous journey to California

Plagiarism: Curricular Materials for History Instructors

History instructors can use this guide to teach students how to avoid plagiarism. It includes a discussion of how the American Historical Association defines plagiarism, tips on preventing and detecting plagiarism in student work, exercises to sharpen students’ understanding of plagiarism, a list of suggested readings for graduate students, an annotated bibliography, and a list of useful web sites.

ChronoZoom Memory and History Project Rubric

Discovering american social history on the web.

Dan Kallgren developed several sample assignments for use in his undergraduate survey course "United States History Since the Civil War," in the spring of 2000. Assignments can be used inidividually or in series, as each is accompanied by suggested reading and primary sources.

The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

One of Dan Kallgren's assignments. Students read a section from "Out of Many; A History of the American People" by John Mack Faragher, et al., to contextualize primary source documents about the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire. After analyzing the sources, the students write a short report.

The Anti-Saloon League

One of Dan Kallgren's assignments. Students analyze digital primary sources in order to contextualize and understand the motivation of the Anti-Saloon League members.

Mapping Suburbanization

One of Dan Kallgren's assignments. Using topographical maps from the University of New Hampshire, students explore how the landscape surrounding a 1950s New Hampshire city changed over time. Students are asked to consider how sociopolitical factors such as the Cold War might have affected the development of the United States.

World Civilizations: The Ancient Period to 500 CE

In David Smith's project, students use world history methods (Big Picture, Diffusion, Syncretism, Comparison, and Common Phenomena) to interpret secondary and primary materials. Primary material is handled through directed reading questions that focus on three classics: the Odyssey, the Ramayana and the Analects.

JFK's Executive Orders and the New Frontier

One of Dan Kallgren's assignments. Students analyze executive orders from President Kennedy to draw out themes and place them in the context of Kennedy's agenda.

United States History from the Civil War to the Present Syllabus

Sue C. Patrick's syllabus for her United States History from the Civil War to the Present course, which includes assignments and links to digital primary sources.

United States History through the Civil War Syllabus

Sue C. Patrick's syllabus for a United States History through the Civil War course. The syllabus includes assignments and links to digital primary sources.

Sample Assignment: Charting Your Journey with ORBIS

Created by John Rosinbum as part of his Teaching with #DigHist series on AHA Today, This assignment asks students to craft a hypothetical journey using ORBIS, a digital humanities project at Stanford University that allows users to plot a route between sites in the Roman Empire and simulate the journey. After rationalizing the choices made when planning their trip, students use a comic strip or travel diary to recount the trials and tribulations of their journey. The assignment helps develop skills in writing narratives, real or imagined. In addition, it develops the historical skills of contextualization and causation by asking the students to ground their narratives in a place they have already learned about and then justify the steps in their journey. While designed for middle school students, the assignment and attached rubric could easily be adapted for students ranging from elementary school to entry-level undergraduate.

Sample Assignment: Comparing Spatial Depictions of the Roman World

Created by John Rosinbum as part of his Teaching with #DigHist series on AHA Today, this assignment requires students to analyze the depictions of the Roman world created in digital projects ORBIS and the Digital Atlas of Roman and Medieval Civilizations. Designed for high performing high school students and freshman/sophomore undergraduate students, the assignment pushes students to compare the two projects and gives them the opportunity to explore how purpose, argument and data shape a project.

Sample Assignment: Visualizing the Transatlantic Slave Trade with Voyages

Created by John Rosinbum as part of his Teaching with #DigHist series on AHA Today, this assignment offers students the opportunity to use their visual and/or technical skills to create a visualization of the transatlantic slave trade. Students will use the information provided by Voyages to create either a digital or an analog data visualization of the trade. In addition they will write a detailed guide explaining their process and defending their choices. This assignment asks them to think deeply about the process of visualizing history and personally involves them in the process of generating a better understanding of the past.

Sample Assignment: Tracking a Slave Ship with Voyages

Created by John Rosinbum as part of his Teaching with #DigHist series on AHA Today, asks students to investigate a specific slave vessel and contextualize its journeys within their broader knowledge of the trade and concurrent historical events/processes that might have affected it.

Teaching the Slave Trade with Voyages: The Transatlantic Slave Trade Database (AHA Today)

New perspectives on 19th-century america [assignment].

John Rosinbum uses American Panorama, a digital atlas created by the University of Richmond's Digital Scholarship Lab, to teach students about the economic, cultural, and territorial transformations that changed America during the 19th century. In this assignment, students must create their own visualization of changes in 19th-century America. Students must also develop a guide that defends their research choices in the creation of the visualization, explains how the visualization extends our current understanding of the period, and distinguishes their visualization from American Panorama.

Analyzing Visual Depictions of America's Expansion with American Panorama

John Rosinbum uses American Panorama, a digital atlas created by the University of Richmond's Digital Scholarship Lab, to teach students about the economic, cultural, and territorial transformations that changed America during the 19th century. In this sample assignment, he asks students to compare two maps from American Panorama dealing with the 19th century and explore how each map presents American expansion differently.

Creating Maps Using Carto [Assignment]

Lindsey Passenger Wieck (St. Mary's Univ.) explains how students in her history classroom use Carto to create maps. The exercise helps students become critical consumers of maps and media, while designing and implementing digital projects that communicate historical content. In this assignment, students explain the significance of maps they created using Carto.

Creating a Dataset [Assignment]

Lindsey Passenger Wieck (St. Mary's Univ.) explains how students in her history classroom use Carto to create maps. The exercise helps students become critical consumer of maps and media, while designing and implementing digital projects that communicate historical content. In this assignment, students develop and analyze a dataset and consider its potential for mapping.

Mapping the Early Modern World [Instructions)

Julia M Gossard (Utah State Univ.) uses the widely available Google Maps to assign a mapping project to her students. The assignment allows students to think carefully about the economic, political, religious, and ideological connections between Europe and the rest of the world in the early modern period.

The Historian's Toolbox: Source Evaluation [Worksheet]

Julia M Gossard (Utah State Univ.) uses the widely available Google Maps to assign a mapping project to her students. The assignment allows students to think carefully about the economic, political, religious, and ideological connections between Europe and the rest of the world in the early modern period. In this worksheet, Gossard asks her student to carefully evaluate the sources they use for their Google Map entries.

Visualizing the Past [Sample Assignment]

John Rosinbum looks at a spectrum of digital archives available on the web today and explores how teachers can use them in the classroom. In this sample assignment, students are asked to use data from a digital archive to visualize the past.

Operation War Diary Project [Sample Assignment]

In this assignment, Susan Corbesero (The Ellis School) discusses using the crowdsourcing project, Operation War Diary, to help students learn about the First World War. The project contains over one million digitized images of war diaries from British and Indian troops.

Teach Your Family

In this project, you will show your instructor—and your family or friends—what you’ve learned in class.

HistoryNet

The most comprehensive and authoritative history site on the Internet.

what if history assignment

So many of the most critical junctures of history have hinged upon a single person, a single act, a single moment in time. What if Stonewall Jackson hadn’t returned to camp in the darkness of night? What if Archduke Ferdinand had survived the assassin’s bullet? What if Adolf Hitler’s artistic ambitions hadn’t been quashed so humiliatingly? What if, what if, what if?

Unless you’re a traveler of the multiverse, it’s impossible to know for sure how history would have been changed if just that one thing had been a little different. But it sure is jolly fun to hypothesize anyway!

what if history assignment

What If Hitler Had Won World War II?

What might have happened if Nazi Germany had been victorious in World War II?

what if history assignment

What If Hitler Had Defeated the Soviet Union?

what if history assignment

What If the July 20 Bomb Plot to Kill Hitler Had Succeeded?

what if history assignment

What If Hitler Had Not Come to Power?

what if history assignment

What If Hitler Had Not Killed Himself?

what if history assignment

What If Hitler Had Not Been Evil?

what if history assignment

What If Britain and France Had Not Appeased Hitler in 1938?

World war ii: europe.

what if history assignment

What If Churchill Hadn’t Tamed His ‘Black Dog’?

What if one of Britain’s greatest prime ministers had been overwhelmed by his mental illness and unable to lead his country to victory?

what if history assignment

What If France Had Not Fallen to the Nazis in 1940?

what if history assignment

What If Mussolini Had Stayed on the Sidelines?

what if history assignment

What If Germany Had Invaded England?

what if history assignment

What If the British Hadn’t Bombed Hamburg?

what if history assignment

What If the Nazis Had Actually Built the Horten HO-229 Jet Flying Wing?

what if history assignment

What If Germany Had Introduced the Me-262 Earlier in the War?

what if history assignment

What If Germany Had Developed the Atomic Bomb?

What if britain had made peace with hitler, world war ii: the pacific.

Col. Dave Severance, Company Commander of Easy Company of the 28th Marines, 5th Marine Division, became associated with a historic moment in American history on Feb. 23, 1945, when he responded to orders from his battalion commander to send a patrol to Mount Suribachi, the highest summit on the island described by Marine Lt. Gen. Holland M. “Howlin’ Mad” Smith as a “grim, smoking rock.” Following orders from the battalion commander, the platoon hoisted an American flag on the summit. But it wasn’t the famed image captured by Associated Press photographer Joe Rosenthal. The Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal, upon seeing the first flag raised on Mount Suribachi, wanted to keep it as a memento. Thus a second larger flag was raised to replace it, which Rosenthal went on to document to much acclaim. (USMC)

What If the Marines Had Skipped Iwo Jima?

What would have happened if the U.S. hadn’t sent men to take this small atoll, site of that iconic photo? Would it have cost the war?

what if history assignment

What If the Japanese Had Won the Battle of the Coral Sea?

what if history assignment

What If the Manhattan Project Had Failed?

General Hideki Tojo

What If the Japanese Had Refused to Surrender?

what if history assignment

What If the U.S. Had Invaded a Japanese Home Island?

what if history assignment

What If Japan Hadn’t Attacked Pearl Harbor?

what if history assignment

What If the Tarawa Invasion Had Failed?

Other what ifs.

