applied research psychology definition

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How Applied Research Is Used in Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Sean is a fact-checker and researcher with experience in sociology, field research, and data analytics.

Verywell / JR Bee

Basic vs. Applied Research

How it works, potential challenges.

• Real-World Applications

Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. This type of research plays an important role in solving everyday problems that can have an impact on life, work, health, and overall well-being. For example, it can be used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop innovative technologies.

There are many different types of psychologists who perform applied research. Human factors or industrial/organizational psychologists often do this type of research.

A few examples of applied research in psychology include:

• Analyzing what type of prompts will inspire people to volunteer their time to charities
• Investigating if background music in a work environment can contribute to greater productivity
• Investigating which treatment approach is the most effective for reducing anxiety
• Researching which strategies work best to motivate workers
• Studying different keyboard designs to determine which is the most efficient and ergonomic

As you may notice, all of these examples explore topics that will address real-world issues. This immediate and practical application of the findings is what distinguishes applied research from basic research , which instead focuses on theoretical concerns.  

Basic research tends to focus on "big picture" topics, such as increasing the scientific knowledge base around a particular topic. Applied research tends to work toward solving specific problems that affect people in the here and now.

For example a social psychologist may perform basic research on how different factors may contribute to violence in general. But if a social psychologist were conducting applied research, they may be tackling the question of what specific programs can be implemented to reduce violence in school settings.

However, basic research and applied research are actually closely intertwined. The information learned from basic research often builds the basis on which applied research is formed.

Basic research often informs applied research, and applied research often helps basic researchers refine their theories.

Applied research usually starts by identifying a problem that exists in the real world. Then psychologists begin to conduct research in order to identify a solution.

The type of research used depends on a variety of factors. This includes unique characteristics of the situation and the kind of problem psychologists are looking to solve.

Researchers might opt to use naturalistic observation to see the problem as it occurs in a real-world setting. They may then conduct experiments to determine why the problem occurs and to explore different solutions that may solve it.

As with any type of research, challenges can arise when conducting applied research in psychology. Some potential problems that researchers may face include:

Ethical Challenges

When conducting applied research in a naturalistic setting, researchers have to avoid ethical issues, which can make research more difficult. For example, they may come across concerns about privacy and informed consent.

In some cases, such as in workplace studies conducted by industrial-organizational psychologists, participants may feel pressured or even coerced into participating as a condition of their employment. Such factors sometimes impact the result of research studies.

Problems With Validity

Since applied research often takes place in the field, it can be difficult for researchers to maintain complete control over all of the variables . Extraneous variables can also exert a subtle influence that experimenters may not even consider could have an effect on the results.

In many cases, researchers are forced to strike a balance between a study's ecological validity (which is usually quite high in applied research) and the study's internal validity .  

Since applied research focuses on taking the results of scientific research and applying it to real-world situations, those who work in this line of research tend to be more concerned with the external validity of their work.

External validity refers to the extent that scientific findings can be generalized to other populations.

Researchers don't just want to know if the results of their experiments apply to the participants in their studies, rather they want these results to also apply to larger populations outside of the lab.

External validity is often of particular importance in applied research. Researchers want to know that their findings can be applied to real people in real settings.

How It's Used in the Real-World

Here are some examples of how applied research is used to solve real-world problems:

• A hospital may conduct applied research to figure out how to best prepare patients for certain types of surgical procedures.
• A business may hire an applied psychologist to assess how to design a workplace console to maximize efficiency and productivity while minimizing worker fatigue and error.
• An organization may hire an applied researcher to determine how to select employees that are best suited for certain positions within the company.

Applied research is an important tool in the process of understanding the human mind and behavior. Thanks to much of this research, psychologists are able to investigate problems that affect people's daily lives. This kind of research specifically targets real-world issues, however it also contributes to knowledge about how people think and behave.

National Science Foundation. Definitions of research and development: An annotated compilation of official sources .

CDC. Evaluation briefs .

Helmchen H. Ethical issues in naturalistic versus controlled trials .  Dialogues Clin Neurosci . 2011;13(2):173‐182.

Truijens FL, Cornelis S, Desmet M, De Smet MM, Meganck R. Validity beyond measurement: Why psychometric validity is insufficient for valid psychotherapy research .  Front Psychol . 2019;10:532. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00532

 McBride D.  The Process Of Research In Psychology . SAGE Publications; 2018.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

What Is Applied Psychology & Why Is It Important?

Industry Advice Healthcare

In our complex and interconnected world, the study of human behavior has become crucial. These insights help us better understand consumer behaviors, public health trends, and even voting patterns.

Nearly all of these instances push us to ask the question: Why do people make the choices they do? Applied psychology is key to unlocking the answer to this question and transforming our understanding of the human experience.

What Is Applied Psychology?

Applied psychology is the practical application of psychological principles and theories from other types of psychology to address real-world challenges.

Some of these psychology fields include:

• Clinical psychology: A specialty within the field of psychology that is geared more toward populations with diagnosable mental disorders and serious psychopathologies.
• Counseling psychology: A general practice within the broader field of psychology that focuses on how patients function—both individually and in their relationships with family, friends, work, and the broader community.
• Forensic psychology: A specialty in professional psychology characterized by activities primarily intended to provide professional psychological expertise within the judicial and legal systems.
• Health psychology: A branch within the psychology field that focuses on how social, psychological, and biological factors combine to influence human health.
• Industrial-organizational psychology: The study and assessment of individual, group, and organizational dynamics within the workplace. Social psychology: The study of the mind and behavior of people, considering personality traits, interpersonal relationships, and group behaviors.

“Applied psychology is really taking some of the basic research that’s done in those fields of psychology and applying it,” says Christie Rizzo, Associate Professor of Applied Psychology at Northeastern’s Bouvé College of Health Sciences. “That’s where the term comes from.”

As a result, this multifaceted field extends its influence into nearly every aspect of our lives. Professionals leveraging applied psychology use their expertise to help individuals, organizations, and communities via assessments, interventions, and strategies to promote positive outcomes and better quality of life.

While applied psychology touches on several specialities within psychology, it’s important to note the key differences between this field of study and others.

Basic Psychology vs. Applied Psychology

Basic psychology—also known as academic psychology—studies the fundamental principles, theories, and concepts of human behavior. According to Rizzo, it’s centered around conducting research, designing experiments, and generating theories to uncover why humans behave the way they do.

Applied psychology is different in that it focuses on applying that research. “The main difference is really thinking about how the research, concepts, and tools from basic psychology should be applied,” Rizzo says.

This often takes the form of prevention, which is an important aspect of applied psychology. By using basic psychology research to design and implement interventions, you can mitigate various health and social issues.

“Prevention science is an application of psychology that designs and tests interventions that promote mental health and reduces the risk of problem behaviors,” Rizzo says.

4 Reasons Why Applied Psychology Is Important

Whether it’s preventing substance abuse, reducing the risk of mental health disorders, or addressing behavioral problems in children, applied psychology offers evidence-based strategies that empower individuals and communities to lead healthier, more fulfilling lives.

Here are a few reasons why applied psychology has become increasingly important.

1. Improves Mental Health Outcomes

Mental health has garnered increased attention within the psychology field due to growing recognition of its significance and relevance. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the percentage of adults who received mental health treatment increased from 19 percent in 2019 to 22 percent in 2021.

Through applied psychology, mental health professionals can employ scientific principles to understand and address the root causes of mental health issues—with an emphasis on early intervention and risk reduction. This work is essential because it offers a proactive, evidence-based approach to reducing mental health problems and combating the societal challenges that can cause them.

The emergence of technology is a huge part of this prevention initiative as well.

“Using technology can move applied psychology forward because that’s where everybody’s communicating,” Rizzo says. “And that’s where folks are looking for resources. So we need to be able to take advantage of that.”

In the case of applied psychology, this can mean leveraging social media campaigns or even phone applications focused on improving mental health. With behavioral data, applied psychology can help inform these campaigns to ensure they resonate with those who statistically suffer from mental health issues .

2. Enhances Child Welfare

While mental health is incredibly important, ensuring the welfare of children is another important issue that applied psychology aims to address. In 2021, there were at least 588,229 child victims of abuse or neglect , but child welfare professionals try to leverage psychological methods to avoid these tragedies.

Child welfare professionals are pivotal in developing and applying intervention programs that prioritize the safety and well-being of children. They often work in collaboration with state and federal government agencies to ensure programs are compliant with the highest standards of ethics, efficacy, and child protection.

Much like mental health challenges, addressing a child’s welfare requires applied psychology prevention techniques to proactively avoid societal and environmental factors that negatively affect a child’s well-being.

Some examples of what applied psychology aims to prevent include:

• Child abuse and neglect
• Educational challenges
• Behavioral disorders

“Examples include programs that prevent drug use in adolescents, reform educational practices, and support families managing the stress of family violence,” Rizzo says.

