reference in research project

Capstone Form and Style

References: common reference list examples, article (with doi).

Alvarez. E., & Tippins, S. (2019). Socialization agents that Puerto Rican college students use to make financial decisions. Journal of Social Change , 11 (1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.5590/JOSC.2019.11.1.07

Laplante, J. P., & Nolin, C. (2014). Consultas and socially responsible investing in Guatemala: A case study examining Maya perspectives on the Indigenous right to free, prior, and informed consent.  Society & Natural Resources ,  27 , 231–248.   https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2013.861554

Provide a DOI number if there is one. DOI stands for "digital object identifier," a number specific to the article that can help others locate the source. Use  CrossRef.org  to locate DOI information. This rule applies regardless of how the source was accessed (e.g., online, paper, etc.; see APA 7, Section 9.34).

In APA 7, format the DOI as a web address. Active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in the formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout the reference list. (Note that this guidance has changed from APA 6 where all hyperlink formatting was removed and no active links were included. In APA 6, the URLs appeared in plain, black type and did not link out from the document.)

Also see our Quick Answer FAQ, "Can I use the DOI format provided by library databases?"

Jerrentrup, A., Mueller, T., Glowalla, U., Herder, M., Henrichs, N., Neubauer, A., & Schaefer, J. R. (2018). Teaching medicine with the help of “Dr. House.” PLoS ONE , 13 (3), Article e0193972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193972

For journal articles that are assigned article numbers rather than page ranges, include the article number in place of the page range.

For more on citing electronic resources, see  Electronic Sources References .

Article (Without DOI)

Found in a common academic research database or in print.

Casler , T. (2020). Improving the graduate nursing experience through support on a social media platform. MEDSURG Nursing , 29 (2), 83–87.

If an article does not have a DOI and you retrieved it from a common academic research database through the university library, there is no need to include any additional electronic retrieval information. The reference list entry looks like the entry for a print copy of the article. (This format differs from APA 6 guidelines that recommended including the URL of a journal's homepage when the DOI was not available.)

Note that APA 7 has additional guidance on reference list entries for articles found only in specific databases or archives such as Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, UpToDate, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, and university archives. See APA 7, Section 9.30 for more information.

Found on an Open Access Website

Eaton, T. V., & Akers, M. D. (2007). Whistleblowing and good governance. CPA Journal , 77 (6), 66–71. http://archives.cpajournal.com/2007/607/essentials/p58.htm

Provide the direct web address/URL to a journal article found on the open web, often on an open access journal's website.

In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list. (Note that this guidance has changed from APA 6 where all hyperlink formatting was removed and no active links were included. In APA 6, the URLs appeared in plain, black type and did not link out from the document.)

Weinstein, J. A. (2010).  Social change  (3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.

If the book has an edition number, include it in parentheses after the title of the book. If the book does not list any edition information, do not include an edition number. The edition number is not italicized. (Note: In APA 6, the location of the publisher was included. This is no longer the case in APA 7; only the publisher name is provided.) Regarding publisher name, when a publisher is named after a person (as is the case with Lawrence Erlbaum or John Wiley), list only the surname (Erlbaum or Wiley). In addition, exclude “Publishers,” “Inc.,” and “Co.” from publisher names in reference entries. 

American Nurses Association. (2010).  Nursing: Scope and standards of practice  (2nd ed.).  

In APA 7, if the author and publisher are the same, only include the author in its regular place and omit the publisher. (Note that this is a change from APA 6, where the term “Author” was used for the publisher instead of repeating the name.)

Lencioni, P. (2012). The advantage: Why organizational health trumps everything else in business . Jossey-Bass. https://amzn.to/343XPSJ

As a change from APA 6 to APA 7, it is no longer necessary to include the ebook format in the title. However, if you listened to an audiobook and the content differs from the text version (e.g., abridged content) or your discussion highlights elements of the audiobook (e.g., narrator's performance), then note that it is an audiobook in the title element in brackets. For ebooks and online audiobooks, also include the DOI number (if available) or nondatabase URL but leave out the electronic retrieval element if the ebook was found in a common academic research database, as with journal articles. APA 7 allows for the shortening of long DOIs and URLs, as shown in this example. See APA 7, Section 9.36 for more information. 

Chapter in an Edited Book

Poe, M. (2017). Reframing race in teaching writing across the curriculum. In F. Condon & V. A. Young (Eds.),  Performing antiracist pedagogy in rhetoric, writing, and communication  (pp. 87–105). University Press of Colorado.

Include the page numbers of the chapter in parentheses after the book title. The page range should not be italicized.

Christensen, L. (2001). For my people: Celebrating community through poetry. In B. Bigelow, B. Harvey, S. Karp, & L. Miller (Eds.),  Rethinking our classrooms: Teaching for equity and justice  (Vol. 2, pp. 16–17). Rethinking Schools.

Also include volume number and edition numbers in the parenthetical information after the book title where relevant.

Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923)

When a text has been republished as part of an anthology collection, after the author’s name include the date of the version that was read. At the end of the entry, place the date of the original publication inside parenthesis along with the note “original work published.” For in-text citations of republished work, use both dates in the parenthetical citation, original date first with a slash separating the years, as in this example: Freud (1923/1961). For more information on reprinted or republished works, see APA 7, Sections 9.40-9.41.

Dissertations or Theses

Retrieved from a database

Nalumango, K. (2019). Perceptions about the asylum-seeking process in the United States after 9/11 (Publication No. 13879844) [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.

Retrieved From an Institutional or Personal Website

Evener. J. (2018). Organizational learning in libraries at for-profit colleges and universities [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ScholarWorks. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6606&context=dissertations

Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis

Kirwan, J. G. (2005). An experimental study of the effects of small-group, face-to-face facilitated dialogues on the development of self-actualization levels: A movement towards fully functional persons [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center.

For further examples and information, see APA 7, Section 10.6.

Legal Material

For legal references, APA follows the recommendations of The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation , so if you have any questions beyond the examples provided in APA, seek out that resource as well.

Court Decisions

Reference format:

Name v. Name, Volume Reporter Page (Court Date). URL

Sample reference entry:

Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483

Sample citation:

In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court ruled racial segregation in schools unconstitutional.

Note: Italicize the case name when it appears in the text of your paper rather than citing it—for example, “Cases such as  Brown v. Board of Education  and  Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle  illustrate ...”

Name of Act, Title Source § Section Number (Year). URL

Sample reference entry for a federal statute:

Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004). https://www.congress.gov/108/plaws/publ446/PLAW-108publ446.pdf

Sample reference entry for a state statute:

Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, Minn. Stat. §§ 148.171 et seq. (2019). https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/cite/148.171

Sample citation: Minnesota nurses must maintain current registration in order to practice (Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, 2010).