Confederates repeatedly turned back Federal attacks on their Vicksburg trenches in May 1863, prompting Grant to lay siege to the city. (Library of Congress)

What If Robert E. Lee Had Sent Troops to Vicksburg?

Why exactly was Robert E. Lee so opposed to sending help to Mississippi in 1863?

what if history assignment

What If the Treaty of Versailles Had Succeeded?

what if history assignment

What If FDR Had Not Run for a Third Term?

what if history assignment

What If World War I Was Just a Tragic Accident?

what if history assignment

What If the USS Monitor and CSS Virginia’s Battle Had an Alternate Outcome?

UCLA History Department

Steps for Writing a History Paper

Writing a history paper is a process.  Successful papers are not completed in a single moment of genius or inspiration, but are developed over a series of steps.  When you first read a paper prompt, you might feel overwhelmed or intimidated.  If you think of writing as a process and break it down into smaller steps, you will find that paper-writing is manageable, less daunting, and even enjoyable.  Writing a history paper is your opportunity to do the real work of historians, to roll up your sleeves and dig deep into the past.

What is a History paper?

History papers are driven by arguments.  In a history class, even if you are not writing a paper based on outside research, you are still writing a paper that requires some form of argument.  For example, suppose your professor has asked you to write a paper discussing the differences between colonial New England and colonial Virginia.  It might seem like this paper is straightforward and does not require an argument, that it is simply a matter of finding the “right answer.”  However, even here you need to construct a paper guided by a larger argument.  You might argue that the main differences between colonial New England and Virginia were grounded in contrasting visions of colonization.  Or you might argue that the differences resulted from accidents of geography or from extant alliances between regional Indian groups.  Or you might make an argument that draws on all of these factors.  Regardless, when you make these types of assertions, you are making an argument that requires historical evidence.  Any history paper you write will be driven by an argument demanding evidence from sources.

History writing assignments can vary widely–and you should always follow your professor’s specific instructions–but the following steps are designed to help no matter what kind of history paper you are writing.  Remember that the staff of the History Writing Center is here to assist you at any stage of the writing process.

  • Sometimes professors distribute prompts with several sub-questions surrounding the main question they want you to write about.  The sub-questions are designed to help you think about the topic.  They offer ideas you might consider, but they are not, usually, the key question or questions you need to answer in your paper.  Make sure you distinguish the key questions from the sub-questions.  Otherwise, your paper may sound like a laundry list of short-answer essays rather than a cohesive argument. A helpful way to hone in on the key question is to look for action verbs, such as “analyze” or “investigate” or “formulate.”  Find such words in the paper prompt and circle them.  Then, carefully consider what you are being asked to do.  Write out the key question at the top of your draft and return to it often, using it to guide you in the writing process.  Also, be sure that you are responding to every part of the prompt.  Prompts will often have several questions you need to address in your paper.  If you do not cover all aspects, then you are not responding fully to the assignment.  For more information, visit our section, “Understanding Paper Prompts.”
  • Before you even start researching or drafting, take a few minutes to consider what you already know about the topic.  Make a list of ideas or draw a cluster diagram, using circles and arrows to connect ideas–whatever method works for you.  At this point in the process, it is helpful to write down all of your ideas without stopping to judge or analyze each one in depth.  You want to think big and bring in everything you know or suspect about the topic.  After you have finished, read over what you have created.  Look for patterns or trends or questions that keep coming up.  Based on what you have brainstormed, what do you still need to learn about the topic?  Do you have a tentative argument or response to the paper prompt?  Use this information to guide you as you start your research and develop a thesis.
  • Depending on the paper prompt, you may be required to do outside research or you may be using only the readings you have done in class.  Either way, start by rereading the relevant materials from class.  Find the parts from the textbook, from the primary source readings, and from your notes that relate to the prompt. If you need to do outside research, the UCLA library system offers plenty of resources.  You can begin by plugging key words into the online library catalog.  This process will likely involve some trial and error.  You will want to use search terms that are specific enough to address your topic without being so narrow that you get no results.  If your keywords are too general, you may receive thousands of results and feel overwhelmed.  To help you narrow your search, go back to the key questions in the essay prompt that you wrote down in Step 1.  Think about which terms would help you respond to the prompt.  Also, look at the language your professor used in the prompt.  You might be able to use some of those same words as search terms. Notice that the library website has different databases you can search depending on what type of material you need (such as scholarly articles, newspapers, books) and what subject and time period you are researching (such as eighteenth-century England or ancient Rome).  Searching the database most relevant to your topic will yield the best results.  Visit the library’s History Research Guide for tips on the research process and on using library resources.  You can also schedule an appointment with a librarian to talk specifically about your research project.  Or, make an appointment with staff at the History Writing Center for research help.  Visit our section about using electronic resources as well.
  • By this point, you know what the prompt is asking, you have brainstormed possible responses, and you have done some research.  Now you need to step back, look at the material you have, and develop your argument.  Based on the reading and research you have done, how might you answer the question(s) in the prompt?  What arguments do your sources allow you to make?  Draft a thesis statement in which you clearly and succinctly make an argument that addresses the prompt. If you find writing a thesis daunting, remember that whatever you draft now is not set in stone.  Your thesis will change.  As you do more research, reread your sources, and write your paper, you will learn more about the topic and your argument.  For now, produce a “working thesis,” meaning, a thesis that represents your thinking up to this point.  Remember it will almost certainly change as you move through the writing process.  For more information, visit our section about thesis statements.  Once you have a thesis, you may find that you need to do more research targeted to your specific argument.  Revisit some of the tips from Step 3.
  • Now that you have a working thesis, look back over your sources and identify which ones are most critical to you–the ones you will be grappling with most directly in order to make your argument.  Then, annotate them.  Annotating sources means writing a paragraph that summarizes the main idea of the source as well as shows how you will use the source in your paper.  Think about what the source does for you.  Does it provide evidence in support of your argument?  Does it offer a counterpoint that you can then refute, based on your research?  Does it provide critical historical background that you need in order to make a point?  For more information about annotating sources, visit our section on annotated bibliographies. While it might seem like this step creates more work for you by having to do more writing, it in fact serves two critical purposes: it helps you refine your working thesis by distilling exactly what your sources are saying, and it helps smooth your writing process.  Having dissected your sources and articulated your ideas about them, you can more easily draw upon them when constructing your paper.  Even if you do not have to do outside research and are limited to working with the readings you have done in class, annotating sources is still very useful.  Write down exactly how a particular section in the textbook or in a primary source reader will contribute to your paper.
  • An outline is helpful in giving you a sense of the overall structure of your paper and how best to organize your ideas.  You need to decide how to arrange your argument in a way that will make the most sense to your reader.  Perhaps you decide that your argument is most clear when presented chronologically, or perhaps you find that it works best with a thematic approach.  There is no one right way to organize a history paper; it depends entirely on the prompt, on your sources, and on what you think would be most clear to someone reading it. An effective outline includes the following components: the research question from the prompt (that you wrote down in Step 1), your working thesis, the main idea of each body paragraph, and the evidence (from both primary and secondary sources) you will use to support each body paragraph.  Be as detailed as you can when putting together your outline.

If you have trouble getting started or are feeling overwhelmed, try free writing.  Free writing is a low-stakes writing exercise to help you get past the blank page.  Set a timer for five or ten minutes and write down everything you know about your paper: your argument, your sources, counterarguments, everything.  Do not edit or judge what you are writing as you write; just keep writing until the timer goes off.  You may be surprised to find out how much you knew about your topic.  Of course, this writing will not be polished, so do not be tempted to leave it as it is.  Remember that this draft is your first one, and you will be revising it.

A particularly helpful exercise for global-level revision is to make a reverse outline, which will help you look at your paper as a whole and strengthen the way you have organized and substantiated your argument.  Print out your draft and number each of the paragraphs.  Then, on a separate piece of paper, write down each paragraph number and, next to it, summarize in a phrase or a sentence the main idea of that paragraph.  As you produce this list, notice if any paragraphs attempt to make more than one point: mark those for revision.  Once you have compiled the list, read it over carefully.  Study the order in which you have sequenced your ideas.  Notice if there are ideas that seem out of order or repetitive.  Look for any gaps in your logic.  Does the argument flow and make sense?

When revising at the local level, check that you are using strong topic sentences and transitions, that you have adequately integrated and analyzed quotations, and that your paper is free from grammar and spelling errors that might distract the reader or even impede your ability to communicate your point.  One helpful exercise for revising on the local level is to read your paper out loud.  Hearing your paper will help you catch grammatical errors and awkward sentences.

Here is a checklist of questions to ask yourself while revising on both the global and local levels:

– Does my thesis clearly state my argument and its significance?

– Does the main argument in each body paragraph support my thesis?

– Do I have enough evidence within each body paragraph to make my point?

– Have I properly introduced, analyzed, and cited every quotation I use?

– Do my topic sentences effectively introduce the main point of each paragraph?

– Do I have transitions between paragraphs?

– Is my paper free of grammar and spelling errors?

  • Congratulate yourself. You have written a history paper!

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what if history assignment

How to write an introduction for a history essay

Facade of the Ara Pacis

Every essay needs to begin with an introductory paragraph. It needs to be the first paragraph the marker reads.

While your introduction paragraph might be the first of the paragraphs you write, this is not the only way to do it.

You can choose to write your introduction after you have written the rest of your essay.

This way, you will know what you have argued, and this might make writing the introduction easier.

Either approach is fine. If you do write your introduction first, ensure that you go back and refine it once you have completed your essay. 

What is an ‘introduction paragraph’?

An introductory paragraph is a single paragraph at the start of your essay that prepares your reader for the argument you are going to make in your body paragraphs .

It should provide all of the necessary historical information about your topic and clearly state your argument so that by the end of the paragraph, the marker knows how you are going to structure the rest of your essay.

In general, you should never use quotes from sources in your introduction.

Introduction paragraph structure

While your introduction paragraph does not have to be as long as your body paragraphs , it does have a specific purpose, which you must fulfil.

A well-written introduction paragraph has the following four-part structure (summarised by the acronym BHES).

