Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

  • an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
  • an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
  • and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

  • the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
  • the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
  • what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
  • the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
  • your research and/or analytical methods
  • your main findings , results , or arguments
  • the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

“The growing economic resemblance of spouses has contributed to rising inequality by increasing the number of couples in which there are two high- or two low-earning partners. [Annotation for the previous sentence: The first sentence introduces the topic under study (the “economic resemblance of spouses”). This sentence also implies the question underlying this research study: what are the various causes—and the interrelationships among them—for this trend?] The dominant explanation for this trend is increased assortative mating. Previous research has primarily relied on cross-sectional data and thus has been unable to disentangle changes in assortative mating from changes in the division of spouses’ paid labor—a potentially key mechanism given the dramatic rise in wives’ labor supply. [Annotation for the previous two sentences: These next two sentences explain what previous research has demonstrated. By pointing out the limitations in the methods that were used in previous studies, they also provide a rationale for new research.] We use data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) to decompose the increase in the correlation between spouses’ earnings and its contribution to inequality between 1970 and 2013 into parts due to (a) changes in assortative mating, and (b) changes in the division of paid labor. [Annotation for the previous sentence: The data, research and analytical methods used in this new study.] Contrary to what has often been assumed, the rise of economic homogamy and its contribution to inequality is largely attributable to changes in the division of paid labor rather than changes in sorting on earnings or earnings potential. Our findings indicate that the rise of economic homogamy cannot be explained by hypotheses centered on meeting and matching opportunities, and they show where in this process inequality is generated and where it is not.” (p. 985) [Annotation for the previous two sentences: The major findings from and implications and significance of this study.]

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

“From the mid-1970s through the mid-1980s, a network of young urban migrant men created an underground pulp fiction publishing industry in the city of Dar es Salaam. [Annotation for the previous sentence: The first sentence introduces the context for this research and announces the topic under study.] As texts that were produced in the underground economy of a city whose trajectory was increasingly charted outside of formalized planning and investment, these novellas reveal more than their narrative content alone. These texts were active components in the urban social worlds of the young men who produced them. They reveal a mode of urbanism otherwise obscured by narratives of decolonization, in which urban belonging was constituted less by national citizenship than by the construction of social networks, economic connections, and the crafting of reputations. This article argues that pulp fiction novellas of socialist era Dar es Salaam are artifacts of emergent forms of male sociability and mobility. In printing fictional stories about urban life on pilfered paper and ink, and distributing their texts through informal channels, these writers not only described urban communities, reputations, and networks, but also actually created them.” (p. 210) [Annotation for the previous sentences: The remaining sentences in this abstract interweave other essential information for an abstract for this article. The implied research questions: What do these texts mean? What is their historical and cultural significance, produced at this time, in this location, by these authors? The argument and the significance of this analysis in microcosm: these texts “reveal a mode or urbanism otherwise obscured . . .”; and “This article argues that pulp fiction novellas. . . .” This section also implies what previous historical research has obscured. And through the details in its argumentative claims, this section of the abstract implies the kinds of methods the author has used to interpret the novellas and the concepts under study (e.g., male sociability and mobility, urban communities, reputations, network. . . ).]

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

“Several studies have reported reprogramming of fibroblasts into induced cardiomyocytes; however, reprogramming into proliferative induced cardiac progenitor cells (iCPCs) remains to be accomplished. [Annotation for the previous sentence: The first sentence announces the topic under study, summarizes what’s already known or been accomplished in previous research, and signals the rationale and goals are for the new research and the problem that the new research solves: How can researchers reprogram fibroblasts into iCPCs?] Here we report that a combination of 11 or 5 cardiac factors along with canonical Wnt and JAK/STAT signaling reprogrammed adult mouse cardiac, lung, and tail tip fibroblasts into iCPCs. The iCPCs were cardiac mesoderm-restricted progenitors that could be expanded extensively while maintaining multipo-tency to differentiate into cardiomyocytes, smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells in vitro. Moreover, iCPCs injected into the cardiac crescent of mouse embryos differentiated into cardiomyocytes. iCPCs transplanted into the post-myocardial infarction mouse heart improved survival and differentiated into cardiomyocytes, smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells. [Annotation for the previous four sentences: The methods the researchers developed to achieve their goal and a description of the results.] Lineage reprogramming of adult somatic cells into iCPCs provides a scalable cell source for drug discovery, disease modeling, and cardiac regenerative therapy.” (p. 354) [Annotation for the previous sentence: The significance or implications—for drug discovery, disease modeling, and therapy—of this reprogramming of adult somatic cells into iCPCs.]

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

research abstract that

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APA Abstract (2020) | Formatting, Length, and Keywords

Published on November 6, 2020 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on January 17, 2024.

An APA abstract is a comprehensive summary of your paper in which you briefly address the research problem , hypotheses , methods , results , and implications of your research. It’s placed on a separate page right after the title page and is usually no longer than 250 words.

Most professional papers that are submitted for publication require an abstract. Student papers typically don’t need an abstract, unless instructed otherwise.

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Table of contents

How to format the abstract, how to write an apa abstract, which keywords to use, frequently asked questions, apa abstract example.

APA abstract (7th edition)

Formatting instructions

Follow these five steps to format your abstract in APA Style:

  • Insert a running head (for a professional paper—not needed for a student paper) and page number.
  • Set page margins to 1 inch (2.54 cm).
  • Write “Abstract” (bold and centered) at the top of the page.
  • Do not indent the first line.
  • Double-space the text.
  • Use a legible font like Times New Roman (12 pt.).
  • Limit the length to 250 words.
  • Indent the first line 0.5 inches.
  • Write the label “Keywords:” (italicized).
  • Write keywords in lowercase letters.
  • Separate keywords with commas.
  • Do not use a period after the keywords.

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research abstract that

The abstract is a self-contained piece of text that informs the reader what your research is about. It’s best to write the abstract after you’re finished with the rest of your paper.

The questions below may help structure your abstract. Try answering them in one to three sentences each.

  • What is the problem? Outline the objective, research questions , and/or hypotheses .
  • What has been done? Explain your research methods .
  • What did you discover? Summarize the key findings and conclusions .
  • What do the findings mean? Summarize the discussion and recommendations .

Check out our guide on how to write an abstract for more guidance and an annotated example.

Guide: writing an abstract

At the end of the abstract, you may include a few keywords that will be used for indexing if your paper is published on a database. Listing your keywords will help other researchers find your work.

Choosing relevant keywords is essential. Try to identify keywords that address your topic, method, or population. APA recommends including three to five keywords.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

  • To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
  • To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of your paper.

An APA abstract is around 150–250 words long. However, always check your target journal’s guidelines and don’t exceed the specified word count.

In an APA Style paper , the abstract is placed on a separate page after the title page (page 2).

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

  • The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
  • The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Streefkerk, R. (2024, January 17). APA Abstract (2020) | Formatting, Length, and Keywords. Scribbr. Retrieved March 4, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/apa-abstract/

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

  • 3. The Abstract
  • Purpose of Guide
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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

  • A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
  • Lengthy background or contextual information,
  • Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
  • Acronyms or abbreviations,
  • References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
  • Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
  • Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
  • Citations to other works, and
  • Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in hte Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

  • when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
  • when applying for research grants
  • when writing a book proposal
  • when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
  • when writing a proposal for a conference paper
  • when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

  • Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
  • Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
  • Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
  • Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
  • Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

  • A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
  • The most important information first.
  • The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
  • Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
  • Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

  • The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
  • Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
  • The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

  • Do not refer extensively to other works.
  • Do not add information not contained in the original work.
  • Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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SciSpace Resources

Abstract Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide With Tips & Examples

Sumalatha G

Table of Contents

step-by-step-guide-to-abstract-writing

Introduction

Abstracts of research papers have always played an essential role in describing your research concisely and clearly to researchers and editors of journals, enticing them to continue reading. However, with the widespread availability of scientific databases, the need to write a convincing abstract is more crucial now than during the time of paper-bound manuscripts.

Abstracts serve to "sell" your research and can be compared with your "executive outline" of a resume or, rather, a formal summary of the critical aspects of your work. Also, it can be the "gist" of your study. Since most educational research is done online, it's a sign that you have a shorter time for impressing your readers, and have more competition from other abstracts that are available to be read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) articulates 12 issues or points considered during the final approval process for conferences & journals and emphasises the importance of writing an abstract that checks all these boxes (12 points). Since it's the only opportunity you have to captivate your readers, you must invest time and effort in creating an abstract that accurately reflects the critical points of your research.

With that in mind, let’s head over to understand and discover the core concept and guidelines to create a substantial abstract. Also, learn how to organise the ideas or plots into an effective abstract that will be awe-inspiring to the readers you want to reach.

What is Abstract? Definition and Overview

The word "Abstract' is derived from Latin abstractus meaning "drawn off." This etymological meaning also applies to art movements as well as music, like abstract expressionism. In this context, it refers to the revealing of the artist's intention.