Note: The § symbol stands for "section." Use §§ for sections (plural). To find this symbol in Microsoft Word, go to "Insert" and click on Symbol." Look in the Latin 1-Supplement subset.

Note: U.S.C. stands for "United States Code."

Note: The Latin abbreviation " et seq. " means "and what follows" and is used when the act includes the cited section and ones that follow.

Note: List the chapter first followed by the section or range of sections.

Unenacted Bills and Resolutions

(Those that did not pass and become law)

Title [if there is one], bill or resolution number, xxx Cong. (year). URL

Sample reference entry for Senate bill:

Anti-Phishing Act, S. 472, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/senate-bill/472

Sample reference entry for House of Representatives resolution:

Anti-Phishing Act, H.R. 1099, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/house-bill/1099

The Anti-Phishing Act (2005) proposed up to 5 years prison time for people running Internet scams.

These are the three legal areas you may be most apt to cite in your scholarly work. For more examples and explanation, see APA 7, Chapter 11.

Magazine Article

Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the misuse of research. Monitor on Psychology , 39 (6). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2008/06/ideology

Note that for citations, include only the year: Clay (2008). For magazine articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For magazine articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print magazine, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.

Newspaper Article

Baker, A. (2014, May 7). Connecticut students show gains in national tests. New York Times . http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/08/nyregion/national-assessment-of-educational-progress-results-in-Connecticut-and-New-Jersey.html

Include the full date in the format Year, Month Day. Do not include a retrieval date for periodical sources found on websites. Note that for citations, include only the year: Baker (2014). For newspaper articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For newspaper articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print newspaper, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.

Technical and Research Reports

The general structure for a technical or research report is as follows:

Author, A. A. (Publication Year). Title of work . Publisher Name. DOI or URL

Edwards, C. (2015). Lighting levels for isolated intersections: Leading to safety improvements (Report No. MnDOT 2015-05). Center for Transportation Studies. http://www.cts.umn.edu/Publications/ResearchReports/reportdetail.html?id=2402

Technical and research reports by governmental agencies and other research institutions usually follow a different publication process than scholarly, peer-reviewed journals. However, they present original research and are often useful for research papers. Sometimes, researchers refer to these types of reports as gray literature , and white papers are a type of this literature. See APA 7, Section 10.4 for more information.

American Federation of Teachers. (n.d.). Community schools . http://www.aft.org/issues/schoolreform/commschools/index.cfm

If there is no specified author, then use the organization’s name as the author. In such a case, there is no need to repeat the organization's name after the title.

Vartan, S. (2018, January 30). Why vacations matter for your health . CNN. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/why-vacations-matter/index.html

For webpages from news websites, include the site name after the title and before the URL. If the source is an online newspaper or magazine, follow the models in the previous sections of this page. In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list. (Note that this guidance has changed from APA 6 where all hyperlink formatting was removed, and no active links were included. In APA 6, the URLs appeared in plain, black type and did not link out from the document.)

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• Manuscript Preparation

How to write your references quickly and easily

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Table of Contents

Every scientific paper builds on previous research – even if it’s in a new field, related studies will have preceded and informed it. In peer-reviewed articles, authors must give credit to this previous research, through citations and references. Not only does this show clearly where the current research came from, but it also helps readers understand the content of the paper better.

There is no optimum number of references for an academic article but depending on the subject you could be dealing with more than 100 different papers, conference reports, video articles, medical guidelines or any number of other resources.

That’s a lot of content to manage. Before submitting your manuscript, this needs to be checked, cross-references in the text and the list, organized and formatted.

The exact content and format of the citations and references in your paper will depend on the journal you aim to publish in, so the first step is to check the journal’s Guide for Authors before you submit.

There are two main points to pay attention to – consistency and accuracy. When you go through your manuscript to edit or proofread it, look closely at the citations within the text. Are they all the same? For example, if the journal prefers the citations to be in the format (name, year), make sure they’re all the same: (Smith, 2016).

Your citations must also be accurate and complete. Do they match your references list? Each citation should be included in the list, so cross-checking is important. It’s also common for journals to prefer that most, if not all, of the articles listed in your references be cited within the text – after all, these should be studies that contributed to the knowledge underpinning your work, not just your bedtime reading. So go through them carefully, noting any missing references or citations and filling the gaps.

Each journal has its own requirements when it comes to the content and format of references, as well as where and how you should include them in your submission, so double-check before you hit send!

In general, a reference will include authors’ names and initials, the title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue, date, page numbers and DOI. On ScienceDirect, articles are linked to their original source (if also published on ScienceDirect) or to their Scopus record, so including the DOI can help link to the correct article.

A spotless reference list

Luckily, compiling and editing the references in your scientific manuscript can be easy – and it no longer has to be manual. Management tools like Mendeley can keep track of all your references, letting you share them with your collaborators. With the Word plugin, it’s possible to select the right citation style for the journal you’re submitting to and the tool will format your references automatically.

Like with any other part of your manuscript, it’s important to make sure your reference list has been checked and edited. Elsevier Author Services Language Editing can help, with professional manuscript editing that will help make sure your references don’t hold you back from publication.

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Reference List: Basic Rules

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This resourse, revised according to the 7 th  edition APA Publication Manual, offers basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper. Most sources follow fairly straightforward rules. However, because sources obtained from academic journals  carry special weight in research writing, these sources are subject to special rules . Thus, this page presents basic guidelines for citing academic journals separate from its "ordinary" basic guidelines. This distinction is made clear below.

Note:  Because the information on this page pertains to virtually all citations, we've highlighted one important difference between APA 6 and APA 7 with an underlined note written in red.  For more information, please consult the   Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , (7 th  ed.).

Formatting a Reference List

Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.

Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page "References" in bold, centered at the top of the page (do NOT underline or use quotation marks for the title). All text should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.

Basic Rules for Most Sources

• All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation.
• All authors' names should be inverted (i.e., last names should be provided first).
• For example, the reference entry for a source written by Jane Marie Smith would begin with "Smith, J. M."
• If a middle name isn't available, just initialize the author's first name: "Smith, J."
• Give the last name and first/middle initials for all authors of a particular work up to and including 20 authors ( this is a new rule, as APA 6 only required the first six authors ). Separate each author’s initials from the next author in the list with a comma. Use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name. If there are 21 or more authors, use an ellipsis (but no ampersand) after the 19th author, and then add the final author’s name.
• Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.
• For multiple articles by the same author, or authors listed in the same order, list the entries in chronological order, from earliest to most recent.
• Note again that the titles of academic journals are subject to special rules. See section below.
• Italicize titles of longer works (e.g., books, edited collections, names of newspapers, and so on).
• Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as chapters in books or essays in edited collections.

