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- URINALYSIS CASES AND CRITICAL THINKING

Gerald D. Redwine, PhD, MT(ASCP)
The physical and chemical examination of urine samples plays an essential role in the diagnosis of patients’ pathological conditions. However, the sheer number of routine urinalysis can minimize their significance, especially considering that most analyses are automated, which can foster complacency for less than apparent problems. As a result of seemingly more critical concerns, one may defer the interpretation for the clinician to assess. Nevertheless, detecting abnormal results and possible causes is required, regardless of whether the analysis was manual or automated. Knowing the effects of pigmentation, drugs, pH, and ascorbic acid, for example, are samples that always need attention.
Manual analysis is further complicated, with several idiosyncrasies innate to manufacturers. For example, differences in popular brands, such as, Multistix, that requires reading each chemical pad at the specific time indicated. But the Chemstrip and vChem strips readings are stable between one and two minutes, except leukocytes read at two minutes, all necessitating the need for special attention to the manufacturers’ instructions. Concerning ascorbic acid, knowing that Chemstrip eliminates ascorbic acid interference with blood by overlaying the pad with iodate, and the vChem strips have a detection pad for the substance; in contrast, knowing that the Multistix has neither, is essential. Finally, knowing to ignore the different coloration on the perimeter of the pad on all strips and asking for a recollect on extremely high pH is also vital.
How are the critical thinking skills needed for a urinalysis assessment best developed? In academia, it seemed best, following initial training, to have students complete weeks of daily intensive practice of the entire urinalysis (physical, chemical, and microscopic) in an open lab setting on multiple patient samples. In combination with these analyses, they were given case studies like the ones administered later in a practical examination. The following is a composite of the answer stating what they thought was the most probable cause to three of the 17 cases given on their exam, using Multistix, with further comments in parenthesis. Assessments constrained the students to answer the question under the given condition, knowing they would ask for a recollect in some instances.
- What would explain the apparent disagreement between the nitrite and leukocyte reaction?
- What accounts for the clarity of the sample in the chemical examination?
- What does the Acetest suggest about the chemical reactions, based on literature?
- Non-nitrate reducing organism. (i.e., bacteria, yeast, trichomonads, and chlamydia) Or Trauma. (Other less likely possibilities.)
- Large blood. (Also slightly enhanced the protein.)
- More sensitive because of the added glycine. (Glycine detects acetone. vChem strips have the same.)
- What could explain the single most unexpected finding within the chemical reactions?
- What could account for the protein and SSA discrepancy?
- What should the adjusted strip value read?
- What is the definitive source(s) for reporting the final specific gravity (SG) reading (manual/analyzer/and or name another source) on this specimen?
- With an SG = 1.040, what value is the final specific gravity?
- Negative leukocytes could result from any or all three of the following. 1) Alkalinity 2) >3g/dL glucose 3) High specific gravity.
- Alkaline pH can cause a false positive protein; also, the blood that is missing in the supernatant for the SSA could account for the 2+ SSA.
- Because pH is ≥ 6.5, then add .005 to the dip strip value. Strip SG = 1.035 . (Multistix only)
- Because of the ≥ 100 protein, then run on the refractometer. (Total Solid (TS) meter/Refractometer.)
- Subtract 0.003 for every 1 g/dl protein; subtract 0.004 for every 1 g/dl glucose. Report SG: 1.026 .
- What could explain the disagreement that exists within the chemical reactions?
- Explain the correlation between chemical reactions and the SSA?
- What are the two specific adjustments needed for the specific gravity?
- What is the final strip specific gravity?
- A non-nitrite reducing microbe such as Trichomonas or Chlamydia . Or postrenal trauma. (Other nitrite negative possibilities. Also, if not for the trace protein, ascorbic acid is suspect.) Best observation: Yellow-Green ~ Biliverdin. False-negative bilirubin. Hence, the need for a recollection and run on a fresh sample to ascertain the true values.
- Expected the SSA to be greater. Alkaline pH can cause a false positive protein, or in this case, falsely increase the value.
- Because pH is ≥ 6.5, then add .005 to the dip strip value. Because of the ≥ 100 protein, then run on the refractometer. TS (Total Solid) meter/Refractometer. (Multistix only)
- Strip SG = 1.015.
Responses to the open lab concept, despite significantly more than usual time commitment on behalf of all involved, and reagents, the sacrifices were met with positive feedback from the students on superseding their learning outcomes. The learning outcomes summarized is critical thinking applied to urinalysis case studies.
Reference: Brunzel, N. A., MS, MLS(ASCP) CM . Fundamentals of Urine and Body Fluid Analysis , 4th Edition
Gerald D. Redwine is an associate professor at Texas State University Clinical Laboratory Science Program in San Marcos, Texas.

VICTORIA J. SHARP, MD, DANIEL K. LEE, MD, AND ERIC J. ASKELAND, MD
A more recent article on office-based urinalysis is available.
Am Fam Physician. 2014;90(8):542-547
Author disclosure: No relevant financial affiliations.
Urinalysis is useful in diagnosing systemic and genitourinary conditions. In patients with suspected microscopic hematuria, urine dipstick testing may suggest the presence of blood, but results should be confirmed with a microscopic examination. In the absence of obvious causes, the evaluation of microscopic hematuria should include renal function testing, urinary tract imaging, and cystoscopy. In a patient with a ureteral stent, urinalysis alone cannot establish the diagnosis of urinary tract infection. Plain radiography of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder can identify a stent and is preferred over computed tomography. Asymptomatic bacteriuria is the isolation of bacteria in an appropriately collected urine specimen obtained from a person without symptoms of a urinary tract infection. Treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria is not recommended in nonpregnant adults, including those with prolonged urinary catheter use.
Urinalysis with microscopy has proven to be an invaluable tool for the clinician. Urine dipstick testing and microscopy are useful for the diagnosis of several genitourinary and systemic conditions. 1 , 2 In 2005, a comprehensive review of urinalysis was published in this journal. 3 This article presents a series of case scenarios that illustrate how primary care physicians can utilize the urinalysis in common clinical situations.
Microscopic Hematuria: Case 1
Microscopic hematuria is common and has a broad differential diagnosis, ranging from completely benign causes to potentially invasive malignancy. Causes of hematuria can be classified as glomerular, renal, or urologic 3 – 5 ( Table 1 6 ) . The prevalence of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria varies among populations from 0.18% to 16.1%. 4 The American Urological Association (AUA) defines asymptomatic microscopic hematuria as three or more red blood cells per high-power field in a properly collected specimen in the absence of obvious causes such as infection, menstruation, vigorous exercise, medical renal disease, viral illness, trauma, or a recent urologic procedure. 5 Microscopic confirmation of a positive dipstick test for microscopic hematuria is required. 5 , 7
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Case 1: microscopic hematuria.
A 58-year-old truck driver with a 30-year history of smoking one pack of cigarettes per day presents for a physical examination. He reports increased frequency of urination and nocturia, but does not have gross hematuria. Physical examination reveals an enlarged prostate. Results of his urinalysis with microscopy are shown in Table 2 .
Based on this patient's history, symptoms, and urinalysis findings, which one of the following is the most appropriate next step?
A. Repeat urinalysis in six months.
B. Obtain blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels, perform computed tomographic urography, and refer for cystoscopy.
C. Treat with an antibiotic and repeat the urinalysis with microscopy.
D. Inform him that his enlarged prostate is causing microscopic hematuria, and that he can follow up as needed.
E. Perform urine cytology to evaluate for bladder cancer.
The correct answer is B .
For the patient in case 1 , because of his age, clinical history, and lack of other clear causes, the most appropriate course of action is to obtain blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels, perform computed tomographic urography, and refer the patient for cystoscopy. 5 An algorithm for diagnosis, evaluation, and follow-up of patients with asymptomatic microscopic hematuria is presented in Figure 1 . 5 The AUA does not recommend repeating urinalysis with microscopy before the workup, especially in patients who smoke, because tobacco use is a risk factor for urothelial cancer ( Table 3 ) . 5
A previous article in American Family Physician reviewed the American College of Radiology's Appropriateness Criteria for radiologic evaluation of microscopic hematuria. 8 Computed tomographic urography is the preferred imaging modality for the evaluation of patients with asymptomatic microscopic hematuria. 5 , 8 It has three phases that can detect various causes of hematuria. The non–contrast-enhanced phase is optimal for detecting stones in the urinary tract; the nephrographic phase is useful for detecting renal masses, such as renal cell carcinoma; and the delayed phase outlines the collecting system of the urinary tract and can help detect urothelial malignancies of the upper urinary tract. 9 Although the delayed phase can detect some bladder masses, it should not replace cystoscopy in the evaluation for bladder malignancy. 9 After a negative microscopic hematuria workup, the patient should continue to be followed with yearly urinalysis until at least two consecutive normal results are obtained. 5
In patients with microscopic hematuria, repeating urinalysis in six months or treating empirically with antibiotics could delay treatment of potentially curable diseases. It is unwise to assume that benign prostatic hyperplasia is the explanation for hematuria, particularly because patients with this condition typically have risk factors for malignancy. Although urine cytology is typically part of the urologic workup, it should be performed at the time of cystoscopy; the AUA does not recommend urine cytology as the initial test. 5
Dysuria and Flank Pain After Lithotripsy: Case 2
After ureteroscopy with lithotripsy, a ureteral stent is often placed to maintain adequate urinary drainage. 10 The stent has one coil that lies in the bladder and another that lies in the renal pelvis. Patients with ureteral stents may experience urinary frequency, urgency, dysuria, flank pain, and hematuria. 10 They may have dull flank pain that becomes sharp with voiding. This phenomenon occurs because the ureteral stent bypasses the normal nonrefluxing uretero-vesical junction, resulting in transmission of pressure to the renal pelvis with voiding. Approximately 80% of patients with a ureteral stent experience stent-related pain that affects their daily activities. 11
POTENTIALLY MISLEADING URINALYSIS
Case 2: dysuria and flank pain after lithotripsy.
A 33-year-old woman with a history of nephrolithiasis presents with a four-week history of urinary frequency, urgency, urge incontinence, and dysuria. She recently had ureteroscopy with lithotripsy of a 9-mm obstructing left ureteral stone; she does not know if a ureteral stent was placed. She has constant dull left flank pain that becomes sharp with voiding. Results of her urinalysis with microscopy are shown in Table 4 .
A. Treat with three days of ciprofloxacin (Cipro), and tailor further antibiotic therapy according to culture results.
B. Treat with 14 days of ciprofloxacin, and tailor further antibiotic therapy according to culture results.
C. Obtain a urine culture and perform plain radiography of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder.
D. Perform a 24-hour urine collection for a metabolic stone workup.
E. Perform computed tomography.
The correct answer is C .
The presence of a ureteral stent causes mucosal irritation and inflammation; thus, findings of leukocyte esterase with white and red blood cells are not diagnostic for urinary tract infection, and a urine culture is required. In this setting, plain radiography of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder would be useful to determine the presence of a stent. If a primary care physician identifies a neglected ureteral stent, prompt urologic referral is indicated for removal. Retained ureteral stents may become encrusted, and resultant stone formation may lead to obstruction. 10
Flank discomfort and recent history of urinary tract manipulation suggest that this is not an uncomplicated urinary tract infection; therefore, a three-day course of antibiotics is inadequate. Although flank pain and urinalysis suggest possible pyelonephritis, this patient should not be treated for simple pyelonephritis in the absence of radiography to identify a stent. A metabolic stone workup may be useful for prevention of future kidney stones, but it is not indicated in the acute setting. Finally, although computed tomography would detect a ureteral stent, it is not preferred over radiography because it exposes the patient to unnecessary radiation. Typically, microscopic hematuria requires follow-up to ensure that there is not an underlying treatable etiology. In this case , the patient's recent ureteroscopy with lithotripsy is likely the etiology.