B – Background sentences

H – Hypothesis

E – Elaboration sentences

S - Signpost sentence

Each of these elements are explained in further detail, with examples, below:

1. Background sentences

The first two or three sentences of your introduction should provide a general introduction to the historical topic which your essay is about. This is done so that when you state your hypothesis , your reader understands the specific point you are arguing about.

Background sentences explain the important historical period, dates, people, places, events and concepts that will be mentioned later in your essay. This information should be drawn from your background research . 

Example background sentences:

Middle Ages (Year 8 Level)

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15 th and 16 th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges.

WWI (Year 9 Level)

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe.

Civil Rights (Year 10 Level)

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success.

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)  

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times.

2. Hypothesis

Once you have provided historical context for your essay in your background sentences, you need to state your hypothesis .

A hypothesis is a single sentence that clearly states the argument that your essay will be proving in your body paragraphs .

A good hypothesis contains both the argument and the reasons in support of your argument. 

Example hypotheses:

Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery.

Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare.

The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.

Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1 st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state.

3. Elaboration sentences

Once you have stated your argument in your hypothesis , you need to provide particular information about how you’re going to prove your argument.

Your elaboration sentences should be one or two sentences that provide specific details about how you’re going to cover the argument in your three body paragraphs.

You might also briefly summarise two or three of your main points.

Finally, explain any important key words, phrases or concepts that you’ve used in your hypothesis, you’ll need to do this in your elaboration sentences.

Example elaboration sentences:

By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period.

Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined.

The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results.

While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period.

4. Signpost sentence

The final sentence of your introduction should prepare the reader for the topic of your first body paragraph. The main purpose of this sentence is to provide cohesion between your introductory paragraph and you first body paragraph .

Therefore, a signpost sentence indicates where you will begin proving the argument that you set out in your hypothesis and usually states the importance of the first point that you’re about to make. 

Example signpost sentences:

The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20 th century.

The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

Putting it all together

Once you have written all four parts of the BHES structure, you should have a completed introduction paragraph. In the examples above, we have shown each part separately. Below you will see the completed paragraphs so that you can appreciate what an introduction should look like.

Example introduction paragraphs: 

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15th and 16th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges. Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies, but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery. By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period. The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe. Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare. Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined. The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success. The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results. The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20th century.

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times. Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state. While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period. The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

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Discussions and assignments.

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The assignments in this course are openly licensed, and are available as-is, or can be modified to suit your students’ needs.

If you import this course into your learning management system (Blackboard, Canvas, etc.), the assignments will automatically be loaded into the assignment tool. The assignment pages within each module link to the live assignment page. You can view them below or throughout the course. There is at least one discussion and one assignment ready to be used in every module of the course. We do not recommend assigning them all, however, and recommend selecting those that work best for you . If you choose to assign the capstone project (explained below), we suggest excluding some of the other assignments so that students have sufficient time to prepare for their capstone work.

To make edits or customized versions of the assignments, we recommend copying and pasting the discussion or assignment text directly into your LMS discussion or assignment page in order to make changes.

Capstone Project

The capstone project is an optional comprehensive assignment that could be assigned to students to complete progressively through the course. The assignment is divided into 3 to 4 pieces and culminates in students creating a PechaKucha presentation.

For this capstone project, students will pick a reformer or activist involved with a progressive or social movement between 1877 and 2000. They will evaluate and analyze the ideas, agenda, strategies, and effectiveness of the work done by their chosen reformer or activist in order to make a claim and present on their findings in the form of a PechaKucha presentation (or another pre-approved format). PechaKucha presentations follow a 20×20 presentation format, meaning that a presenter chooses 20 images and speaks about each image for 20 seconds (totaling 6 minutes at 40 seconds).

The capstone project components are shared as assignments that link to Google Documents. You can make a copy of those documents to customize them. To do so, open the Google Doc and choose “File -> Make a copy” to create your own version.

  • Part 0: Social Media Activism  (also found as an assignment in Module 5)
  • Part 1: Research and Annotated Bibliography
  • Part 2: Draft PechaKucha Outline
  • Part 3: Submit Final PechaKucha Presentation
  • Assignments. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
  • Pencil Cup. Authored by : IconfactoryTeam. Provided by : Noun Project. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/pencil-cup/628840/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
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Department of History

History style guide, part 1: kinds of history assignments, book reviews.

The purpose of a book review is to assess the strengths and weaknesses of a particular book. It is different from a book report, which simply summarizes the content of a book. In a book review, you also report on the content of the book, in addition to explaining to your readers what you found to be its most valuable contributions or shortcomings. (Preferably you can do this without resorting to the first person [“I”]. Since readers assume that as a reviewer you are expressing your own opinions, it is unnecessary to preface your statements with “I think,” or “in my opinion…”)

To understand your own reaction to a history book, you must first read it carefully and critically. As a critical reader, you should ask questions of the book and note your reactions to it as you read. Your book review should then discuss those questions and reactions.

A standard structure for a book review includes:

  • relating the author’s main point – or thesis – at the beginning.
  • describing the author’s viewpoint and purpose for writing the book, noting any aspects of the author’s background that are important for understanding his or her perspective.
  • noting the most important evidence the author presents to support his or her thesis and evaluating its persuasiveness.
  • concluding with a final evaluation of the book, possibly discussing who would find this book useful and why.

Maintain the same attention to structure and grammar that you would in any history paper – i.e. your review must have an introduction, a main body, and a conclusion. Your introduction should discuss your thesis, and the conclusion should summarize your argument. The body should develop your thoughts and support your thesis with specific examples from the text.

Book Review Dos

Tell the reader which book you are reviewing

Place the complete publication data at the top of the review: author, title, edition (if applicable), place of publication, publisher, date of publication.

Determine the thesis of the book

What is the major thesis, or argument, the book makes? What is the author trying to prove? Are there any more “narrow” sub-arguments that support the overall thesis?

Determine the book’s evidence

What evidence does the author use? On what sources and secondary literature is the book based? How are they used?

Analyze the book critically

What are its strengths and weaknesses? What was good about it? Be fair to the book and its author(s), but be honest to yourself as well. If you feel that the book is biased, say so and why. The reader of the review wants to know whether the book is worth reading!

Read Book reviews before you write your own

Consult published book reviews in academic journals, such as the American Historical Review or the Journal of Modern History. Other sources for book reviews are the Times Literary Supplement, The New York Times and The New York Review of Books.

Think about history and politics

History writing can be, and has been, highly political and partisan. In many cases, a history book has “an axe to grind.” Can you detect one in the book you are reviewing?

Use direct quotations sparingly

One or two quotations should suffice to emphasize a particular point, or argument you are making in your review

Familiarize yourself with the University’s plagiarism policies

Ask your professor if you are not sure what constitutes plagiarism.

Use either footnotes or endnotes

See Part III: “Guide to Writing Footnotes and Bibliographies” below, or consult the Chicago Manual of Style if you are in doubt about the format of footnotes or endnotes.

Revise your review

Leave your review aside for a day, and then get back to it and read it with a fresh eye. Aim for clarity and concision as you make your first revisions. No history paper – whether a book review, a short essay, or a research paper – is “finished” after the first draft!

Proofread your final draft

Do not trust the spell check to do it for you. There is nothing like the critical and attentive human eye and intellect in a computer.

Book Review Do Nots

Do not merely summarize the book

Chapter by chapter summary is not a book review; it is a summary of a book.

Do not use the passive voice

The reader wants to hear your opinion about the book.

Do not neglect punctuation

When in doubt, consult the Chicago Manual of Style or an English grammar book for proper punctuation.

Do not overuse such phrases as

I thought it was interesting,” “In my opinion”, “The author says/argues….”.

Do not use “this” to refer to the previous paragraph, sentence or word

Always avoid using “this” without the “thing” it modifies.

Do not write wordy or long sentences

Would you like to read such sentences?

Historical Papers

The purpose of history papers is for you to interpret sources and arrive at a conclusion about the significance of your subject. It is not merely a description of “what happened”; rather, history papers must take the form of an argument in support of a thesis explaining how and why something happened and why it is important.

Every history paper, whether long or short, must be a work of persuasive writing. Based on your sources, you must provide a thesis statement at the beginning of your paper that reflects what you have concluded about your topic after a critical analysis of your materials. The thesis statement is always an arguable or debatable point, so that your history paper becomes your own argument in favor of a particular historical explanation. Instead of merely summarizing material, you persuade your reader with enough evidence to convince him or her that your thesis is correct.

The body of your paper must support your thesis, paragraph by paragraph, by presenting evidence from your sources. You should also respond to counter evidence (information that seems to contradict or weaken your thesis) to persuade your reader that your original position is the more compelling argument.

Short Essays

As their name implies, short essays are relatively brief assignments for papers roughly 4 to 7 pages in length. The topic and texts for short essays are usually assigned by your professor and can be framed in a number of different ways. You might be asked, for example, to analyze a source or group of sources and respond to a specific question about them. Or you might be asked to compare the views of two modern historians on a given problem or document. Whatever form your short essay assignment takes, it will require the same type of historical analysis.

To begin with, you should confront your sources directly, without being unduly influenced by the opinions of others. The purpose of writing history papers is for you to work with original materials and consider them critically in light of further reading. You will want to read the source more than once, making notes whenever you find it appropriate in order to illustrate the aspect or aspects you will discuss in the essay. In substantiating your argument, you should be able to include an illustration, quotation, or other direct reference to the source under examination to prove every assertion you make. Your conclusions should be based on your own evaluation of your evidence. In this way, you refrain from turning your paper into a page-by-page commentary or paraphrase of your sources. Under no circumstances should it be a summary of another historian’s work. Rather, your paper should be a logical and coherent explanation of your response to the assigned essay on the basis of your reading, with illustrations drawn from your sources for evidence.