Basic Rules for Articles in Academic Journals

• Present journal titles in full.
• Italicize journal titles.
• For example, you should use  PhiloSOPHIA  instead of  Philosophia,  or  Past & Present   instead of  Past and Present.
• This distinction is based on the type of source being cited. Academic journal titles have all major words capitalized, while other sources' titles do not.
• Capitalize   the first word of the titles and subtitles of   journal articles , as well as the   first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and   any proper nouns .
• Do not italicize or underline the article title.
• Deep blue: The mysteries of the Marianas Trench.
• Oceanographic Study: A Peer-Reviewed Publication

Please note:  While the APA manual provides examples of how to cite common types of sources, it does not cover all conceivable sources. If you must cite a source that APA does not address, the APA suggests finding an example that is similar to your source and using that format. For more information, see page 282 of the   Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7 th  ed.

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• Referencing

A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

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Table of contents

Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

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A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI
• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

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Caulfield, J. (2023, September 15). A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 9 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-style/

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When you use ideas that are not your own, it is important to credit or cite the author(s) or source, even if you do not quote their idea or words exactly as written. Citing your sources allows your reader to identify the works you have consulted and to understand the scope of your research. There are many different citation styles available. You may be required to use a particular style or you may choose one.

One of the commonly used styles is the APA (American Psychological Association) Style.

APA style stipulates that authors use brief references in the text of a work with full bibliographic details supplied in a Reference List (typically at the end of your document). In text, the reference is very brief and usually consists simply of the author's last name and a date.For example:

...Sheep milk has been proved to contain more nutrients than cow milk (Johnson, 2005).

In a Reference list, the reference contains full bibliographic details written in a format that depends on the type of reference. Examples of formats for some common types of references are listed below. For additional information, visit the University of Arkansas libraries webpage on citing your sources . Another useful web-site on this topic is here.

Author last name, Author First Initial. Author Second Initial. (Publication Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume(issue) (if issue numbered), pages.

Bass, M. A., Enochs, W. K., & DiBrezzo, R. (2002). Comparison of two exercise programs on general well-being of college students. Psychological Reports, 91(3), 1195-1201.

Author Last Name, Author First Initial. Author Second Initial. (if there is no author move entry title to first position) (Publication year). Title of article or entry. In Work title. (Vol. number, pp. pages). Place: Publisher.

"Ivory-billed woodpecker." (2002). In The new encyclopædia britannica. (Vol. 5, p. ). 15th ed. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.

Author Last Name, Author First Initial. Author Second Initial. (if there is no author move entry title to first position) (Publication year). Title of article or entry. In Work title. Retrieved from (database name or URL).

Ivory-billed woodpecker. (2006). In Encyclopædia britannica online. Retrieved from http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9043081

Author last name, Author First Initial. Author Second Initial. (Publication Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Magazine,volume, pages.

Holloway, M. (2005, August). When extinct isn't. Scientific American, 293, 22-23.

Author last name, Author First Initial. Author Second Initial. (Publication Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Magazine. volume, pages. Retrieved from (database name or URL).

Holloway, M. (2005, August). When extinct isn't. Scientific American, 293, 22-23. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database.

Page Author Last Name, Page Author First Initial. Page Author Second Initial. Page title [nature of work - web site, blog, forum posting, etc.]. (Publication Year). Retrieved from (URL)

Sabo, G., et al. Rock art in Arkansas [Web site]. (2001). Retrieved from http://arkarcheology.uark.edu/rockart/index.html

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• Proposal Writing Resources

The following sources were used in the creation of this guide:

Academic Writer—Browse learn objects . (n.d.). Retrieved February 10, 2021, from/learn/browse?group=QG

Al-Riyami, A. (2008). How to prepare a research proposal. Oman Medical Journal , 23 (2), 66–69.

Locke, L. F., Spirduso, W. W., & Silverman, S. J. (2007). Proposals that work: A guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals (University of Cincinnati; 5th ed.). Sage Publications. https://login.tu.opal-libraries.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat02507a&AN=ohiolink.b25231750&site=eds-live&scope=site

McCombes, S. (2019, May 2). How to Write a Research Proposal | Guide and Template . Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/research-proposal/

Robbins, S. P. (2016). Finding your voice as an academic writer (and writing clearly). Journal of Social Work Education , 52 (2), 133–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2016.1151267

Van Ekelenburg, H. (2010). The art of writing good research proposals. Science Progress , 93 (4), 429–442. https://doi.org/10.3184/003685010X12798150447676

Wallwork, A., & Southern, A. (2020). 100 Tips to Avoid Mistakes in Academic Writing and Presenting . Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44214-9

What are the three elements of Academic Voice What steps will you take to | Course Hero . (n.d.). Retrieved February 8, 2021, from https://www.coursehero.com/file/p1k1lec/What-are-the-three-elements-of-Academic-Voice-What-steps-will-you-take-to/

Wong, P. (2002). How to write a research proposal. Dr. Paul T.P. Wong , 5.

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Generate formatted bibliographies, citations, and works cited automatically

What is mybib.

MyBib is a free bibliography and citation generator that makes accurate citations for you to copy straight into your academic assignments and papers.

If you're a student, academic, or teacher, and you're tired of the other bibliography and citation tools out there, then you're going to love MyBib. MyBib creates accurate citations automatically for books, journals, websites, and videos just by searching for a title or identifier (such as a URL or ISBN).

Plus, we're using the same citation formatting engine as professional-grade reference managers such as Zotero and Mendeley, so you can be sure our bibliographies are perfectly accurate in over 9,000 styles -- including APA 6 & 7, Chicago, Harvard, and MLA 7 & 8.

Quick features:

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What are reference books (or reference sources)?

Reference (or background) sources: what they are and when to use them.

Use reference books (also called reference or background sources, or resources ) to get quick specific facts or information or an overview of a subject.

Some examples of reference sources are: dictionaries, encyclopedias, bibliographies, almanacs, directories, atlases, and handbooks. These can be online or in print.

Print reference books

Print reference books are often shelved alongside other books on the same subjects in the Library stacks, or in Reference Collections near Library service desks.

Many -- but not all -- can be borrowed.

Online reference sources (background information)

For 24-hour access to reference resources on any subject and from any location, see  Background reference sources .

For discipline-specific resources , search by subject via  the Library's  research guides , then click on the "Background information" or "Facts and data" tab for recommendations from our subject expert librarians.

Referencing Generator

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• Archive material
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• DVD, video, or film
• E-book or PDF
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• Government publication
• Music or recording
• Online image or video
• Presentation
• Press release
• Religious text

What Is Cite This For Me’s Reference Generator?