Urinalysis in a Patient Performing Clean Intermittent Catheterization: Case 3
Case 3: urinalysis in a patient performing clean intermittent catheterization.
A 49-year-old man who has a history of neurogenic bladder due to a spinal cord injury and who performs clean intermittent catheterization visits your clinic for evaluation. He reports that he often has strong-smelling urine, but has no dysuria, urge incontinence, fever, or suprapubic pain. Results of his urinalysis with microscopy are shown in Table 5 .
A. Inform the patient that he has a urinary tract infection, obtain a urine culture, and treat with antibiotics.
B. Refer him to a urologist for evaluation of a complicated urinary tract infection.
C. Perform computed tomography of the abdomen and pelvis to evaluate for kidney or bladder stones.
D. Inform him that no treatment is needed.
E. Obtain a serum creatinine level to evaluate for chronic kidney disease.
The correct answer is D .
Although the urinalysis results are consistent with a urinary tract infection, the clinical history suggests asymptomatic bacteriuria. Asymptomatic bacteriuria is the isolation of bacteria in an appropriately collected urine specimen obtained from a person without symptoms of a urinary tract infection. 12 The presence of bacteria in the urine after prolonged catheterization has been well described; one study of 605 consecutive weekly urine specimens from 20 chronically catheterized patients found that 98% contained high concentrations of bacteria, and 77% were polymicrobial. 13
Similar results have been reported in patients who perform clean intermittent catheterization; another study of 1,413 urine cultures obtained from 407 patients undergoing clean intermittent catheterization found that 50.6% contained bacteria. 14 Guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommend against treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria in nonpregnant patients with spinal cord injury who are undergoing clean intermittent catheterization or in those using a chronic indwelling catheter. 12
In the absence of symptoms of a urinary tract infection or nephrolithiasis, there is no need to culture the urine, treat with antibiotics, refer to a urologist, or perform imaging of the abdomen and pelvis. There is no reason to suspect acute kidney injury in this setting; thus, measurement of the serum creatinine level is also unnecessary.
Data Sources : Literature searches were performed in PubMed using the terms urinalysis review, urinalysis interpretation, microscopic hematuria, CT urogram, urinary crystals, indwelling ureteral stent, asymptomatic bacteriuria, and bacteriuria with catheterization. Guidelines from the American Urological Association were also reviewed. Search dates: October 2012 and June 2013.
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A urinalysis is a test of your urine. It's used to detect and manage a wide range of disorders, such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease and diabetes.
A urinalysis involves checking the appearance, concentration and content of urine. For example, a urinary tract infection can make urine look cloudy instead of clear. Increased levels of protein in urine can be a sign of kidney disease.
Unusual urinalysis results often require more testing to find the source of the problem.
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Why it's done
A urinalysis is a common test that's done for several reasons:
- To check your overall health. A urinalysis might be part of a routine medical exam, pregnancy checkup or pre-surgery preparation. Or it might be used to screen for a variety of disorders, such as diabetes, kidney disease or liver disease, when you're admitted to a hospital.
- To diagnose a medical condition. A urinalysis might be requested if you have abdominal pain, back pain, frequent or painful urination, blood in your urine, or other urinary problems. A urinalysis can help diagnose the cause of these signs and symptoms.
- To monitor a medical condition. If you've been diagnosed with a medical condition, such as kidney disease or a urinary tract infection, your doctor might recommend testing your urine regularly to monitor your condition and treatment.
Other tests, such as pregnancy testing and drug screenings, might rely on a urine sample, but these tests look for substances that aren't included in a typical urinalysis.
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How you prepare
If you're having only a urinalysis, you can eat and drink before the test. If you're having other tests, you might need to fast before the test. Your health care provider will give you specific instructions.
Many drugs, including nonprescription medications and supplements, can affect the results of a urinalysis. Before a urinalysis, tell your doctor about medications, vitamins or other supplements you take.
What you can expect
You might collect a urine sample at home or at your health care provider's office. Providers typically give out containers for urine samples. You might be asked to collect the sample at home first thing in the morning, when your urine is more concentrated.
You might be instructed to collect the sample midstream, using a clean-catch method. This method involves the following steps:
- Cleanse the urinary opening. Women should spread the labia and clean from front to back. Men should wipe the tip of the penis.
- Begin to urinate into the toilet.
- Pass the collection container into your urine stream.
- Urinate at least 1 to 2 ounces (30 to 60 milliliters) into the collection container.
- Finish urinating into the toilet.
- Deliver the sample as directed by your health care provider.
- If you can't deliver the sample to the designated area within 60 minutes of collection, refrigerate the sample, unless your provider has told you otherwise.
In some cases, if needed, your provider can insert a thin, flexible tube (catheter) through the urinary tract opening and into the bladder to collect the urine sample.
The urine sample is sent to a lab for analysis. You can return to your usual activities immediately.
For a urinalysis, your urine sample is evaluated in three ways: visual exam, dipstick test and microscopic exam.
Visual exam
A lab technician examines the urine's appearance. Urine is typically clear. Cloudiness or an unusual odor can indicate a problem, such as an infection. Protein in urine can make it appear foamy.
Blood in the urine can make it look red or brown. Urine color can be influenced by what you've just eaten or by certain drugs you're taking. For example, beets or rhubarb might tint your urine red.
Dipstick test
A dipstick — a thin, plastic stick with strips of chemicals on it — is placed in the urine. The chemical strips change color if certain substances are present or if their levels are above typical levels. A dipstick test checks for:
- Acidity (pH). The pH level indicates the amount of acid in urine. The pH level might indicate a kidney or urinary tract disorder.
- Concentration. A measure of concentration shows how concentrated the particles are in your urine. A higher than normal concentration often is a result of not drinking enough fluids.
- Protein. Low levels of protein in urine are typical. Small increases in protein in urine usually aren't a cause for concern, but larger amounts might indicate a kidney problem.
- Sugar. The amount of sugar (glucose) in urine is typically too low to be detected. Any detection of sugar on this test usually calls for follow-up testing for diabetes.
- Ketones. As with sugar, any amount of ketones detected in your urine could be a sign of diabetes and requires follow-up testing.
- Bilirubin. Bilirubin is a product of red blood cell breakdown. Usually, bilirubin is carried in the blood and passes into your liver, where it's removed and becomes part of bile. Bilirubin in your urine might indicate liver damage or disease.
- Evidence of infection. Either nitrites or leukocyte esterase — a product of white blood cells — in your urine might indicate a urinary tract infection.
- Blood. Blood in your urine requires additional testing. It may be a sign of kidney damage, infection, kidney or bladder stones, kidney or bladder cancer, or blood disorders.
Microscopic exam
Sometimes performed as part of a urinalysis, this test involves viewing drops of concentrated urine — urine that's been spun in a machine — under a microscope. If any of the following levels are above average, you might need more tests:
- White blood cells (leukocytes) might be a sign of an infection.
- Red blood cells (erythrocytes) might be a sign of kidney disease, a blood disorder or another underlying medical condition, such as bladder cancer.
- Bacteria, yeast or parasites can indicate an infection.
- Casts — tube-shaped proteins — can be a result of kidney disorders.
- Crystals that form from chemicals in urine might be a sign of kidney stones.
A urinalysis alone usually doesn't provide a definite diagnosis. Depending on the reason your provider recommended this test, you might need follow-up for unusual results. Evaluation of the urinalysis results with other tests can help your provider determine next steps.
Getting standard test results from a urinalysis doesn't guarantee that you're not ill. It might be too early to detect disease or your urine could be too diluted. Tell your provider if you still have signs and symptoms.
For specifics about what your urinalysis results mean, talk with your health care provider.
- Lab Tests Online. Urinalysis. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/urinalysis. Accessed Aug. 14, 2021.
- What is a urinalysis (also called a "urine test")? National Kidney Foundation. https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/what-urinalysis. Accessed Aug. 14, 2021.
- Evaluation of the renal patient. Merck Manual Professional Version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/approach-to-the-genitourinary-patient/evaluation-of-the-renal-patient?query=urinalysis#v1152664. Accessed Aug. 14, 2021.
- Wald R. Urinalysis in the diagnosis of kidney disease. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Aug. 14, 2021.
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- Cushing syndrome
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- Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)
- Kidney stones
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What is a urinalysis?
A urinalysis (also known as a urine test) is a test that examines the visual, chemical and microscopic aspects of your urine (pee). It can include a variety of tests that detect and measure various compounds that pass through your urine using a single sample of urine.
Healthcare providers often use urinalysis to screen for or monitor certain common health conditions, such as liver disease , kidney disease and diabetes , and to diagnose urinary tract infections (UTIs).
While several different aspects of your health can be tested with a urine sample, your healthcare provider will choose which tests to order under a urinalysis depending on your symptoms and situation.
What tests are included in urinalysis?
Your healthcare provider can include several different tests in a urinalysis. Depending on your symptoms, existing health conditions, and/or situation, your provider will choose which urine tests to order under a urinalysis.
In general, a healthcare provider or laboratory technician can examine a urinalysis urine sample for the following broad aspects:
- Color and appearance.
- Chemical findings.
- Microscopic findings.
Urine color and appearance
For most urinalysis tests, a healthcare provider examines how the urine sample looks to the “naked eye.” They check if it’s clear or cloudy and if it’s pale, dark yellow or another color.
Normal urine color is usually some shade of yellow and can range from colorless or pale yellow to deep amber, depending on how concentrated or diluted (watery) your urine is.
Many things can affect the color of your urine, including certain medications and supplements and certain foods you eat, such as beets. However, an unusual urine color can also be a sign of disease. For example, red-colored urine can happen when blood is present in your urine and can be an indicator of disease or damage to a part of your urinary system .
Cloudy urine doesn’t always indicate unhealthy urine. For example, sperm and skin cells are harmless and could make your urine appear cloudy. Other substances that can make your urine cloudy, such as red blood cells, white blood cells and bacteria, may indicate several different medical conditions, including:
- Dehydration .
- Urinary tract infection (UTI).
- Sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
- Kidney stones .
Urine chemical findings
To examine chemical aspects of a urine sample, healthcare providers or lab technicians often use special test strips called dipsticks to test for certain chemical substances in the urine sample. The strips have pads of chemicals that change color when they come in contact with specific substances.
The degree of color change on the dipstick can give an estimate of the amount of substance present. For example, a slight color change in the test pad for protein may indicate a small amount of protein present in the urine sample, whereas a deep color change may indicate a large amount.
Common types of tests that use a dipstick that providers may include in a urinalysis include:
- Protein urine test : A protein urine test measures the presence of proteins, such as albumin, in your urine. Higher-than-normal urine protein levels may indicate several different health conditions, such as heart failure , kidney issues and dehydration.
- Urine pH level test : A urine pH test measures the acid-base (pH) level in your urine. A high urine pH may indicate conditions including kidney issues and a urinary tract infection (UTI). A low urine pH may indicate conditions including diabetes-related ketoacidosis and diarrhea .
- Ketones urine test : Ketones build up when your body has to break down fats and fatty acids to use as fuel for energy. This is most likely to happen if your body does not get enough sugar or carbohydrates as fuel. Healthcare providers most often use ketone urine tests to check for diabetes-related ketoacidosis.
- Glucose urine test : A glucose urine test measures the amount of sugar (glucose) in your urine. Under regular circumstances, there shouldn’t be glucose in your urine, so the presence of glucose could be a sign of diabetes or gestational diabetes .
- Bilirubin urine test : Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by your liver. If you have bilirubin in your urine, it may indicate liver or bile duct issues.