To complete such an assignment successfully, you must

  • Understand the assignment. Make sure you read the assignment carefully and limit yourself to the topic provided by your professor. Believe it or not, failure to write about the topic that has actually been assigned is one of the most common problems with short history essays! If the assignment asks you to compare two views on a particular document, you must understand both the similarities and the differences of the two views and give approximately equal weight to each of them in your discussion. If the assignment asks you questions about a specific text, you must explore the issues raised by the question and present your analysis based on a close, critical reading.
  • Consider the significance of the material. It is not enough to summarize the content of the texts (documents or books) you have read. Your essay must consider the significance of the issue you are examining. In a compare/contrast essay, your professor will expect that you examine not only the ways the two points of view are similar and different but the meaning of those similarities and differences. In writing the essay, you would be expected to discuss why a given similarity, or a difference, is important. You should also think about the historical context of your sources, using it as a way to explore the broader historical issues underlying the assignment.
  • Construct an argument in support of a thesis. Like any history paper, a short essay must have a thesis that is supported by evidence presented in the body of the paper. Your thesis reflects what you have concluded about the issue after careful reflection on the assignment and any reading you have done for it. After stating it clearly in the introductory paragraph, you must be able to support your thesis with evidence taken from the texts under examination in the body of your essay.
  • Document your paper. Even short essays require that you cite and document the sources of your information. (See Part III: Guide to Writing Footnotes and Bibliographies)

Research Papers

The purpose of a research paper is to allow students to practice the craft of history writing at a more sophisticated level than is possible in other history assignments. Like shorter history papers, a research paper takes the form of argument supported by evidence. Unlike other assignments, however, a research paper requires that you find material about your topic outside of the course’s assigned readings.

Choose a topic that can actually be researched by an undergraduate whose main reading language is English. You can start with a fairly broad area, but you will need to focus your topic as your research progresses.

How do I locate books that pertain to my subject?

  • Locate general texts about the period or subject you are studying and check those texts’ footnotes or bibliography. Look also at bibliographical essays at the end of books or at the end of chapters to the course’s textbooks. Remember that your textbook may have the most useful bibliographies you can find.
  • The Dictionary of the Middle Ages (13 volumes) Ref. D 114 .D5 1982
  • The Cambridge Medieval History (8 volumes) Ref D 117.C32
  • The New Cambridge Medieval History (Ref)
  • The New Catholic Encyclopedia (Ref)
  • The Encyclopedia of Islam (ref)
  • The Oxford Dictionary of the Catholic Church (ref)
  • The Encyclopedia Judaica (ref)
  • Examine Polk Library’s Online Catalog. ( https://www.uwosh.edu/library ) Use either a keyword or subject search for your topic. If you have little luck with Polk’s collections, expand your search to UW Madison’s library catalog. (http://madcat.library.wisc.edu/) Use WorldCat ( https://www.uwosh.edu/library/collections/databases  then scroll to the bottom and select WorldCat) to expand your search further. Remember: Polk’s collection is good, but it is limited. Other, larger libraries may contain books that are relevant to your topic. Interlibrary loan allows you to order books from virtually any library in the United States. (The interlibrary loan order form is available on-line at the Polk Library website.)
  • Remember always to look through the bibliographies of all the books and articles that you find. This can be the very best way to find sources.
  • Ask your instructor for sources. Most instructors are quite willing to assist your search for good books.

Where do I find primary sources?

Remember, primary sources are those original sources that date from the period you are studying: songs, movies, diaries, interviews, letters of correspondence, written works, etc. Often, you can find primary sources in the same ways that you find secondary sources.

  • Look first in the bibliographies of course books and general texts on your subject. Usually the bibliographies will contain a separate section listing primary sources.
  • Remember, too, that primary sources often come in collections of sources. i.e. a book edited by a modern historian containing extracts or whole sources from the period under consideration.
  • Check the library catalogue and other databases for your topic plus the word “sources.” This search strategy will often turn up primary source collections.
  • Internet Ancient History Sourcebook
  • Internet Medieval Sourcebook
  • Internet Modern History Sourcebook
  • The Avalon Project
  • Ask you instructor for guidance.

May I use information from the web as primary and secondary sources?

Many professors discourage the use of the web for information about historical subjects. The internet is a great tool for research, but it is also a storehouse of misinformation. As a tool, the internet can help you locate information. Unfortunately, relying on the web as a source of information carries hazards. Generally speaking, it is safest to consult published journals and books—particularly journals and books published by prestigious organizations or publishers. In sum, then: Determining whether a source available over the internet is reliable or not is tricky. Err on the careful side and don’t hesitate to consult the instructor for advice. [But see notice above on primary source collections on the Internet]

Where can I find recently-written journal, magazine, and newspaper articles about my topic?

To find both journal/periodical articles and books, you should make use of on-line indices and some book indices.

For Periodicals alone, you can consult these paper volumes located on the index tables in the reference room.

  • International Index to Periodicals 1907-1965
  • Social Science and Humanities Index 1965-1973
  • Humanities Index

For items published after 1973, see the on-line versions of these last two indices listed under Wilson Journal Indexes on the library’s web page.

See Polk Library’s web page ( http://www.uwosh.edu/library/web.html ) for indexed articles. Hit “articles & more by subject.” Good online indexes include:

  • Ebsco Academic Elite
  • Wilson Journal Indexes
  • Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe
  • First Search

What if I cannot find the journal/magazine/newspaper I need?

  • Try getting the article from the full-text databases we have available online. Hit “articles & more by subject.” Choose “Ebsco Online articles.” To see which full-text journals are available, hit “Journals with some Full Text online!”
  • Order it through interlibrary loan (the order form is available on-line at the Polk Library website ( http://www.uwosh.edu/library/ill.html ).

Where do I find old journal/magazine/newspaper articles?

  • For old magazine and journal articles, there is really only one place to go, the venerable Readers Guide to Periodical Literature (Call no: Reference-Index Tables, 1st floor South AI3 .R48.) These volumes are located in the reference section of Polk Library. Consult the volume pertaining to the period(s) you are interested in, then look up your subject. You will there find references to articles published in various magazines.
  • There is only one national newspaper that is well indexed, The New York Times. Consult the index for the relevant year, just as you would for the Readers Guide to Periodical Literature.

Where do I turn for help at the library?

Ask a reference librarian (and tell them I sent you.) Reference librarians are there to help you, and they all enjoy working with students who are engaged in research.

Historigraphical Essays

The purpose of a historiographical essay is for you to consider how different historians approach the same historical issues. Even when consulting the same body of information, historians do not necessarily reach the same the same conclusions. They are influenced by their personal backgrounds, by the times in which they live, and by their approaches to history, i.e. economic, intellectual, military, political, feminist, etc. The study of how historians write history is called historiography, and this assignment will give you some practice in the area.

Whatever the exact parameters of your assignment, your task is to compare the authors’ views of the works chosen, noting the points on which they agree and disagree.

To complete such an assignment successfully, you need to choose your authors carefully. Follow these instructions:

  • Define your final topic. Once you have compiled your bibliography and done some reading, you should have a better sense of your final topic. It will be easier to write this paper if you set up your topic as a question, such as “Did the Venetians Deliberately Send the Fourth Crusade to Constantinople?”
  • Then you should choose two or three of the secondary sources on your bibliography (or whatever the number required by your instructor). Select items that disagree with one another, at least in part. Works that were written some years apart in time often have differing viewpoints. For instance, many of the conclusions reached by Steven Runciman in A History of the Crusades have been modified by later historians.
  • Understanding . In this assignment, your most important task is to understand the two (or more) authors and explain their central ideas and arguments to the reader. This should constitute the bulk of your paper. You should also comment on the authors’ approaches: are they interested most in political, economic, social, or intellectual questions? What type of sources do they use? In short, what are the authors’ methodologies, in as far as you can determine them? You should also consider each author’s own cultural values and assumptions. Where these are apparent, they should be brought to the reader’s attention and related to the author’s approach to the subject. Contemporary Authors is a good source of information on many authors’ backgrounds. [Available in the database section of Polk Library’s website.]
  • Context . Historians do not write in a vacuum; their ideas always have some relationship to those of other historians. Pay particular attention to prefaces and introductions, which generally offer reasons for writing the article, and to passages which mention opposing views. Try to relate your authors’ views to the general historiographical context of the subject, i.e. to the other books written on the topic.
  • Criticism . Although you may not feel qualified to criticize your historians, do not hesitate to point out problems or inconsistencies where you see them to exist. Remember that the act of putting an author’s ideas into historiographical context is also criticism.
  • Compare the authors’ ideas and construct an outline. Be sure that you indicate what the overall question is that each of your historians is trying to answer. Two pitfalls of historiographical writing should be avoided at all costs: first, do not write a narrative history of the events discussed in the articles; and second, do not write your own interpretation of events based on the articles. However, you should declare your opinion on the topic in the conclusion of the paper. Keep the focus of the essay on the articles themselves. There is no ‘right’ answer to any of these essays. However, that does not mean that one answer is as good as another. The best essay will be one that presents a clear thesis that is argued in a logical manner and supported by appropriate references to the texts.
  • Write the essay. You may consult other works for the essay, including other items on your bibliography. Some terms or people may be unfamiliar to you, in which case, the textbook or a scholarly dictionary or encyclopedia might be useful to you. Should you use other works, you must acknowledge their use in a footnote or endnote. [See Footnote section below]
  • Proofread the essay and compose a second draft.

You should include a bibliography of all of the sources that you have used in the paper at the end of the assignment.

Part 2: Writing Style

History is a written discipline. In order to learn it, we read. In order to express what we know about it, we write. Writing allows us to make our assertions clearly and to persuade our readers that our interpretation of the past is convincing.

Effective writing requires that one observe the common conventions of grammar: attention to structure, spelling, punctuation, syntax, and so on. If one were to use a sports analogy, one might assert that writing is like baseball – there are specific rules by which to play, and if the rules are broken, the game is compromised. Similarly, writing has rules for clarity of expression, and if writers disregard them, they compromise the meaning they want their work to communicate.