Cite This For Me’s open-access generator is an automated citation machine that turns any of your sources into references in just a click. Using a reference generator helps students to integrate referencing into their research and writing routine; turning a time-consuming ordeal into a simple task.

A referencing generator accesses information from across the web, drawing the relevant information into a fully-formatted bibliography that clearly presents all of the sources that have contributed to your work.

If you don’t know how to reference a website correctly, or have a fast-approaching deadline, Cite This For Me’s accurate and intuitive reference generator will lend you the confidence to realise your full academic potential. In order to get a grade that reflects all your hard work, your references must be accurate and complete. Using a citation machine not only saves you time but also ensures that you don’t lose valuable marks on your assignment.

Not sure how to format your citations, what citations are, or just want to find out more about Cite This For Me’s reference generator? This guide outlines everything you need to know to equip yourself with the know-how and confidence to research and cite a wide range of diverse sources in your work.

Why Do I Need To Reference?

Simply put, when another source contributes to your work, you have to give the original owner the appropriate credit. After all, you wouldn’t steal someone else’s possessions so why would you steal their ideas?

Regardless of whether you are referencing a website, an article or a podcast, any factual material or ideas you take from another source must be acknowledged in a citation unless it is common knowledge (e.g. Winston Churchill was English). Failing to credit all of your sources, even when you’ve paraphrased or completely reworded the information, is plagiarism. Plagiarising will result in disciplinary action, which can range from losing precious marks on your assignment to expulsion from your university.

What’s more, attributing your research infuses credibility and authority into your work, both by supporting your own ideas and by demonstrating the breadth of your research. For many students, crediting sources can be a confusing and tedious process, but it’s a surefire way to improve the quality of your work so it’s essential to get it right. Luckily for you, using Cite This For Me’s reference generator makes creating accurate references easier than ever, leaving more time for you to excel in your studies.

In summary, the citing process serves three main functions:

• To validate the statements and conclusions in your work by providing directions to other sound sources that support and verify them.
• To help your readers locate, read and check your sources, as well as establishing their contribution to your work.
• To give credit to the original author and hence avoid committing intellectual property theft (known as ‘plagiarism’ in academia).

How Do I Cite My Sources With The Cite This For Me Referencing Generator?

Cite This For Me’s reference generator is the most accurate citation machine available, so whether you’re not sure how to format in-text references or are looking for a foolproof solution to automate a fully-formatted bibliography, this referencing generator will solve all of your citing needs.

Crediting your source material doesn’t just prevent you from losing valuable marks for plagiarism, it also provides all of the information to help your reader find for themselves the book, article, or other item you are citing. The accessible interface of the reference generator makes it easy for you to identify the source you have used – simply enter its unique identifier into the citation machine search bar. If this information is not available you can search for the title or author instead, and then select from the search results that appear below the reference generator.

Don’t know how to reference a website? The good news is that by using tools such as Cite This For Me’s reference generator, which help you work smarter, you don’t need to limit your research to sources that are traditional to cite. In fact, there are no limits to what you can cite, whether you are referencing a website, a YouTube video or a tweet.

To use the reference generator, simply:

• Select your style from Harvard, APA, OSCOLA and many more*
• Choose the type of source you would like to cite (e.g. website, book, journal, video)
• Enter the URL , DOI , ISBN , title, or other unique source information to find your source
• Click the ‘Cite’ button on the reference generator
• Copy your new citation straight from the referencing generator into your bibliography
• Repeat for each source that has contributed to your work.

*If you require another style for your paper, essay or other academic work, you can select from over 1,000 styles by creating a free Cite This For Me account.

Once you have created your Cite This For Me account you will be able to use the reference generator to create multiple references and save them into a project. Use Cite This For Me’s highly-rated iOS or Android apps to generate references in a flash with your smartphone camera, export your complete bibliography in one go, and much more.

What Will The Reference Generator Create For Me?

Cite This For Me’s reference generator will create your citation in two parts: an in-text citation and a full citation to be copied straight into your work.

The reference generator will auto-generate the correct formatting for your bibliography depending on your chosen style. For instance, if you select a parenthetical style the reference generator will generate an in-text citation in parentheses, along with a full citation to slot into your bibliography. Likewise, if the reference generator is set to a footnote style then it will create a fully-formatted citation for your reference list and bibliography, as well as a corresponding footnote to insert at the bottom of the page containing the relevant source.

Parenthetical style examples:

In-text example: A nation has been defined as an imagined community (Anderson, 2006).* Alternative format: Anderson (2006) defined a nation as an imagined community.

*The reference generator will create your references in the first style, but this should be edited if the author’s name already appears in the text.

Bibliography / Works Cited list example: Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined Communities. London: Verso.

What Are Citation Styles?

A citation style is a set of rules that you, as an academic writer, must follow to ensure the quality and relevance of your work. There are thousands of styles that are used in different academic institutions around the world, but in the UK the most common are Harvard, APA and Oscola.

The style you need to use will depend on the preference of your lecturer, discipline or academic institution – so if you’re unsure which style you should be using, consult your department and follow their guidelines exactly, as this is what you’ll be evaluated on when it comes to marking. You can also find your university’s style by logging into your Cite This For Me account and setting your institution in ‘My Profile’.

Citing isn’t just there to guard against plagiarism – presenting your research in a clear and consistent way eases the reader’s comprehension. Each style has a different set of rules for formatting both the page and your references. Be sure to adhere to formatting rules such as font type, font size and line spacing to ensure that your work is easily legible. Furthermore, if your work is published as part of an anthology or collected works, each entry will need to be presented in the same style to maintain uniformity throughout. It is important to make sure that you don’t jump from one style to another, so follow the rules carefully to ensure your reference list and bibliography are both accurate and complete.

If you need a hand with your citations then why not try Cite This For Me’s reference generator? It’s the quickest and easiest way to cite any source, in any style. The reference generator above will create your citations in the Harvard referencing style as standard, but it can generate fully-formatted references in over 1,000 styles – including university variations of each style. So, whether your lecturer has asked you to adopt APA referencing , or your subject requires you to use OSCOLA referencing , we’re sure to have the style you need. To access all of them, simply go to Cite This For Me’s website to create your free Cite This For Me account and search for your specific style such as MLA or Vancouver .

How Do I Format A Reference List Or Bibliography?

Drawing on a wide range of sources greatly enhances the quality of your work, and reading above and beyond your recommended reading list – and then using these sources to support your own thesis – is an excellent way to impress your reader. A clearly presented reference list or bibliography demonstrates the lengths you have gone to in researching your chosen topic.