- Nitrite urine test : A positive nitrite test result can indicate a urinary tract infection (UTI). However, not all bacteria are capable of converting nitrate (a substance that’s normally in your urine) to nitrite, so you can still have a UTI despite a negative nitrite test.
- Leukocyte esterase urine test : Leukocyte esterase is an enzyme that’s present in most white blood cells. When this test is positive, it may indicate that there’s inflammation in your urinary tract or kidneys. The most common cause for white blood cells in urine is a bacterial urinary tract infection (UTI).
- Urine specific gravity test : A specific gravity test shows the concentration of all chemical particles in your urine. Abnormal results may indicate several different health conditions.
Urine microscopic findings
A lab technician may examine a urine sample under a microscope to look for tiny substances in the urine, including:
- Cell fragments.
- Urinary casts
- Bacteria or other germs.
Microscopic tests that providers may include in a urinalysis include:
- Red blood cell (RBC) urine test : An elevated number of RBCs indicates that there’s blood in your urine. However, this test can’t identify where the blood is coming from. For example, contamination with blood from hemorrhoids or vaginal bleeding can’t be distinguished from a bleed somewhere in your urinary system. In some cases, higher-than-normal levels of red blood cells in your urine may indicate bladder, kidney or urinary tract issues.
- White blood cell (WBC) urine test : An increased number of WBCs and/or a positive test for leukocyte esterase may indicate an infection or inflammation somewhere in your urinary tract.
- Epithelial cells : Epithelial cells are cells that form the covering on all internal and external surfaces of your body and line body cavities and hollow organs. Your urinary tract is lined with epithelial cells. It’s normal to have some epithelial cells in your urine, but elevated numbers of epithelial cells may indicate infection, inflammation and/or cancer in your urinary tract.
- Bacteria, yeast and parasites : Sometimes, bacteria can enter your urethra and urinary tract, causing a urinary tract infection (UTI). The urine sample can also become contaminated with bacteria, yeast and parasites, especially for people with a vagina. Yeast can contaminate the sample for people who have a vaginal yeast infection . Trichomonas vaginalis is a parasite that may also be found in the urine of people who have a vagina. It’s the cause of an STI called trichomoniasis .
- Urinary casts : Casts are tiny tube-like particles that can sometimes be in your urine. They’re formed from protein released by your kidney cells. Certain types of casts may indicate kidney issues, while others are completely normal.
Why do I need urinalysis?
Healthcare providers order urinalysis tests for several reasons since a urine sample can provide many insights into your health. Your provider may order a urinalysis for you for one or more of the following reasons:
- As part of your routine medical exam to screen for early signs of certain health conditions.
- If you’re experiencing and signs and symptoms of certain health conditions, such as diabetes or kidney disease.
- To monitor certain health conditions you're receiving treatment for, such as diabetes or kidney disease.
- To diagnose a urinary tract infection (UTI).
- If you’ve been admitted to a hospital.
- As a preparatory checkup for surgery.
How common are urinalysis tests?
Urinalysis tests are very common. They’re a simple and non-invasive way to check several different aspects of your health.
What’s the difference between urinalysis and a urine culture?
A urine culture involves growing bacteria from a urine sample in a lab to diagnose urinary tract infections and other infections. Urine cultures are not part of routine urinalysis tests. Like a urinalysis, a urine culture sample must be obtained by the clean catch method or by inserting a catheter through the urethra into the bladder.
If your urinalysis results indicate a UTI is likely, your healthcare provider may order a urine culture for a laboratory to run off the urine sample you gave for the original urinalysis. A urine culture can determine the type of bacterium that caused the UTI.
Urinalysis can include several different tests, measurements and assessments of aspects of your urine.
Test Details
How do i prepare for a urinalysis.
Before your urinalysis test, you’ll need to make sure you’ve drunk enough liquids, such as water, to be able to go to the bathroom and produce a urine sample.
Depending on the reason for the urinalysis, your healthcare provider may want the urine sample to be the first time you pee in the morning (first morning void). Your provider will let you know if this is the case.
Certain medications can change the color of your urine. Your healthcare provider may tell you to stop taking certain medications that can affect urinalysis test results. Only stop taking medications if your provider tells you to do so.
If you’re menstruating (on your period), it’s important to let your provider know before collecting your urine sample. Menstrual blood, as well as vaginal discharge , can interfere with certain urinalysis test results.
What can I expect during a urinalysis?
In most cases, you’ll perform a urinalysis at your healthcare provider’s office or at a laboratory using the “clean catch” method, which is intended to help prevent contamination of your urine sample with cells from your genitals. You or your healthcare provider can also collect a urine sample using a catheter.
For the clean catch method, your provider will give you a specimen cup, sterile wipes and specific instructions for collecting your urine sample. Your provider will tell you what to do with your urine sample after you’ve collected it. It’s important to wash your hands with soap and water before you collect the sample.
Collecting a clean catch urine sample if you have labia
If you have labia, use the following steps to get a clean catch urine sample:
- Start by sitting on the toilet with your legs spread apart.
- Using two fingers, spread your labia open. Then, use one sterile wipe to clean the inner folds of your labia, wiping from front to back.
- Use another sterile wipe to clean over your urethra, the opening where urine flows out of your body.
- Urinate a small amount into the toilet.
- Stop the flow of urine, and hold the specimen cup a few inches away from your urethra.
- Urinate into the cup, filling it about half full or however full your provider instructed you to.
- Finish urinating into the toilet.
Collecting a clean catch urine sample if you have a penis
If you have a penis, use the following steps to get a clean catch urine sample:
- Use a sterile wipe to clean the head of your penis. If your penis is uncircumcised, first pull back your foreskin to ensure a thorough cleaning.
- Stop the flow of urine, and hold the specimen cup a few inches from your urethra, the opening where urine flows out of your penis.
- Fill your specimen cup about half full or however full your provider instructed you to.
Collecting a urine sample with a catheter
You or a healthcare provider can also collect a urine sample with a catheter using the following steps:
- You or a healthcare provider will thoroughly clean the area around the opening of your urethra with a germ-killing (antiseptic) solution.
- You or a provider will insert a thin rubber tube called a catheter through your urethra.
- Your urine will then drain into a sterile container.
- You or a provider will remove the catheter.
What should I expect after urinalysis?
Once you've collected your urine sample, your healthcare provider will send it to a laboratory for testing and viewing under a microscope. In some cases, your provider may examine the sample immediately and run dipstick tests on it.
Are there any risks to urinalysis?
The clean-catch method of urine sample collecting for a urinalysis doesn’t have any risks. It’s a painless and non-invasive test.
If you or your provider use a catheter to collect a urine sample for a urinalysis, there’s a risk of infection. It may also cause pain or discomfort.
When should I know the results of my urinalysis?
In most cases, it’ll take one to two business days to get your urinalysis results back.
Results and Follow-Up
How do i read my urine test results.
Depending on which tests your healthcare provider ordered for your urinalysis, there may only be a few or several measurements on your test results. Laboratory reports, including urinalysis reports, usually provide the following information:
- The name of the urine test or what was measured in your urine.
- The number, measurement or assessment of your urine test result.
- The normal result, measurement range or assessment for that test.
- Information that indicates if your result is normal or abnormal.
Urine clarity refers to how clear your urine sample was. Most laboratories categorize the clarity of urine as one of the following:
- Slightly cloudy.
- Turbid (opaque, or thick with suspended substances).
If you had a chemical urine test, such as a glucose urine test or nitrite urine test, the results may be categorized as negative or positive and/or indicate the amount of the substance.
If you had a microscopic urine test, such as one that checked for red blood cells (RBC) or bacteria, the laboratory will likely categorize the number (results) of the substance as one of the following:
What do the results of a urinalysis mean?
Urinalysis results can have several interpretations due to the variety of tests. Abnormal results may indicate — but not necessarily guarantee — that there’s a medical issue. In most cases of abnormal urinalysis results, you’ll need further testing, such as blood tests or imaging tests, in order for your healthcare provider to diagnose a condition.
In general, the greater the concentration or level of the atypical substance, such as high levels of glucose or red blood cells, the more likely that there’s a medical condition that needs treatment. Again, providers rarely use urinalysis tests alone to diagnose conditions. Instead, urinalysis results can provide helpful insight and help point providers in the right direction toward a diagnosis.
If you have questions about your results, don’t be afraid to ask your provider.
Should I be concerned if I have an abnormal result on my urinalysis?
If one of your urinalysis test results is abnormal, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition. Several factors can affect or interfere with urinalysis test results, including:
- Certain medications and supplements, such as metronidazole and vitamin C supplements.
- Contamination of germs or other substances, such as vaginal discharge or menstrual blood, during the urine sample collection.
- Error in the processing of the test.
Your healthcare provider will consider your medical history, current medications and your results and let you know if you need to repeat the test or undergo further testing.
When should I call my doctor?
If you notice any changes in your urine , such as a persistent change of color, odor or consistency, contact your healthcare provider.
If you’re experiencing symptoms of a urinary tract infection (UTI), such as a strong, persistent urge to urinate, and/or a burning sensation when urinating, contact your healthcare provider or go to an urgent care facility.
A note from Cleveland Clinic
A urinalysis is a helpful and common test that can give insight into several aspects of your health. Know that having an abnormal result for one of your urinalysis tests doesn’t necessarily mean you have a medical condition. Many factors can affect your results. Your healthcare provider will let you know if you need to undergo further tests to determine the cause of the abnormal level. Don’t be afraid to ask your provider questions. They’re there to help you.
Cleveland Clinic is a non-profit academic medical center. Advertising on our site helps support our mission. We do not endorse non-Cleveland Clinic products or services. Policy
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Urinalysis cases
In two days CAAF has granted two urinalysis cases citing to Melendez-Diaz . Note Blazier is still undecided. In the Air Force case the defense did not object, in the Navy case the defense did object.
No. 10-0668/AF. U.S. v. Jerrod D. NUTT. CCA S31600 . Review granted on the following issues: WHETHER, UNDER MELENDEZ-DIAZ v. MASACHUSETTS , 129 S.CT. 2527 (2009), THE ADMISSION OF THE DRUG TESTING REPORT VIOLATES APPELLANT’S SIXTH AMENDMENT RIGHTS UNDER THE CONFRONTATION CLAUSE. WHETHER TRIAL DEFENSE COUNSEL’S FAILURE TO OBJECT TO THE ADMISSION OF THE DRUG LABORATORY REPORT AT TRIAL FORFEITED THE CONFRONTATION CLAUSE ISSUE, AND, IF SO, DID ADMISSION OF THE DRUG TESTING REPORT CONSTITUTE PLAIN ERROR? WHETHER THE CONFRONTATION CLAUSE WAS SATISFIED BY TESTIMONY FROM DR. TURNER. IF DR. TURNER’S TESTIMONY DID NOT ITSELF SATISFY THE CONFRONTATION CLAUSE, WAS THE INTRODUCTION OF TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE NEVERTHELESS HARMLESS BEYOND A REASONABLE DOUBT UNDER THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THIS CASE IF HE WAS QUALIFIED AS, AND TESTIFIED AS, AN EXPERT UNDER M.R.E. 703? No. 10-0461/NA. U.S. v. Joseph A. SWEENEY. CCA 200900468 . Review granted on the following issues: WHETHER, IN LIGHT OF THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT’S RULING IN MELENDEZ-DIAZ v. MASSACHUSETTS , 557 U.S. ___, 129 S.CT. 2527 (2009), THE ADMISSION INTO EVIDENCE OF THE NAVY DRUG SCREENING LABORATORY URINALYSIS DOCUMENTS VIOLATED APPELLANT’S SIXTH AMENDMENT RIGHT TO CONFRONT THE WITNESSES AGAINST HIM. WHETHER TRIAL DEFENSE COUNSEL’S OBJECTION TO THE DRUG LABORATORY REPORT CONSTITUTED A VALID CRAWFORD OBJECTION. IF NOT, THEN WHETHER TRIAL DEFENSE COUNSEL WAIVED OR FORFEITED THE CONFRONTATION CLAUSE ISSUE, AND, IF FORFEITED, WHETHER ADMISSION OF THE REPORT CONSTITUTED PLAIN ERROR.