Based on this, you can determine the meaning of an abstract: A condensed research summary. It must be self-contained and independent of the body of the research. However, it should outline the subject, the strategies used to study the problem, and the methods implemented to attain the outcomes. The specific elements of the study differ based on the area of study; however, together, it must be a succinct summary of the entire research paper.

Abstracts are typically written at the end of the paper, even though it serves as a prologue. In general, the abstract must be in a position to:

  • Describe the paper.
  • Identify the problem or the issue at hand.
  • Explain to the reader the research process, the results you came up with, and what conclusion you've reached using these results.
  • Include keywords to guide your strategy and the content.

Furthermore, the abstract you submit should not reflect upon any of  the following elements:

  • Examine, analyse or defend the paper or your opinion.
  • What you want to study, achieve or discover.
  • Be redundant or irrelevant.

After reading an abstract, your audience should understand the reason - what the research was about in the first place, what the study has revealed and how it can be utilised or can be used to benefit others. You can understand the importance of abstract by knowing the fact that the abstract is the most frequently read portion of any research paper. In simpler terms, it should contain all the main points of the research paper.

purpose-of-abstract-writing

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Abstracts are typically an essential requirement for research papers; however, it's not an obligation to preserve traditional reasons without any purpose. Abstracts allow readers to scan the text to determine whether it is relevant to their research or studies. The abstract allows other researchers to decide if your research paper can provide them with some additional information. A good abstract paves the interest of the audience to pore through your entire paper to find the content or context they're searching for.

Abstract writing is essential for indexing, as well. The Digital Repository of academic papers makes use of abstracts to index the entire content of academic research papers. Like meta descriptions in the regular Google outcomes, abstracts must include keywords that help researchers locate what they seek.

Types of Abstract

Informative and Descriptive are two kinds of abstracts often used in scientific writing.

A descriptive abstract gives readers an outline of the author's main points in their study. The reader can determine if they want to stick to the research work, based on their interest in the topic. An abstract that is descriptive is similar to the contents table of books, however, the format of an abstract depicts complete sentences encapsulated in one paragraph. It is unfortunate that the abstract can't be used as a substitute for reading a piece of writing because it's just an overview, which omits readers from getting an entire view. Also, it cannot be a way to fill in the gaps the reader may have after reading this kind of abstract since it does not contain crucial information needed to evaluate the article.

To conclude, a descriptive abstract is:

  • A simple summary of the task, just summarises the work, but some researchers think it is much more of an outline
  • Typically, the length is approximately 100 words. It is too short when compared to an informative abstract.
  • A brief explanation but doesn't provide the reader with the complete information they need;
  • An overview that omits conclusions and results

An informative abstract is a comprehensive outline of the research. There are times when people rely on the abstract as an information source. And the reason is why it is crucial to provide entire data of particular research. A well-written, informative abstract could be a good substitute for the remainder of the paper on its own.

A well-written abstract typically follows a particular style. The author begins by providing the identifying information, backed by citations and other identifiers of the papers. Then, the major elements are summarised to make the reader aware of the study. It is followed by the methodology and all-important findings from the study. The conclusion then presents study results and ends the abstract with a comprehensive summary.

In a nutshell, an informative abstract:

  • Has a length that can vary, based on the subject, but is not longer than 300 words.
  • Contains all the content-like methods and intentions
  • Offers evidence and possible recommendations.

Informative Abstracts are more frequent than descriptive abstracts because of their extensive content and linkage to the topic specifically. You should select different types of abstracts to papers based on their length: informative abstracts for extended and more complex abstracts and descriptive ones for simpler and shorter research papers.

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract?

  • A good abstract clearly defines the goals and purposes of the study.
  • It should clearly describe the research methodology with a primary focus on data gathering, processing, and subsequent analysis.
  • A good abstract should provide specific research findings.
  • It presents the principal conclusions of the systematic study.
  • It should be concise, clear, and relevant to the field of study.
  • A well-designed abstract should be unifying and coherent.
  • It is easy to grasp and free of technical jargon.
  • It is written impartially and objectively.

the-various-sections-of-abstract-writing

What are the various sections of an ideal Abstract?

By now, you must have gained some concrete idea of the essential elements that your abstract needs to convey . Accordingly, the information is broken down into six key sections of the abstract, which include:

An Introduction or Background

Research methodology, objectives and goals, limitations.

Let's go over them in detail.

The introduction, also known as background, is the most concise part of your abstract. Ideally, it comprises a couple of sentences. Some researchers only write one sentence to introduce their abstract. The idea behind this is to guide readers through the key factors that led to your study.

It's understandable that this information might seem difficult to explain in a couple of sentences. For example, think about the following two questions like the background of your study:

  • What is currently available about the subject with respect to the paper being discussed?
  • What isn't understood about this issue? (This is the subject of your research)

While writing the abstract’s introduction, make sure that it is not lengthy. Because if it crosses the word limit, it may eat up the words meant to be used for providing other key information.

Research methodology is where you describe the theories and techniques you used in your research. It is recommended that you describe what you have done and the method you used to get your thorough investigation results. Certainly, it is the second-longest paragraph in the abstract.

In the research methodology section, it is essential to mention the kind of research you conducted; for instance, qualitative research or quantitative research (this will guide your research methodology too) . If you've conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection method, sampling techniques, and duration of the study. Likewise, your abstract should reflect observational data, opinions, questionnaires (especially the non-numerical data) if you work on qualitative research.

The research objectives and goals speak about what you intend to accomplish with your research. The majority of research projects focus on the long-term effects of a project, and the goals focus on the immediate, short-term outcomes of the research. It is possible to summarise both in just multiple sentences.

In stating your objectives and goals, you give readers a picture of the scope of the study, its depth and the direction your research ultimately follows. Your readers can evaluate the results of your research against the goals and stated objectives to determine if you have achieved the goal of your research.

In the end, your readers are more attracted by the results you've obtained through your study. Therefore, you must take the time to explain each relevant result and explain how they impact your research. The results section exists as the longest in your abstract, and nothing should diminish its reach or quality.

One of the most important things you should adhere to is to spell out details and figures on the results of your research.

Instead of making a vague assertion such as, "We noticed that response rates varied greatly between respondents with high incomes and those with low incomes", Try these: "The response rate was higher for high-income respondents than those with lower incomes (59 30 percent vs. 30 percent in both cases; P<0.01)."

You're likely to encounter certain obstacles during your research. It could have been during data collection or even during conducting the sample . Whatever the issue, it's essential to inform your readers about them and their effects on the research.

Research limitations offer an opportunity to suggest further and deep research. If, for instance, you were forced to change for convenient sampling and snowball samples because of difficulties in reaching well-suited research participants, then you should mention this reason when you write your research abstract. In addition, a lack of prior studies on the subject could hinder your research.

Your conclusion should include the same number of sentences to wrap the abstract as the introduction. The majority of researchers offer an idea of the consequences of their research in this case.

Your conclusion should include three essential components:

  • A significant take-home message.
  • Corresponding important findings.
  • The Interpretation.

Even though the conclusion of your abstract needs to be brief, it can have an enormous influence on the way that readers view your research. Therefore, make use of this section to reinforce the central message from your research. Be sure that your statements reflect the actual results and the methods you used to conduct your research.

examples-of-good-abstract-writing

Good Abstract Examples

Abstract example #1.

Children’s consumption behavior in response to food product placements in movies.

The abstract:

"Almost all research into the effects of brand placements on children has focused on the brand's attitudes or behavior intentions. Based on the significant differences between attitudes and behavioral intentions on one hand and actual behavior on the other hand, this study examines the impact of placements by brands on children's eating habits. Children aged 6-14 years old were shown an excerpt from the popular film Alvin and the Chipmunks and were shown places for the item Cheese Balls. Three different versions were developed with no placements, one with moderately frequent placements and the third with the highest frequency of placement. The results revealed that exposure to high-frequency places had a profound effect on snack consumption, however, there was no impact on consumer attitudes towards brands or products. The effects were not dependent on the age of the children. These findings are of major importance to researchers studying consumer behavior as well as nutrition experts as well as policy regulators."

Abstract Example #2

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. The abstract:

"The research conducted in this study investigated the effects of Facebook use on women's moods and body image if the effects are different from an internet-based fashion journal and if the appearance comparison tendencies moderate one or more of these effects. Participants who were female ( N = 112) were randomly allocated to spend 10 minutes exploring their Facebook account or a magazine's website or an appearance neutral control website prior to completing state assessments of body dissatisfaction, mood, and differences in appearance (weight-related and facial hair, face, and skin). Participants also completed a test of the tendency to compare appearances. The participants who used Facebook were reported to be more depressed than those who stayed on the control site. In addition, women who have the tendency to compare appearances reported more facial, hair and skin-related issues following Facebook exposure than when they were exposed to the control site. Due to its popularity it is imperative to conduct more research to understand the effect that Facebook affects the way people view themselves."