When writing a paper, follow these basic steps – and never hand it in without proofreading it carefully:

  • Write an outline. This will prevent you from wandering aimlessly once you begin writing the text.
  • Develop a thesis statement. Your thesis is a clear point of view (one sentence) that you want to demonstrate to the reader. A strong thesis statement is key to a well-structured paper. Avoid over-generalized theses like: “things changed from the nineteenth to the twentieth centuries” or “the peasantry were always important in Europe.” Be specific, interesting, and clear. Remember: your thesis is the idea that you want your reader to learn from your paper. It is what the paper teaches your reader and what all the evidence/information you present in your paper should prove.
  • Find evidence in the primary sources, articles or books you are using that will support your thesis. An analytic historical essay should use primary sources or other books as evidence in the bulk of the paper. Textbooks should be used only to fill in historical detail or background where appropriate. They are never the main source of your analysis. Use specific examples from the texts to support your points. You may use short quotes or describe the examples you are using. If you use a quote, be sure to explain to the reader why the quote illustrates your point.
  • Write a conclusion. Most student papers end with a simple summary of the paper. A genuine conclusion pushes the paper further toward a final, broad analytical point. Tell your reader something they did not know based on the materials you have collected and analyzed.

Some of the keys to a good thesis are:

  • It will take some sort of stand.
  • It will justify discussion.
  • It will express one main idea.
  • It will be specific.

The classic structure for a student essay is:

  • Problem or Question
  • Thesis Statement
  • Informational Paragraphs
  • Use the paragraph as the main unit of composition. Just as the structure of your essay is important, so to is the structure of each paragraph. Each paragraph should express a clear idea that leads to the next paragraph. This means that each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence, indicating how the paragraph fits into your larger thesis. Follow this topic sentence with about 3-5 sentences that offer evidence to support your topic sentence. If you have a paragraph that goes on for much more than half a page (eight sentences), you probably have too many different ideas in one paragraph. Similarly, a paragraph of only one or two sentences is an undeveloped thought that needs support. Finally, end the paragraph with a sentence that sums it up and links to the next paragraph.
  • Make your transitions clear. Papers that shift abruptly from one thought to the next are usually using ‘implied transitions’. The reader shouldn’t have to read the writer’s mind and fill in the blanks; state clearly the links that you are making between ideas. The use of the words ‘thus,’ ‘therefore’, or ‘however,’ to start a paragraph is usually a sign that the writer hasn’t really thought up a transition, and is trying to pull the wool over the reader’s eyes.

Focus on Sources

Primary sources:.

Primary sources are documents that originate in the period you are studying.

If you are studying the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence is an important primary source. If you are studying nineteenth-century family life, the diaries or letters of family members can provide first-hand information about people’s thoughts, feelings, and daily rituals. Works of literature can be used as primary sources, as can tax records, peace treaties, law codes, birth and death certificates, political or religious treatises, photographs, songs, political speeches, pamphlets, newspaper articles – anything that was written at the time you are studying.

In general, when assessing primary sources, whether textual or visual, you should always ask the following questions of them:

  • who is the author?
  • when was the source composed?
  • why did the author write it?
  • who was the intended audience?
  • what is the historical context in which the source was written and read?

A more sophisticated reading of the source will also include an assessment of any unspoken assumptions in it. Can you detect any implicit biases in the source?

Primary sources form the basic building blocks of historical writing. Because the discipline of history is based on interpretation, however, historians do not take the evidence provided by primary sources at face value. Different historians often arrive at very different conclusions about the meaning of the same source. In her guide to historical writing, M. L. Rampolla warns students against the common tendency to assume primary sources are “true” because they were written by eyewitnesses. She reminds us, as any police investigator could tell you, that eyewitnesses sometimes see the same things and remember them in different ways. Like good detectives, you should evaluate the evidence by approaching your sources analytically and critically.

Secondary Sources:

Secondary sources are “history books” or “history articles” – that is, published works containing modern historians’ interpretations of primary sources often centuries after those sources were written.

As with primary sources, secondary sources must be read critically and analytically to determine the historian’s particular point of view. This means that you should approach your secondary sources with the same questions you asked of your primary sources:

  • why did he or she write the book or article?

In addition to these questions, however, you have to identify the point the historian is making in writing the book or article. What is his or her argument? You can generally find the thesis at the beginning of the text. Once you have identified the thesis, you should be prepared to address the following:

  • with what primary sources does the author support his or her thesis?
  • what unspoken assumptions does the author make in arguing his or her point?
  • are there detectable biases in his or her approach?

Pay special attention to when the source was published and consider the historical context of its publication. An article reviewing U.S. involvement in Russia in 2000 – after the end of the Cold War – may contain very different ideas from a review published in 1957, at the height of the conflict. At the same time, be on critical alert: you should not assume that newer interpretations are always better. Your analysis will depend on an informed reading of your subject.

Writing a history paper is always a balancing act between primary sources, secondary sources, and a discussion of the relation between the two. First you must examine your primary source material critically. Only then should you read around your subject in the secondary material by other historians. This way your conclusions will be based on your own evaluation of both your primary and secondary evidence.

Part 3: Guide to Writing Footnotes and Bibliographies

When history students work on assignments for their classes, they usually have to consult books, articles, and other materials.   Eventually, they will write papers about their research and draw on the material they encountered in these resources.

When any writer quotes directly from another work or paraphrases, that is, puts ideas from another author into his/her own words, the writer must cite that source. Such citations acknowledge that an idea was first put forth by someone else, and they direct interested readers to the place where more information about the topic may be found.

Learning how to compose citations is thus an important part of the writing process and should not be neglected.  Students also commonly add to their papers a list of the resources that they have consulted, i.e. a bibliography. This guide provides instructions for creating both citations and bibliographies.

Some types of writing are less effective than others. In general, in a student essay you should avoid:

  • Use of the passive voice Instead of saying “Many laws were passed by the Hitler,” write “Hitler passed many laws.”
  • Use of the First-person (“I”) Instead of saying “I think that the Second World War was very destructive,” write “The Second World War was very destructive.”
  • Use of Second-person (“you”) Instead of saying “During the Nazi regime, you had to be careful with whom you shared your political views,” write “During the Nazi regimes, Germans had to be careful with whom they shared their political views.”
  • Present tense Instead of saying “Hitler is a very good leader,” write “Hitler was a very good leader.”
  • Unsubstantiated value judgments Peasants are always rebellious, so their rebellion after Luther’s Reformation in 1525 was no exception.
  • Use of fluff and fillers
  • Generalizations
  • Be aware of your own judgments. “The middle ages was an age of faith.”
  • Statements of the obvious, platitudes and cliches
  • Avoid questions. In some kinds of writing, rhetorical questions can be very useful. In general in historical writing it is better to make a statement than to ask a question.
  • Conclusions that bring things up to the present “Life for women was harder in the nineteenth century than it is today.”

There are a number of writing manuals geared specifically to history students that you may consult in addition to this web page. Among the recommended are:

  • J. Benjamin, A Student’s Guide to History (Bedford/St. Martin’s)
  • M. Hellstern, G. Scott, and S. Garrison, The History Student Writer’s Manual (Prentice Hall)
  • R. Marius, A Short Guide to Writing About History (Harper Collins)
  • M. L. Rampolla, A Pocket Guide to Writing History (Bedford)
  • W. K. Storey, Writing History: A Guide for Students (Oxford)

If you have specific questions about the rules of grammar, a few of the most common general writing guides include:

  • The Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago)
  • D. Hacker, A Pocket Style Manual (Bedford Books)
  • D. Hacker, Rules for Writers (Bedford Books)
  • D. Rodrigues and M. Tuman, Writing Essentials: A Norton Pocket Guide (W.W. Norton)
  • W. Strunk and E. B. White, Elements of Style (MacMillan)

Citations/Footnotes

History students should put their citations in footnote or endnote form (both are equally correct) and follow the guidelines set out in The Chicago Manual of Style. Some other disciplines employ parenthetical references to indicate dependence on source material, but historians prefer footnotes and endnotes. Unfortunately, many students find the thought of writing footnotes or endnotes daunting and simply do not include them in their papers. Such students usually receive lower marks on their essays. In order to teach our students how to avoid that fate, the UWO History Department has drawn up this style sheet.

Here is a step-by-step guide to writing footnotes and endnotes.  It is divided into two parts:

  • Part One explains how to create a footnote or endnote within a paper. The directions assume that most students will at least type up their papers on a word processor, such as Microsoft Word, and thus explains how to create footnotes within that program.  [Students who use WordPerfect will find the directions useful as well].
  • Part Two explains the correct format in which to write up the citation once the student has learned how to create a footnote.

Part One: How to Create a Footnote or Endnote within Microsoft Word

Footnotes and endnotes are notes added to the main body of a paper, in which the author directs readers to outside sources or adds extra comments of his or her own.  Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page to which they refer, while endnotes are placed at the end of the paper. [If your professor expresses no preference, it is usually better to use footnotes, as they are easier for the reader to consult].

A superscript number at the end of the sentence signals the reader to look for a footnote or endnote. The same number is placed at the foot of the page for a footnote or at the end of the paper for an endnote.  Footnotes or endnotes should be numbered consecutively throughout the paper, starting from “1.” Each citation requires a new footnote or endnote; under no circumstances should a student “reuse” footnotes.  Creating a footnote is quite simple on a word processor.

When you reach a spot in the main text of your paper that requires a footnote, follow these directions:

  • Go to the Insert Menu in Microsoft Word, and click on “Footnote.” A dialogue box will appear: choose “Footnote,” choose “AutoNumber,” and hit “OK.”
  • The cursor will then appear within the footnote at the bottom of the page. Microsoft Word will automatically add a superscript number both to the main body of the text and to the note itself.  There is no need for you to add any numbering of your own.
  • Type in the citation according to the directions in Part II.
  • Move the cursor back to the main body of the text and continue typing. You are finished. Follow the same directions for any subsequent footnotes.

Part Two: How to Format a Footnote or Endnote According to Chicago Style

Once you have learned how to create a footnote within Microsoft Word, it is necessary to know what to write. A citation to an outside source must include specific information in a certain order; history students are not free to create their own style! Follow these directions for each kind of source that you may use.

Each example explains how to set up the first reference to a work. It is not necessary to repeat all of the information in each reference. Use a shortened version of the citation for the second and subsequent references to a source.