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What volume of each solution contains 0.15 m o l 0.15 \mathrm{~mol} 0.15 mol of K C l \mathrm{KCl} KCl ?
(a) 0.255 M K C l 0.255 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl} 0.255 M KCl
(b) 1.8 M K C l 1.8 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl} 1.8 M KCl
(c) 0.995 M K C l 0.995 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl} 0.995 M KCl
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Case filed in American Airlines urination incident, accused out: Police
The accused in the mid-air urination incident in the american airlines flight was released from custody on sunday, hours after he was handed over to the delhi police.
Topics American Airlines | Delhi Police
ANI General News Last Updated at March 5, 2023 15:30 IST

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AI urination case: Pilots' body mulls legal course after pilot suspended
New metabolite that can detect liver cancer by urine test discovered, scientists in japan use new device to detect brain tumor via urine test, air india learnt lessons, could have reacted better: ceo on urine incident, air india urination case: delhi court sends accused to 14-day custody.
The accused in the mid-air urination incident in the American Airlines flight was released from custody on Sunday, hours after he was handed over to the Delhi Police .
"A case has been registered in the matter. We will do our best in this case. The accused Aryan Vohra has been released," Devesh Kumar Mahla, DCP, IGI Airport said.
Police had earlier assured of taking "strongest possible action" against him.
Vohra, an accused in the case, was earlier handed over to the police earlier by the airlines along with the complaint.
He was caught for allegedly urinating on a US passenger in mid-air on an American Airlines flight from New York to New Delhi on Saturday night.
The airline also imposed a ban on the passenger from flying on any of its flights in the future.
"We received a complaint from American Airlines stating that there is one accused identified as Arya Vohra, a resident of Delhi. They stated that he did not behave properly and created a nuisance and also urinated on the co-passenger. On the basis of the complaint, we are contemplating action under IPC and Civil Aviation Act. The strongest possible action will be taken against him to deter other flyers to not to behave in this manner or do any such activity in the future," Devesh Kumar Mahla, DCP, IGI Airport earlier told ANI.
The official informed that the victim, however, has not come forward to register the complaint so far, and the complaint was filed by the airlines, on the basis of which the police are taking action.
"The airline has given a written complaint. The victim is not coming forward. On the basis of the complaint given by the airline as an authorised agent, we are moving forward. We will invoke sections as per the law. The airline handed over the accused along with the complaint to us and we are taking action accordingly," the DCP said.
Meanwhile, Vohra who is a student in the US was drunk, an official earlier said.
"American Airlines flight 292 with service from John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK) to Indira Gandhi International Airport (DEL) was met by local law enforcement upon arrival in DEL due to a disruptive customer. The flight landed safely at 9:50 pm," an American Airline statement said.
The airline said that it has imposed a flying ban on the passenger for the future.
"Upon aircraft arrival, Purser informed that the passenger was heavily intoxicated, and was not adhering to crew instructions on board. He was repeatedly arguing with the operating crew, was not willing to be seated and continuously endangering the safety of crew and aircraft and after disturbing safety of fellow passengers, finally urinated on pax seated on 15G," American Airlines said in a statement.
Before landing American Airlines pilot contacted Delhi ATC regarding an unruly passenger on board and sought security and it was informed to CISF for take necessary action, "after landing of the aircraft, CISF personnel took him out from the aircraft and the said passenger misbehave with CISF personnel too," an airport official told ANI.
Earlier on November 26 last year, a man named Shankar Mishra allegedly urinated on a 70-year-old woman co-passenger in an inebriated condition in business class of an Air India New York-New Delhi flight, but the incident was not reported to the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) which was attributed to the delay in reporting the incident by the airline crew. Mishra was later arrested by Delhi Police .
(Only the headline and picture of this report may have been reworked by the Business Standard staff; the rest of the content is auto-generated from a syndicated feed.)
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First Published: Sun, March 05 2023. 15:30 IST
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Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW, editors. Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations. 3rd edition. Boston: Butterworths; 1990.

Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations. 3rd edition.
Chapter 191 urinalysis.
David M. Roxe .
Urinalysis is the examination of urine for certain physical properties, solutes, cells, casts, crystals, organisms, or particulate matter. Because urinalysis is easy, cheap, and productive, it is recommended as part of the initial examination of all patients and should be repeated as clinically warranted. This chapter focuses on what the physician may do in a few minutes with a urine sample, reagent strips, a microscope, and an inquiring mind. Such analysis may lead to more sophisticated chemical, immunologic, or bacteriologic studies.
The rationale and technique of urinalysis are straightforward. Nevertheless, various circumstances may alter the information obtained. For example, one should not be surprised if the urine analyzed did not come from the patient named, or that the protein and red cells were added to the urine after it reached the collection bottle. Such illicit treatment of the sample is not frequent, but may be used in an attempt to justify disability, military discharge, or need for hospitalization. Interestingly, if the temperature of fresh urine is checked, it may help to diagnose factitious oral or rectal fevers.
A sample should be obtained that is free of skin epithelium or bacteria, glandular secretions, skin salves, hair, lint, talcum, or other debris. In rare circumstances, it may be necessary to have the sample passed under observation to assure its source and freedom from exogenously introduced materials.
Ordinarily, a suitable sample may be obtained from a male simply by asking that the foreskin, if present, be pulled back, that the initial part of the stream be allowed to pass into the toilet, that the next ounce or two be collected, and that the last part of the stream be discarded with the first. In females, care must be taken to separate the labia, and the urine is collected similarly. During menstrual flow, a tampon helps keep menstrual fluid from mixing with voided urine. The utility of cotton balls, soaps, and scrubs to cleanse the meatal area is dubious, as the initial 40 to 50 ml of urine flow that is discarded is generally adequate to flush away meatal debris. The sample should be examined while fresh—indeed, while still warm—to give best results. On standing, particulate matter sediments out, bacteria proliferate and alter pH, casts may dissolve, and crystals may be lost. Refrigeration may cause precipitation of orange red crystals of uric acid, which can be redissolved by rewarming the urine.
Approximately 10 ml of well-mixed urine is taken for microscopic examination. If the urine is alkaline, 1 ml of dilute acetic acid will help dissolve phosphates that may obscure formed elements. There is no "gold standard" for how fast or how long one should centrifuge urine. I have found 3000 rpm for 3 minutes to be convenient. Others have favored 2000 rpm for 5 minutes. After centrifugation, the supernatant is discarded; the sediment is resuspended in the few drops that remain. A drop of this is placed on a slide, covered with a coverslip, and examined microscopically. No stain is routinely needed, nor is phase contrast ordinarily required. The microscope is adjusted so that relatively low light is used, and the slide is scanned under low power (100×), high power (400×), and, when protein is present, polarizing light. Low-power examination serves to identify areas of interest, high power permits identification and quantification, and polarizing light aids in identification of doubly refractile fat bodies and certain crystals. Criteria for "positive" findings on microscopic examination have been established and are useful guides for review ( Table 191.1 ).
Table 191.1
Criteria for Classification of Positive Urinary Sediment Examinations Using Bright Field Microscopy.
While urine is being centrifuged, a macroscopic examination consisting of inspection and reagent strip testing should be done. The color and clarity of the urine are apparent on inspection. Causes of unusually colored urines are shown in Table 191.2 . Turbidity of fresh urine suggests pus or red blood cells. When normal urine has cooled, crystals may precipitate and cause turbidity.
Table 191.2
Colored Urine.
Available reagent-impregnated strips provide information regarding renal function, carbohydrate metabolism, acid–base balance, liver function, and bacteriuria. It is necessary to follow instructions closely to obtain reliable results. In certain circumstances, misleading information may be suggested to the unwary observer.
The performance characteristics of one reagent strip are shown in Table 191.3 .
Table 191.3
Reagent Strip Sensitivity for Specific Tests.
- Basic Science
The glomerular and tubular physiology involved in the formation and delivery of urine to the bladder and the mechanisms of bladder function are beyond the scope of this chapter.
The specific gravity of urine depends on a person's state of hydration, the integrity of the posterior pituitary, and the renal tubules. Normally, all urine leaving Henle's loop is dilute relative to plasma, and under forced hydration may contain as little as 50 mOsm/kg, roughly equivalent to a specific gravity of 1.001 or 1.002. Specific gravity of urine equals the weight of a given volume of urine divided by the weight of an equal volume of water:

When a urinometer is used, a correction must be made for temperature when very exact results are needed such that 0.001 is added or subtracted for each 3°C change above or below the calibration temperature recorded on the instrument. When protein is present in large amounts, all common methods are affected. There is no convenient correction factor for reagent strips. For refractometers or urinometers, it is necessary to subtract 0.003 for every 1 g/dl of protein in urine to be accurate. When glucose is present in large amounts, reagent strips should not be affected. It is necessary to subtract 0.004 from refractometer or urinometer readings for every 1 g/dl of glucose to correct the value. Values above 1.032 suggest the presence of exogenous solutes such as mannitol or iodinated contrast media.
The reagent strip method commonly available has three principal components: polymethylvinyl ether/maleic acid, bromothymol blue, and buffers. When specific gravity is high, the pKa of the polyelectrolyte is decreased and pH falls, resulting in a color change of the indicator. Highly buffered alkaline urine may, therefore, result in a factitiously low apparent specific gravity.
Urinary pH is an expression of the proton concentration in urine. Although the number of free protons excreted contributes only a trivial fraction of the approximately 80 mEq of acid an average person excretes daily, the free protons determine the efficacy of the titratable acid mechanism and the ammonium excretion mechanism, which together account for the bulk of excreted acid. When urinary pH is high, there are few proton acceptors in urine and the non-ionic diffusion of NH 3 , into the tubular lumen is relatively impeded. When pH is low, phosphates and other solutes efficiently accept protons and diffusion of NH 3 into the tubular lumen is facilitated. Normally, urine can be acidified to a pH value of 5.2 or less. Failure to do so in the face of systemic acidosis may indicate partial or complete renal tubular acidosis. Bacterial infection with urea-splitting organisms may produce an elevated urinary pH, so if fresh urine has leukocytes, bacteria, and an elevated pH, Proteus species would be suspected as the offending organism. (Other bacteria can split urea but are not as commonly responsible for urinary tract infection.)
Protein enters urine either because of altered glomerular permeability or because of tubular damage. Glomerular proteinuria always includes a large component of albumin. Tubular proteinuria is of low molecular weight, such as (β 2 -microglobulin. Reagent strip tests for protein are virtually (but not completely) specific for albumin, and depend upon the capacity of protein to change the color of an acid-base indicator at a constant pH maintained by a buffer in the strip section. Contrast media, tolbutamide, tolmetin, or penicillin, which may give false positive readings with heat and acetic acid, do not affect results with the reagent strip. Alkaline urine may give a false positive result with the reagent strip and a false negative result with acid precipitation techniques.
Glucose is normally present in human urine in small amounts. Glucose is usually not detectable because ketones, ascorbic acid, or other substances found in urine may cause false negative results by reagent strips even when urinary glucose approaches clearly abnormal values near 100 mg/dl. Copper reduction tests are not specific for glucose and may react with other hexoses, pentose, creatinine, uric acid, salicylates, and numerous other agents. When bacteria are present, glucose may be consumed, so a false negative could result from testing urine that is not fresh. When a hexokinase reagent strip is used, glucose concentrations below 2 mg/dl in morning urine from a fasting person correlate well with urinary tract infection. Large amounts of urinary glucose suggest diabetes mellitus, or, rarely, renal glycosuria.