Typically, a reference list starts on a new page at the end of the main body of text and includes a complete list of the sources you have actually cited in your paper. This list should contain all the information needed for the reader to locate the original source of the information, quote or statistic that directly contributed to your work. On the other hand, a bibliography is a comprehensive list of all the material you may have consulted throughout your research and writing process. Both provide the necessary information for readers to retrieve and check the sources cited in your work.

Each style’s guidelines will define the terminology of ‘reference list’ and ‘bibliography’, as well as providing formatting guidelines for font, line spacing and page indentations. In addition, it will instruct you on how to order each list – this will usually be either alphabetical or chronological (meaning the order that these sources appear in your work). Before submitting your work, be sure to check that you have formatted your whole paper according to your style’s formatting guidelines.

Sounds complicated? Citing has never been so easy; Cite This For Me’s reference generator will automatically generate fully-formatted citations for your reference list or bibliography in your chosen style. Sign in to your Cite This For Me account to save and export your bibliography.

How Do References Actually Work?

Although the reference generator will create your bibliography for you in record time, it is still useful to understand how this system works behind the scenes. As well as saving you time with its referencing generator, Cite This For Me provides the learning resources to help you fully understand the citing process and the benefits of adopting great citing standards.

The referencing process:

• Find a book, journal, website or other source that will contribute to your work
• Save the quote, image, data or other information that you will use in your work
• Save the source information that enables you to find it again (i.e. URL, ISBN, DOI etc.)
• Format the source information into a citation
• Copy and paste the citation into the body of the text
• Repeat for each source that contributes to your work.
• Export or copy and paste the fully-formatted citation into your bibliography.

Manage all your references in one place

Create projects, add notes, cite directly from the browser and scan books’ barcodes with a mobile app.

Sign up to Cite This For Me – the ultimate reference management tool.

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Writing terms of reference for research.

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Languages: English, French, Spanish

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• French guideline 2019 update (250 KB)

Oxfam strives to base its programmes on good quality research. Each year we devote significant resources to undertaking and commissioning research that will support and help to improve our work and that of our partners. Are we getting value for money in the research produced?

The clarity of the Terms of Reference (TOR) given to the researcher(s) is one of the most important factors determining the quality of a piece of research. These guidelines and the accompanying template present a format for writing a clear and effective TOR. The following sections mirror those in the Terms of Reference for Research template and should be used as a guide to completing this document.

Additional details

• Cohen, Marc. and Walsh, Martin.

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How to cite this resource

Citation styles vary so we recommend you check what is appropriate for your context.  You may choose to cite Oxfam resources as follows:

Author(s)/Editor(s). (Year of publication). Title and sub-title . Place of publication: name of publisher. DOI (where available). URL

Our FAQs page has some examples of this approach.

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Computer Science > Computation and Language

Title: realm: reference resolution as language modeling.

Abstract: Reference resolution is an important problem, one that is essential to understand and successfully handle context of different kinds. This context includes both previous turns and context that pertains to non-conversational entities, such as entities on the user's screen or those running in the background. While LLMs have been shown to be extremely powerful for a variety of tasks, their use in reference resolution, particularly for non-conversational entities, remains underutilized. This paper demonstrates how LLMs can be used to create an extremely effective system to resolve references of various types, by showing how reference resolution can be converted into a language modeling problem, despite involving forms of entities like those on screen that are not traditionally conducive to being reduced to a text-only modality. We demonstrate large improvements over an existing system with similar functionality across different types of references, with our smallest model obtaining absolute gains of over 5% for on-screen references. We also benchmark against GPT-3.5 and GPT-4, with our smallest model achieving performance comparable to that of GPT-4, and our larger models substantially outperforming it.

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arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs .

Frequently asked questions

What is a research project.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

Frequently asked questions: Writing a research paper

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them.

In general, they should be:

• Focused and researchable
• Answerable using credible sources
• Complex and arguable
• Feasible and specific
• Relevant and original

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Use 1 inch margins or larger
• Apply double line spacing
• Indent every new paragraph ½ inch
• Include a title page
• Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center
• Cite your sources with author-date citations or Chicago footnotes
• Include a bibliography or reference list

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:

• Use an easily readable font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Set 1 inch page margins
• Include a four-line MLA heading on the first page
• Center the paper’s title
• Use title case capitalization for headings
• Cite your sources with MLA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a Works Cited page at the end

To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial
• If submitting for publication, insert a running head on every page
• Apply APA heading styles
• Cite your sources with APA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a reference page at the end

No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:

• A restatement of the research problem
• A summary of your key arguments and/or findings
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

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Scribbr’s Plagiarism Checker is powered by elements of Turnitin’s Similarity Checker , namely the plagiarism detection software and the Internet Archive and Premium Scholarly Publications content databases .

The add-on AI detector is powered by Scribbr’s proprietary software.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

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Recommendations, References & Reaching Out: Oh My! – Part I

When asking for a professor to write a letter of recommendation, serve as a reference, collaborate on a project, etc., one should follow certain etiquette protocols. While you may not have been told that these rules exist, most of them are thankfully based on principles of politeness, and this detailed explanation can help you ask a professor, mentor, employer, supervisor, etc., for a letter of recommendation, job reference, award nomination, etc.

And just for you, dear reader, I have included example emails from my own “sent” folder and changed up some parts as a template! So while some information can be easily adjusted from these templates to fit your applications, please be sure to make sure you include information relevant to your specific application and its needs! 

In Part I of the Recommendations, References & Reaching Out: Oh My! series, we will take a look at how to ask for letters of recommendation and references! Stay tuned for Part II, where we’ll review how to ask for award nominations, collaboration on projects or research, and how to ask to connect on Cardinal Connect/LinkedIn! 

Asking for a Letter of Recommendation

When asking for a letter of recommendation, it is important to carefully choose the correct recommender. Whether it is for a job, a scholarship, an award, etc., it is crucial to ask someone who is both familiar with your work and relevant to the theme of the job, scholarship, award, etc. For example, if you are asking for a letter of recommendation to apply for a scholarship awarded to someone pursuing a biology major, it may be more relevant to ask your biology professor for a letter of recommendation than your supervisor at the community pool where you lifeguard. While both may be able to speak to your redeeming qualities, the qualities of your personality and work ethic may be presented differently in these two situations. Think carefully about who you plan to ask to write a letter of recommendation because the recommender should be able to speak to your work as a student or employee as well as your personality and good qualities. The person you ask to recommend you should have a specific and detailed, or several specific and detailed, examples of times you showed creative thinking, a strong work ethic, attention to detail, overcoming a challenge, etc. 