Abstract Example #3

The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students

"The cellphone is always present on campuses of colleges and is often utilised in situations in which learning takes place. The study examined the connection between the use of cell phones and the actual grades point average (GPA) after adjusting for predictors that are known to be a factor. In the end 536 students in the undergraduate program from 82 self-reported majors of an enormous, public institution were studied. Hierarchical analysis ( R 2 = .449) showed that use of mobile phones is significantly ( p < .001) and negative (b equal to -.164) connected to the actual college GPA, after taking into account factors such as demographics, self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, self-efficacy to improve academic performance, and the actual high school GPA that were all important predictors ( p < .05). Therefore, after adjusting for other known predictors increasing cell phone usage was associated with lower academic performance. While more research is required to determine the mechanisms behind these results, they suggest the need to educate teachers and students to the possible academic risks that are associated with high-frequency mobile phone usage."

quick-tips-on-writing-a-good-abstract

Quick tips on writing a good abstract

There exists a common dilemma among early age researchers whether to write the abstract at first or last? However, it's recommended to compose your abstract when you've completed the research since you'll have all the information to give to your readers. You can, however, write a draft at the beginning of your research and add in any gaps later.

If you find abstract writing a herculean task, here are the few tips to help you with it:

1. Always develop a framework to support your abstract

Before writing, ensure you create a clear outline for your abstract. Divide it into sections and draw the primary and supporting elements in each one. You can include keywords and a few sentences that convey the essence of your message.

2. Review Other Abstracts

Abstracts are among the most frequently used research documents, and thousands of them were written in the past. Therefore, prior to writing yours, take a look at some examples from other abstracts. There are plenty of examples of abstracts for dissertations in the dissertation and thesis databases.

3. Avoid Jargon To the Maximum

When you write your abstract, focus on simplicity over formality. You should  write in simple language, and avoid excessive filler words or ambiguous sentences. Keep in mind that your abstract must be readable to those who aren't acquainted with your subject.

4. Focus on Your Research

It's a given fact that the abstract you write should be about your research and the findings you've made. It is not the right time to mention secondary and primary data sources unless it's absolutely required.

Conclusion: How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

Abstracts are a short outline of your essay. However, it's among the most important, if not the most important. The process of writing an abstract is not straightforward. A few early-age researchers tend to begin by writing it, thinking they are doing it to "tease" the next step (the document itself). However, it is better to treat it as a spoiler.

The simple, concise style of the abstract lends itself to a well-written and well-investigated study. If your research paper doesn't provide definitive results, or the goal of your research is questioned, so will the abstract. Thus, only write your abstract after witnessing your findings and put your findings in the context of a larger scenario.

The process of writing an abstract can be daunting, but with these guidelines, you will succeed. The most efficient method of writing an excellent abstract is to centre the primary points of your abstract, including the research question and goals methods, as well as key results.

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How to write an abstract that will be accepted

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  • Peer review
  • Mary Higgins , fellow in maternal fetal medicine 1 ,
  • Maeve Eogan , consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist 2 ,
  • Keelin O’Donoghue , consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist, and senior lecturer 3 ,
  • Noirin Russell , consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist 3
  • 1 Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
  • 2 Rotunda Hospital Dublin, Ireland
  • 3 Cork University Maternity Hospital, Ireland
  • mairenihuigin{at}gmail.com

Researchers do not always appreciate the importance of producing a good abstract or understand the best way of writing one. Mary Higgins and colleagues share some of the lessons they have learnt as both researchers and reviewers of abstracts

Effective abstracts reflect the time, work, and importance of the scientific research performed in the course of a study. A last minute approach and poor writing may not reflect the good quality of a study.

Between the four of us we have written over 150 published papers, as well as having reviewed numerous abstracts for national and international meetings. Nevertheless, we have all had abstracts rejected, and this experience has emphasised a number of teaching points that could help maximise the impact of abstracts and success on the world, or other, stage.

An abstract is the first glimpse an audience has of a study, and it is the ticket to having research accepted for presentation to a wider audience. For a study to receive the respect it deserves, the abstract should be as well written as possible. In practice, this means taking time to write the abstract, keeping it simple, reading the submission guidelines, checking the text, and showing the abstract to colleagues.

It is important to take the necessary time to write the abstract. Several months or years have been spent on this groundbreaking research, so take the time to show this. Five minutes before the call for abstracts closes is not the time to start putting it together.

Keep it simple, and think about the message that needs to be communicated. Some abstracts churn out lots of unrelated results and then have a conclusion that does not relate to the results, and this is just confusing. Plan what points need to be made, and then think about them a little more.

Read the submission guidelines and keep to the instructions provided in the call for abstracts. Don’t submit an unstructured abstract if the guidance has asked for a structured one. Comply with the word or letter count, and do not go over this.

An abstract comprises five parts of equal importance: the title, introduction and aims, methods, results, and conclusion. Allow enough time to write each part well.

The title should go straight to the point of the study. Make the study sound interesting so that it catches people’s attention. The introduction should include a brief background to the research and describe its aims. For every aim presented there needs to be a corresponding result in the results section. There is no need to go into detail in terms of the background to the study, as those who are reviewing the abstract will have some knowledge of the subject. The methods section can be kept simple—it is acceptable to write “retrospective case-control study” or “randomised controlled trial.”

The results section should be concrete and related to the aims. It is distracting and irritating to read results that have no apparent relation to the professed aims of the study. If something is important, highlight it or put it in italics to make it stand out. Include the number of participants, and ensure recognition is given if 10 000 charts have been reviewed. Equally, a percentage without a baseline number is not meaningful.

In the conclusion, state succinctly what can be drawn from the results, but don’t oversell this. Words like “possibly” and “may” can be useful in this part of the abstract but show that some thought has been put into what the results may mean. This is what divides the good from the not so good. Many people are capable of doing research, but the logical formation of a hypothesis and the argument of its proof are what make a real researcher.

Once you have written the abstract, check the spelling and grammar. Poor spelling or grammar can give the impression that the research is also poor. Show the abstract to the supervisor or principal investigator of the study, as this person’s name will go on the abstract as well. Then show the abstract to someone who knows nothing about the particular area of research but who knows something about the subject. Someone detached from the study might point out the one thing that needs to be said but that has been forgotten.

Then let it go; abstracts are not life and death scenarios. Sometimes an abstract will not be accepted no matter how wonderful it is. Perhaps there is a theme to the meeting, into which the research does not fit. Reviewers may also be looking for particular things. For one conference, we limited the number of case reports so that only about 10% were accepted. It may be that your research is in a popular or topical area and not all abstracts in that area can be chosen. On occasions, politics play a part, and individual researchers have little control over that.

Finally, remember that sometimes even the best reviewer may not appreciate the subtleties of your research and another audience may be more appreciative.

Competing interests: We have read and understood the BMJ Group policy on declaration of interests and have no relevant interests to declare.

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How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries? pp 179–184 Cite as

How to Write an Abstract?

  • Samiran Nundy 4 ,
  • Atul Kakar 5 &
  • Zulfiqar A. Bhutta 6  
  • Open Access
  • First Online: 24 October 2021

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An abstract is a crisp, short, powerful, and self-contained summary of a research manuscript used to help the reader swiftly determine the paper’s purpose. Although the abstract is the first paragraph of the manuscript it should be written last when all the other sections have been addressed.

Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. — Zora Neale Hurston, American Author, Anthropologist and Filmmaker (1891–1960)

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1 What is an Abstract?

An abstract is usually a standalone document that informs the reader about the details of the manuscript to follow. It is like a trailer to a movie, if the trailer is good, it stimulates the audience to watch the movie. The abstract should be written from scratch and not ‘cut –and-pasted’ [ 1 ].

2 What is the History of the Abstract?

An abstract, in the form of a single paragraph, was first published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal in 1960 with the idea that the readers may not have enough time to go through the whole paper, and the first abstract with a defined structure was published in 1991 [ 2 ]. The idea sold and now most original articles and reviews are required to have a structured abstract. The abstract attracts the reader to read the full manuscript [ 3 ].

3 What are the Qualities of a Good Abstract?

The quality of information in an abstract can be summarized by four ‘C’s. It should be:

C: Condensed

C: Critical

4 What are the Types of Abstract?

Before writing the abstract, you need to check with the journal website about which type of abstract it requires, with its length and style in the ‘Instructions to Authors’ section.

The abstract types can be divided into:

Descriptive: Usually written for psychology, social science, and humanities papers. It is about 50–100 words long. No conclusions can be drawn from this abstract as it describes the major points in the paper.