Ketone bodies appear in urine as a consequence of accelerated fat metabolism. (β-Hydroxybutyric acid is quantitatively greatest, followed by acetoacetic acid and acetone. When large amounts are present, a fruity odor may be detectable. The commonly available tests for ketone bodies depend on the development of a purple compound in the presence of nitroprusside and alkali. Such tests will react with acetone or acetoacetic acid but not with β-hydroxybutyric acid. l -Dopa will give a false positive result with the nitroprusside-based tests. A ferric chloride method is available that gives false positive results for both l -dopa and salicylates. Ketone bodies are most likely to be present in the urine of an adult during diabetic ketoacidosis or when the patient has been fasting.
Bilirubin and urobilinogen appear in urine when there are abnormalities of bilirubin metabolism or liver function. Albumin-bound bilirubin (indirect bilirubin) is not water soluble and does not appear in the urine. Bilirubin conjugated with glucuronic or sulfuric acid is water soluble and appears in urine in amounts roughly correlated with the direct reacting serum bilirubin. The presence of conjugated bilirubin in detectable amounts (greater than 0.2 mg/dl) does not enable one confidently to distinguish between hepatocellular and obstructive jaundice, but does not commonly occur when hyperbilirubinemia is consequent to hemolysis. Reagent strips and tablets may give a false negative reaction when urine contains ascorbic acid. Phenothiazines may cause a false positive reaction in both cases.
When conjugated bilirubin reaches the bowel, bacterial action produces urobilinogen, which is reabsorbed into the portal circulation. Increased production of bilirubin or decreased hepatic clearance of urobilinogen from the portal circulation will increase the amount delivered to the kidney and excreted in the urine. Thus, hemolysis or hepatocellular dysfunction may increase urinary urobilinogen, while biliary obstruction will decrease delivery of conjugated bilirubin to the bowel, thereby reducing production of urobilinogen. Antibiotics, by altering bowel flora, may prevent production of urobilinogen.
These two tests, taken together, help to distinguish between hemolysis, hepatocellular disease, and biliary obstruction, as shown in Table 191.4 .
Table 191.4
Profiles of Urine Urobilinogen and Bilirubin in Health and Disease.
Hemoglobin is not normally present in urine. It may appear if there is intravascular hemolysis so that hemoglobin is filtered into the urine, or if red cells break apart within the urinary tract, liberating hemoglobin. Myoglobin also causes reddish brown urine and reacts with the reagent strip for hemoglobin. Typically, if serum and urine are both red, hemolysis is more likely, as the molecular weight of hemoglobin impedes its filtration. If serum is normal in color and urine is red, myoglobin is more likely because its smaller size favors filtration. Alternatively, of course, clear serum and red urine may represent bleeding within the urinary tract itself.
False negative reagent strip results may occur if urine contains large amounts of ascorbic acid. False positive results may be seen if povidone iodine solutions are rinsed into urine before testing.
- Clinical Significance
The reduction of nitrate to nitrite by bacteria with consequent color change in a solution or on a reagent strip is a useful indicator of bacteriuria, and when positive, should be taken seriously. A negative result gives no assurance that significant infection is not present. Urine may not have been retained in the bladder long enough for bacteria to have reduced nitrate, and this will invariably be the case when a urinary catheter is in place. Moreover, certain pathogens, such as Streptococcus faecalis , do not reduce nitrate at all.
Patients who have hypokalemia, hypercalcemia, protein malnutrition, or polydipsia will not be able to concentrate urine appropriately. Diuretics similarly impair concentrating ability, especially if kaliopenia develops. These conditions must be considered when interpreting specific gravity in the two circumstances for which it has greatest use: evaluation of possible acute renal failure, and evaluation of renal dysfunction to distinguish glomerular from tubulointerstitial disease. It is often said that a specific gravity of more than 1.020 makes acute renal failure less likely, but this is true only if the value is not spuriously elevated by endogenous or exogenous solutes. It is also said that specific gravity tends to be elevated in primary glomerular disease and reduced in tubulointerstitial disease, but this is of value only when factors that might elevate or depress specific gravity are not present.
Reagent strips cannot be relied on to detect globulins or light chains. The combination of a "negative" strip result and a positive acid-precipitation test would be suggestive of multiple myeloma. Those with an aging population in their practice may find it productive to use both methods.
Similarly, most reagent strips cannot be depended on to detect sugars other than glucose in urine. This may be a drawback in pediatric screening circumstances when inborn errors of metabolism may cause other sugars to appear in urine.
Remember that the presence of excess amounts of ascorbic acid in urine may affect three areas of the commonly used reagent strip: those that detect glucose, bilirubin, and hemoglobin. As people commonly take large amounts of ascorbic acid for various reasons, it is prudent to inquire specifically about this before interpreting the reagent strip results.
Careful analysis of the sediment usually takes about 5 minutes of patient examination of the area under the coverslip. The principal elements to be identified and quantified are cells, casts, and crystals.
Cells are ordinarily divided into red blood cells, white blood cells, epithelial cells, and atypical cells.
Red blood cells are associated with primary parenchymal disease such as glomerulonephritis, diabetes mellitus, polycystic kidney disease, drug reactions (e.g., penicillin), or collagen vascular disease. They may also be found with renal calculi, tumors of the urinary tract, upper or lower tract infections (cystitis or prostatitis), and trauma. The differential diagnosis of hematuria is considered in some detail in Chapter 184 .
White blood cells suggest inflammatory processes, with infection being the commonest of these. Other inflammatory stimuli, such as collagen vascular disease and allergic interstitial nephritis, also may cause pyuria. There is practical value in evaluating the pyuria by the company it keeps; for example, if white cells are found with red cells and red cell casts, then collagen vascular disease is more likely. If white cells are found by themselves in a patient with an acute onset of fever and dysuria, then infection is more likely.
Epithelial cells from any site in the urinary tract may be found in the sediment. Drugs, toxins, ischemia, instrumentation of the urinary tract, and tumors are among the causes for such cells to be sloughed into the sediment. Urine cytology studies may have particular utility when large numbers or unusual forms of epithelial cells are seen.
Casts are formed within the renal tubules and have a matrix of translucent protein that, by itself, forms the substance of the so-called hyaline cast. When there are inclusions in the cast such as red cells or white cells, they permit conclusion that the cells originated within the kidney. This is especially important when there is consideration of vasculitis or of pyelonephritis. Degenerating cellular debris may form granular casts. Hemoglobin, myoglobin, or bilirubin may be incorporated into pigmented casts.
Lipiduria is an important finding because of its association with the nephrotic syndrome. Fat may appear in urine as free fat, as inclusions within an oval fat body, or as the characteristically doubly birefringent cholesterol ester that is referred to as a "Maltese cross" after the cruciform emblem emblazoned on the shields and tunics of the Knights of Malta. Lipiduria is so abnormal that when found, it strongly suggests either fat embolization of the kidneys or the nephrotic syndrome, and the clinical context will readily differentiate in most cases. Finding lipiduria in a patient with proteinuria and edema permits one to anticipate the diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome while waiting for the laboratory to quantify cholesterol and serum albumin.
It is useful to look for bacteria. If the urine is truly fresh, the presence of even one bacterium per oil immersion field of unspun, gram-stained urine correlates reasonably well with a colony count of greater than 100,000 colonies per ml ( Wilson, 1975 ).
There has been controversy in recent years as to whether microscopic urinalysis is always necessary, especially if the macroscopic urinalysis is entirely negative. In the majority of cases, it will prove that when specific gravity is over 1.020, and the macroscopic examination is completely normal, the microscopic examination will likewise be normal. There will also be false negative results, and it is estimated that these will vary from 3 to 37% of all cases ( Schumann and Greenberg, 1979 ; Szwed and Schaust, 1982 ). Even when a special type of reagent strip is used, which is sensitive to leukocyte esterase, up to 3.3% of positive findings may be missed ( Shaw, Poon, and Wong, 1985 ). With routine reagent strips, the same authors found a 13% false negative result rate. Certainly, one could not delete the microscopic examination in a patient with signs or symptoms of hypertension or renal disease. In other cases, if it is omitted, one must accept missing 10% or more of positive findings—a loophole too large for most physicians" comfort.
Certain circumstances may warrant special stains as an adjunct to routine urinalysis. It has been suggested that a Wright's stain of the sediment may help to distinguish glomerular from lower tract sources of hematuria ( Chang, 1984 ). Technically, it is useful to add a drop of albumin solution to the sediment to obtain clear slides after staining. Glomerular lesions produce dysmorphic RBCs, while distal lesions produce cells similar to those seen in peripheral blood. Such stains would have to be done on fresh urine, as hypotonic urine would lead to cell lysis, and hypertonic urine to pyknotic cells if the urine stood for any length of time. The same staining technique may be used to search for eosinophiluria when allergic interstitial nephritis is suspected. This may be helpful when B-lactam antibiotics, non-steroidal inflammatory drugs, or other potentially toxic agents are used. Quantification of eosinophils as a percentage of total urinary white blood cells is helpful. When over 5% of urinary white cells are eosinophils, interstitial nephritis is more likely. When less than 5% are eosinophils, infection is commonly the cause ( Corwin, Korbat, and Schwartz, 1985 ).
The urine sediment may also reveal crystals, parasites, foreign bodies, spermatozoa or other findings. Assessment of the meaning of such findings—indeed, assessment of all the findings of urinalysis—depends upon the inquiring mind that asks an appropriate question. The mind, therefore, is the most important element of informative urinalysis. Because of that, it is best for the physician rather than anyone else to review the macroscopic findings, inspect the sediment, and interpret results for that unique patient, even as the physician does the physical examination rather than depend upon a technician's report.
- Chang BS. Red cell morphology as a diagnostic aid in hematuria. JAMA. 1984; 252 :1747–49. [ PubMed : 6471304 ]
- Corwin HL, Korbat SM, Schwartz MM. Clinical correlates of eosinophiluria. Arch Intern Med. 1985; 145 :1097–99. [ PubMed : 4004436 ]
- Ellenbogen C, Nord BM. Freshly voided urine temperature: a test for factitial fever. JAMA. 1972; 219 :912. [ PubMed : 5066682 ]
- Package Insert Revised 5/84. Ames Reagent Strips for Clini-Tek. Ames Division, Miles Laboratories.
- Schumann GB, Greenberg NF. Usefulness of macroscopic urinalysis as a screening procedure. Am J Clin Pathol. 1979; 71 :452–56. [ PubMed : 443204 ]
- Shaw ST Jr,, Poon SY, Wong ET. Routine urinalysis"—is the dipstick enough? JAMA. 1985; 253 :1596–1600. [ PubMed : 3974041 ]
- Szwed J, Schaust C. The importance of microscopic examination of the urinary sediment. Am J Med Technol. 1982; 48 :141–43. [ PubMed : 7064990 ]
- Wilson DM. Urinalysis and other tests of renal function. Minn Med. 1975; 58 :9–17. [ PubMed : 1088975 ]
- Cite this Page Roxe DM. Urinalysis. In: Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW, editors. Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations. 3rd edition. Boston: Butterworths; 1990. Chapter 191.
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Urinalysis Case Studies Case Study Solution & Analysis
- Harvard Case Studies
Harvard Business Case Studies Solutions – Assignment Help
In most courses studied at Harvard Business schools, students are provided with a case study. Major HBR cases concerns on a whole industry, a whole organization or some part of organization; profitable or non-profitable organizations. Student’s role is to analyze the case and diagnose the situation, identify the problem and then give appropriate recommendations and steps to be taken.