That said, it can be good to have people who know you in different but meaningful situations. Dr. Berg, for example, tells us he sometimes gets requests from students applying to medical schools. As a humanities professor, he’s never seen them in a science course or in the lab, so he can’t speak to how they are in that field. But, what he can do is connect the qualities he’s seen from that student in his courses to the kinds of qualities schools want to see in their medical students. He will often highlight the ways the broader honors education has prepared a student for a medical career.

Once you have decided on a recommender, it is time to ask! But, unfortunately, it’s not quite that simple. When you are asked to provide a letter of recommendation, it is customary to give at least two weeks’ notice to the recommender from the time of your email inquiry to the due date of the letter. Two weeks may seem a long time, but for professors, staff, supervisors, mentors, etc., this time goes by quickly. Two weeks is the customary polite period of when you ask for a letter of recommendation, and if possible, consider giving even more of a head’s up! This is a great way to show your recommender that you not only care about what they have to say but that you respect their time as well. 

When composing your email to your recommender (at least two weeks before it is due), do not forget to include the following information:

• If the letter should be digital (PDF) or written (yes, sometimes that is still a thing)
• This can/should include the Name of the person this letter should be sent to, their job title and employer, and their email or mailing address for the letter. 
• When the letter is due! 
• If this is a job/internship, explain the job title and company, what the job duties entail, etc. 
• If this is for a scholarship, explain what the name of the scholarship is, and what requirements there are to win
• DO NOT say that you couldn’t get anyone else or that the recommender you are asking is your second choice or last hope. Your choice should be based only on positive reasons. It may also be helpful to remind them which classes/jobs they know you from and when including any projects you may have worked on specifically.
• This can include specific extracurriculars, internships, fellowships, leadership experiences, etc. that are relevant to what you are in the process of applying for 
• You’re also able to include the link to your LinkedIn page if it has a lot of information about your academics, campus involvement, job experience, etc. 
• Make sure that you have used spell check and proper grammar, change contractions (can’t, won’t, etc.) into full words (cannot, will not, etc.), and address the recommender with the respect they deserve

***Letter of Recommendation Email Example***

      Hello, NAME ! I hope you had a wonderful weekend and that you were able to have some well-deserved rest! As the spring semester kicks into gear, so too do applications for SCHOLARSHIP/AWARD/JOB .  As a part of the application process, a Letter of Support is required. I was wondering if you would please consider writing a Letter of Recommendation for my candidacy for SCHOLARSHIP/AWARD/JOB ?  

      If you are interested in writing this Letter of Support, I have included a few details about the SCHOLARSHIP/AWARD/JOB , Letter Requirements, and my relevant experiences/work. 

• EXAMPLE AWARD INFORMATION: The Joe and Carol Trimmer Award for Outstanding Honors Senior Projects is a $1,400 scholarship awarded to two students who have completed their Senior Honors Project, with one recipient receiving it for a research project and the other receiving it for a creative project. This award is named for the late Dr. Joe Trimmer and his wife, Carol. Applications for this award, including the Letter of Support, are due by midnight on March 26th, 2024. To read more about the application, please click here .
• EXAMPLE LETTER REQUIREMENTS: The Letter of Support is also a requirement for submission and, according to the application, it says, “Student applicants must solicit a letter of support from their faculty advisor for the project. This letter should provide a general assessment of the project’s quality and address how and why this project is distinctive or outstanding. This letter must be on official letterhead with a signature and sent as a PDF file by the advisor directly to the Honors College at [email protected] with the subject “Trimmer Prize.”
• EXAMPLE RELEVANT WORK: As you may remember, my Senior Honors Project was a creative project resulting in a website that delved into the best practices in the world of diversity, equity, inclusivity, and social justice in the performing arts. This website is intended for use by arts venues and spaces across the country so that all levels of the arts, from community to collegiate, may be able to become more inclusive and accessible. I have linked the website itself in this email above, and have attached my final project submission to this email as well, along with my resume and portfolio.

      I would be truly grateful if you would consider writing a Letter of Support for my project so that I may apply for the SCHOLARSHIP/AWARD/JOB , as your guidance as MY PROFESSOR/SUPERVISOR/ETC gives you a unique perspective on my work on the project from start to finish . Please let me know if you have any questions or concerns, or if you would be able to please write this recommendation. I truly appreciate all of the support and encouragement you have shown me throughout the completion of this project and my time in the Honors College.

ATTACH YOUR RESUME, PORTFOLIO/WEBSITE/RELEVANT WORK, AND LINKEDIN PROFILE

Asking Someone to Serve as a Job/Scholarship Reference

Asking someone to serve as a job or scholarship reference is very similar to asking for a letter of recommendation, but with a few minor differences! Oftentimes, references are completed by phone or email and do not require a formal written document. Instead, references typically require you to provide the contact information of someone who can speak to your background and performance at school, work, etc. Many times, these are used when seeking internships or jobs rather than in scholarship or award applications. However, while these are slightly different, the process of asking for an individual to serve as a reference is much the same. It is heavily encouraged, nee, politely required, that you ask an individual to serve as a reference before providing their contact information. 

Typically, the process of choosing someone to serve as a reference is the same as choosing someone to write a letter of recommendation, as you want to provide a relevant contact to speak to your accomplishments and work ethic. Also, if it is possible, try to give at least two weeks notice to a reference. Sometimes in the job world, these reference turn-arounds are a bit quicker than two weeks, but do your best to ask someone to be a reference as soon as you are able.

When composing your email to the person you have chosen as your reference (at least two weeks before it is due, hopefully), do not forget to include the following information:

• Include the title of the job/scholarship, the list of responsibilities/requirements, etc. 
• Some reference contact forms may require both a phone number and email, but make sure your reference gives you their preference between home phone and office phone, professional email and personal email, etc. 
• Explain why you’re choosing them as a reference 
• Make sure that you have used spell check and proper grammar, change contractions (can’t, won’t, etc.) into full words (cannot, will not, etc.), and address your reference contact with the respect they deserve

While sometimes you may not know in advance if an organization will email or call a reference, please let the reference know in your email if the organization has highlighted how they will contact the reference. This way, a reference does not ignore important phone calls because they were anticipating an email or any other potential mixup. 

***Reference Email Example***

Hello, NAME ! I hope you’ve been doing well. I am in the process of applying for a JOB/SCHOLARSHIP/AWARD at/from ORGANIZATION/COMPANY . As part of this process, I am asked to provide references for review. Would you be willing to please serve as a reference for my application/offer acceptance as my PROFESSOR/MENTOR/SUPERVISOR ? 

Here is a little bit about the ORGANIZATION/COMPANY and the JOB/SCHOLARSHIP/AWARD I am applying for.