Informative: The majority of abstracts for science-related manuscripts are informative and are surrogates for the research done. They are single paragraphs that provide the reader an overview of the research paper and are about 100–150 words in length. Conclusions can be drawn from the abstracts and in the recommendations written in the last line.

Critical: This type of abstract is lengthy and about 400–500 words. In this, the authors’ own research is discussed for reliability, judgement, and validation. A comparison is also made with similar studies done earlier.

Highlighting: This is rarely used in scientific writing. The style of the abstract is to attract more readers. It is not a balanced or complete overview of the article with which it is published.

Structured: A structured abstract contains information under subheadings like background, aims, material and methods, results, conclusion, and recommendations (Fig. 15.1 ). Most leading journals now carry these.

figure 1

Example of a structured abstract (with permission editor CMRP)

5 What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

An abstract is written to educate the reader about the study that follows and provide an overview of the science behind it. If written well it also attracts more readers to the article. It also helps the article getting indexed. The fate of a paper both before and after publication often depends upon its abstract. Most readers decide if a paper is worth reading on the basis of the abstract. Additionally, the selection of papers in systematic reviews is often dependent upon the abstract.

6 What are the Steps of Writing an Abstract?

An abstract should be written last after all the other sections of an article have been addressed. A poor abstract may turn off the reader and they may cause indexing errors as well. The abstract should state the purpose of the study, the methodology used, and summarize the results and important conclusions. It is usually written in the IMRAD format and is called a structured abstract [ 4 , 5 ].

I: The introduction in the opening line should state the problem you are addressing.

M: Methodology—what method was chosen to finish the experiment?

R: Results—state the important findings of your study.

D: Discussion—discuss why your study is important.

Mention the following information:

Important results with the statistical information ( p values, confidence intervals, standard/mean deviation).

Arrange all information in a chronological order.

Do not repeat any information.

The last line should state the recommendations from your study.

The abstract should be written in the past tense.

7 What are the Things to Be Avoided While Writing an Abstract?

Cut and paste information from the main text

Hold back important information

Use abbreviations

Tables or Figures

Generalized statements

Arguments about the study

figure a

8 What are Key Words?

These are important words that are repeated throughout the manuscript and which help in the indexing of a paper. Depending upon the journal 3–10 key words may be required which are indexed with the help of MESH (Medical Subject Heading).

9 How is an Abstract Written for a Conference Different from a Journal Paper?

The basic concept for writing abstracts is the same. However, in a conference abstract occasionally a table or figure is allowed. A word limit is important in both of them. Many of the abstracts which are presented in conferences are never published in fact one study found that only 27% of the abstracts presented in conferences were published in the next five years [ 6 ].

Table 15.1 gives a template for writing an abstract.

10 What are the Important Recommendations of the International Committees of Medical Journal of Editors?

The recommendations are [ 7 ]:

An abstract is required for original articles, metanalysis, and systematic reviews.

A structured abstract is preferred.

The abstract should mention the purpose of the scientific study, how the procedure was carried out, the analysis used, and principal conclusion.

Clinical trials should be reported according to the CONSORT guidelines.

The trials should also mention the funding and the trial number.

The abstract should be accurate as many readers have access only to the abstract.

11 Conclusions

An Abstract should be written last after all the other sections of the manuscript have been completed and with due care and attention to the details.

It should be structured and written in the IMRAD format.

For many readers, the abstract attracts them to go through the complete content of the article.

The abstract is usually followed by key words that help to index the paper.

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Preparing a manuscript for submission to a medical journal. Available on http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/manuscript-preparation/preparing-for-submission.html . Accessed 10 May 2020.

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Samiran Nundy

Department of Internal Medicine, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

Institute for Global Health and Development, The Aga Khan University, South Central Asia, East Africa and United Kingdom, Karachi, Pakistan

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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). How to Write an Abstract?. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_15

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Abstract

Expedite peer review, increase search-ability, and set the tone for your study

The abstract is your chance to let your readers know what they can expect from your article. Learn how to write a clear, and concise abstract that will keep your audience reading.

How your abstract impacts editorial evaluation and future readership

After the title , the abstract is the second-most-read part of your article. A good abstract can help to expedite peer review and, if your article is accepted for publication, it’s an important tool for readers to find and evaluate your work. Editors use your abstract when they first assess your article. Prospective reviewers see it when they decide whether to accept an invitation to review. Once published, the abstract gets indexed in PubMed and Google Scholar , as well as library systems and other popular databases. Like the title, your abstract influences keyword search results. Readers will use it to decide whether to read the rest of your article. Other researchers will use it to evaluate your work for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It should be a concise standalone piece that accurately represents your research. 

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What to include in an abstract

The main challenge you’ll face when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND fitting in all the information you need. Depending on your subject area the journal may require a structured abstract following specific headings. A structured abstract helps your readers understand your study more easily. If your journal doesn’t require a structured abstract it’s still a good idea to follow a similar format, just present the abstract as one paragraph without headings. 

Background or Introduction – What is currently known? Start with a brief, 2 or 3 sentence, introduction to the research area. 

Objectives or Aims – What is the study and why did you do it? Clearly state the research question you’re trying to answer.

Methods – What did you do? Explain what you did and how you did it. Include important information about your methods, but avoid the low-level specifics. Some disciplines have specific requirements for abstract methods. 

  • CONSORT for randomized trials.
  • STROBE for observational studies
  • PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Results – What did you find? Briefly give the key findings of your study. Include key numeric data (including confidence intervals or p values), where possible.

Conclusions – What did you conclude? Tell the reader why your findings matter, and what this could mean for the ‘bigger picture’ of this area of research. 

Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND convering all the information you need to.

research abstract that

  • Keep it concise and to the point. Most journals have a maximum word count, so check guidelines before you write the abstract to save time editing it later.
  • Write for your audience. Are they specialists in your specific field? Are they cross-disciplinary? Are they non-specialists? If you’re writing for a general audience, or your research could be of interest to the public keep your language as straightforward as possible. If you’re writing in English, do remember that not all of your readers will necessarily be native English speakers.
  • Focus on key results, conclusions and take home messages.
  • Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary.
  • Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings.
  • Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar.
  • Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors. These kind of errors can give potential reviewers the impression that your research isn’t sound, and can make it easier to find reviewers who accept the invitation to review your manuscript. Your abstract should be a taste of what is to come in the rest of your article.

research abstract that

Don’t

  • Sensationalize your research.
  • Speculate about where this research might lead in the future.
  • Use abbreviations or acronyms (unless absolutely necessary or unless they’re widely known, eg. DNA).
  • Repeat yourself unnecessarily, eg. “Methods: We used X technique. Results: Using X technique, we found…”
  • Contradict anything in the rest of your manuscript.
  • Include content that isn’t also covered in the main manuscript.
  • Include citations or references.

Tip: How to edit your work

Editing is challenging, especially if you are acting as both a writer and an editor. Read our guidelines for advice on how to refine your work, including useful tips for setting your intentions, re-review, and consultation with colleagues.

  • How to Write a Great Title
  • How to Write Your Methods
  • How to Report Statistics
  • How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
  • How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

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How To Write An Effective Research Abstract

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What is an Abstract?

When you have written a research pape r, a thesis, or a dissertation, it is common practice to provide a summary of the work contained in the document. Research supervisors will often recommend that you wait until you have finished the document before writing the abstract to ensure that it accurately represents what the work contains. This is good advice, because the abstract isn’t written for you to remind yourself of what you have done. It is written for a specific purpose and for specific audiences. An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that covers the main points of a piece of writing.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Since academic research documents can run from 2000-word journal articles up to dissertations of tens of thousands of words, it is helpful to provide a brief summary of what the work contains, to avoid the frustration of reading the document in full only to realize that it doesn’t meet your needs as a fellow researcher. By reading the abstract at the beginning, assuming it is well written, you are given enough information to decide whether or not to invest time in reading the work in full. Broadly, the two main reasons for writing an abstract are:

  • Selection  – to help readers decide if they want to read your article
  • Indexing  – for quick recovery and cross-referencing.

The Audiences for an Abstract

Database searches , even targeted ones, can produce hundreds of results. Research students then face the ominous task of slogging through that list to identify articles and papers that are relevant to their specific research topic. Abstracts make that process more manageable by succinctly summarizing the paper so that the researcher can make a decision in minutes rather than hours.

Since abstracts are sorted and categorized into indexes to facilitate searching in larger academic databases, librarians are greatly appreciative of well-written abstracts. Correct use of search keywords is important here but of greater value is an accurate reflection of what your article or paper is about.

If you choose to submit your research to a local or national conference, your abstract will be requested as part of your application packet.