Social media plays a huge role in moving these applied psychology initiatives forward. Before, psychologists focused on prevention work through face-to-face contact. In today’s digitally connected world, there’s untapped potential to leverage data from large communities and still be able to reach them outside of personal contact.

“We can harness social media for good,” Rizzo says. “Young people can seek out other individuals with similar identities to their own and create a social support system online.”

3. Prevents Substance Abuse

Substance abuse affects millions of Americans. In fact, 20.4 million people in the United States were diagnosed with a substance abuse disorder in 2019 alone.

Applied psychology is critical in the treatment and prevention of substance abuse. This is achieved through early intervention services and screenings that aim to better the individual, their relationships, and communities affected by substance abuse. By understanding risk factors and protective factors at both the individual and environmental levels, professionals can implement targeted interventions to address potential issues before they escalate.

While early intervention of substance abuse is important, addiction is a chronic and relapsing condition. Therefore community-based interventions, another element of applied psychology, are another necessary aspect of substance abuse treatment to ensure individuals don’t face long-term health consequences or legal issues.

This can involve:

• Community organizing
• Policy advocacy
• Development of support networks

Applied psychology does not just play a role in these programs execution, it also ensures substance abuse counselors and other professionals are able to evaluate and determine the efficacy of a community program.

“We’re so grateful when we have programs aimed at preventing substance abuse in the community,” Rizzo says. “But it’s difficult when those programs have never been evaluated for being useful. That’s why applied psychology trains professionals to effectively evaluate these programs.”

4. Work Performance

While work performance does not necessarily affect peoples’ well-being, there is still work that needs to be done to improve business performance and employee satisfaction in the workplace.

In fact, in the first half of 2022, productivity plunged by the sharpest rate on record going back to 1947 according to the Washington Post .

Applied psychology plays a vital role in improving an organization’s operations through psychological principles and research methods aimed at enhancing employee performance. By prioritizing the well-being of employees and applying evidence-based psychological principles, organizations can create a positive work environment conducive to productivity, resulting in long-term success and sustainability.

Take the First Step Toward a Career in Applied Psychology

While applied psychology is a relatively new field, it touches on established psychology methods and theories, making it the best educational route for those still searching for alternative career paths in psychology.

If you’re interested in studying applied psychology, Northeastern’s MS in Applied Psychology is a dynamic, forward-thinking program designed to cater to the professional aspirations of students who want a career beyond traditional psychology roles. It’s also a great program to gain exposure to a graduate-level curriculum to help students work toward their doctorate or refine their professional goals with the guidance of experienced faculty advisors.

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• Capella University Blog

What is Applied Research in psychology?

March 21, 2024

From academia and behavioral health to military and corrections, there are many ways psychology can help people.

In fact, mental health programs in hospitals, non-profits, governmental programs, and more have their origins in carefully researched data that psychology professionals have helped create.

Whether they’re designing studies, conducting research, or interpreting the final data, a master’s-level research psychology professional can inform best practices in psychology to tackle important issues like recidivism, PTSD, and depression.

Bethany Lohr, PhD, faculty chair of Capella University’s Clinical Psychology program, explains the benefits of an advanced degree in Applied Research for both clinical professionals and those following an academic path.

Q. First of all, what is applied research?

A. Applied research is a scientific study within the field of psychology that focuses on solving problems and innovating new technologies. Its main purpose is to conduct scientific research and apply it to real-world situations. As opposed to delivering mental health services, it’s about looking at human behavior and thinking of ways to meet the needs of a given situation.

Q. What type of skills could I develop with an MS in Clinical Psychology, Applied Research?

A. Skills that could help you be effective in the field of applied research include:

• Observation: The ability to observe and take note of what you observe is a critical skill.
• Data analysis: Be able to interpret statistics as well as understand trends and draw predictions based on data.
• Creative problem-solving: Be curious and able to approach a problem from different angles in the search for possible solutions.
• Interpersonal communication: Be prepared to spend time interviewing different groups and reporting findings.
• Ethical awareness: Act with integrity when factors such as privacy and informed consent come up depending on the setting.
• Adaptability: Remain level-headed amid changing circumstances.

    Learn how a Master of Science in Clinical Psychology, Applied Research can help you build professional skills.

Q. What are some ways applied research can be used? 

A. An applied research specialization could be used in any field where psychological research is an element.

A background in applied research in clinical psychology helps someone design and lead a study, interpret findings and advocate for programs based on those interpretations. Further, it helps make them the right person to lead training for these programs.

Applied research is often a relevant subject area for people who write government grants, such as those who write for mental health programs. An applied research background provides understanding to skillfully interpret the government’s massive data sets and advocate for legislation that relies on data to support it.

Pertaining to healthcare, applied research in clinical psychology could be applied to projects related to quality improvement or quality assurance in areas like emergency room waiting times, patient data collection, triage and other improvements that can impact patient care.

In the case of workforce development, applied research could be used to tailor questions to determine which strategies work best to motivate employees. When hiring, applied research could be applied to help establish job qualifications or criteria to best meet the needs of a department and screen candidates who will mesh well with team dynamics.

Applied research can help some organizations analyze what kinds of prompts might inspire people to volunteer their time and skills to charities.

Applied research could even come into play in theme park design when deciding where to place trash cans or queue line management to keep guests engaged.

All these situations rely on the analysis of human behavior and predictions and proposals based on those observations.

Q. Beyond the workplace, who else is the MS in Clinical Psychology, Applied Research for?

A. A Master of Science in Clinical Psychology, Applied Research program involves coursework that teaches the research skills and knowledge that may help you prepare when pursuing a PhD . Major topics in a PhD program could include research methodology, psychotherapy theories, tests and measurement, psychopathology, human development, ethical principles and diversity.

Additionally, the applied research specialization can help prepare you to pursue a PsyD in Clinical Psychology .

Q. Is this specialty just for academics and non-therapy professionals? Would therapy professionals benefit from this knowledge as well?        

 A. Someone in the therapy field can also benefit from understanding applied research, especially if they think they’ll want to pursue a doctoral degree down the road. If they want to continue in therapy practice, this master’s can help them interpret psychology research that may inform their therapeutic treatment plans.

 In short, applied research may be a good option for expanding professional expertise. It all depends on your professional goals.  

Learn more about Capella’s Master’s in Clinical Psychology, Applied Research degree program.

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Definition:

Applied Research refers to the systematic investigation conducted to gain knowledge or understanding that can be directly applied to a specific real-world problem or issue.

1. Purpose of Applied Research

Applied research aims to address practical problems or challenges by bridging the gap between theory and practical application. It focuses on generating applicable knowledge that can be utilized to improve existing practices, develop new products, enhance processes, or solve specific problems.

2. Methodology

Applied research employs a range of methodologies to gather information and analyze data relevant to the problem at hand. It often involves interdisciplinary approaches, utilizing techniques from various fields to provide comprehensive and relevant insights.

3. Real-World Applications

The primary objective of applied research is to produce outcomes that have direct implications and benefits in the real world. It aims to provide practical solutions, innovations, or improvements in areas such as healthcare, technology, engineering, social sciences, and many other domains.

4. Collaboration and Stakeholder Engagement

Applied research actively involves collaboration with stakeholders, including industry experts, policy makers, practitioners, and end-users. By engaging these parties throughout the research process, a deep understanding of the problem domain is gained, ensuring the outcomes are relevant and applicable.

5. Impact and Translation

The success of applied research lies in its ability to translate findings and discoveries into actionable recommendations or solutions that make a positive impact in real-life scenarios. The research outcomes are meant to be implemented, influencing practices, policies, or products to bring about tangible improvements in the targeted area.

6. Continuous Learning and Improvement

Applied research is an iterative process that involves ongoing learning and improvement. Feedback from the implementation of research outcomes is utilized to refine and enhance the solutions further, creating a cycle of continuous improvement.

B.A. in Psychology

What is Applied Psychology

The science of psychology spans several fields. There are dozens of disciplines in psychology, such as abnormal psychology, cognitive psychology and social psychology.

But one way to view these different fields is to separate them into two types: applied vs. experimental psychology. These groups describe virtually any type of work in psychology.

The following sections explore what applied psychology is and some examples of what it covers.

What is Applied Psychology?

Applied psychology uses psychological methods and findings (experimental psychology) to solve problems of the human experience.

It is nearly impossible to develop a precise definition for applied psychology due to the sheer scope of the term. Findings are applied in fields like clinical psychology, educational psychology, forensic psychology, sports psychology and social psychology — nearly every psychological discipline. Unless the field is exclusively research-based, applied psychology is involved.

An example of the breadth of applied psychology is the  non-exhaustive sample of topics  deemed appropriate for the  Journal of Applied Psychology , which includes:

• individual differences in abilities, personality and other characteristics;
• testing and personnel selection;
• performance measurement and management;
• training, learning and skill acquisition;
• work motivation;
• job attitudes, affect and emotions;
• leadership;
• team development, processes and effectiveness;
• career development;
• work–family interface;
• work stress, health and well-being;
• positive and negative work behaviors;
• diversity and cross-cultural differences in work behavior and attitudes;
• technology and work systems;
• expertise and knowledge management;
• creativity, innovation and adaptation;
• organizational culture and climate; and
• organizational design, change and interventions.