Books are probably the most common sources used by history students in their papers. Citations should include the author’s name (first name first), the title of the book (underlined or in italics; use the same system throughout the paper), publishing information (in parentheses), and the pages consulted, all separated by commas.

Here are a few examples of books by a single author:

1 Michael Baxandall,  Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style , 2nd  ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 45.

Second reference:

2 Baxandall, 34.

4 M. T. Clanchy,  Abelard: A Medieval Life  (Oxford and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1997), 45-46.

If you have cited more than one work by the same author, include a short title in the second reference:

3 Baxandall,  Painting and Experience , 34.

5 Clanchy,  Abelard , 67.

Here are some examples of books by more than one author:

1 Lina Bolzoni and Pietro Corsi,  The Culture of Memory  (Bologna: Società editrice il Mulino, 1992), 45.

1 Robert E. Lerner et al.,  Western Civilizations: Their History and Culture , 13th ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1998), 1: 87-88.

[Here “1” stands for the volume number and “88-89” stands for the page numbers cited.]

2 Lerner, 1:76.

2 Lerner,  Western Civilizations , 1:76.

2 Bolzoni,  The Culture of Memory , 78.

Book in a Series

2 Marianne G.  Briscoe and Barbara H. Jage,  Artes Praedicandi and Artes Orandi , Typologie des sources du moyen âge occidental, 61 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1992), 45.

(Here, Artes Praedicandi is the name of the book, and Typologie des sources du moyen âge occidental, 61 represents the name of the series and the book’s number in that series).

4 Augustine,  The Trinity , trans. Stephen McKenna, The Fathers of the Church, 18 (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1963), 56.

Journal Articles

3 Peter Brown, “Society and the Supernatural: A Medieval Change,”  Daedalus  104, no. 2 (1975): 133-151.

[Here “104″ is the volume number, “no. 2″ is the issue number, and 133-151 are the page numbers.]

4 Brown, “Society and the Supernatural,” 136.

4 Brown, 136.

Items in an anthology

Primary sources are often included in collections of many sources. They should be cited as in the examples below:

1 Fulcher of Chartres, “The First Crusade,” in  A Cloud of Witnesses: Readings in the History of Western Christianity , ed. Joel F. Harrington (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001), 138-44.

[Here Fulcher of Chartres is the author of the source, “The First Crusade” is the title of the primary source,” and “A Cloud of Witnesses” is the title of the book in which the primary source was found.]

2 John Pecham, “The Ignorance of Pastors,” in  Pastors and the Care of Souls in Medieval England,  edited by John Shinners and William J. Dohar (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1998), 130.

Internet Sites

Basic citation components and punctuation

Author’s Last Name, First Name,

Article by a modern historian on a Web Site

1 Peter Limb, “Relationships between Labour & African Nationalist/Liberation Movements in Southern Africa,” [http://neal.ctstateu. edu/history/world_history/archives/limb_html], May 1992.

Primary Source on a Web Site

2 Vasco da Gama,“Round Africa to India, 1497_1498 CE,” in “Modern History Sourcebook,”  [ http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html ], 6 September 2002.

3 Salvian. “Romans and Barbarians, c. 440,” in “Medieval Sourcebook,” [ http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/salvian1.html ], 6 September 2002.

Bibliographies

Basic directions.

  • Primary and secondary sources should be listed in separate sections. Each section should be labelled “Primary Sources” or “Secondary Sources.” Journal articles and encyclopedia articles should be listed with secondary sources (do not list each genre separately).
  • Entries are placed in alphabetical order under each author’s last name. Because ancient and medieval authors usually do not have a “last name,” you should generally list them under their first name.
  • Each entry should be single-spaced within the entry. It should be separated from the next entry by 1 blank line. Information within in each citation is separated by periods.
  • The first line of each entry should begin at the left margin. Each subsequent line should be indented 5 spaces from the left margin. [This arrangement is called a “hanging indent.” Consult the help section in your word processor for directions on hanging indents.]
  • When listing more than one item by the same author, it is not necessary to write the author’s name twice so long as the author’s name has been printed in exactly the same way for each work (which is not always the case). For each subsequent reference in the bibliography, type five dashes and a period to begin the entry. See the example below.

Carruthers, Mary.  The Craft of Thought: Meditation, Rhetoric, and the Making of Images, 400-1200 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

—–. “Reading with Attitude, Remembering the Book.” In  The Book and the Body , edited by Dolores Warwick Frese and Katherine O’Brien O’Keefe, 1-33. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1997.

—–.   The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Here are examples of the major kinds of works typically included in undergraduate history assignment.

Books by modern authors are probably the most common sources used by history students in their papers. Citations should include the author’s name (last name first), the title of the book (underlined or in italics), and the publishing information, all separated by periods. Here are a few examples of books:

Book by a single author:

Aston, Margaret.  Lollards and Reformers: Images and Literacy in Late Medieval Religion . London: The Hambledon Press, 1984.

Clanchy, M. T.  Abelard: A Medieval Life . Oxford and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1997.

Wenzel, Siegfried.  Verses in Sermons: Fasciculus Morum and its Middle English Poems . Cambridge, Mass.: Medieval Academy of America, 1978.

Book by more than one author:

Briscoe, Marianne G. and Barbara H. Jage.  Artes Praedicandi and Artes Orandi , Typologie des sources du moyen âge occidental, 61. Turnhout: Brepols, 1992.

NB: Note that the first author’s name should begin with the last name first, while the second author’s name is listed with the first name first.

Book edited by one or more editors:

Alexander, J. J. G., and M.T. Gibson, eds.  Medieval Language and Literature: Essays Presented to Richard William Hunt . Oxford: Clarendon, 1976.

Chance, Jane, ed.  The Mythographic Art: Classical Fable and the Rise of the Vernacular in Early France and England.  Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1990.

Translated Books:

By a modern author:

Rossi, Paolo.  Logic and the Art of Memory . Translated by Stephen Clucas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press , 2000.

Primary sources:

Augustine.  The Trinity . Translated by Stephen McKenna, C.SS.R., The Fathers of the Church, 18. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1963.

Stahl, William Harris, Richard  Johnson, and E. L. Burge, trans.  Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts . 2 vols. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1971.

Stump, Eleonore, trans.  Boethius’s De topicis differentiis . Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1978.

Item in an Anthology

Fulcher of Chartres. “The First Crusade.” In  A Cloud of Witnesses: Readings in the History of Western Christianity , 138-44. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001.

Pecham, John. “The Ignorance of Pastors.” In  Pastors and the Care of Souls in Medieval England , edited by John Shinners and William J. Dohar, 127-32.  Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1998.

A similar method should be used for essays and articles collected into one book.

Areford, David S. “The Passion Measured: A Late-Medieval Diagram of the Body of Christ.” In The Broken Body: Passion Devotion in Late Medieval Culture , edited by A. A. MacDonald et al., 211-38. Groningen: Egbert Forsten, 1998.

Aston, Margaret. “Devotional Literacy.” In  Lollards and Reformers: Images and Literacy in Late Medieval Religion , 101-133. London: The Hambledon Press, 1984.

When citing a journal article in a bibliography, follow the examples below:

Bossy, J. “The Social History of Confession in the Age of the Reformation.”  Transactions of the Royal Historical Society , 5th series, 25 (1975): 21-38.

Brown, Peter. “Society and the Supernatural: A Medieval Change.”  Daedalus  104, no. 2 (1975): 133-151.   [Here “104″ is the volume number, “no. 2″ is the issue number. It is also correct to list the month of publication with the year; in this case, do not add the issue number]

DeVries, Kelly.  “The Lack of a Western European Military Response to the Ottoman Invasions of Eastern Europe.”  Journal of Military History  63, no. 3 (1999): 539-559.

Mango, Andrew. “Turkey and the Enlargement of the European mind.”  Middle Eastern Studies  34, no. 2 (1998): 171-192.   or    34 (April 1998): 171-192.  or 34 (1998): 171-192.

Sources on Internet sites

Author’s Last Name, First Name.

Vasco da Gama. “Round Africa to India, 1497_1498 CE.” In “Modern History Sourcebook.”  [ http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html ]. 6 September 2002.

Salvian. “Romans and Barbarians, c. 440.” In “Medieval Sourcebook.” [ http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/salvian1.html ]. 6 September 2002.

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How To Write A History Assignment?

what if history assignment

History is a subject that deals with the events, people, and situations from the past. If you are a student of history or you take a keen interest in history, then you can choose to write an assignment on this subject. While writing a research paper, you have to be very sure that you are doing the best as your grades depend on your performance. Also, your grades decide your future career. If you have been given a history paper to write or you have chosen the subject for yourself, don’t worry as we are here to help you. We will tell you about how you can write the best paper on history. Read on to know about all the important criteria that you need to cover. Or just skip all the steps below and buy assignment online .

Step-By-Step Process For Writing History Assignment

Here are some of the steps that you need to follow to ensure that you are writing your history research paper in the best possible way. History research paper or dissertation needs a lot of work as this can assess and evaluate your progress. So, follow these steps:

1. Decide The Right Topic

History is a vast subject with several topics that you can cover. So, while writing a history assignment for your school or college, you need to decide on one of the topics that can be a perfect fit for your paper. This topic has to be relevant and you must have a proper interest in it. A general topic may not evoke interest. You have to choose a topic that can be controversial or can be fun to research.

2. Do Thorough Research

Talking about how to write a dissertation on history, you must know that research plays a vital role. You need to make sure that you are doing thorough research on the topic. There are different sources available online as well as offline. You can take the help of the internet to do proper research or you can simply go to a library and find some great books on the topic. Books and journals can have some hidden gems in them that can be quite valuable for your paper.

3. Create A Proper Outline

Before you start to write the paper, you have to create a proper outline for your writing. This outline is essential to figure out what you are going to write and how to write it. With the outline, you will know exactly which subhead to choose after which one. This can help you in writing down the essay or dissertation quite effectively. Having an outline can help you to keep the assignment well-organized and framed too.