To make a detailed case analysis, student should follow these steps:
STEP 1: Reading Up Harvard Case Study Method Guide:
Case study method guide is provided to students which determine the aspects of problem needed to be considered while analyzing a case study. It is very important to have a thorough reading and understanding of guidelines provided. However, poor guide reading will lead to misunderstanding of case and failure of analyses. It is recommended to read guidelines before and after reading the case to understand what is asked and how the questions are to be answered. Therefore, in-depth understanding f case guidelines is very important.
Harvard Case Study Solutions

porter’s five forces model
STEP 2: Reading The Urinalysis Case Studies Harvard Case Study:
To have a complete understanding of the case, one should focus on case reading. It is said that case should be read two times. Initially, fast reading without taking notes and underlines should be done. Initial reading is to get a rough idea of what information is provided for the analyses. Then, a very careful reading should be done at second time reading of the case. This time, highlighting the important point and mark the necessary information provided in the case. In addition, the quantitative data in case, and its relations with other quantitative or qualitative variables should be given more importance. Also, manipulating different data and combining with other information available will give a new insight. However, all of the information provided is not reliable and relevant.
When having a fast reading, following points should be noted:
- Nature of organization
- Nature if industry in which organization operates.
- External environment that is effecting organization
- Problems being faced by management
- Identification of communication strategies.
- Any relevant strategy that can be added.
- Control and out-of-control situations.
When reading the case for second time, following points should be considered:
- Decisions needed to be made and the responsible Person to make decision.
- Objectives of the organization and key players in this case.
- The compatibility of objectives. if not, their reconciliations and necessary redefinition.
- Sources and constraints of organization from meeting its objectives.
After reading the case and guidelines thoroughly, reader should go forward and start the analyses of the case.
STEP 3: Doing The Case Analysis Of Urinalysis Case Studies:
To make an appropriate case analyses, firstly, reader should mark the important problems that are happening in the organization. There may be multiple problems that can be faced by any organization. Secondly, after identifying problems in the company, identify the most concerned and important problem that needed to be focused.
Firstly, the introduction is written. After having a clear idea of what is defined in the case, we deliver it to the reader. It is better to start the introduction from any historical or social context. The challenging diagnosis for Urinalysis Case Studies and the management of information is needed to be provided. However, introduction should not be longer than 6-7 lines in a paragraph. As the most important objective is to convey the most important message for to the reader.
After introduction, problem statement is defined. In the problem statement, the company’s most important problem and constraints to solve these problems should be define clearly. However, the problem should be concisely define in no more than a paragraph. After defining the problems and constraints, analysis of the case study is begin.
STEP 4: SWOT Analysis of the Urinalysis Case Studies HBR Case Solution:
SWOT analysis helps the business to identify its strengths and weaknesses, as well as understanding of opportunity that can be availed and the threat that the company is facing. SWOT for Urinalysis Case Studies is a powerful tool of analysis as it provide a thought to uncover and exploit the opportunities that can be used to increase and enhance company’s operations. In addition, it also identifies the weaknesses of the organization that will help to be eliminated and manage the threats that would catch the attention of the management.
This strategy helps the company to make any strategy that would differentiate the company from competitors, so that the organization can compete successfully in the industry. The strengths and weaknesses are obtained from internal organization. Whereas, the opportunities and threats are generally related from external environment of organization. Moreover, it is also called Internal-External Analysis.
In the strengths, management should identify the following points exists in the organization:
- Advantages of the organization
- Activities of the company better than competitors.
- Unique resources and low cost resources company have.
- Activities and resources market sees as the company’s strength.
- Unique selling proposition of the company.
WEAKNESSES:
- Improvement that could be done.
- Activities that can be avoided for Urinalysis Case Studies.
- Activities that can be determined as your weakness in the market.
- Factors that can reduce the sales.
- Competitor’s activities that can be seen as your weakness.
OPPORTUNITIES:
- Good opportunities that can be spotted.
- Interesting trends of industry.
- Change in technology and market strategies
- Government policy changes that is related to the company’s field
- Changes in social patterns and lifestyles.
- Local events.
Following points can be identified as a threat to company:
- Company’s facing obstacles.
- Activities of competitors.
- Product and services quality standards
- Threat from changing technologies
- Financial/cash flow problems
- Weakness that threaten the business.
Following points should be considered when applying SWOT to the analysis:
- Precise and verifiable phrases should be sued.
- Prioritize the points under each head, so that management can identify which step has to be taken first.
- Apply the analyses at proposed level. Clear yourself first that on what basis you have to apply SWOT matrix.
- Make sure that points identified should carry itself with strategy formulation process.
- Use particular terms (like USP, Core Competencies Analyses etc.) to get a comprehensive picture of analyses.

- Pest analysis
STEP 5: PESTEL/ PEST Analysis of Urinalysis Case Studies Case Solution:
Pest analyses is a widely used tool to analyze the Political, Economic, Socio-cultural, Technological, Environmental and legal situations which can provide great and new opportunities to the company as well as these factors can also threat the company, to be dangerous in future.
Pest analysis is very important and informative. It is used for the purpose of identifying business opportunities and advance threat warning. Moreover, it also helps to the extent to which change is useful for the company and also guide the direction for the change. In addition, it also helps to avoid activities and actions that will be harmful for the company in future, including projects and strategies.
To analyze the business objective and its opportunities and threats, following steps should be followed:
- Brainstorm and assumption the changes that should be made to organization. Answer the necessary questions that are related to specific needs of organization
- Analyze the opportunities that would be happen due to the change.
- Analyze the threats and issues that would be caused due to change.
- Perform cost benefit analyses and take the appropriate action.
PEST FACTORS:
- Next political elections and changes that will happen in the country due to these elections
- Strong and powerful political person, his point of view on business policies and their effect on the organization.
- Strength of property rights and law rules. And its ratio with corruption and organized crimes. Changes in these situation and its effects.
- Change in Legislation and taxation effects on the company
- Trend of regulations and deregulations. Effects of change in business regulations
- Timescale of legislative change.
- Other political factors likely to change for Urinalysis Case Studies.
ECONOMICAL:
- Position and current economy trend i.e. growing, stagnant or declining.
- Exchange rates fluctuations and its relation with company.
- Change in Level of customer’s disposable income and its effect.
- Fluctuation in unemployment rate and its effect on hiring of skilled employees
- Access to credit and loans. And its effects on company
- Effect of globalization on economic environment
- Considerations on other economic factors
SOCIO-CULTURAL:
- Change in population growth rate and age factors, and its impacts on organization.
- Effect on organization due to Change in attitudes and generational shifts.
- Standards of health, education and social mobility levels. Its changes and effects on company.
- Employment patterns, job market trend and attitude towards work according to different age groups.
case study solutions
- Social attitudes and social trends, change in socio culture an dits effects.
- Religious believers and life styles and its effects on organization
- Other socio culture factors and its impacts.
TECHNOLOGICAL:
- Any new technology that company is using
- Any new technology in market that could affect the work, organization or industry
- Access of competitors to the new technologies and its impact on their product development/better services.
- Research areas of government and education institutes in which the company can make any efforts
- Changes in infra-structure and its effects on work flow
- Existing technology that can facilitate the company
- Other technological factors and their impacts on company and industry
These headings and analyses would help the company to consider these factors and make a “big picture” of company’s characteristics. This will help the manager to take the decision and drawing conclusion about the forces that would create a big impact on company and its resources.
STEP 6: Porter’s Five Forces/ Strategic Analysis Of The Urinalysis Case Studies Case Study:

To analyze the structure of a company and its corporate strategy, Porter’s five forces model is used. In this model, five forces have been identified which play an important part in shaping the market and industry. These forces are used to measure competition intensity and profitability of an industry and market.
porter’s five forces model
These forces refers to micro environment and the company ability to serve its customers and make a profit. These five forces includes three forces from horizontal competition and two forces from vertical competition. The five forces are discussed below:
- THREAT OF NEW ENTRANTS:
- as the industry have high profits, many new entrants will try to enter into the market. However, the new entrants will eventually cause decrease in overall industry profits. Therefore, it is necessary to block the new entrants in the industry. following factors is describing the level of threat to new entrants:
- Barriers to entry that includes copy rights and patents.
- High capital requirement
- Government restricted policies
- Switching cost
- Access to suppliers and distributions
- Customer loyalty to established brands.
- THREAT OF SUBSTITUTES:
- this describes the threat to company. If the goods and services are not up to the standard, consumers can use substitutes and alternatives that do not need any extra effort and do not make a major difference. For example, using Aquafina in substitution of tap water, Pepsi in alternative of Coca Cola. The potential factors that made customer shift to substitutes are as follows:
- Price performance of substitute
- Switching costs of buyer
- Products substitute available in the market
- Reduction of quality
- Close substitution are available
- DEGREE OF INDUSTRY RIVALRY:
- the lesser money and resources are required to enter into any industry, the higher there will be new competitors and be an effective competitor. It will also weaken the company’s position. Following are the potential factors that will influence the company’s competition:
- Competitive advantage
- Continuous innovation
- Sustainable position in competitive advantage
- Level of advertising
- Competitive strategy
- BARGAINING POWER OF BUYERS:
- it deals with the ability of customers to take down the prices. It mainly consists the importance of a customer and the level of cost if a customer will switch from one product to another. The buyer power is high if there are too many alternatives available. And the buyer power is low if there are lesser options of alternatives and switching. Following factors will influence the buying power of customers:
- Bargaining leverage
- Switching cost of a buyer
- Buyer price sensitivity
- Competitive advantage of company’s product
- BARGAINING POWER OF SUPPLIERS:
- this refers to the supplier’s ability of increasing and decreasing prices. If there are few alternatives o supplier available, this will threat the company and it would have to purchase its raw material in supplier’s terms. However, if there are many suppliers alternative, suppliers have low bargaining power and company do not have to face high switching cost. The potential factors that effects bargaining power of suppliers are the following:
- Input differentiation
- Impact of cost on differentiation
- Strength of distribution centers
- Input substitute’s availability.
STEP 7: VRIO Analysis of Urinalysis Case Studies:
Vrio analysis for Urinalysis Case Studies case study identified the four main attributes which helps the organization to gain a competitive advantages. The author of this theory suggests that firm must be valuable, rare, imperfectly imitable and perfectly non sustainable. Therefore there must be some resources and capabilities in an organization that can facilitate the competitive advantage to company. The four components of VRIO analysis are described below: VALUABLE: the company must have some resources or strategies that can exploit opportunities and defend the company from major threats. If the company holds some value then answer is yes. Resources are also valuable if they provide customer satisfaction and increase customer value. This value may create by increasing differentiation in existing product or decrease its price. Is these conditions are not met, company may lead to competitive disadvantage. Therefore, it is necessary to continually review the Urinalysis Case Studies company’s activities and resources values. RARE: the resources of the Urinalysis Case Studies company that are not used by any other company are known as rare. Rare and valuable resources grant much competitive advantages to the firm. However, when more than one few companies uses the same resources and provide competitive parity are also known as rare resources. Even, the competitive parity is not desired position, but the company should not lose its valuable resources, even they are common. COSTLY TO IMITATE: the resources are costly to imitate, if other organizations cannot imitate it. However, imitation is done in two ways. One is duplicating that is direct imitation and the other one is substituting that is indirect imitation. Any firm who has valuable and rare resources, and these resources are costly to imitate, have achieved their competitive advantage. However, resources should also be perfectly non sustainable. The reasons that resource imitation is costly are historical conditions, casual ambiguity and social complexity. ORGANIZED TO CAPTURE VALUE: resources, itself, cannot provide advantages to organization until it is organized and exploit to do so. A firm (like Urinalysis Case Studies) must organize its management systems, processes, policies and strategies to fully utilize the resource’s potential to be valuable, rare and costly to imitate.