Applied Psychology and Technology

One of the biggest trends in applied psychology is in developing technology .

Smart vehicles, smart homes and other types of devices are widely available, but smart systems aren’t so clever  if they’re too complicated to use , according to the American Psychological Association. Human factors psychologists are designing products and systems that are easier and more enjoyable to use. Work is being performed in areas like human-robot interactions, brain-machine interfaces and virtual reality systems.

Technology companies are looking for insights on human behavior, such as how people use speech recognition systems and what makes someone want to engage with a device. This has led to a new field — neuroergonomics — which applies tools and knowledge from neuroscience to design safer, smarter and more efficient human-centered systems. These systems could help prevent worker fatigue, and adapting the amount of automation depending on workers’ attention levels and cognitive state.

Applied psychologists are also seeing other areas of opportunity in transportation and health care.

• Research is focused on developing driver-vehicle interfaces in smart cars that are intuitive and reduce accidents. Psychologists will play a critical role in educating and training the public to use these systems, so that they are not afraid or overly confident.
• In health care, the demand for psychologists has increased after the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued a guidance in 2016 that manufacturers integrate human factors into the testing process when developing new medical devices. Psychologists are being used to enhance patient safety, from robotic surgical tools to at-home glucose monitors. Another area where psychologists are applying their research skills is in studying hospital and health care errors. They are looking for gaps in communication that lead to medical errors and devising systems that minimize such mistakes.

Pursue Your Career Goals in Psychology

Develop a greater understanding of psychology concepts and applications with Concordia, St. Paul’s  online bachelor’s in psychology . This is a fully accredited bachelor’s degree from Concordia University, St. Paul, offered online. Enjoy small class sizes with a personal learning environment geared toward your success, and learn from knowledgeable faculty who have industry experience.

Applied Research

Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. This kind of research plays an important role in solving everyday issues that often have an impact on life, work, health, and overall well-being.

If basic research is exploring a new city aimlessly, applied research is like using Google Maps because you need directions to the nearest hospital or grocery store - it has an immediate practical application.

Related terms

Action Research : A type of applied research where the researcher actively participates in the program being studied. Like being both the coach and player in a basketball game.

Evaluation Research : This involves assessing the effectiveness of social programs or interventions. Like rating your Uber driver after your ride ends based on your experience during the trip.

Operational Definition : Describes exactly what researchers will define as evidence or data when conducting an experiment. Like setting rules before playing Monopoly.

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• What is Applied Research? + [Types, Examples & Method]

Every research begins with a clear delineation of the purpose of the investigation as this goes a long way to determine the research process or methodology adopted. In this sense, a researcher may choose to carry out basic research or applied research. 

Applied research is set on providing answers to specific questions in a bid to provide a solution to a defined problem. In this article, we will outline the features of this method of systematic investigation as well as how it differs from other approaches to research. 

What is Applied Research?

Applied research is a type of research design that seeks to solve a specific problem or provide innovative solutions to issues affecting an individual, group or society. It is often referred to as a scientific method of inquiry or contractual research because it involves the practical application of scientific methods to everyday problems. 

When conducting applied research, the researcher takes extra care to identify a problem, develop a research hypothesis and goes ahead to test these hypotheses via an experiment. In many cases, this research approach employs empirical methods in order to solve practical problems. 

Applied research is sometimes considered to be a non-systematic inquiry because  of its direct approach in  seeking a solution to a problem. It is typically a follow-up research design that further investigates the findings of pure or basic research in order to validate these findings and apply them to create innovative solutions.     

Types of Applied Research

There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research, research and development, and action research.

• Evaluation Research

Evaluation research is a type of applied research that analyses existing information about a research subject to arrive at objective research outcomes or reach informed decisions. This type of applied research is mostly applied in business contexts, for example, an organisation may adopt evaluation research to determine how to cut down  overhead costs.

• Research and Development

Research and development is a type of applied research that is focused on developing new products and services based on the needs of target markets. It focuses on gathering information about marketing needs and finding ways to improve on an existing product or create new products that satisfy the identified needs.

• Action Research

Action research is a type of applied research that is set on providing practical solutions to specific business problems by pointing the business in the right directions. Typically, action research is a process of reflective inquiry that is limited to specific contexts and situational in nature.

Examples of Applied Research 

Applied research is relevant in different fields of study; especially science and social science-related fields. Examples of applied research can be seen in medicine, education, business, engineering, psychology and health, and these would be further explicated below. 

Applied Research Example in Business

Applied research is used in business to build knowledge and develop product solutions. It enables organisations to identify the peculiar needs of target markets and this would help them to create different business strategies that would allow them to satisfy these needs. 

In addition, conducting contractual research would help business owners to get insightful feedback on product gaps that may have, otherwise, been ignored. This is a great way to get first-hand information on target market reactions which can inform brand decisions. 

Applied research also helps employers of labour to identify and address the productivity needs of their workforce. For instance, an organization may carry out applied research in order to measure the effectiveness of its recruitment practices or of its organisational structure. 

• Applied research to improve an organization’s hiring process.
• Applied research to improve workplace efficiency and organizational policies.
• Applied research to bridge skill gaps in the workplace.

Applied Research Examples in Education  

In education, applied research is used to test pedagogic processes in order to discover the best teaching and learning methods. It is also used to test educational policies before implementation and to address different issues associated with teaching paradigms and classroom dynamics for a better learning experience. 

Educational applied research attempts solving a problem by gathering data from primary sources using a combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. This data serves as empirical evidence which is then subjected to rigorous analysis and description in order to arrive at valid conclusions.

The goal of this research methodology is to determine the applicability of educational theory and principles by way of subjecting hypotheses to experimentation within specific settings. Applied research in education is also more utilitarian as it gathers practical evidence that can inform pragmatic solutions to problems. 

Characteristics of Applied Research in Education 

• It clearly highlights generalizations and hypotheses that inform the research findings.
• It relies on empirical evidence.
• It is set at providing solutions to a defined problem.
• It requires accurate observation and description.
• A study into the way to improve teacher-learner classroom engagements.
• A study into the way to improve a school’s readiness for its students.
• A study to build students’ interests in Mathematics.

Applied Research Example in Science

In itself, applied research is a scientific method of investigation because it applies existing scientific knowledge to practical situations. It is useful in different fields including thermodynamics, physics, material sciences and microbiology. 

Examples of applied research in science include the following: 

• Applied research to improve agricultural crop production
• Applied research to treat or cure a specific disease.

Applied Research Examples in Psychology  

There are different reasons psychologists would make use of applied research in the course of their work. In many cases, industrial-psychologists concerned with workplace behavior, human resources and organisational development combine psychological principles with applied research to proffer solutions. 

Examples of applied research in psychology include:

• Applied research to improve workplace commitment by arriving at practical worker-motivation strategies.
• Investigating treatment and management options for anxiety and panic attacks.
• Investigating factors that improve worker’s productivity.

Applied Research Example in Health   

In health and medical sciences, applied research serves as the background to evidence-based and solution-oriented medicine. It effectively merges scientific knowledge and methods with health experiences in order to arrive at accurate and verifiable results; using empirical research data or evidence. 

The adaptation of applied research to medicine is referred to as applied clinical research . Many health and medical practitioners use applied research to measure the extent to which the findings of basic or pure research can be adopted or modified into a solution-oriented approach.

Examples of applied research in health include:

• An investigation to identify the healing properties of a specific herb.
• An investigation to identify the side effects of using a particular drug.

APPLIED RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative and quantitative data collection methods are used in applied research to gather empirical evidence that is further subjected to experimentation in order to arrive at valid research outcomes. The following are data collection methods in applied research:

An interview is a qualitative method of data collection that involves having a one-on-one interaction or discussion with the research subjects in order to gather relevant information that can serve as empirical data. It can be conducted with the use of an audio recorder, digital camera or camcorder.

Even though it is time-consuming and expensive, interviews allow the researcher to gather the most relevant data which gives him or her in-depth knowledge about the research subjects. An interview may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured; depending on the research purpose. 

• Surveys/Questionnaires

A questionnaire is an instrument that is typically used for quantitative data gathering . It outlines a series of questions relating to the research context and requires the research subjects to choose or provide responses that reflect their knowledge and experiences.

There are different types of questions that can be contained in a questionnaire including rating scale question s, close and open-ended questions and fixed alternatives. You can create and administer your applied research survey using data-collection platforms like Formplus . 

You can also start choosing from our over 200 online survey/questionnaire templates.

Here is a step-by-step guide on  how to create and administer questionnaires for applied research using Formplus

Sign in to Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different questionnaires for applied research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on “Create Form ” to begin.