EXAMPLE COMPANY AND JOB INFORMATION

Hill & Knowlton is a public relations and communications agency that has offices in over 30 countries and offers a variety of services to clients such as Ford, Budweiser, Addidas, and more. The prior link goes to their website, but this link takes you to their LinkedIn page. Their Dallas office is looking to hire me as a Public Relations Specialist which is a full-time position. Here is the job description for that position. 

EXAMPLE QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE JOB/SCHOLARSHIP/AWARD

I know you are familiar with my academic and extracurricular dedication, as well as my professional ambition, and this is one reason why I believe you would make a great reference for this job. As both my supervisor for my Honors College job and as the head administrator for one of the colleges I am enrolled in, I feel you know me on a personal level as well and would be able to speak to my character and achievements as well as my professional capabilities.

Would you be interested in being included as a reference? Please let me know if you are interested and I would be beyond grateful to include you as a reference for this job. I will also include links and documents to speak more about my professional experiences and how I am qualified for this role. 

Thank you so, so much in advance for taking the time to read over this email. I sincerely appreciate your support! Thank you!!

Hopefully, you’re confident now to ask for others to write letters of recommendation or serve as references for different scholarships, internships, awards, and/or job opportunities! While each email or inquiry you send will look different, please always make sure to give as much background as possible, and to give the recommender/reference as much respect as you can. You are asking them to take a piece of your future accomplishments or success into their hands, and you should treat them with the utmost respect possible, including plenty of notice and a good spell/grammar check! 

 And whether it’s a recommendation or reference, be sure to always follow up and check in with your recommenders as the process goes along! Even if you get an electronic confirmation they’ve submitted their letter for you or completed a reference, be sure to write and thank them for doing so! When you get word from your grad school, internship, employer, etc., write and let your recommenders know- they are invested in your success! Let them be part of it and thank them for it!!

Now, stay tuned for Recommendations, References & Reaching Out: Oh My! – Part II, coming next week, April 17th! We’ll break down how to ask for award nominations, collaborate on projects or research, and how to ask to connect on Cardinal Connect/LinkedIn!

A NASA telescope unlocked the mysteries of black holes. Now it's on the chopping block.

The Chandra X-ray Observatory, one of four great space telescopes NASA launched in the 1990s, revolutionized our understanding of the universe from the moment it first began recording X-rays ‒ the energy emitted by extremely hot objects, like the matter swirling into black holes. Now 25 years old, scientists involved with the telescope believe it can last another decade.

But the president's budget for next year sliced almost $1 billion from NASA's funding request, a roughly 12% cut. The space agency then allocated only a fraction of what's needed to keep Chandra going each year, slating $41 million for the upcoming year and $25 million for the year after. It needs about $70 million annually for normal operations. The shortfall would shut down the telescope and leave the project adrift, without enough to even wind it down properly, astronomers say.

"This is a challenging budget environment, and that means we need to make difficult decisions," Mark Clampin, director of the Astrophysics Division at NASA Headquarters, said in an email to USA TODAY. "NASA has to balance investments in future missions against some of our larger missions in extended science operations."

Of the four great telescopes NASA launched in the 90s, two have aged out. One, the Hubble, needed glasses, but has been going strong since. The agency will hold a review this spring for both the Hubble and Chandra to reduce the "cost of science operations for both observatories" before determining how to proceed, Clampin wrote.

Astronomer David Pooley, whose research depends on the Chandra, disagrees with the idea that the telescope has outlived its usefulness. He compared NASA’s logic to deciding against sending your child to college because you don't have the money for the plane ticket to get them there.

The loss of Chandra, said Pooley, a professor of physics and astronomy at Trinity University in San Antonio, "is going to be disastrous for X-ray astronomy."

Chandra has offered many insights, including how supermassive black holes can coexist in the same galaxy , that Einstein's theory of general relativity holds, so space-time is a continuum, and the first direct proof that most of the matter in the universe is "dark" – unable to be seen but still exerting a gravitational pull on galaxies and gas.

X-ray astronomy uses the same kind of light to explore the cosmos that doctors use to look inside the body.

"The X-ray sky is incredibly dynamic," Pooley said. Unlike the sky we see, which looks the same night after night, "the X-ray sky is just violent and variable and exciting."

That means it's not predictable, he said.

He said one of the great things about Chandra is that it's been able to redirect toward exciting events as they appear, like an outburst from a black hole binary star system, enabling scientists to see the dynamism in action and unravel what's going on.

"So much of the science depends on being able to look at a source when it's doing something interesting," Pooley said, noting that reducing the budget even the first year will eliminate the flexibility to do that.

The next X-ray telescope won't be ready to launch until 2032, according to NASA's current timetable. And if there's a gap until then, there won't be anyone still around with expertise in X-ray astronomy, Pooley said.

If the mission is cut now, about 50 astronomers will lose their jobs this year, but even more importantly, students will stop training in the field of X-ray astronomy because they know they won't have a telescope to use for at least a decade.

"This is the existential crisis we face," Pooley said. To have a vibrant field of X-ray astronomy requires both a mission and astronomers, he said, and with these budget cuts, "there are just simply not going to be people who can do this."

Space aging

When NASA designs missions, it considers anything that lasts longer than five years a success.

The first of its four Great Observatories was Hubble, launched in 1990, which can perceive in the  ultraviolet ,  visible , and  near-infrared  regions of the spectrum of electromagnetic energy waves . Astronomers rapidly realized that its primary mirror had been polished to the wrong shape. Luckily, its orbit was close enough to the Earth that it could be serviced by astronauts on the Space Shuttle and in 1993 they added an external corrective device to clear up its vision.

Second was the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, focused on the gamma and X-ray areas of the spectrum, which lasted from 1991 to 1999. The Spitzer Space Telescope launched in 2003 and was dedicated to infrared astronomy. It was deactivated in 2020 after it ran out of coolant and eventually lost the ability to communicate with Earth.

The Chandra was launched aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia on July 23, 1999 – it will turn 25 this summer. 

As NASA's Clampin noted, "Chandra was originally designed for a mission of five years and has now been operating for nearly 25 years."

"Space is a harsh environment that eventually limits mission lifetimes," he said. A review in 2022 recommended keeping it going through 2025 but noted doing so was becoming more complex as it aged, given the difficulties of managing in the temperatures of space.

Hubble, likely because of its early problems, has its own line item in the federal budget, apart from NASA's and is apparently not targeted with budget cuts at this time.

Chandra's staff cannot speak publicly about the telescope. As federal employees, any comments they make could be considered lobbying, which would be illegal.

Last month more than 700 astronomers worldwide, including nobel laureate Rainer Weiss, signed a letter defending the telescope and Pooley said the field continues to need what it has to offer. They hope their lobbying and public support will encourage Congress to restore funding.