STEP 8: Generating Alternatives For Urinalysis Case Studies Case Solution:
After completing the analyses of the company, its opportunities and threats, it is important to generate a solution of the problem and the alternatives a company can apply in order to solve its problems. To generate the alternative of problem, following things must to be kept in mind:
- Realistic solution should be identified that can be operated in the company, with all its constraints and opportunities.
- as the problem and its solution cannot occur at the same time, it should be described as mutually exclusive
- it is not possible for a company to not to take any action, therefore, the alternative of doing nothing is not viable.
- Student should provide more than one decent solution. Providing two undesirable alternatives to make the other one attractive is not acceptable.
Once the alternatives have been generated, student should evaluate the options and select the appropriate and viable solution for the company.
STEP 9: Selection Of Alternatives For Urinalysis Case Studies Case Solution:
It is very important to select the alternatives and then evaluate the best one as the company have limited choices and constraints. Therefore to select the best alternative, there are many factors that is needed to be kept in mind. The criteria’s on which business decisions are to be selected areas under:
- Improve profitability
- Increase sales, market shares, return on investments
- Customer satisfaction
- Brand image
- Corporate mission, vision and strategy
- Resources and capabilities
Alternatives should be measures that which alternative will perform better than other one and the valid reasons. In addition, alternatives should be related to the problem statements and issues described in the case study.
STEP 10: Evaluation Of Alternatives For Urinalysis Case Studies Case Solution:
If the selected alternative is fulfilling the above criteria, the decision should be taken straightforwardly. Best alternative should be selected must be the best when evaluating it on the decision criteria. Another method used to evaluate the alternatives are the list of pros and cons of each alternative and one who has more pros than cons and can be workable under organizational constraints.
STEP 11: Recommendations For Urinalysis Case Studies Case Study (Solution):
There should be only one recommendation to enhance the company’s operations and its growth or solving its problems. The decision that is being taken should be justified and viable for solving the problems.

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Forensic urinalysis of drug use in cases of alleged sexual assault
Affiliation.
- 1 HPRU Medical Research Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.
- PMID: 16083685
- DOI: 10.1054/jcfm.2001.0513
The results of 3303 analyses of urine samples, collected in an independent testing programme from individuals who claimed to have been sexually assaulted and believed that drugs were involved, were examined in detail. Of the samples provided, 2026 (61.3%) proved positive for one or more substances. Alcohol, either alone or in combination with other drugs, was by far the commonest substance found, being present in 1358 samples (67.0% of positives). Cannabis was the second most prevalent drug, present in 613 samples, (30.3% of positives). Detailed examination of the testing results does not support the contention that any single drug, apart from alcohol, can be particularly identified as a 'date rape' drug. Rather, the alleged sexual assaults may often take place against a background of licit or recreational alcohol or drug use, where alcohol and other drugs are frequently taken together. The extensive forensic database examined here does not support the concept of a commonly occurring 'date rape' scenario, in which the victim's drink is covertly 'spiked' with a tablet, capsule or powder containing a sedative-hypnotic. This research highlights the need for the early collection of forensic samples in cases of alleged sexual assault. Law enforcement agencies and health professionals should establish guidelines and procedures to ensure that appropriate forensic samples (blood and urine) are collected in a timely manner following allegations of possible drug mediated sexual assault.
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Urinalysis Case StudiesLab Dx Fall 2008 Case 1: A 28 year old man visits his physician complaining of an intense, sharp pain in his back and side. In a conversation with his physician, the patient confesses to eating a diet high in animal proteins such as meat, cheese, and fish. Results of a complete urinalysis are shown below. Chemical/Physical Analysis Color Yellow Appearance Clear Specific Gravity 1.025 pH 5.0 Glucose Protein Ketones Bilirubin Negative Trace 150mg/dL Negative Urobilinogen Blood Nitrite Leukocyte Normal Large Negative Negative
Microscopic Analysis >100 RBC/hpf 0-3 WBC/hpf 20-30 Bacteria/hpf 0-5 Squamous Epithelial Cells/hpf Unidentified Crystals Questions 1. 2. 3. Is the presence of WBCs with bacteria clinically significant? Suggest an explanation for blood in the urine. Below is a photomicrograph from the patient's urine sample:
QuickTime and a TIFF (Uncompressed ) decompressor are needed to see this pictu re.
**Note: Crystals were soluble in ammonia What is the cause of the patient's condition?
a) Uric acid crystals b) Cystine crystals c) Triple phosphate crystals 4. What is the diagnosis and treatment for this patient? a) Cystinuria b) Urinary tract infection c) Renal calculi caused by the formation of uric acid crystals1. No. Ordinarly, bacteria in the presence of WBCs would suggest a urinary tract infection. However, the 0-3 WBC/hpf is within the reference range and therefore is of no clinical significance. The relatively low levels of bacteria are also of no clinical significance. Their presence may be due to contamination. 2. There are two possible ways that blood could get into the urine. First, if the glomerulus was in some way damaged, its efficiency as a filter may be somewhat compromised. If this was the case, RBCs, protein, and other larger particles could get into the urine. However, in this case, the high blood result with only trace amounts of protein suggests that the problem did not occur at the glomerulus. This leads to the other cause of blood in the urine: damage to the urinary tract. If any part of the urinary tract is damaged, blood could get into the urine, even if the glomerulus is working fine. Renal calculi, or kidney stones, could cause damage to the renal tubules as they flow down the urinary tract. This damage would explain the presence of blood (in the absence of large amounts of protein). 3. Uric acid crystals are not soluble in ammonia. While triple phosphate crystals may have 6 sides, they are only insoluble in basic urines. This patient's urine is acidic and also it was noted that these crystals are soluble in alkaline pH. Answer = B 4. Cystinuria is the inability to absorb the amino acid cysteine from the intestines and renal tubules. Therefore, any cystine that may be present in ones diet (foods high in animal protein) will be excreted in the urine. Cystine is insoluble in an acidic pH and thus will lead to the formation of renal calculi in the urinary tract or bladder if the pH environment is acidic. Because cysteine is not an essential amino acid and can be made from methionine, there are no physiological consequences resulting from cystinuria. However, a patient with cystinuria will be susceptible to the pain associated with renal calculi. One option for treatment may be to increase the urine volume by drinking a lot of fluids. This may prevent stone formation. Another option is to choose a diet that is free of cystine. A diet high in animal protein, similar to the one this patient was on, contains large quantities of cystine. Vegetable proteins such as nuts and beans are low in cystine and should be considered. An additional way of preventing the formation of renal calculi would be to alkalise the urine. In an alkaline urine, cystine crystals dissolve so renal calculi will not form. Medications may also be available.
Case 2: A 12 year old boy was examined in the emergency room. his mother said he was having frequent urination lasting seeral days. he was also compalining of feeling weak and tired. Chemical/Physical Analysis color - pale yellow Clarity - clear pH - 6.0 Specific gravity - 1.025 Protein - Trace Glucose - 1000mg/dl Ketone - 5mg/dl Nitrite - neg Blood - neg Bilirubin - neg Urobilinogen - neg Leukocyte neg MICROSCOPIC Rbc - 0 to 2 per field Wbc - 0 to 2 Bacteria - few Epithelial Cells - few OTHER TESTS SSA( sulfosalicylic acid test) - trace QUESTIONS. 1) Which results are outside the normal range? 2) Based on these result, what might be the diagnosis? 3) What is the relationship between the appearance of ketones in urine and carbohydrate metabolism?Answers: Glucose is extremely high, and ketones are abnormal, since they should be 0. However, they are very low. This would more than likely indicate diabetes (type I). The presence of ketones in the urine indicates a shift from carbohydrate catabolism to fatty acid catabolism, since ketones are the end product of the FA pathway. Glucose should never be present in this amount. The normal renal threshold for glucoe
reabsorption is about 200mg/dL, and when stressed, it can reabsorb 300mG/dL. In cases of severe hyperglycemia (i.e. type I diabetes), the renal reabsorption threshold is exceeded, and glucose spills into the urine. This Px probably has a very high blood sugar (600-800 or so), and is probably ill, with flu-like symptoms. Other things to consider in diabetes: polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia. Parents will say "he eats and eats and seems to be losing weight". Generally these Px present to the doctor in DKA, so proper management is imperative. Nugget: Na+ is normally the major osmotic attractant of serum, but in extreme hyperglycmeic cases, glucose takes over, and the Px will look like they are hyponatremic. A calculation can be done to correct for this, and serum Na+ is usually elevated, due to the dehydrated state of the body. Diabetes insipidus also presents with polyuria and glucosuria, but NO KETONES. The following cases do not have answers, so discuss away!
Case 3: Patient A is an 8 year old European American girl who woke up one morning with a fever and complaining of back pain on the right side just above her waist. At the physicians office later that morning on a clean catch, midstream urine sample, the following results were obtained. Chemical/Physical Analysis Color yellow Clarity cloudy SG 1.019 pH 6.0 Protein 1+ Glucose neg Ketones neg Blood 1+ Bilirubin neg Urobilinogen 0.1 Nitrite pos Leukocyte esterase 2+ Microscopic examination 40-60 WBC/hpf 0-8 RBC/hpf few squamous/lpf rare renal epithelial cell/hpf 3-6 WBC casts/hpf moderate bacteria 1. Are there any inconsistencies between the macroscopic, chemical and microscopic findings that need to be explained? If so, what might explain them?
2. What condition is indicated by this constellation of findings and which particular findings support this diagnosis? 3. Is any additional testing indicated for this patient? If yes, what test and what is its principle? 4. What is the source of the positive protein finding in this condition? 5. What is the purpose of assessing specific gravity in urine? Why is it important to know that the specific gravity was measured with a dipstik? Case 4: Patient B is a 14 year old African American boy who had a sore throat about two weeks ago but that is now gone. His mother has taken him to an urgent care facility because his ankles and hands seems very swollen and his urine is dark. The following results are on a clean catch, midstream sample collected at the urgent care facility. Chemical/Physical Analysis Color brown Clarity cloudy SG 1.026 pH 6.0 Protein 3+ Glucose negative Ketones negative Blood 3+ Bilirubin negative Urobilinogen 0.1 Nitrite negative Leukocyte esterase negative Microscopic examination 40-50 rbc/hpf 3-10 WBC/hpf 0-5 hyaline casts/lpf 0-2 rbc casts/lpf 1-3 granular casts/lpf few sq. epi/hpf 1. Are there any inconsistencies between the macroscopic, chemical and microscopic findings that need to be explained? If so, what might explain them? 2. What condition is indicated by this constellation of findings and which particular
findings support this diagnosis? 3. Is any additional testing indicated for this patient? If yes, what test and what is its principle? 4. What is the source of the positive protein finding in this condition? 5. Why are the patients ankles swelling? 6. What is the relationship of the patients prior sore throat to his present condition? 7. Why is the microscopic examination negative for bacteria? Case 6: Patient C is an 18 year European American female who sought treatment at the university health center complaining of frequent urination with burning. She reported that she had sexual intercourse two days previous to this visit and had no recent history illness. She was instructed to collect a clean catch, midstream sample that was tested with the following results. Chemical/Physical Analysis Color yellow Clarity cloudy SG 1.012 pH 5.5 Protein 1+ Glucose negative Ketones negative Blood 1+ Bilirubin negative Urobilinogen 0.1 Nitrite negative Leukocyte esterase 2+ Microscopic examination 50-75 WBC/lpf some in clumps 15-20 rbc/lpf many sq epi/lpf 1+ mucous many bacteria
1. Are there any inconsistencies between the macroscopic, chemical and microscopic findings that need to be explained? If so, what might explain them?