Edit Form Title

Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Applied Research Questionnaire”.

Click on the edit button to edit the form.

i. Add Fields: Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 

ii. Edit fields

iii. Click on “Save”

iv. Preview form. 

Form Customization

With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily improve on the appearance of your questionnaire and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images and even change the font according to your needs. 

Multiple Sharing Options

Formplus also provides multiple form sharing options which enables you to easily share your questionnaire with respondents. With the direct social media sharing buttons, you can swiftly share your applied research questionnaire link to your organization’s social media pages. 

You can send out your questionnaire as email invitations to your research subjects too. Formplus also allows you to share your form’s QR code or embed it in your organization’s website for easy access. 

• Data Reporting

The process of gathering useful information about a research subject which can be used for further research. This can be done through not-for-profit reports, newspapers, website articles and hospital records.

It helps you  gather relevant data that results in more insightful decisions.  However, it is susceptible to bias because the information can easily be exaggerated by the individual or group collecting the data. 

• Observation

A type of data gathering method in applied research that requires the researcher to pay close attention to a subject (s) in order to gather useful information about it. Although bias may arise with this method, observation is widely considered as a universally accepted research practice.

Observation helps the researcher to gather empirical data and thus, it is the starting point for the formulation of a hypothesis. There are different techniques for observation including complete observer, complete participant, participant as observer and observer as participant. 

• Focus Groups

A focus group is a type of qualitative data collection process that allows the researcher to gather information about the disposition, feelings and opinions of the research subjects about a specific issue.

Here, the researcher engages a group comprising 6-10 individuals with a range of open-ended questions with the aim of gathering feedback about their emotional disposition to the issue at hand. This method is cost-effective compared to one-on-one interviews, and the information obtained is insightful and detailed. 

How is Applied Research Different from Basic Research?

Applied research and basic research are common methods of inquiry, based on purpose or utility. However, there are key differences between these 2 research approaches and these would be clearly outlined below: 

Applied research is a type of research that is aimed at the practical application of science in order to solve practical problems. On the other hand, basic research is a type of research that is aimed at expanding knowledge rather than solving problems. 

Basic research is theoretical in nature while applied research is practical and descriptive in nature. Basic research explores and generates theories that may be abstract while applied research tests these theories in order to solve a problem. 

Basic research is universal while applied research is limited. Basic research can focus on diverse or multiple contexts while applied research focuses on specific contexts with the aim of providing a solution to an identified problem. 

Applied research is focused on providing answers or solutions to a specific research question while basic research focuses on multiple concepts at the same time in its quest to expand knowledge. 

• Applied research pays attention to external validity while basic research is more focused on internal validity .

Characteristics of Applied Research 

• Applied research is solution-specific and it addresses practical problems. Unlike basic research that is aimed at theorizing and expanding knowledge, applied research focuses on addressing a particular problem using a range of science-based approaches.
• Applied research is descriptive in nature as it arrives at solutions by experimenting on empirical evidence and describing research outcomes.
• Usually, applied research tests theories arrived at by pure research in order to determine the usefulness of these theories in solving practical problems.
• It describes the relationship between research variables by measuring the characteristics of dependent and independent variables.
• Applied research relies on empirical evidence in order to arrive at valid research outcomes.
• It is not theoretical and it is not directly concerned with the expansion of knowledge.
• Applied research is synthetic in nature.
• It is aimed at the cost-effective reduction of social problems.
• Applied research is action-oriented.

Advantages of Applied Research

• Validity: Applied research is unbiased in nature because it tests empirical evidence in order to arrive at valid research outcomes. It employs carefully mapped-out procedures, and this makes it a more valid research approach.
• It is useful in solving specific problems. It helps individuals and organizations to find solutions to specific problems.

Disadvantages of Applied Research 

• It is not flexible in nature as it is restricted to a stipulated deadline.
• Applied research is limited in nature and it cannot be generalized. In other words, the findings from applied research cannot be generalized.

Conclusion 

Applied research is an important research approach because it helps organisations to arrive at practical solutions to specific problems while improving their productivity and output. Unlike basic research that focuses on generating theories that explain phenomena, applied research pays attention to describing empirical evidence with the aim of providing solutions. 

In carrying out applied research, the researcher combines a number of qualitative and quantitative data-gathering methods including questionnaires, observation methods, and interviews. This helps the researcher to gather empirical evidence that is then subjected to experimentation depending on the type of applied research and the overall focus. 

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Presidential Column

A dangerous dichotomy: basic and applied research.

• APS President
• Douglas Medin Columns
• Experimental Psychology

Douglas L. Medin

How can I be so confused by a simple distinction like the difference between basic and applied research? I did an initial draft of a column on this topic months ago, and honestly, it was mostly gibberish.

In his 1997 book, Pasteur’s Quadrant , Donald Stokes reviewed a good deal of the history and political significance of different ideas about the relation between basic and applied research. It may be worth examining our own ideas on the topic. Many of us in academia may be walking around with an implicit or explicit “basic is better” attitude. Imagine two assistant professors coming up for tenure and one has plenty of publications in Psychological Science and the other has plenty in Applied Psychological Science (a hypothetical journal). Which of the two has a better chance of getting tenure? Correct me if I’m wrong, but it seems to me that — hands down — it is the former. My academic appointment is both in psychology and in education, and at least some of my psychology colleagues look down on educational research as (merely or only) applied and justify their attitude on grounds that it is largely atheoretical and not very interesting (and on this point they simply are wrong).

But imagine that psychological science arose in a developing country that was continually facing crucial issues in health, education, and welfare, and universities were dedicated to addressing national needs. Now perhaps the assistant professor who published in Applied Psychological Science would get the nod.

In Pasteur’s Quadrant , Stokes argues for a three-way distinction between pure basic research, pure applied research, and use-inspired basic research (for which the prototype is Louis Pasteur). I do like the term use-inspired because it suggests quite literally that considerations of use can stimulate foundational research. But I’m pretty dubious about “pure” being attached to either category for the reasons that follow.

Of course, there are numerous steps between the initial basic research and the eventual practical applications. These steps often involve messy details and many decisions about factors that probably don’t matter, but maybe they do. One can get the sense that clean experimental design is being gradually compromised by these minor details. And it doesn’t help that the theory we are working with may have nothing to say about these decisions. Someone should do this work but, from the perspective of those of us doing basic research, maybe it should be someone else (other than us).

So then, dangerous dichotomies, such as basic versus applied research, lend themselves to stereotyping. They also create borders that may get in the way. For example, if you’re inclined to do psychological research that has high fidelity to real-world circumstances, you might be accused of doing applied research, because applied research, by definition, has to be high fidelity. But fear of fidelity is a very peculiar malady, and our field must strive to overcome it.

These categories can also be used politically in a sort of Three-Card Monte game [1] to hide values. Applied research transparently reflects a set of value judgments. There is a difference between using persuasion theory to encourage teenagers to stay in school versus encouraging them to start smoking. It is nice to be able to fall back on the argument that basic research is value neutral and that there is a pure science in the form of an uncontaminated quest for knowledge.

Nice, but in my opinion, dead wrong. If basic research were value neutral, would we even need ethical review panels? The use of nonhuman animals in research often reflects the judgment that human welfare is more important than animal welfare (we do things to animals we would never do to people). Especially important, again in my opinion, is the role of positive values in basic research. These values are reflected in the questions we choose to ask (or not ask), how we choose to ask them, who we choose to study (or not study), and who conducts the research. Although I labeled these as positive values, they become potential negatives when we fail to ask relevant questions, ask them in ways that favor one group over another, and prize ownership of science over openness. Frequently, the values in play are cultural values, values that may be different in other cultures and contexts.

For some time now, the National Science Foundation has required grant proposals to have a “broader impacts” section. To be specific, currently under discussion at NSF (see www.nsf.gov/nsb/publications/2011/06_mrtf.jsp ) is the idea that projects should address important national goals, including among others, increased economic competitiveness of the United States; development of a globally competitive science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) workforce; increased participation of women, persons with disabilities, and underrepresented minorities in STEM fields; increased partnerships between academia and industry; and increased national security. [2]

Many (but maybe not all) of these may be values that you endorse, and they may influence how you do your basic research. It’s hard to avoid the conclusion that basic research cannot shunt off the messiness of values to applied research. If we can’t continue to pretend that basic research is pure (for that matter, even purity may be a value), it might be a good idea to pay more careful attention to the values that are reflected in what we do and how we do it.

In summary, I’m still a bit confused about basic versus applied research, but the idea that research provides the opportunity to express values I care about strikes me as a good thing. Bottom line: Applied is not “merely” applied, but is full of fascinating research puzzles. Basic is not “pure,” but rather is saturated with values, ideally values that make us proud to be psychological scientists, but in any event values that merit attention.