"I strongly disagree with the idea that Chandra is old news," Pooley said. "It is our flagship and it is cutting edge still."

Collaborative research

NASA's new James Webb Space Telescope, deployed in early 2022, was designed to work in concert with the Chandra . Space telescopes from the U.S. and other countries work together to create a combined picture of the universe.

Together, the Webb and Chandra have located extremely distant, massive black holes, Pooley said, which is "a fundamentally exciting result that has a lot of astronomers scratching our heads and realizing that we have a lot of work to do to understand our early universe."

In his own research, Pooley said, he uses optical telescopes from the ground and space in collaboration with the Chandra to understand quasars – extremely bright, supermassive black holes in the distant universe ‒ and dark matter, whose presence is determined by its gravity rather than the light it emits.

"If we can understand dark matter distribution, that can help inform ideas about what it is made of," he said.

"It's all this amazing information and it's absolutely reliant on something as powerful as Chandra, with that kind of resolution," Pooley said. "This is impossible to do any other way."

NASA's Clampin said other current and planned telescopes will compensate for the loss of Chandra.

But researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, some of whom have been involved in Chandra and others who have not, wrote a joint statement saying it will be decades before another telescope has the resolution and X-ray capability of Chandra.

“A versatile, general-purpose observatory like Chandra, that complements other instruments with capabilities that no other X-ray telescope can match, will continue to make important discoveries," said research scientist Hans Moritz Guenther.

“The astronomical community certainly hasn’t run out of ideas for using (Chandra)," added research scientist Catherine Grant.

What Chandra has shown so far

Before Chandra was turned on, astronomers knew there was a background "hum" of X-rays in the universe, but they didn't know why. From its first images sent back from outer orbit 25 years ago, they were able to see that the rays were coming from specific spots in the sky, identified as black holes.

"Dark matter tends to pull the Universe together, and dark energy tends to drive it apart. Chandra’s immense power has enabled critical observational breakthroughs to advance our theoretical understanding of this cosmic struggle," according to a website set up in the telescope's defense, SaveChandra.org .

It was Chandra that confirmed when the first gravitational waves were captured by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory or LIGO, an event that led to a Nobel prize and confirmed Einstein's theories once and for all.

That 2017 event marked the first time astronomers had all of the necessary pieces of information to confirm predictions about the merging of neutron stars and the production of gravitational waves followed by signals in gamma rays, X-rays, optical and infrared light.

"This is a big deal because it's an entirely new level of knowledge," astronomer Daryl Haggard said at the time. "This discovery allows us to link this gravitational wave source up to all the rest of astrophysics, stars, galaxies, explosions, growing massive black holes, and of course neutron star mergers."

Decades ago, astronomer Carl Sagan captured the public's imagination by describing the universe – including Earth and its inhabitants – as being made of stardust.

With Chandra, Pooley said, he can show his undergraduates the chemical elements essential for life as they are literally blown out of exploding stars and spread across space and time.

"The students are just sitting there with their mouths open," he said. "This isn't just some abstract idea. They see it happening in front of their eyes."

Karen Weintraub can be reached at [email protected] .

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FASB continues future software cost accounting debate

Defining Issues | September 2023

FASB made tentative decisions on software cost recognition and next steps for its project staff.

The Board reached tentative decisions about when software development costs should be recognized under a new, single cost accounting model that would apply to both internal- and external-use software.

At the same time, the Board also instructed its staff to both: (1) perform additional investor outreach to better understand what information software company investors would find useful and (2) consider a narrower project scope that would  principally  update the software cost accounting guidance for modern, agile software development methods.

Applicability

• All entities that develop software for either internal or external use

Relevant dates

• On June 22, 2022, the FASB decided to add a project on the accounting for software costs to its technical agenda. No technical decisions about the project path were made.
• On April 5, 2023, the FASB directed its staff to abandon further consideration of a dual model that would account for internal- and external-use software costs differently. Instead, the Board directed the staff to focus its efforts on developing a single accounting model for both.
• On September 20, 2023, the FASB reached tentative decisions about when to recognize internal- and external-use software development costs under a new single software cost accounting model. The Board also directed its staff to perform additional investor outreach and to concurrently explore an alternative that would only make targeted improvements to the existing software guidance.

Key Impacts:

• The project addresses the recognition, measurement, presentation and disclosure of software costs in the financial statements.
• The project objectives are to modernize the software cost accounting guidance in US GAAP and enhance the transparency of entities’ accounting for those costs.

Key project decisions to date:

Subject to the Board continuing with a new, single accounting model for internal- and external-use software costs (see "Next steps' below):

• The new guidance would apply to internal- and external-use software.

Software cost capitalization

• Software project costs should be capitalized once it is ‘probable’ the software project will be completed.
• Software cost capitalization would cease once the software project is substantially complete (i.e. once all substantial testing of the software is complete) and the software has been placed into service.
• Software costs incurred before it is probable the project will be completed would be expensed as incurred.
• management, with relevant authority, has committed to completing the software project;
• the software is no longer subject to high-risk development issues (e.g. novel, unique or unproven functions and features or technological innovations).
• the organization has identified the core capabilities of the software it intends to complete; and
• When assessing the above criteria, an organization would consider its history with similar software projects. However, past experience with similar software projects would not be required to meet any of the criteria.
• Recoverability of incurred project costs would be a subsequent measurement consideration; it would not be a criterion for cost capitalization. 

Unit of account

• Entities would evaluate software costs at the ‘software project’ level. A software project would consist of one or more activities that together achieve an overall objective.
• While judgment would frequently be involved in determining what constitutes a software project, entities would follow a systematic and rational approach, applied consistently, to make that determination. 

Costs incurred for maintenance and enhancements

• Cost of ‘significant’ activities to enhance (i.e. add new functionality to) existing software would be capitalized. Entities would determine what constitutes ‘significant’ activities based on the extent of the entity’s development efforts (e.g. costs or engineering time incurred).
• Maintenance costs would be expensed as incurred.
• The Board did not reach a tentative decision about whether costs of  insignificant  enhancement activities would be expensed as incurred. One Board member suggested it could be appropriate for entities to have the option of expensing or capitalizing such costs. 

The Board directed the staff to:

• Perform additional, targeted outreach with software company investors and analysts, with a particular focus on their views about potential outcomes under the developing single model.
• Explore a narrow-scope alternative to the new single model that would focus on making targeted improvements to the existing software cost guidance in US GAAP for agile software development.

Related Projects

• Board members observed that this project and its project on digital assets both seek to address discrete and actionable areas of intangible asset accounting. While the Board continues to have an active research project on intangible assets more broadly, it has so far chosen not to add a broader project to its technical agenda.

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