4. Write A Very Compelling Introduction

Make sure to start your essay with a very effective and compelling introduction. The introduction is the most important part of your entire essay. It is going to create the first impression as well as the reader will know what to expect from the entire essay. You need to be very precise yet you have to express the contention of the essay properly in the introduction. It has to be unique, interesting, and quite catchy. Do not use fillers and ramble unnecessarily in the introduction.

5. No Grammatical Error Or Syntax Error

While writing the essay, make sure that you keep on proofreading it after each and every paragraph. This will ensure that you are not making any grammatical errors or syntax errors in the essay. The essay has to be flawless to get the best grade. If the essay contains a lot of flaws and grammatical errors, it can have a strong impact on your grade.

6. Finish Off With A Summary

Make sure that the final paragraph of your essay is quite effective. The conclusion is actually the summary of the entire article which should close off ideally with a very polished and effective ending. Don’t end the essay abruptly as that can result in an awkward finish.

These are some of the tips that you have to follow while writing your history assignment for your college or school. With the help of these above-mentioned steps, it will be quite easy for you to write an effective, interesting, and flawless essay on your preferred topic. After all, these assignments play a crucial role in your grade system. To get the best grades, you need to ace the essay.

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Theater | Review: History Theatre’s ‘A Unique Assignment’…

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Theater | review: history theatre’s ‘a unique assignment’ deftly tells complex civil rights story, play centers on relationship between mississippi student james meredith and young minnesota army officer henry gallagher.

Actor Pearce Bunting, dressed in military attire, shakes hands with actor James A. Williams, dressed in a business suit, on a stage. Another actor watches in the background.

While History Theatre is known for bringing Minnesota stories to the stage, its latest takes us to 1962 Mississippi. Yet “A Unique Assignment” is a Minnesotan’s story.

Lt. Henry Gallagher was a 23-year-old Army officer from South Minneapolis following orders that came all the way from the top: President John F. Kennedy dispatched troops to Oxford, Miss., to keep the peace as James Meredith became the first African American to attend the University of Mississippi. Gallagher was named head of the security detail assigned to protect Meredith from violent racists, arriving amid the gunfire and fury that’s come to be called the Ole Miss riot of 1962.

Assembled from the memoirs of Meredith and Gallagher, “A Unique Assignment” is a gripping piece of storytelling that feels like one of the most important works History Theatre has created in the past decade. With only four actors portraying a virtual battalion’s worth of characters, it’s a story about civil rights seen in close-up, in which one young man’s courageous and confident decision to desegregate a school leads to a life-changing experience for the young officer entrusted to keep him safe.

Directed with a crisp pace and fluid flow by Richard D. Thompson, it’s an expertly executed interpretation of Harrison David Rivers’ deeply involving script. With very few props but a plethora of costume and character changes, “A Unique Assignment” eloquently conveys the danger, hatred and unease that permeated the steamy Southern air, as well as the calm contrast found in the relationship that developed between Meredith and Gallagher.

While admirably explaining some principal cultural differences between South and North, Rivers also offers a very believable portrait of U.S. Army culture circa ‘62 and the tug of war between order and chaos that can ensue when soldiers are cast into a role of unclear scope.

Conversely, Meredith is acutely focused on his mission, and James A. Williams imbues him with a fascinating blend of inspiring self-confidence and enigmatic unflappability. Through monologues that sound directly from the pages of Meredith’s memoir, Williams brings us a very private man who decided to take on a very public challenge.

Meanwhile, Kevin Fanshaw’s young Gallagher is disarmingly open about his flaws and misgivings, taking us inside the mind and heart of a kid trying to figure out how to be a leader. As Pearce Bunting ably evokes an older Gallagher narrating his youthful experiences, Rivers’ script frequently finds the humor within this soldier’s reminiscences, with Kevin Brown Jr. making a multitude of characters invariably engaging.

In a story about divisions between black and white, Ursula K Bowden’s abstract set is decked in gray, its tall rectangular panels serving as screens for Brown to duck behind for his countless costume changes. Kurt Jung’s lighting serves the story well, and Kathy Maxwell’s projections combine with Katharine Horowitz’s sound design to make the riot scenes crackle with tension.

Speaking of sound, the show’s true-to-the-times modern jazz soundtrack is great for the atmosphere, but the volume is sometimes way too high. This is a show in which words are very important, so best not to obscure them. For they forge an important link to aspects of recent history that some Americans believe best left untold.

‘A Unique Assignment’

When: Through April 7

Where: History Theatre, 30 E. 10th St., St. Paul

Tickets: $64-$25, available at 651-292-4323 or historytheatre.com

Capsule: An important piece of theater filled with gripping storytelling.

Rob Hubbard can be reached at [email protected].

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StarTribune

Review: history theatre's 'a unique assignment' salutes a minnesotan hero in a segregation riot.

James Meredith slept through the Ole Miss riot.

Two people were killed, and numerous others were injured in the melee that accompanied his integration at the University of Mississippi in the fall of 1962. But as all hell was breaking loose that night in Oxford, Miss., the military veteran had a peace of mind that passed all understanding.

Perhaps Meredith was just overtired. Or maybe he was confident of the protective shield formed by the 30,000 federal troops activated to protect him as he made history by becoming the first Black person to study at the hitherto all-white public school.

Meredith's story is well known because it's been chronicled in a plethora of history books and in documentaries such as "Eyes on the Prize." But did you know that his personal protective detail at Ole Miss was led by a white Minnesotan?

"A Unique Assignment," by playwright Harrison David Rivers, is a hero soldier's story that puts the spotlight on Second Lt. Henry "Hank" Gallagher, a Minneapolis kid who attended St. John's University and had the duty of ensuring Meredith's safety.

Gallagher was in attendance on opening weekend of "Assignment," and he was beaming. Meredith, 90, could not travel because of health reasons but his wife, Judy Alsobrooks Meredith, attended and spoke in his stead.

In stitching together these two men's stories, Rivers' play underscores a salient historical point. While we often see the truculent haters from that era, there were many people on the right side of morality and history.

As staged by History Theatre artistic director Richard Thompson, "Assignment" takes place in a hall of history with nine panels. Designer Ursula Bowden's spare stage is filled with Kathy Maxwell's historic projections that add tissue and flesh to the space.

As an older Henry (Pearce Bunting) reflects on his past, the characters spring to life. Kevin Fanshaw plays Henry at 23, fresh faced and clueless but happy to fulfill his duty. James A. Williams depicts Meredith plus some ensemble roles, and Kevin Brown Jr. plays everything else.

The actors really do a commendable job. Bunting brings gravitas and avuncular warmth to Henry the elder. His is a story told around a dinner table for the young'uns. Fanshaw matches Bunting's warmth but adds some sprightliness and zest to the youthful version.

Williams is honor and dignity in human form as Meredith. He imbues the historic figure with an inscrutable nobility, elements that he also distributes to other roles he plays, including a general.

If Brown gets to have the most fun in "Assignment," it's because he has the most roles. His characters are white and Black, male and female, and he differentiates them with cadence, gesture and, especially, his gait. Brown uses a pronounced wide stance for the school's registrar and distills the discipline of various military men with precise, nearly robotic steps.

The script has some beautiful language, including from President John F. Kennedy, but there are challenges with the play and production.

Meredith believed in blooming where he was planted, even if that soil is in a whirlwind. But he was also a contrarian figure in real life who later became a domestic policy adviser for arch-segregationist Sen. Jesse Helms.

But that level of complexity of character gets sanded down a little too much in "Assignment." Like the real person, this Meredith could stand to be a little more surprising.

Thompson's direction is elegant and clean. He often positions his actors in triangles onstage, which nods to both the chevron of a military uniform (Meredith conducted himself with military decorum) and to a strong geometric structure.

The challenge is not the talent of the actors but the perceived efficiency of the casting. When Brown comes out as Mrs. Gallagher telling her son to come home, damn the AWOL charges, it's funny. But it also points out that the show could use one or two more actors onstage.

"Assignment" feels a little skimpy, which is a shame. It's too big a story to go small on.

'A Unique Assignment'

Who : By Harrison David Rivers. Directed by Richard D. Thompson.

Where : History Theatre, 30 E. 10th St., St. Paul.

When : 10 a.m. & 7:30 p.m. Thu., 7:30 p.m. Fri. & Sat., 2 p.m. Sun. Ends April 7.

Tickets : $54-$59. 651-292-4323 or historytheatre.com .

Rohan Preston covers theater for the Star Tribune.

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what if history assignment

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The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

  • Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
  • Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

  • What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

  • What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that he or she will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

  • define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
  • describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
  • explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
  • illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
  • summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
  • trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
  • research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

  • compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
  • contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
  • apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
  • cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
  • relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

  • assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
  • prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
  • evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
  • support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
  • synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
  • analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
  • argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

  • What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
  • In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove her point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
  • What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
  • How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, he or she still has to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

  • Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
  • The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and she already knows everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality she or he expects.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

  • spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
  • use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
  • use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
  • get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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A Look Behind Some of the Giants New Jersey Number Assignments

  • Author: Patricia Traina

In this story:

New York Giants

Here's a look at the New Jersey number assignments and the stories/histories behind the jersey numbers. All research via Pro Football Reference's uniform number history .

0, Edge Brian Burns

Burns, who wore the number zero last year in Carolina once the number became approved for usage, becomes the second Giants player to don the goose egg, following in receiver Parris Campbell's footsteps.

2, QB Drew Lock

Lok takes over No. 2, previously worn by quarterback Tyrod Taylor--fitting if you consider that Lock, like Taylor, is QB2 on the roster.

3, CB Deonte Banks

The second-year cornerback steps into receiver Sterling Shepard's old jersey number. Banks, who wore No. 33 at Maryland for three seasons before switching to No. 3 for his final campaign, was No. 25 last season.

21, DB Jalen Mills

Mills takes on No. 21, worn last year by two Giants players: defensive back Bobby McCain and kicker Mason Crosby. Longer-tenured Giants who have won the jersey number include running back Tiki Barber, safety Jabrill Peppers, and safety Landon Collins.