[1] In this card game, the dealer shows the player a card then places it face down next to two other cards. The dealer mixes the cards around then asks the player to pick one. If the player picks the original card, he or she wins, but the dealer can employ a number of tricks (such as swapping cards) to keep the player from choosing the right card. Return to Text

[2] The response to this proposal has been sharp, bimodal criticism with some scholars arguing that the standards “water down” previously highlighted goals like fostering diversity and others objecting to these values because they would get in the way of pure, basic research. In response to this feedback, the task force charged with developing these standards is currently rethinking and revising them. Stay tuned. Return to Text

A century of outstanding psychological research has been intimately tied to so-called “applied” work, including landmark studies of prejudice, health, judgment, education, therapy, obedience, communication, influence, navigation, testing, well-being, decision-making, and so much more. Many of us in academe are not walking around with a “basic is better” attitude, because it is usually an impossible or misleading distinction. The better distinction, I think, is “revealing, novel, insightful, important” versus “ordinary, average, boring.”

Douglas Medin’s recent essay about the “Dangerous Dichotomy” serves well to illuminate the distinctions and relationships between basic and applied research –particularly the values engaged by both endeavors. As a co-founder of one of the first graduate programs to label itself Applied Social Psychology, I’ve had occasions to comment on ways of comparing basic and applied projects, and others have proposed similar comparisons, along several dimensions including: a) Purpose, to advance general knowledge about fundamental phenomena vs. to provide information that’s relevant to a practical problem; b) Validity concerns, internal vs. external and ecological; c) Setting, artificial lab vs. natural field; d) Design, experimental vs. non-experimental; e) Methods of data collection, stationary equipment vs. questionnaires; f) Participants, non-humans or college students vs. specific types of people with a stake in the outcome; g)Initiators, researchers vs. researchers plus other stakeholders; h) Who cares, (same as previous); and i)Presentation media and audiences, psychological publications vs. project reports to clientele. This list could be expanded to include other considerations such as typical sources of funding and degree of multidisciplinarity, but I believe that none of these is definitive, that any given study has some location with respect to these considerations, and that those locations can refer to basic, applied, or both. To me the most substantial comparisons involve the origin of the topic and the role of theory in a project. Basic research originates from within psychology, and the aim is to test one or more theories for verification, or to explore a topic and form a theory about it. Really applied research originates from the world outside of psychology, and the role of theory is to supply ideas about the constructs and relations among them so the researcher can conceptualize the practical problem. Basic research is mainly about formulating and testing theories; applied research uses these theories (and maybe other ideas) to develop a conceptual framework to guide a project. Of course, these comparisons, like those above, are not absolute which means that basic and applied research need not be seen as dichotomous. Instead, as suggested by Medin’s Figure 3, and Kurt Lewin’s practical theorizing, the relationship between basic and applied can be co-equal and reciprocally informative.

John David Edwards, Emeritus Professor, Loyola University Chicago

APS regularly opens certain online articles for discussion on our website. Effective February 2021, you must be a logged-in APS member to post comments. By posting a comment, you agree to our Community Guidelines and the display of your profile information, including your name and affiliation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations present in article comments are those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect the views of APS or the article’s author. For more information, please see our Community Guidelines .

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About the Author

Douglas L. Medin is a professor at Northwestern University. He can be reached at [email protected].

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Intelligence

The difference between basic and applied research is time, descending the ivory tower of research..

Posted March 9, 2022 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• Basic research is often considered to have no societal impact.
• Applied research is often considered to have no theoretical value.
• When actual research is considered, the difference between basic and applied research is difficult to identify.

Across scientific disciplines, psychology being no exception, a distinction is often made between basic and applied research. Basic research, as this distinction goes, is ivory-tower research, with no practical implications and no societal impact. Applied research is down-to-earth research of no theoretical nature and with limited practical utility. The former is theoretical; the latter, practical. The former is for true scientists. The latter is for true practitioners.

It is discouraging that such stereotypes are applied to research. But as with all other stereotypes, this stereotype, too, is a matter of a generalized belief hardly true to the facts.

I have never quite understood the difference between basic and applied research. And I have understood even less why one would be considered superior to the other. Whenever I conducted research that could be categorized as basic research, I received comments that such research had no societal impact and that practical research was, of course, more important for society. And whenever I developed a particular application, I received feedback that the practical value was appreciated, but of course, it had no theoretical universal value. I always struggled with the difference others were able to identify but I was unable to see.

Let me try to demonstrate my confusion by giving some examples from my own line of research. In one study, we estimated the longitude and latitude of locations in Middle Earth using Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings trilogy. We took the names of the locations as they were mentioned in Lord of the Rings and computed how often they were mentioned together in the same context. A matrix of co-occurrence values was then transformed into a two-dimensional map that was surprisingly similar to an actual map of the fictional Middle Earth.

Basically, we showed that if locations are mentioned together, they are located together. That may be no surprise to linguists. Since the 1950s, we learned “you shall know a word by the company it keeps” as the linguist J.R. Firth told us. In our work, we showed that you shall know the location by the linguistic company a place name keeps.

Now, estimating the geographical location based on the way it is mentioned in language is basic research par excellence. It is has a universal value: We have also demonstrated it for the longitude and latitude in the United States using several years of newspaper articles from The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal , and The Los Angeles Times . We have estimated the geographical locations of cities in China using the entire body of texts in the Chinese version of Wikipedia, and for the geography of the Middle East using the entire Arabic Wikipedia. Theoretical, very ivory tower with seemingly no societal impact.

What we did for newspapers, Wikipedia, and fictional texts, though, we could of course do for social media . One could take a large body of tweets, Facebook messages, or LinkedIn posts, identify place names mentioned in those posts, and compute the context in which place names co-occur with other place names. As we did for Lord of the Rings , newspapers, and Wikipedia, such a social-media analysis would allow for a geographical map of places through the eyes of those who wrote the posts. This would, no doubt, be of interest to intelligence agencies, as it can help identify areas of concern or interest. Basically, the worldview for those in society with bad intentions can be identified. Identifying the geographical locations of places biased by those who used those place names in their social media posts would be very practical research with considerable societal impact—to be categorized under applied research, not basic research.

And if intelligence-agency work sounds too military, we could consider another practical example: We could help archeologists. We could predict the excavation sites of Indus Valley artifacts based on the Indus script. Using the patterns in the Indus script, we could estimate the geographic origin of artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization with a relatively simple algorithm. We may manage to predict the relative locations of archeological sites on the basis of artifacts of known provenance, and we could further apply these techniques to determine the most probable excavation sites of unknown provenance. Estimating excavation sites on the basis of a particular script has limited functionality and is very practical in nature.

Let’s categorize the intelligence agency and archeology research as practical, but both of these cases of applied research would not have been possible had we not first done the theoretical work of estimating the locations using the place names in Lord of the Rings .

You get my point.

I would argue, and argue strongly, that all basic research will ultimately be applied. The question that I cannot answer is when the basic research will be applied. No one can tell. It could be tomorrow, or it might take a couple of years. But ultimately, the difference between basic and applied research is only a matter of time.

Louwerse, M.M. (2021). Keeping those words in mind: How language creates meaning . New York: Prometheus Books / Rowman & Littlefield.

Max Louwerse, Ph.D., is a linguist, cognitive psychologist, and artificial intelligence researcher. He is currently Professor of Cognitive Psychology and Artificial Intelligence at Tilburg University in the Netherlands.

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Applied Research: Definition, Types & Examples

Every research project begins with a clear definition of the investigation’s purpose, which helps to identify the research procedure or approach used. In this sense, a researcher can conduct either basic or applied research.

This research focuses on answering specific questions to solve a specific problem. It tries to identify a solution to a cultural or organizational problem and is often a follow-up research plan for basic or pure research.

In this blog, we will explain the types of applied research and give some examples. But before that, we will go through what it is.

What is applied research?

Applied research is a non-systematic way of finding solutions to specific research problems or issues. These problems or issues can be on an individual, group, or societal level. It is called “non-systematic” because it goes straight to finding solutions.

It is often called a “scientific process” because it uses the available scientific tools and puts them to use to find answers.

Like in regular research, the researcher identifies the problem, makes a hypothesis, and then experiments to test it. It goes deeper into the findings of true or basic research.

LEARN ABOUT:   Research Process Steps

Types of applied research

This research has three types: 

• Evaluation research, 
• Research and Development, and 
• Action research. 

The short versions of each type are explained below:

• Evaluation research

Evaluation research is one type of applied research. It looks at the information on a research subject. This kind of research leads to objective research or helps people make better decisions sooner. Most of the time, evaluation research is used in business settings. 

The organization uses this research to figure out how the overhead costs can be cut down or cut down a lot.

• Research and development

Research and Development is the second type of applied research. Its main goal is to create or design new products, goods, or services that meet the needs of certain markets in society. It finds out what the needs of the market are. It focuses on finding new ways to improve products that already meet an organization’s needs.

• Action research

Action research is the third type of applied research. Action research is a way to learn about things that happen in everyday life and nature. Its goal is to find real-world solutions to business problems by pointing the business in the right direction.