2. What condition is indicated by this constellation of findings and which particular findings support this diagnosis? 3. Is any additional testing indicated for this patient? If yes, what test and what is its principle? Case 6: Kenji is a 56 year old Asian American man who has been experiencing a sharp but intermittent pain in his back for some time. His wife has been pressing him to see a doctor but he has resisted until today because the pain has become more severe and persistent. Below are the results of a routine urinalysis on a clean catch midstream sample collected and tested in the physician office. Chemical/Physical Analysis Color yellow Clarity clear SG 1.009 pH 6.0 Protein negative Glucose negative Ketones negative Blood trace Bilirubin negative Urobilinogen 0.1 Nitrite negative Leukocyte esterase negative Microscopic examination 0-2 sq epi/lpf 2-5 rbc/hpf 0-1 WBC/hpf 1. Is the sample acceptable for evaluation? Explain your conclusion. 2. Are there any inconsistencies between the macroscopic, chemical and microscopic findings that need to be explained? If so, what might explain them? 3. What condition is suggested by this constellation of findings and which particular findings support this diagnosis? 4. Is any additional testing indicated for this patient? If yes, what test and what is its principle? Case 7: Obrian is an 8 year old African American boy who was hospitalized with pneumonia following a cold. He was treated with antibiotics and within a day of
beginning treatment, his urine turned dark. The results below are the from the second urine sample after the dark urine was discovered. A CBC collected shortly after the dark urine was reported showed an elevated white blood count with a left shift and toxic changes; normochromic, normocytic anemia with an occasional helmet cell and shistocyte; and normal platelet count and morphology. Chemical/Physical Analysis Color red-brown Clarity clear SG 1.015 pH 5.5 Protein trace Glucose negative Ketones negative Blood 4+ Bilirubin negative Urobilinogen negative Nitrite negative Leukocyte esterase negative 1. Is the sample acceptable for evaluation? Explain your conclusion. 2. Are there any inconsistencies between the macroscopic, chemical and microscopic findings that need to be explained? If so, what might explain them? 3. What condition is suggested by this constellation of findings and which particular findings support this diagnosis? 4. Is any additional testing indicated for this patient? If yes, what test and what is its principle? 5. What changes to the results of the urinalysis would be expected in the next few days? What is the principle of the test on the stik that will detect these changes? Case 8: Bobby Mcgee, a 56 year old white male, had some basic tests performed as part of an insurance policy screening. The urine sample was collected at the patients home and then delivered to a laboratory for testing and reporting. The sample was a random void without directions to collect it midstream or clean catch. Chemical/Physical Analysis Color yellow Clarity hazy SG 1.012 pH 6.0 Protein negative
Glucose negative Ketones negative Blood negative Bilirubin negative Urobilinogen 0.1 Nitrite negative Leukocyte esterase negative Microscopic examination: moderate calcium oxalate crystals few bacteria 1. Is the sample acceptable for evaluation? Explain your conclusion. 2. Are there any inconsistencies between the macroscopic, chemical and microscopic findings that need to be explained? If so, what might explain them? 3. What condition is suggested by this constellation of findings and which particular findings support this diagnosis? 4. Is any additional testing indicated for this patient? If yes, what test and what is its principle? 5. Under what conditions are crystals seen in urine? Which crystals are considered normal? Case 9: Harriet is a 40 year old African American woman who has been experiencing sharp pains under her ribs on the right side for several months. She seems to think that it is related to eating heavy meals. She has finally decided to see her physician because this morning when she woke up she noticed that her eyeballs had turned yellow and this was pretty scary to her. A urine sample collected in the physicians office showed the results below. Chemical/Physical Analysis Color dark yellow Clarity hazy SG 1.020 pH 5.5 Protein negative Glucose negative Ketones negative Blood negative Bilirubin positive Urobilinogen negative Nitrite negative
Leukocyte esterase negative Microscopic examination moderate sq. epi/hpf 1. Is the sample acceptable for evaluation? Explain your conclusion. 2. Are there any inconsistencies between the macroscopic, chemical and microscopic findings that need to be explained? If so, what might explain them? 3. What condition is suggested by this constellation of findings and which particular findings support this diagnosis? 4. Is any additional testing indicated for this patient? If yes, what test and what is its principle? Case 10: Bret is 18 month old European American boy seen in the doctors office for a routine well-child visit. The urine sample was collected with one of the pediatric bags. Chemical/Physical Analysis Color yellow Clarity hazy SG 1.013 pH 6.5 Protein negative Glucose negative Ketones negative Blood negative Bilirubin negative Urobilinogen 0.1 Nitrite negative Leukocyte esterase negative Microscopic examination 15-20 sq epis/lpf few uric acid crystals/lpf 1. Is the sample acceptable for evaluation? Explain your conclusion. 2. Which results are outside reference ranges or acceptable limits? 3. Are there any inconsistencies between the macroscopic, chemical and microscopic findings that need to be explained? If so, what might explain them?
4. What condition is suggested by this constellation of findings and which particular findings support this diagnosis? 5. Is any additional testing indicated for this patient? If yes, what test and what is its principle? Case 11: Lilia, a 35 year old Mexican American woman, provided the urine sample whose results are below during a routine physical examination. She was instructed to provide a mid-stream sample. Her weight was down approximately 10 pounds from the prior year and she said she had been working out and eating more healthfully. She was found to be healthy. Chemical/Physical Analysis Color straw Clarity clear SG 1.007 pH 5.5 Protein negative Glucose negative Ketones 1+ Blood negative Bilirubin negative Urobilinogen 0.1-1.0 EU Nitrite negative Leukocyte esterase negative Microscopic examination 0-2 sq epis/lpf 1. Is the sample acceptable for evaluation? Explain your conclusion. 2. Are there any inconsistencies between the macroscopic, chemical and microscopic findings that need to be explained? If so, what might explain them? 3. What condition is suggested by this constellation of findings and which particular findings support this diagnosis? 4. Is any additional testing indicated for this patient? If yes, what test and what is its principle?

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URINALYSIS CASES AND CRITICAL THINKING You are here: Home ASCLS Today URINALYSIS CASES AND CRITICAL THINKING Gerald D. Redwine, PhD, MT (ASCP) The physical and chemical examination of urine samples plays an essential role in the diagnosis of patients' pathological conditions.
CASE 3: URINALYSIS IN A PATIENT PERFORMING CLEAN INTERMITTENT CATHETERIZATION A 49-year-old man who has a history of neurogenic bladder due to a spinal cord injury and who performs clean...
A urinalysis is a test of your urine. It's used to detect and manage a wide range of disorders, such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease and diabetes. A urinalysis involves checking the appearance, concentration and content of urine. For example, a urinary tract infection can make urine look cloudy instead of clear.
AP2 UA Lab Urinalysis Cases Characteristic Result Color yellow Appearance turbid Leukocyte Esterase +++ Nitrite Pos pH 6.5 Protein Tr Blood neg Specific Gravity 1.015 Ketones + Glucose neg Bilirubin neg Leukpcyte, ketones, and Nitrate amounts are abnormal.
A urinalysis (also known as a urine test) is a test that examines the visual, chemical and microscopic aspects of your urine (pee). It can include a variety of tests that detect and measure various compounds that pass through your urine using a single sample of urine.
Urinalysis cases. September 14, 2010 | The Law Office of Philip D. Cave. In two days CAAF has granted two urinalysis cases citing to Melendez-Diaz . Note Blazier is still undecided. In the Air Force case the defense did not object, in the Navy case the defense did object. No. 10-0668/AF. U.S. v. Jerrod D. NUTT. CCA S31600.
1,500 UA Images Each case includes 50 slide images, for a total of 1,500 images included with the Urinalysis Case Simulator. Cases include casts, crystals, and more. Ideal for Students and All Laboratory Professionals The cases in the Urinalysis Case Simulator are ideal for laboratory science students and all laboratory professionals.
Urinalysis Case Simulator The Urinalysis Case Simulator, produced in collaboration with the Louisiana State University Health Science Center, includes 30 expert-reviewed cases, each with 50 slide images. Perform the analysis yourself and then compare your results with the experts. Request Information Ask a Question Get a Quote Curated by Experts
Urinalysis Case Studies OBJECTIVES: At the end of this tutorial the student should be able to: Describe how to properly collect, store, and test a urine sample. List the types of urine collection procedures. Describe what urine specific gravity is and what affects it.
•Complete urinalysis is indicated for systemic conditions that may produce alterations in urine chemistry and/or damage the kidney (like diabetes mellitus). Specimen Collection •A chemically clean container is required (glass or plastic). •Methods of Collection: -Random or simple catch specimen has the most contaminants
Urinalysis is performed: -dark yellow, cloudy -protein 1+ -ketones 1+ -blood 1+ -nitrite + - leucocyte esterase + -RBC 2-10 -WBC 15-20 -organisms 1+ bacteria -casts: 1-3 WBC casts/LPF >diagnosis? -concentrated urine, little ketonuria, proteinuria, hematouria -positive nitrite and leukocyte esterase (because bacteria cause inflammatory response)
Urinalysis is useful in diagnosing systemic and genitourinary conditions. In patients with suspected microscopic hematuria, urine dipstick testing may suggest the presence of blood, but results should be confirmed with a microscopic examination.
Enter the characters shown in the image. The accused in the mid-air urination incident in the American Airlines flight was released from custody on Sunday, hours after he was handed over to the Delhi Police. The police said that a case in the matter has been registered. "A case has been registered in the matter. We will do our best in this case.
Urinalysis is the examination of urine for certain physical properties, solutes, cells, casts, crystals, organisms, or particulate matter. Because urinalysis is easy, cheap, and productive, it is recommended as part of the initial examination of all patients and should be repeated as clinically warranted.
Urinalysis Cases (Revised) - Read online for free. Scribd is the world's largest social reading and publishing site. Open navigation menu. Close suggestions Search Search. en Change Language. close menu Language. English (selected) español; português; Deutsch; français;
Urinalysis Case Studies (Jones) Lecture notes University Texas A&M University Course Renal/Genitourinary (MEID 704 300) Academic year2016/2017 Helpful? 100 Comments Please sign inor registerto post comments. Students also viewed 13. Electrolyte Balance Case Studies (Chaffer) 14. Pathogenesis of Acute Kidney Injury (Mitchell) 18.
STEP 4: SWOT Analysis of the Urinalysis Case Studies HBR Case Solution: SWOT analysis helps the business to identify its strengths and weaknesses, as well as understanding of opportunity that can be availed and the threat that the company is facing. SWOT for Urinalysis Case Studies is a powerful tool of analysis as it provide a thought to ...
The results of 3303 analyses of urine samples, collected in an independent testing programme from individuals who claimed to have been sexually assaulted and believed that drugs were involved, were examined in detail. ... Forensic urinalysis of drug use in cases of alleged sexual assault J Clin Forensic Med. 2001 Dec;8(4):197-205. doi: 10.1054 ...
Correlate urinalysis findings with the clinical history. Determine what additional clinical procedures should be done upon finding an abnormal result. CASE 1 (Click here to go to the answers) History: A 14-year-old boy is brought to the pediatrician by his mother because he has had a fever with shaking chills for the past day.
Urinalysis Case Studies Lab Dx Fall 2008 Case 1: A 28 year old man visits his physician complaining of an intense, sharp pain in his back and side. In a conversation with his physician, the patient confesses to eating a diet high in animal proteins such as meat, cheese, and fish. Results of a complete urinalysis are shown below.