26, RB Devin Singletary

Singletary, who has worn No. 26 with the Bills and Texans, saw no reason to change that now that he is with the Giants, even though the departure of the previous wearer of No. 26, running back Saquon Barkley, still stings for some Giants fans, and those in particular who own that jersey.

63, IOL Jimmy Morrissey

No. 63 was last worn by center J.C. Hassenauer, who never made it out of training camp after suffering a season-ending injury. Morrissey wore No. 67 in college for Pittsburgh.

64, IOL Aaron Stinnie

Stinnie takes over No. 64, previously worn by Mark Gowisnki, who was cut just before the free agency period. Stinnie becomes the 12th member of the franchise to wear that number.

65, OL Austin Scholttmann

Schlottman takes the jersey number previously worn by offensive lineman Sean Harlow. Before Harlow, notable Giants offensive linemen who wore No. 65 included Nick Gates, Will Beatty, Grey Ruegamer, and Bart Oates.

70 OT Yodney Cajuste

Offensive linemen Weston Richburg, Patrick Omameh, Kevin Zeitler, and Korey Cuningham previously wore Cajuste's No. 70.

72, G/T Jermaine Eluemunor

Eluemunor told reporters he chose No. 72 in honor of a famous Giants alumnus who wore the number (OSi Umenyiora, who, like Eluemunor, is London-born). Eluemunor wore the number in New England in 2020 and again with the Raiders.

76, IOL Jon Runyan Jr

Interestingly, No. 76 hasn't been worn by a Giant on the 53-man roster since Jon Feliciano donned it in 2022. Before him, Nate Solder and Ereck Flowers wore the jersey, but perhaps the most famous and best Giants offensive lineman to wear it was Chris Snee. Runyan wore No. 76 with the Packers.

81, WR Chase Cota

Bota's jersey number makes its first known appearance since 2021 when Alex Bachman wore it. The number was made famous thanks to Super Bowl XLII champion receiver Amani Toomer. Cota wore 23 at UCLA and Oregon.

85, TE Chris Manhertz

Interstingly, Giants members haven't worn No. 85 as much in recent years. The last to wear it was tight end Chris Myarick in 2022. No. 85 was the jersey number of Super Bowl XLII hero David Tyree of the "Helmet Catch" fame.

In his pro career, Manhertz has worn jersey numbers 86, 82, and 84. However, other teammates are currently wearing all three numbers.

87, WR Isaiah McKenzie

Ever since Sterling Shepard (who wore the number from 2016 to 2020) gave up, the two players who had worn this number had had a quick cup of coffee with the team before moving on: Marcus Johnson and Dylan Drummond. McKenzie, nicknamed "Lil Dirty," has never worn 87 in the pros or college.

No. 89 TE Jack Stoll

Fun fact. Back in the day before he switched to 81, receiver Amani Toomer wore jersey No. 89. So too did tight ends Mark Bavaro and Dan Campbell (now the Lions head coach), and Super Bowl XLII hero Kevin Boss. 

Lately, however, those who have worn the number weren't long for the team, such as receiver Kadarius Toney and tight ends Nick Vannett and Tommy Sweeney.  Stoll likely chose this number because he wore it from 2021-2023 with the Eagles.

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Latest Giants News

Nov 5, 2023; Paradise, Nevada, USA; New York Giants wide receiver Parris Campbell (0) walks off the field after the Las Vegas Raiders defeated the Giants 30-6 at Allegiant Stadium.

Parris Campbell Signs with Eagles

Sep 22, 2019; Tampa, FL, USA; General view of New York Giants helmets on the bench prior to the game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers at Raymond James Stadium.

Grading New York Giants’ Most Significant Off-Season Moves

Oct 7,, 2022; Thundridge, United Kingdom; New York Giants defensive tackle Dexter Lawrence at press conference at Hanbury Manor.

Giants Restructure IDL Dexter Lawrence's Contract

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  1. The Best Resources For Teaching "What If?" History Lessons

    You will present your "revised history" through the creation of "new" primary sources and a multimedia project. I've written about this idea, and included links to both Carla's and Diana's projects, in three previous posts: Extraordinary "What If?". Student Project. Asking "Why Not?" & "What If?". As Well As "Why ...

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  3. "What If" Assignment

    For the "What If" Assignment, students reflect on a quick moment in time like an assassination or even a near miss of a key historical figure. Then based on their knowledge of the event, that person's role in history prior to the assassination attempt, and the impact of their loss on history, students predict what might be different in ...

  4. Changing History Lesson Plan

    Changing History. JRDAssist. Middle School and High School Teacher. Students will research a historical event, "change history" by asking a "What if…" question. The students will rewrite new information based on their research using the same era and people involved to realistically alter the outcome of the event (s).

  5. Sample Assignments

    This sample assignment requires students to use primary and secondary sources to connect American history with the Atlantic and Pacific worlds and write a paper that focuses on the circulation of commodities, peoples, and ideas throughout those worlds. This paper assignment has three major parts: a list of sources for students to read and study ...

  6. PDF What If

    The What If? essay assignment is an exercise in what is commonly known as counterfactual history and requires critical thinking and analysis. Counterfactual history explores the consequences that would follow from slight or major changes to historical events. For example,

  7. PDF A Brief Guide to Writing the History Paper

    the History Paper The Challenges of Writing About (a.k.a., Making) History At first glance, writing about history can seem like an overwhelming task. History's subject matter is immense, encompassing all of human affairs in the recorded past — up until the moment, that is, that you started reading this guide.

  8. Introducing the Writing Prompt

    This assessment step introduces students to a writing prompt that builds on these important themes and connects them to the history students explore later in this unit. The prompt is designed to serve as both a thematic frame for the unit and a final writing assignment at the unit's end. Unit Writing Prompt:

  9. History

    As they evaluate assignments, history instructors look for evidence that students: know about the past, and can; think about the past. Historians know about the past because they look at what relics have trickled down through the ages. These relics of past civilizations are called primary sources. For some periods and cultures (20th century ...

  10. What If?

    What if Adolf Hitler's artistic ambitions hadn't been quashed so humiliatingly? What if, what if, what if? Unless you're a traveler of the multiverse, it's impossible to know for sure how history would have been changed if just that one thing had been a little different. But it sure is jolly fun to hypothesize anyway!

  11. Writing to Learn History: Annotations and Mini-Writes

    Description. Annotating involves highlighting, underlining, and making marginal notes while reading a document. Some students have little experience annotating, or focus solely on reading comprehension. In such cases, explicit prompts to consider the source's author, perspective, and historical context can lead to better historical understanding.

  12. How to Write a History Essay

    Step 1: Understand the History Paper Format. You may be assigned one of several types of history papers. The most common are persuasive essays and research papers. History professors might also ask you to write an analytical paper focused on a particular source or an essay that reviews secondary sources.

  13. Steps for Writing a History Paper

    Once you are satisfied with your argument, move onto the local level. Put it all together: the final draft. After you have finished revising and have created a strong draft, set your paper aside for a few hours or overnight. When you revisit it, go over the checklist in Step 8 one more time.

  14. What If? History

    The space race is something that captivates many minds, both young and old alike. It was seen as one of the greatest achievements to land on the moon before the end of the 1960s yet we have not been back since. Not only have we not been back, but outside of the few Apollo missions that landed on the moon, we have not made any meaningful ...

  15. How to write an introduction for a history essay

    1. Background sentences. The first two or three sentences of your introduction should provide a general introduction to the historical topic which your essay is about. This is done so that when you state your hypothesis, your reader understands the specific point you are arguing about. Background sentences explain the important historical ...

  16. Archive

    James has been studying Military History, particularly World War II, since 3rd grade. He has read 100s of articles and books on all manner of military history & tactics. Professionally, he works in Emergency Medical Services. How can one small difference change the world? Archive.

  17. Discussions and Assignments

    The assignments in this course are openly licensed, and are available as-is, or can be modified to suit your students' needs. ... Explore the history of U.S. National Parks and create a brochure for a National Park based on your research. Module 2: Industrialization and Urbanization (1870-1900) Discussion: The Fourth Industrial Revolution;

  18. PDF National 5 History Assignment Assessment Task

    This assessment applies to the assignment for National 5 History. This assignment is worth 20 marks. The marks contribute 20% of the overall marks for the course assessment. It assesses the following skills, knowledge and understanding: choosing, with minimum support, an appropriate historical question or issue.

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    Manage Classes & Assignments. Sync with Google Classroom. Create Lessons. Customized Dashboard. Get More Features Free. Find supplementary resources for US History lesson plans. Motivate your students with videos and games aligned to state and national standards.

  20. History Style Guide- UW Oshkosh History Department

    The purpose of a research paper is to allow students to practice the craft of history writing at a more sophisticated level than is possible in other history assignments. Like shorter history papers, a research paper takes the form of argument supported by evidence. Unlike other assignments, however, a research paper requires that you find ...

  21. How To Write A History Assignment?

    History research paper or dissertation needs a lot of work as this can assess and evaluate your progress. So, follow these steps: 1. Decide The Right Topic. History is a vast subject with several topics that you can cover. So, while writing a history assignment for your school or college, you need to decide on one of the topics that can be a ...

  22. History Assignments: Formats and Style

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  23. Review: History Theatre's 'A Unique Assignment' deftly tells complex

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  25. Understanding Assignments

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  26. oven8/Statistical-Mechanics-2024

    History 2 Commits. Assignment 1. Assignment 1 .gitattributes.gitattributes View all files. About. A repository to keep all Stat Mech assignment related scripts and notebooks in one place. Activity. Stars. 0 stars Watchers. 1 watching Forks. 0 forks Report repository Releases No releases published. Packages 0.

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    The Tampa Bay Rays have sent catcher Francisco Mejía on a minor league rehab assignment, the team revealed in its official transaction log.. Mejía has been out for over three weeks due to a left ...

  28. A Look Behind Some of the Giants New Jersey Number Assignments

    Here's a look at the New Jersey number assignments and the stories/histories behind the jersey numbers. All research via Pro Football Reference's uniform number history.. 0, Edge Brian Burns