LEARN ABOUT: Action Research

Examples of applied research

Applied study is used in many areas of study and research, from the sciences to the social sciences. We also talk about how it’s used in those fields and give some examples:

• Applied study in business

Applied study in business sectors is fully dependent on their products and services. It helps organizations understand market needs and trends, and then shape their products to fit customers.

Businesses benefit from This research because it allows them to detect gaps in their findings and obtain primary information on target market preferences.

• It can improve hiring.
• It improves work and policy.
• It identifies workplace skill gaps.
• Applied study in education

The applied study is used in the education field to test different ways of teaching and to find better ways of teaching and learning. Before implementing new education policies, they are tested to see how well they work, how they affect teaching, and how the classroom works.

Applied education research uses quantitative and qualitative methods to collect data from first-hand sources. This information is then looked at and interpreted differently to generate valuable results or conclusions.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Interview

Most applied research in this field is done to develop and test different ways of doing things by trying them out in different situations. It is based on accurate observations and descriptions of the real world.

• Applied study to understand the reach of online learning initiatives.
• Applied study to promote teacher-student classroom engagement.
• Applied study on the new math program.
• Applied study in science

As already said, applied study is often called a scientific process because it uses the available scientific tools to find answers. It can be used in physics, microbiology, thermodynamics, and other fields.

• The applied study is put into practice to cure a disease.
• The applied study is put into practice to improve agricultural practices.
• The applied study is applied to testing new laboratory equipment.
• Applied study in psychology

Researchers use this research in psychology to figure out how people act at work, how HR works, and how the organization is growing and changing so they can come up with solutions.

It is used a lot in areas where researchers try to figure out how people think and then come up with solutions that fit their behavior best.

• Applied study to figure out new ways to deal with depression.
• Applied study to improve students’ grades by emphasizing practical Education.
• Applied study to create a plan to keep employees coming to work regularly.
• Applied study in health

This research is used to examine new drugs in the medical industry. It combines scientific knowledge and procedures with health experiences to produce evidence-based results.

• Applied study in heart surgery.
• Applied study to determine a drug’s efficacy.
• Applied study on a medicine’s adverse effects.

LEARN ABOUT: Theoretical Research

Applied research is an important way to research because it helps organizations find real-world solutions to specific problems while also increasing their output and productivity. In contrast to basic research, which focuses on making theories that explain things, applied research focuses on describing evidence to find solutions.

In the applied study, the researcher uses qualitative and quantitative methods to collect data, such as questionnaires, interviews, and observation methods. Conducting interviews is one of the examples of qualitative data in education . It helps the researcher collect real-world evidence, which is then tested depending on the type of applied research and the main focus.

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The Use of Research Methods in Psychological Research: A Systematised Review

Salomé elizabeth scholtz.

1 Community Psychosocial Research (COMPRES), School of Psychosocial Health, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Werner de Klerk

Leon t. de beer.

2 WorkWell Research Institute, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Research methods play an imperative role in research quality as well as educating young researchers, however, the application thereof is unclear which can be detrimental to the field of psychology. Therefore, this systematised review aimed to determine what research methods are being used, how these methods are being used and for what topics in the field. Our review of 999 articles from five journals over a period of 5 years indicated that psychology research is conducted in 10 topics via predominantly quantitative research methods. Of these 10 topics, social psychology was the most popular. The remainder of the conducted methodology is described. It was also found that articles lacked rigour and transparency in the used methodology which has implications for replicability. In conclusion this article, provides an overview of all reported methodologies used in a sample of psychology journals. It highlights the popularity and application of methods and designs throughout the article sample as well as an unexpected lack of rigour with regard to most aspects of methodology. Possible sample bias should be considered when interpreting the results of this study. It is recommended that future research should utilise the results of this study to determine the possible impact on the field of psychology as a science and to further investigation into the use of research methods. Results should prompt the following future research into: a lack or rigour and its implication on replication, the use of certain methods above others, publication bias and choice of sampling method.

Introduction

Psychology is an ever-growing and popular field (Gough and Lyons, 2016 ; Clay, 2017 ). Due to this growth and the need for science-based research to base health decisions on (Perestelo-Pérez, 2013 ), the use of research methods in the broad field of psychology is an essential point of investigation (Stangor, 2011 ; Aanstoos, 2014 ). Research methods are therefore viewed as important tools used by researchers to collect data (Nieuwenhuis, 2016 ) and include the following: quantitative, qualitative, mixed method and multi method (Maree, 2016 ). Additionally, researchers also employ various types of literature reviews to address research questions (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). According to literature, what research method is used and why a certain research method is used is complex as it depends on various factors that may include paradigm (O'Neil and Koekemoer, 2016 ), research question (Grix, 2002 ), or the skill and exposure of the researcher (Nind et al., 2015 ). How these research methods are employed is also difficult to discern as research methods are often depicted as having fixed boundaries that are continuously crossed in research (Johnson et al., 2001 ; Sandelowski, 2011 ). Examples of this crossing include adding quantitative aspects to qualitative studies (Sandelowski et al., 2009 ), or stating that a study used a mixed-method design without the study having any characteristics of this design (Truscott et al., 2010 ).

The inappropriate use of research methods affects how students and researchers improve and utilise their research skills (Scott Jones and Goldring, 2015 ), how theories are developed (Ngulube, 2013 ), and the credibility of research results (Levitt et al., 2017 ). This, in turn, can be detrimental to the field (Nind et al., 2015 ), journal publication (Ketchen et al., 2008 ; Ezeh et al., 2010 ), and attempts to address public social issues through psychological research (Dweck, 2017 ). This is especially important given the now well-known replication crisis the field is facing (Earp and Trafimow, 2015 ; Hengartner, 2018 ).

Due to this lack of clarity on method use and the potential impact of inept use of research methods, the aim of this study was to explore the use of research methods in the field of psychology through a review of journal publications. Chaichanasakul et al. ( 2011 ) identify reviewing articles as the opportunity to examine the development, growth and progress of a research area and overall quality of a journal. Studies such as Lee et al. ( 1999 ) as well as Bluhm et al. ( 2011 ) review of qualitative methods has attempted to synthesis the use of research methods and indicated the growth of qualitative research in American and European journals. Research has also focused on the use of research methods in specific sub-disciplines of psychology, for example, in the field of Industrial and Organisational psychology Coetzee and Van Zyl ( 2014 ) found that South African publications tend to consist of cross-sectional quantitative research methods with underrepresented longitudinal studies. Qualitative studies were found to make up 21% of the articles published from 1995 to 2015 in a similar study by O'Neil and Koekemoer ( 2016 ). Other methods in health psychology, such as Mixed methods research have also been reportedly growing in popularity (O'Cathain, 2009 ).

A broad overview of the use of research methods in the field of psychology as a whole is however, not available in the literature. Therefore, our research focused on answering what research methods are being used, how these methods are being used and for what topics in practice (i.e., journal publications) in order to provide a general perspective of method used in psychology publication. We synthesised the collected data into the following format: research topic [areas of scientific discourse in a field or the current needs of a population (Bittermann and Fischer, 2018 )], method [data-gathering tools (Nieuwenhuis, 2016 )], sampling [elements chosen from a population to partake in research (Ritchie et al., 2009 )], data collection [techniques and research strategy (Maree, 2016 )], and data analysis [discovering information by examining bodies of data (Ktepi, 2016 )]. A systematised review of recent articles (2013 to 2017) collected from five different journals in the field of psychological research was conducted.

Grant and Booth ( 2009 ) describe systematised reviews as the review of choice for post-graduate studies, which is employed using some elements of a systematic review and seldom more than one or two databases to catalogue studies after a comprehensive literature search. The aspects used in this systematised review that are similar to that of a systematic review were a full search within the chosen database and data produced in tabular form (Grant and Booth, 2009 ).

Sample sizes and timelines vary in systematised reviews (see Lowe and Moore, 2014 ; Pericall and Taylor, 2014 ; Barr-Walker, 2017 ). With no clear parameters identified in the literature (see Grant and Booth, 2009 ), the sample size of this study was determined by the purpose of the sample (Strydom, 2011 ), and time and cost constraints (Maree and Pietersen, 2016 ). Thus, a non-probability purposive sample (Ritchie et al., 2009 ) of the top five psychology journals from 2013 to 2017 was included in this research study. Per Lee ( 2015 ) American Psychological Association (APA) recommends the use of the most up-to-date sources for data collection with consideration of the context of the research study. As this research study focused on the most recent trends in research methods used in the broad field of psychology, the identified time frame was deemed appropriate.