Key Components of an Effective Abstract

  • Concise: It’s a concise description of your research: 150-200 words
  • Tense Usage: Since you’re describing completed work, it should be written in the past tense
  • Choose the Right Voice: Since you’re describing the work you performed, it should be written in an active rather than passive voice
  • Problem Statement: Why the research topic is important and why you chose to investigate it
  • Methodology: How you went about investigating it
  • Results: What you learned
  • Conclusion: The implications of what you found
  • Avoid Jargons: Assume no previous knowledge on the part of your reader – avoid acronyms and explain any topic specific terminology
  • Summarize your Research: Leave any judgments as to the relevance of the research to your reader. This is a summary document, not a critique and should be written as such
  • Keep in Context: Stay within the confines of your document – don’t include any information that can’t be found in the research paper /article
  • Keywords: Use relevant keywords to facilitate correct classification in appropriate indexes
  • When Should You Write One? Write the abstract as soon as you have finished your research, while the information is still fresh in your mind

Types & Examples of Abstracts

Descriptive Abstract : Usually a short summary of a 100 words or less without any conclusions

“It is an important and difficult job to write an eye catching abstract. A large percentage of the manuscripts that are submitted to academic journals are rejected because their abstracts are poorly written. This paper provides a new and step by step approach for writing a good structured abstract.”

Informative Abstract:  Also called as a structured abstract

“Research reported by Daly, Miller, and their colleagues suggests that writing apprehension is related to a number of factors we do not yet fully understand. This study suggests that included among those factors should be the belief that writing ability is a gift. Giftedness, as it is referred to in the study, is roughly equivalent to the Romantic notion of original genius. Results from a survey of 247 postsecondary students enrolled in introductory writing courses at two institutions indicate that higher levels of belief in giftedness are correlated with higher levels of writing apprehension, lower self-assessments of writing ability, lower levels of confidence in achieving proficiency in certain writing activities and genres, and lower self-assessments of prior experience with writing instructors. Significant differences in levels of belief in giftedness were also found among students who differed in their perceptions of the most important purpose for writing, with students who identified “to express your own feelings about something” as the most important purpose for writing having the highest mean level of belief in giftedness. Although the validity of the notion that writing ability is a special gift is not directly addressed, the results suggest that belief in giftedness may have deleterious effects on student writers.”

Since your abstract will be the key to finding the complete work, take the extra time to double check it before submission . Better still, have someone who knows nothing about your research take a look at it – that way you can be sure you have hit the appropriate level of assuming no previous knowledge.

How to Write a Research Paper Abstract: Guide With Examples

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Home » Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

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Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

  • Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
  • Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
  • Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
  • Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
  • Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

  • Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
  • Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
  • Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
  • Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
  • Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
  • Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
  • Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

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What Exactly is an Abstract, and How Do I Write One?

An abstract is a short summary of your completed research. It is intended to describe your work without going into great detail. Abstracts should be self-contained and concise, explaining your work as briefly and clearly as possible. Different disciplines call for slightly different approaches to abstracts, as will be illustrated by the examples below, so it would be wise to study some abstracts from your own field before you begin to write one.

General Considerations

Probably the most important function of an abstract is to help a reader decide if he or she is interested in reading your entire publication. For instance, imagine that you’re an undergraduate student sitting in the library late on a Friday night. You’re tired, bored, and sick of looking up articles about the history of celery. The last thing you want to do is reading an entire article only to discover it contributes nothing to your argument. A good abstract can solve this problem by indicating to the reader if the work is likely to be meaningful to his or her particular research project. Additionally, abstracts are used to help libraries catalogue publications based on the keywords that appear in them.

An effective abstract will contain several key features:

  • Motivation/problem statement: Why is your research/argument important? What practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic gap is your project filling?
  • Methods/procedure/approach: What did you actually do to get your results? (e.g. analyzed 3 novels, completed a series of 5 oil paintings, interviewed 17 students)
  • Results/findings/product: As a result of completing the above procedure, what did you learn/invent/create?
  • Conclusion/implications: What are the larger implications of your findings, especially for the problem/gap identified previously? Why is this research valuable?

In Practice

Let’s take a look at some sample abstracts, and see where these components show up. To give you an idea of how the author meets these “requirements” of abstract writing, the various features have been color-coded to correspond with the numbers listed above. The general format of an abstract is largely predictable, with some discipline-based differences. One type of abstract not discussed here is the “Descriptive Abstract,” which only summarizes and explains existing research, rather than informing the reader of a new perspective. As you can imagine, such an abstract would omit certain components of our four-colored model.

SAMPLE ABSTRACTS

ABSTRACT #1: History / Social Science

"Their War": The Perspective of the South Vietnamese Military in Their Own Words Author: Julie Pham

Despite the vast research by Americans on the Vietnam War, little is known about the perspective of South Vietnamese military, officially called the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces (RVNAF). The overall image that emerges from the literature is negative: lazy, corrupt, unpatriotic, apathetic soldiers with poor fighting spirits. This study recovers some of the South Vietnamese military perspective for an American audience through qualititative interviews with 40 RVNAF veterans now living in San José, Sacramento, and Seattle, home to three of the top five largest Vietnamese American communities in the nation. An analysis of these interviews yields the veterans' own explanations that complicate and sometimes even challenge three widely held assumptions about the South Vietnamese military: 1) the RVNAF was rife with corruption at the top ranks, hurting the morale of the lower ranks; 2) racial relations between the South Vietnamese military and the Americans were tense and hostile; and 3) the RVNAF was apathetic in defending South Vietnam from communism. The stories add nuance to our understanding of who the South Vietnamese were in the Vietnam War. This study is part of a growing body of research on non-American perspectives of the war. In using a largely untapped source of Vietnamese history—oral histories with Vietnamese immigrants—this project will contribute to future research on similar topics.

That was a fairly basic abstract that allows us to examine its individual parts more thoroughly.

Motivation/problem statement: The author identifies that previous research has been done about the Vietnam War, but that it has failed to address the specific topic of South Vietnam’s military. This is good because it shows how the author’s research fits into the bigger picture. It isn’t a bad thing to be critical of other research, but be respectful from an academic standpoint (i.e. “Previous researchers are stupid and don’t know what they’re talking about” sounds kind of unprofessional).

Methods/procedure/approach: The author does a good job of explaining how she performed her research, without giving unnecessary detail. Noting that she conducted qualitative interviews with 40 subjects is significant, but she wisely does not explicitly state the kinds of questions asked during the interview, which would be excessive.

Results/findings/product: The results make good use of numbering to clearly indicate what was ascertained from the research—particularly useful, as people often just scan abstracts for the results of an experiment.

Conclusion/implications: Since this paper is historical in nature, its findings may be hard to extrapolate to modern-day phenomena, but the author identifies the importance of her work as part of a growing body of research, which merits further investigation. This strategy functions to encourage future research on the topic.

ABSTRACT #2: Natural Science “A Lysimeter Study of Grass Cover and Water Table Depth Effects on Pesticide Residues in Drainage Water” Authors: A. Liaghat, S.O. Prasher

A study was undertaken to investigate the effect of soil and grass cover, when integrated with water table management (subsurface drainage and controlled drainage), in reducing herbicide residues in agricultural drainage water. Twelve PVC lysimeters, 1 m long and 450 mm diameter, were packed with a sandy soil and used to study the following four treatments: subsurface drainage, controlled drainage, grass (sod) cover, and bare soil. Contaminated water containing atrazine, metolachlor, and metribuzin residues was applied to the lysimeters and samples of drain effluent were collected. Significant reductions in pesticide concentrations were found in all treatments. In the first year, herbicide levels were reduced significantly (1% level), from an average of 250 mg/L to less than 10 mg/L . In the second year, polluted water of 50 mg/L, which is considered more realistic and reasonable in natural drainage waters, was applied to the lysimeters and herbicide residues in the drainage waters were reduced to less than 1 mg/L. The subsurface drainage lysimeters covered with grass proved to be the most effective treatment system.

Motivation/problem statement: Once again, we see that the problem—more like subject of study —is stated first in the abstract. This is normal for abstracts, in that you want to include the most important information first. The results may seem like the most important part of the abstract, but without mentioning the subject, the results won’t make much sense to readers. Notice that the abstract makes no references to other research, which is fine. It is not obligatory to cite other publications in an abstract, and in fact, doing so might distract your reader from YOUR experiment. Either way, it is likely that other sources will surface in your paper’s discussion/conclusion.

Methods/procedure/approach: Notice that the authors include pertinent numbers and figures in describing their methods. An extended description of the methods would probably include a long list of numerical values and conditions for each experimental trial, so it is important to include only the most important values in your abstract—ones that might make your study unique. Additionally, we see that a methodological description appears in two different parts of the abstract. This is fine. It may work better to explain your experiment by more closely connecting each method to its result. One last point: the author doesn’t take time to define—or give any background information about—“atrazine,” “metalachlor,” “lysimeter,” or “metribuzin.” This may be because other ecologists know what these are, but even if that’s not the case, you shouldn’t take time to define terms in your abstract.