Psychology journals were only included if they formed part of the top five English journals in the miscellaneous psychology domain of the Scimago Journal and Country Rank (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ). The Scimago Journal and Country Rank provides a yearly updated list of publicly accessible journal and country-specific indicators derived from the Scopus® database (Scopus, 2017b ) by means of the Scimago Journal Rank (SJR) indicator developed by Scimago from the algorithm Google PageRank™ (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ). Scopus is the largest global database of abstracts and citations from peer-reviewed journals (Scopus, 2017a ). Reasons for the development of the Scimago Journal and Country Rank list was to allow researchers to assess scientific domains, compare country rankings, and compare and analyse journals (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ), which supported the aim of this research study. Additionally, the goals of the journals had to focus on topics in psychology in general with no preference to specific research methods and have full-text access to articles.

The following list of top five journals in 2018 fell within the abovementioned inclusion criteria (1) Australian Journal of Psychology, (2) British Journal of Psychology, (3) Europe's Journal of Psychology, (4) International Journal of Psychology and lastly the (5) Journal of Psychology Applied and Interdisciplinary.

Journals were excluded from this systematised review if no full-text versions of their articles were available, if journals explicitly stated a publication preference for certain research methods, or if the journal only published articles in a specific discipline of psychological research (for example, industrial psychology, clinical psychology etc.).

The researchers followed a procedure (see Figure 1 ) adapted from that of Ferreira et al. ( 2016 ) for systematised reviews. Data collection and categorisation commenced on 4 December 2017 and continued until 30 June 2019. All the data was systematically collected and coded manually (Grant and Booth, 2009 ) with an independent person acting as co-coder. Codes of interest included the research topic, method used, the design used, sampling method, and methodology (the method used for data collection and data analysis). These codes were derived from the wording in each article. Themes were created based on the derived codes and checked by the co-coder. Lastly, these themes were catalogued into a table as per the systematised review design.

Systematised review procedure.

According to Johnston et al. ( 2019 ), “literature screening, selection, and data extraction/analyses” (p. 7) are specifically tailored to the aim of a review. Therefore, the steps followed in a systematic review must be reported in a comprehensive and transparent manner. The chosen systematised design adhered to the rigour expected from systematic reviews with regard to full search and data produced in tabular form (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). The rigorous application of the systematic review is, therefore discussed in relation to these two elements.

Firstly, to ensure a comprehensive search, this research study promoted review transparency by following a clear protocol outlined according to each review stage before collecting data (Johnston et al., 2019 ). This protocol was similar to that of Ferreira et al. ( 2016 ) and approved by three research committees/stakeholders and the researchers (Johnston et al., 2019 ). The eligibility criteria for article inclusion was based on the research question and clearly stated, and the process of inclusion was recorded on an electronic spreadsheet to create an evidence trail (Bandara et al., 2015 ; Johnston et al., 2019 ). Microsoft Excel spreadsheets are a popular tool for review studies and can increase the rigour of the review process (Bandara et al., 2015 ). Screening for appropriate articles for inclusion forms an integral part of a systematic review process (Johnston et al., 2019 ). This step was applied to two aspects of this research study: the choice of eligible journals and articles to be included. Suitable journals were selected by the first author and reviewed by the second and third authors. Initially, all articles from the chosen journals were included. Then, by process of elimination, those irrelevant to the research aim, i.e., interview articles or discussions etc., were excluded.

To ensure rigourous data extraction, data was first extracted by one reviewer, and an independent person verified the results for completeness and accuracy (Johnston et al., 2019 ). The research question served as a guide for efficient, organised data extraction (Johnston et al., 2019 ). Data was categorised according to the codes of interest, along with article identifiers for audit trails such as authors, title and aims of articles. The categorised data was based on the aim of the review (Johnston et al., 2019 ) and synthesised in tabular form under methods used, how these methods were used, and for what topics in the field of psychology.

The initial search produced a total of 1,145 articles from the 5 journals identified. Inclusion and exclusion criteria resulted in a final sample of 999 articles ( Figure 2 ). Articles were co-coded into 84 codes, from which 10 themes were derived ( Table 1 ).

Journal article frequency.

Codes used to form themes (research topics).

These 10 themes represent the topic section of our research question ( Figure 3 ). All these topics except, for the final one, psychological practice , were found to concur with the research areas in psychology as identified by Weiten ( 2010 ). These research areas were chosen to represent the derived codes as they provided broad definitions that allowed for clear, concise categorisation of the vast amount of data. Article codes were categorised under particular themes/topics if they adhered to the research area definitions created by Weiten ( 2010 ). It is important to note that these areas of research do not refer to specific disciplines in psychology, such as industrial psychology; but to broader fields that may encompass sub-interests of these disciplines.

Topic frequency (international sample).

In the case of developmental psychology , researchers conduct research into human development from childhood to old age. Social psychology includes research on behaviour governed by social drivers. Researchers in the field of educational psychology study how people learn and the best way to teach them. Health psychology aims to determine the effect of psychological factors on physiological health. Physiological psychology , on the other hand, looks at the influence of physiological aspects on behaviour. Experimental psychology is not the only theme that uses experimental research and focuses on the traditional core topics of psychology (for example, sensation). Cognitive psychology studies the higher mental processes. Psychometrics is concerned with measuring capacity or behaviour. Personality research aims to assess and describe consistency in human behaviour (Weiten, 2010 ). The final theme of psychological practice refers to the experiences, techniques, and interventions employed by practitioners, researchers, and academia in the field of psychology.

Articles under these themes were further subdivided into methodologies: method, sampling, design, data collection, and data analysis. The categorisation was based on information stated in the articles and not inferred by the researchers. Data were compiled into two sets of results presented in this article. The first set addresses the aim of this study from the perspective of the topics identified. The second set of results represents a broad overview of the results from the perspective of the methodology employed. The second set of results are discussed in this article, while the first set is presented in table format. The discussion thus provides a broad overview of methods use in psychology (across all themes), while the table format provides readers with in-depth insight into methods used in the individual themes identified. We believe that presenting the data from both perspectives allow readers a broad understanding of the results. Due a large amount of information that made up our results, we followed Cichocka and Jost ( 2014 ) in simplifying our results. Please note that the numbers indicated in the table in terms of methodology differ from the total number of articles. Some articles employed more than one method/sampling technique/design/data collection method/data analysis in their studies.

What follows is the results for what methods are used, how these methods are used, and which topics in psychology they are applied to . Percentages are reported to the second decimal in order to highlight small differences in the occurrence of methodology.

Firstly, with regard to the research methods used, our results show that researchers are more likely to use quantitative research methods (90.22%) compared to all other research methods. Qualitative research was the second most common research method but only made up about 4.79% of the general method usage. Reviews occurred almost as much as qualitative studies (3.91%), as the third most popular method. Mixed-methods research studies (0.98%) occurred across most themes, whereas multi-method research was indicated in only one study and amounted to 0.10% of the methods identified. The specific use of each method in the topics identified is shown in Table 2 and Figure 4 .

Research methods in psychology.

Research method frequency in topics.

Secondly, in the case of how these research methods are employed , our study indicated the following.

Sampling −78.34% of the studies in the collected articles did not specify a sampling method. From the remainder of the studies, 13 types of sampling methods were identified. These sampling methods included broad categorisation of a sample as, for example, a probability or non-probability sample. General samples of convenience were the methods most likely to be applied (10.34%), followed by random sampling (3.51%), snowball sampling (2.73%), and purposive (1.37%) and cluster sampling (1.27%). The remainder of the sampling methods occurred to a more limited extent (0–1.0%). See Table 3 and Figure 5 for sampling methods employed in each topic.

Sampling use in the field of psychology.

Sampling method frequency in topics.

Designs were categorised based on the articles' statement thereof. Therefore, it is important to note that, in the case of quantitative studies, non-experimental designs (25.55%) were often indicated due to a lack of experiments and any other indication of design, which, according to Laher ( 2016 ), is a reasonable categorisation. Non-experimental designs should thus be compared with experimental designs only in the description of data, as it could include the use of correlational/cross-sectional designs, which were not overtly stated by the authors. For the remainder of the research methods, “not stated” (7.12%) was assigned to articles without design types indicated.

From the 36 identified designs the most popular designs were cross-sectional (23.17%) and experimental (25.64%), which concurred with the high number of quantitative studies. Longitudinal studies (3.80%), the third most popular design, was used in both quantitative and qualitative studies. Qualitative designs consisted of ethnography (0.38%), interpretative phenomenological designs/phenomenology (0.28%), as well as narrative designs (0.28%). Studies that employed the review method were mostly categorised as “not stated,” with the most often stated review designs being systematic reviews (0.57%). The few mixed method studies employed exploratory, explanatory (0.09%), and concurrent designs (0.19%), with some studies referring to separate designs for the qualitative and quantitative methods. The one study that identified itself as a multi-method study used a longitudinal design. Please see how these designs were employed in each specific topic in Table 4 , Figure 6 .

Design use in the field of psychology.

Design frequency in topics.