Results/findings/product: Similar to the methods component of the abstract, you want to condense your findings to include only the major result of the experiment. Again, this study focused on two major trials, so both trials and both major results are listed. A particularly important word to consider when sharing results in an abstract is “significant.” In statistics, “significant” means roughly that your results were not due to chance. In your paper, your results may be hundreds of words long, and involve dozens of tables and graphs, but ultimately, your reader only wants to know: “What was the main result, and was that result significant?” So, try to answer both these questions in the abstract.

Conclusion/implications: This abstract’s conclusion sounds more like a result: “…lysimeters covered with grass were found to be the most effective treatment system.” This may seem incomplete, since it does not explain how this system could/should/would be applied to other situations, but that’s okay. There is plenty of space for addressing those issues in the body of the paper.

ABSTRACT #3: Philosophy / Literature [Note: Many papers don’t precisely follow the previous format, since they do not involve an experiment and its methods. Nonetheless, they typically rely on a similar structure.]

“Participatory Legitimation: A Reply to Arash Abizadeh” Author: Eric Schmidt, Louisiana State University, 2011

Arash Abizadeh’s argument against unilateral border control relies on his unbounded demos thesis, which is supported negatively by arguing that the ‘bounded demos thesis’ is incoherent. The incoherency arises for two reasons: (1) Democratic principles cannot be brought to bear on matters (border control) logically prior to the constitution of a group, and (2), the civic definition of citizens and non-citizens creates an ‘externality problem’ because the act of definition is an exercise of coercive power over all persons. The bounded demos thesis is rejected because the “will of the people” fails to legitimate democratic political order because there can be no pre-political political will of the people. However, I argue that “the will of the people” can be made manifest under a robust understanding of participatory legitimation, which exists concurrently with the political state, and thus defines both its borders and citizens as bounded , rescuing the bounded demos thesis and compromising the rest of Abizadeh’s article.

This paper may not make any sense to someone not studying philosophy, or not having read the text being critiqued. However, we can still see where the author separates the different components of the abstract, even if we don’t understand the terminology used.

Motivation/problem statement: The problem is not really a problem, but rather another person’s belief on a subject matter. For that reason, the author takes time to carefully explain the exact theory that he will be arguing against.

Methods/procedure/approach: [Note that there is no traditional “Methods” component of this abstract.] Reviews like this are purely critical and don’t necessarily involve performing experiments as in the other abstracts we have seen. Still, a paper like this may incorporate ideas from other sources, much like our traditional definition of experimental research.

Results/findings/product: In a paper like this, the “findings” tend to resemble what you have concluded about something, which will largely be based on your own opinion, supported by various examples. For that reason, the finding of this paper is: “The ‘will of the people,’ actually corresponds to a ‘bounded demos thesis.’” Even though we aren’t sure what the terms mean, we can plainly see that the finding (argument) is in support of “bounded,” rather than “unbounded.”

Conclusion/implications: If our finding is that “bounded” is correct, then what should we conclude? [In this case, the conclusion is simply that the initial author, A.A., is wrong.] Some critical papers attempt to broaden the conclusion to show something outside the scope of the paper. For example, if A.A. believes his “unbounded demos thesis” to be correct (when he is actually mistaken), what does this say about him? About his philosophy? About society as a whole? Maybe people who agree with him are more likely to vote Democrat, more likely to approve of certain immigration policies, more likely to own Labrador retrievers as pets, etc.

Applying These Skills

Now that you know the general layout of an abstract, here are some tips to keep in mind as you write your own:

1. The abstract stands alone

  • An abstract shouldn’t be considered “part” of a paper—it should be able to stand independently and still tell the reader something significant.

2. Keep it short

  • A general rule of abstract length is 200-300 words, or about 1/10th of the entire paper.

3. Don’t add new information

  • If something doesn’t appear in your actual paper, then don’t put it in the abstract.

4. Be consistent with voice, tone, and style

  • Try to write the abstract in the same style as your paper (i.e. If you’re not using contractions in your paper, the do not use them in your abstract).

5. Be concise

  • Try to shorten your sentences as often as possible. If you can say something clearly in five words rather than ten, then do it.

6. Break up its components

  • If allowed, subdivide the components of your abstract with bolded headings for “Background,” “Methods,” etc.

7. The abstract should be part of your writing process

  • Consider writing your abstract after you finish your entire paper.
  • There’s nothing wrong with copying and pasting important sentences and phrases from your paper … provided that they’re your own words.
  • Write multiple drafts, and keep revising. An abstract is very important to your publication (or assignment) and should be treated as such.

"Abstracts." The Writing Center. The University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/abstracts.html "Abstracts." The Writing Center. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/abstracts.html

Last updated August 2013

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How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper

Divya Bhansali headshot

By Divya Bhansali

Columbia University; Biomedical Engineering PhD candidate

8 minute read

hands on a computer keyboard

Imagine standing on the threshold of a vast library filled with books, each representing a unique realm of knowledge. Now, picture the abstract as a signpost at the entrance of each bookshelf, offering you a sneak peek into the exciting stories and ideas within those books. It's like having a magical map that guides you to the most intriguing parts of the library without reading every book from cover to cover.

The abstract isn't just a fancy summary; it's your golden ticket to presenting your research to the world. In this guide tailored specifically for high schoolers like you, we will dive into the art of crafting an abstract that not only explains your research but also captures readers' attention. From understanding its purpose to mastering the skill of clear and concise writing, we'll take you step by step through the process of creating an abstract that shines.

What Is An Abstract?

At its core, an abstract is a standalone piece of writing that encapsulates the essence of your research paper. It provides a window into your study, offering a snapshot of the problem, methodology, findings, and conclusions. Consider it a distilled version of your paper, designed to communicate the critical aspects of your research without requiring readers to navigate through the entire document.

Does My Research Paper Need an Abstract? 

When people talk about abstracts you’ll notice they use words like research, analysis, and findings . This all sounds very scientific, so you might assume that only STEM papers have abstracts. Do you really need an abstract if your paper isn’t scientific? The answer is yes. In academic contexts, learning to write a strong abstract is a good skill to develop because most college research papers will require one regardless of the discipline. Acquiring this knowledge in high school can help set you up for your future academic endeavors.

The abstract composition can vary across academic disciplines due to differing conventions and expectations. Here are some disciplinary considerations:

Scientific Disciplines: In scientific research, abstracts often entail a concise description of the research question, experimental design, methodology, results, and implications. This allows fellow researchers to swiftly assess the study's relevance and significance. 

Humanities and Social Disciplines: Abstracts in these disciplines typically integrate the research question, theoretical framework, methodology, key findings, and broader implications for the field or society. The abstract may also reflect the author's theoretical stance or perspective. 

Engineering and Technology: Engineering abstracts focus on problem statements, design objectives, methodologies, technological innovations, and their practical applications. They often highlight the efficiency or novelty of the proposed solutions. 

Medical and Health Sciences: Abstracts in medical research elucidate the study's research question, methodology, patient population (if applicable),  results, and clinical or public health implications. 

The abstract can operate like a pitch. In a world full of headlines, videos, and links, people want to know if what they’re reading will be worth their time—and that’s where your abstract comes in handy. 

The Fundamentals of an Abstract

An abstract serves as a concise gateway to your research, offering readers a glimpse into the heart of your study before delving into the full paper. While its structure may appear formulaic, each component plays a crucial role in effectively conveying your research's essence. In this section, we'll explore the key elements that constitute a well-crafted abstract, from its structure and length to the importance of clarity, active voice, keywords, and timing. 

Let’s use Jasmita’s project abstract as an example as we’re going through the following elements:

Previous studies have shown us the effects that background music has while learning new material. Background music can help one while studying as it can improve mood and overall performance when doing work, but it can also be distracting. Although studies have looked at the effects of music genre on studying, no studies have examined how participants’ familiarity with background music affects their performance. In this study, we looked into the effects of listening to familiar and unfamiliar music on performance on a grammar task and on participants’ self-reported distractedness. We also examined how this effect is moderated by one’s overall test anxiety. Participants completed ACT reading comprehension questions while listening to playlists of familiar and unfamiliar music. These findings suggest that the familiarity of music and level of test anxiety do not have a significant effect on the overall performance while performing grammatical tasks.

1. Structure

While an abstract's structure may seem formulaic, each component plays a crucial role in conveying your research's essence:

Background and Purpose: Begin by establishing the context of your research. Introduce the problem or research question you sought to address. Explain its significance in your field and why it warrants investigation. Concisely state the purpose of your study.

Previous studies have shown us the effects that background music has while learning new material. Background music can help one while studying as it can improve mood and overall performance when doing work, but it can also be distracting. Although studies have looked at the effects of music genre on studying, no studies have examined how participants’ familiarity with background music affects their performance.

Methods: Describe the research methodology and approach you employed. Highlight any innovative techniques or methods you adopted. This section provides insight into the strategies you used to gather and analyze data.

In this study, we looked into the effects of listening to familiar and unfamiliar music on performance on a grammar task and on participants’ self-reported distractedness. We also examined how this effect is moderated by one’s overall test anxiety. Participants completed ACT reading comprehension questions while listening to playlists of familiar and unfamiliar music.

Results: Present the primary findings of your research. What were the fundamental discoveries, outcomes, or trends that emerged from your study? This section offers a glimpse into the heart of your research findings.

Conclusion: Summarize the conclusions and implications drawn from your findings. Reflect on how your research contributes to your field’s broader body of knowledge. Discuss the potential applications or significance of your results.

The length of an abstract can vary, but it typically ranges from 150 to 300 words. However, adhering to the specific word count guidelines provided by the target journal, conference, or publication platform is essential. Some institutions may require more extended abstracts, especially for more complex studies.

3. Audience-friendly language

Clarity and conciseness are paramount when crafting an abstract. Use straightforward language to convey your ideas. Avoid unnecessary jargon or technical terms that might confuse readers from different backgrounds including citations and abbreviations. The goal is to present your research in a way that is accessible and comprehensible to a broad audience.

4. Key elements

While your research paper may delve into various details and nuances, your abstract should focus on the most crucial elements. Identify the core components of your study—the problem, methodology, findings, and conclusions—and ensure that these elements are prominently featured in your abstract.

5. Active voice narration

Employing the active voice adds vibrancy and directness to your abstract. Instead of writing in passive voice (e.g., "It was found that..."), opt for active voice (e.g., "We found that..."). Active voice not only enhances readability but also imparts a sense of authority to your writing. This simple switch enhances engagement and readability.

6. Keyword usage

Keywords are pivotal to increasing the discoverability of your research. Incorporate relevant keywords that encapsulate the central themes of your study. These keywords play a crucial role in helping your paper surface in academic databases and search engine results.

It's generally advisable to write the abstract after you've completed the rest of your research paper. By doing so, you'll have a comprehensive understanding of your study's intricacies, enabling you to succinctly summarize its core aspects. This approach ensures that your abstract accurately reflects the contents of your paper.

8. Edits and revisions

The creation of a polished abstract necessitates meticulous editing and revision. Every sentence should contribute to the overall clarity and coherence of the abstract. Pay attention to sentence structure, grammar, and punctuation. Your abstract should be error-free and exhibit a seamless flow.

5 Common Research Paper Abstract Pitfalls To Avoid

Crafting a compelling abstract is an art that requires finesse and precision. However, certain pitfalls can undermine the effectiveness of your research paper abstract. In this section, we'll explore five common abstract pitfalls that you should be vigilant about avoiding. 

1. Excessive detail

The abstract's brevity precludes the inclusion of excessive detail. Avoid delving into intricate methodologies, extensive data, or nuanced analyses. Instead, focus on presenting a high-level overview. 

2. Ambiguity

Abstracts must be devoid of ambiguity. Ambiguous statements can lead to misinterpretation or confusion among readers. Ensure that every sentence conveys a clear and precise message. 

3. Omission of key elements

Neglecting any of the fundamental elements— contextualization, research gap, methodology, key findings, and significance— can hinder the abstract's comprehensiveness and efficacy. 

4. Unsatiated claims

Avoid making unsubstantiated claims or sweeping generalizations in the abstract. Statements should be grounded in the research's empirical evidence and data. 

5. Unwarranted background

While context is crucial, avoid overwhelming the abstract with an extensive historical or theoretical background. Stick to the essential context required for understanding the research.

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How to Write Abstracts for Other Types of Work

Review papers.

A review paper requires a slightly different approach. In a review paper, you are presenting primarily known information. There are two main types of review papers: meta-analyses and literature reviews.

 A meta-analysis compiles findings or, ideally, raw data, from multiple studies to provide new, consolidated results, and will therefore follow much of the pattern listed above. The most important thing in a meta-analysis is to discuss your strategy or tactic. You must describe where your information comes from, how you included or excluded studies, and what you did to the data, and this is so important that it also should be included in your abstract. Meta-analyses are considered the most robust form of information in medicine, and their vigorous nature depends on the analysis strategies. 

A literature review covers a wide swath of literature and is a resource for someone who is new to the field, or someone who is looking for information about a topic that has been explained and contextualized. Therefore the abstract should focus on what information can be found, limitations in the work or field, and implications for the field as a whole. In a research paper, it is important to discuss which holes you are filling, while in a review, it can be equally important to state which holes exist to be filled. Another viewpoint is to consider what the information in your review could tell scientists, clinicians, politicians, or company policy-makers to guide them in their decision-making. Questions to consider: 

What remains to be understood?

What should be put into practice based on this evidence?

What is most exciting in this field?

Visual or Graphical Abstracts

A new trend in research is the graphical abstract or visual abstract. Partly as recognition of the famed statistic that 65% of people are visual learners, and partly as scientific data becomes more niche and harder to explain within the word limit, making a graphical abstract can help your reader and you communicate. Graphical abstracts are ideal to convey a central hypothesis and then plot your findings against it. Typically, real data is not included, only smoothed generalized images. Another use for a graphical abstract is to add to a complex process, in which case an author may have a cartoon version of the process with the new information from their work highlighted. 

The Importance of Constructing a Strong Abstract

An abstract is much more than a mere formality; it's a potent tool that encapsulates the essence of your research. By following a structured approach and placing emphasis on key components, you can construct an abstract that captivates readers and entices them to delve into your full paper. Remember, your abstract is often the initial introduction your research receives, making its creation a pivotal step in conveying the significance and impact of your study. Dedicate time and effort to crafting a compelling abstract, and watch as it beckons readers into the intricate world of your research.

Consider working with a Polygence research mentor for help developing your paper. A mentor can be a valuable resource throughout your research and writing process.

Related Content

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Citations and Bibliographies for High School Researchers - The Complete Guide

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Additional writers who contributed to this post:

Anh Nguyen, Brooke White, Maggie Chvillicek, Sage Lim Morison

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How to craft an APA abstract

Last updated

16 December 2023

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An APA abstract is a brief but thorough summary of a scientific paper. It gives readers a clear overview of what the paper is about and what it intends to prove.

The purpose of an abstract is to allow researchers to quickly understand the paper's topic and purpose so they can decide whether it will be useful to them.

  • What is the APA style?

APA style is a method of formatting and documentation used by the American Psychological Association. This style is used primarily for papers in the field of education and in the social sciences, including:

Anthropology

What is an abstract in APA format?

Writing an abstract in APA format requires you to conform to the writing rules for APA-style papers, including the following guidelines:

The abstract should be 150–250 words

It should be brief but concise, containing all the paper's main points

The abstract is a separate page that comes after the title page and before the paper's main content

  • Key elements of an APA abstract 

While the rules for constructing an APA abstract are straightforward, the process can be challenging. You need to pack a great deal of relevant content into a short piece.

The essential elements of an APA abstract are:

Running header containing the title of the paper and page number

Section label, centered and in bold, containing the word "abstract"

The main content of the abstract, 150–250 words in length and double-spaced

A list of keywords, indented and introduced with the word "keywords" in italics

Essential points to cover in an APA abstract  

When you’re creating your APA abstract, consider the following questions.

What is the main topic the paper is addressing?

People searching for research on your topic will probably be browsing many papers and studies. The way your abstract is crafted will help to determine whether they feel your paper is worth reading.

Are your research methods quantitative or qualitative?

Quantitative research is focused on numbers and statistics, typically gathered from studies and polls where the questions are in yes/no or multiple-choice format.

Qualitative research is based on language and gathered using methods such as interviews and focus groups. It is more detailed and time-consuming to gather than quantitative research but can yield more complex and nuanced results.

Did you use primary or secondary sources?

Another key element is whether your research is based on primary or secondary sources. 

Primary research is data that you or your research team gathered. Secondary research is gathered from existing sources, such as databases or previously published studies.

Is your research descriptive or experimental?

Your research may be descriptive, experimental, or both.

With descriptive research , you’re describing or analyzing existing studies or theories on the topic. You may be using surveys, case studies, or observation to study the topic.

Experimental research studies variables using the scientific method. With an experiment, your objective is to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables (or show the lack of one).

What conclusion did you reach?

Readers will want to know upfront what your paper is claiming or proving. Your APA abstract should give them a condensed version of your conclusions. Summarize your most significant findings.

It's customary to place your findings and conclusion in the final sentence of the abstract. This should be directly related to the main topic of the paper.

What is the relevance of your findings?

Show readers that your paper is a significant contribution to the field. While staying accurate and not overstating your case, boast a bit about why people need to read your paper.

Briefly describe the implications and importance of your findings. You can also point out any further research that is needed concerning this topic.

Did you choose the most appropriate keywords?