Data collection and analysis —data collection included 30 methods, with the data collection method most often employed being questionnaires (57.84%). The experimental task (16.56%) was the second most preferred collection method, which included established or unique tasks designed by the researchers. Cognitive ability tests (6.84%) were also regularly used along with various forms of interviewing (7.66%). Table 5 and Figure 7 represent data collection use in the various topics. Data analysis consisted of 3,857 occurrences of data analysis categorised into ±188 various data analysis techniques shown in Table 6 and Figures 1 – 7 . Descriptive statistics were the most commonly used (23.49%) along with correlational analysis (17.19%). When using a qualitative method, researchers generally employed thematic analysis (0.52%) or different forms of analysis that led to coding and the creation of themes. Review studies presented few data analysis methods, with most studies categorising their results. Mixed method and multi-method studies followed the analysis methods identified for the qualitative and quantitative studies included.

Data collection in the field of psychology.

Data collection frequency in topics.

Data analysis in the field of psychology.

Results of the topics researched in psychology can be seen in the tables, as previously stated in this article. It is noteworthy that, of the 10 topics, social psychology accounted for 43.54% of the studies, with cognitive psychology the second most popular research topic at 16.92%. The remainder of the topics only occurred in 4.0–7.0% of the articles considered. A list of the included 999 articles is available under the section “View Articles” on the following website: https://methodgarden.xtrapolate.io/ . This website was created by Scholtz et al. ( 2019 ) to visually present a research framework based on this Article's results.

This systematised review categorised full-length articles from five international journals across the span of 5 years to provide insight into the use of research methods in the field of psychology. Results indicated what methods are used how these methods are being used and for what topics (why) in the included sample of articles. The results should be seen as providing insight into method use and by no means a comprehensive representation of the aforementioned aim due to the limited sample. To our knowledge, this is the first research study to address this topic in this manner. Our discussion attempts to promote a productive way forward in terms of the key results for method use in psychology, especially in the field of academia (Holloway, 2008 ).

With regard to the methods used, our data stayed true to literature, finding only common research methods (Grant and Booth, 2009 ; Maree, 2016 ) that varied in the degree to which they were employed. Quantitative research was found to be the most popular method, as indicated by literature (Breen and Darlaston-Jones, 2010 ; Counsell and Harlow, 2017 ) and previous studies in specific areas of psychology (see Coetzee and Van Zyl, 2014 ). Its long history as the first research method (Leech et al., 2007 ) in the field of psychology as well as researchers' current application of mathematical approaches in their studies (Toomela, 2010 ) might contribute to its popularity today. Whatever the case may be, our results show that, despite the growth in qualitative research (Demuth, 2015 ; Smith and McGannon, 2018 ), quantitative research remains the first choice for article publication in these journals. Despite the included journals indicating openness to articles that apply any research methods. This finding may be due to qualitative research still being seen as a new method (Burman and Whelan, 2011 ) or reviewers' standards being higher for qualitative studies (Bluhm et al., 2011 ). Future research is encouraged into the possible biasness in publication of research methods, additionally further investigation with a different sample into the proclaimed growth of qualitative research may also provide different results.

Review studies were found to surpass that of multi-method and mixed method studies. To this effect Grant and Booth ( 2009 ), state that the increased awareness, journal contribution calls as well as its efficiency in procuring research funds all promote the popularity of reviews. The low frequency of mixed method studies contradicts the view in literature that it's the third most utilised research method (Tashakkori and Teddlie's, 2003 ). Its' low occurrence in this sample could be due to opposing views on mixing methods (Gunasekare, 2015 ) or that authors prefer publishing in mixed method journals, when using this method, or its relative novelty (Ivankova et al., 2016 ). Despite its low occurrence, the application of the mixed methods design in articles was methodologically clear in all cases which were not the case for the remainder of research methods.

Additionally, a substantial number of studies used a combination of methodologies that are not mixed or multi-method studies. Perceived fixed boundaries are according to literature often set aside, as confirmed by this result, in order to investigate the aim of a study, which could create a new and helpful way of understanding the world (Gunasekare, 2015 ). According to Toomela ( 2010 ), this is not unheard of and could be considered a form of “structural systemic science,” as in the case of qualitative methodology (observation) applied in quantitative studies (experimental design) for example. Based on this result, further research into this phenomenon as well as its implications for research methods such as multi and mixed methods is recommended.

Discerning how these research methods were applied, presented some difficulty. In the case of sampling, most studies—regardless of method—did mention some form of inclusion and exclusion criteria, but no definite sampling method. This result, along with the fact that samples often consisted of students from the researchers' own academic institutions, can contribute to literature and debates among academics (Peterson and Merunka, 2014 ; Laher, 2016 ). Samples of convenience and students as participants especially raise questions about the generalisability and applicability of results (Peterson and Merunka, 2014 ). This is because attention to sampling is important as inappropriate sampling can debilitate the legitimacy of interpretations (Onwuegbuzie and Collins, 2017 ). Future investigation into the possible implications of this reported popular use of convenience samples for the field of psychology as well as the reason for this use could provide interesting insight, and is encouraged by this study.

Additionally, and this is indicated in Table 6 , articles seldom report the research designs used, which highlights the pressing aspect of the lack of rigour in the included sample. Rigour with regards to the applied empirical method is imperative in promoting psychology as a science (American Psychological Association, 2020 ). Omitting parts of the research process in publication when it could have been used to inform others' research skills should be questioned, and the influence on the process of replicating results should be considered. Publications are often rejected due to a lack of rigour in the applied method and designs (Fonseca, 2013 ; Laher, 2016 ), calling for increased clarity and knowledge of method application. Replication is a critical part of any field of scientific research and requires the “complete articulation” of the study methods used (Drotar, 2010 , p. 804). The lack of thorough description could be explained by the requirements of certain journals to only report on certain aspects of a research process, especially with regard to the applied design (Laher, 20). However, naming aspects such as sampling and designs, is a requirement according to the APA's Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS-Quant) (Appelbaum et al., 2018 ). With very little information on how a study was conducted, authors lose a valuable opportunity to enhance research validity, enrich the knowledge of others, and contribute to the growth of psychology and methodology as a whole. In the case of this research study, it also restricted our results to only reported samples and designs, which indicated a preference for certain designs, such as cross-sectional designs for quantitative studies.

Data collection and analysis were for the most part clearly stated. A key result was the versatile use of questionnaires. Researchers would apply a questionnaire in various ways, for example in questionnaire interviews, online surveys, and written questionnaires across most research methods. This may highlight a trend for future research.

With regard to the topics these methods were employed for, our research study found a new field named “psychological practice.” This result may show the growing consciousness of researchers as part of the research process (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003 ), psychological practice, and knowledge generation. The most popular of these topics was social psychology, which is generously covered in journals and by learning societies, as testaments of the institutional support and richness social psychology has in the field of psychology (Chryssochoou, 2015 ). The APA's perspective on 2018 trends in psychology also identifies an increased amount of psychology focus on how social determinants are influencing people's health (Deangelis, 2017 ).

This study was not without limitations and the following should be taken into account. Firstly, this study used a sample of five specific journals to address the aim of the research study, despite general journal aims (as stated on journal websites), this inclusion signified a bias towards the research methods published in these specific journals only and limited generalisability. A broader sample of journals over a different period of time, or a single journal over a longer period of time might provide different results. A second limitation is the use of Excel spreadsheets and an electronic system to log articles, which was a manual process and therefore left room for error (Bandara et al., 2015 ). To address this potential issue, co-coding was performed to reduce error. Lastly, this article categorised data based on the information presented in the article sample; there was no interpretation of what methodology could have been applied or whether the methods stated adhered to the criteria for the methods used. Thus, a large number of articles that did not clearly indicate a research method or design could influence the results of this review. However, this in itself was also a noteworthy result. Future research could review research methods of a broader sample of journals with an interpretive review tool that increases rigour. Additionally, the authors also encourage the future use of systematised review designs as a way to promote a concise procedure in applying this design.

Our research study presented the use of research methods for published articles in the field of psychology as well as recommendations for future research based on these results. Insight into the complex questions identified in literature, regarding what methods are used how these methods are being used and for what topics (why) was gained. This sample preferred quantitative methods, used convenience sampling and presented a lack of rigorous accounts for the remaining methodologies. All methodologies that were clearly indicated in the sample were tabulated to allow researchers insight into the general use of methods and not only the most frequently used methods. The lack of rigorous account of research methods in articles was represented in-depth for each step in the research process and can be of vital importance to address the current replication crisis within the field of psychology. Recommendations for future research aimed to motivate research into the practical implications of the results for psychology, for example, publication bias and the use of convenience samples.

Ethics Statement

This study was cleared by the North-West University Health Research Ethics Committee: NWU-00115-17-S1.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Applied Social Psychology

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Aronson E, Wilson TD, Akert RM (2014) Social psychology, 8th edn. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, Chennai

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Yue G-A (2013) Social psychology, 2nd edn. China Renmin University Press, Beijing

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Yu, K. (2024). Applied Social Psychology. In: The ECPH Encyclopedia of Psychology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6000-2_541-1

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Received : 19 January 2024

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