Including keywords is useful for indexing if your paper is eventually included in a database. Choose keywords that are relevant to the paper and as specific as possible.

For example, if your paper is about signs of learning disabilities in elementary-age children, your keyword list might include:

Learning disability symptoms

Elementary education

Language-based learning disabilities

Any other terms discussed in the paper

  • How to format an APA abstract

Use standard APA formatting with double spacing, 12pt Times New Roman font, and one-inch margins.

Place a running head at the top left-hand side of the page. This is an abbreviated version of the paper's title. Use all capital letters for the running header. This is not usually required for academic papers but is essential if you are submitting the paper for publication. The page number “2” should follow the running header (Page 1 is the title page).

Just under the running head, in the center, place the word "abstract."

Place your list of keywords at the end. The list should be indented and, according to APA guidelines, contain three to five keywords.

  • What are the 3 types of abstracts?

There are certain variations in different types of APA abstracts. Here are three of the most common ones.

Experimental or lab report abstracts

An abstract for an experimental or lab report needs to communicate the key purpose and findings of the experiment. Include the following:

Purpose and importance of the experiment

Hypothesis of the experiment

Methods used to test the hypothesis

Summary of the results of the experiment, including whether you proved or rejected the hypothesis

Literature review abstracts

A literature review is a survey of published work on a work of literature. It may be part of a thesis, dissertation, or research paper.

The abstract for a literature review should contain:

A description of your purpose for covering the research topic

Your thesis statement

A description of the sources used in the review

Your conclusions based on the findings

Psychology lab reports

Psychology lab reports are part of the experiment report category. Psychology experiments, however, may contain distinctive elements.

Describe the goal or purpose of the experiment

If the experiment includes human subjects, describe them. Mention the number of participants and what demographic they fit

Describe any tools, equipment, or apparatus you used for the experiment. For example, some experiments use electroencephalography (EEG) to measure brain waves. You may have also used tools such as questionnaires, case studies, or naturalistic observation. Describe the procedure and parameters of the experiment.

Summarize your conclusions

  • What not to include in an APA abstract

As this section is 250 words maximum, it's important to know what should not be included.

Avoid the following in an APA abstract:

Jargon, acronyms, or abbreviations

Citations. These should appear in the body of the paper.

Lengthy or secondary information. Keep it brief and stick to the main points. Readers should want to read your paper for more detailed information.

Opinions or subjective comments

Anything not covered in the paper

  • Guidelines for writing an APA abstract

While an abstract is the shortest section of your paper, it is nevertheless one of the most important parts. It determines whether or not someone decides that the paper is worth reading or not. What follows are some guidelines to keep in mind when creating your APA abstract. 

Focus on your main point. Don't try to fit in multiple conclusions. The idea is to give readers a clear idea of what your main point or conclusion is. On a similar note, be explicit about the implications and significance of your findings. This is what will motivate people to read your paper.

Write the abstract last. Ensure the abstract accurately conveys the content and conclusions of your paper. You may want to start with a rough draft of the abstract, which you can use as an outline to guide you when writing your paper. If you do this, make sure you edit and update the abstract after the full paper is complete.

Proofread your abstract. As the abstract is short and the first part of the paper people will read, it's especially important to make it clear and free of spelling, grammatical, or factual errors. Ask someone in your field to read through it.

Write the abstract for a general audience. While the paper may be aimed at academics, scientists, or specialists in your field, the abstract should be accessible to a broad audience. Minimize jargon and acronyms. This will make the paper easier to find by people looking for information on the topic.

Choose your keywords with care. The more relevant keywords you include, the more searchable your paper will be. Look up papers on comparable topics for guidance.

Follow any specific guidelines that apply to your paper. Requirements for the abstract may differ slightly depending on the topic or guidelines set by a particular instructor or publication.

APA style is commonly used in the fields of psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and education.

If you’re writing an abstract in APA style, there are certain conventions to follow. Your readers and people in your industry will expect you to adhere to particular elements of layout, content, and structure.

Follow our advice in this article, and you will be confident that your APA abstract complies with the expected standards and will encourage people to read your full paper.

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How to Write a Good Abstract: Four Essential Elements with Example

This article shall guide you on how to write a good abstract. It lists the four essential elements of a good abstract, ideal number of words, and tense. The article ends with an example abstract of a real-life study with a supplemental video related to the findings.

After finishing your research paper, thesis, or scientific paper, there is a need for you to write the abstract. How is the abstract written? What are the essential elements of a good abstract?

If this is your first time, or you don’t feel confident about writing your first abstract, these tips are handy. I provide an example to demonstrate how it works.

Table of Contents

Why write the abstract.

Abstracts are indispensable references for scientists or students working on their research proposal; particularly, in preparing their literature review .

The information provided in the abstract must be sufficient to help the researcher decide whether the work is relevant to his or her interest or not. It should be brief but not lacking in essential elements to foster understanding of the research conducted. The abstract will also help the researcher decide whether to read the whole research paper or not.

Definition of an Abstract

An abstract is a summary of your research paper, thesis, or scientific paper. The abstract describes an unpublished or published research study in capsule form. It is a brief overview of the investigation so that researchers can comprehend the content of the research quickly. A good abstract is a mini-version of the whole research paper.

Four Essential Elements of a Good Abstract

So how should the abstract of a research paper be written so that readers will derive the maximum benefit from it?

In writing a good abstract, the critical sections of a research paper should be present. Generally, an informational abstract should sum up the main sections of the research paper, i.e., the introduction, the materials and methods used, the findings, discussion, conclusions, and recommendations. Therefore, it should contain the following essential elements:

1. Objective, aim, or purpose of the research paper

This part of the abstract mentions the study’s rationale. It states clearly the  objective , aim, or purpose of the study. It answers the question: “Why do we care about the issue?”

It states the problem statement or the central argument or  thesis statement . The relevance of the study in society is highlighted. Why did the researchers undertake the research? What is at stake?

2. Method or methodology that states the procedures used in the conduct of the study

agoodabstract

The method or methodology part concisely describes the  method or methodology  employed in gathering the data, processing, and analysis. It gives a brief description of how the researcher or group of researchers performed the investigation. It includes the number of samples, instruments, and  statistical tests  used to analyze the data for quantitative researches. This part also gives a hint on the scope of the study.

This portion of the abstract tells us the perspective adopted by the researcher or researchers. It describes the types of evidence used.

The method or methodology part also mentions the key concepts, relevant keywords that make it distinct and searchable. It also describes the focus of the investigation, whether it is a group of people, a particular gender, race, community, environment, etc.

3. Results or major findings

This portion of the abstract summarizes the results or major findings of the study. It only states the significant results, most important ones, or highlights of the study in a sentence or a few sentences.

You can cite the probability values here to show the significance of computed correlations or differences. It emphasizes the practical importance of the findings; how those findings will add or enhance the body of knowledge on the issue.

4. Principal conclusion

This part of the research abstract states the principal conclusion of the study. After obtaining the findings, what did the researchers conclude?

The conclusion, in particular, should be given special attention in writing the abstract. The conclusion should be well supported by the findings of the investigation; not a sweeping statement without any valid argument or evidence to back it up. 

Other considerations in writing the research abstract

Do you need to include recommendations in the research abstract?

In practice, some academic institutions or scientific journals do not incorporate recommendations in the abstract. Browsing through some published scientific papers, I discovered that some abstracts end with only significant findings. While it would be good practice to have information as mentioned here, some deviations do exist.

As an academician, reading research abstracts that tell very little of the salient findings of the paper, particularly those behind a  paywall , causes frustration. I tend to think those abstracts work more as a marketing strategy rather than to disseminate important information.

For publicly-funded researches, where most researches almost always belong, withholding information for commercial gain, appears to be unethical or defeats the purpose of research. In the US,  taxpayers spend $140 billion every year  supporting research that they cannot access for free. That is why  open-access publishing  has gained popularity in recent years. However, authors still contend with the high costs of publication in open-access journals.

In truth, we can’t afford to be  free riders  as reliable and rigorous scientific publication requires time, money, and effort to produce. A candidate paper for publication requires intensive  peer review , editing, and formatting to make it worthy of publication in reputable journals. But perhaps publishing companies also need to be reasonable in their charges as many reviewers give their services for free.

Finally, the references (e.g. name of author and date) should not be cited in the abstract unless the research paper involves an improvement or modification of a previously published method used by a researcher.

Number of Words

Many references on how to write a good abstract recommend that it should be short. But how short should the research abstract be?

If you submit a paper for inclusion in a conference presentation, organizers usually limit its length from 250 to 300 words. It is possible, however, to capture the essence of the paper in a few sentences.

Hence, the challenge is how to make the research abstract as short as possible, without leaving out the essential elements, that will cause readers to read the paper. The abstract serves as a teaser, a taste of the pie for readers to decide whether they will read the whole piece.

Abstracts should not exceed 250 words, but this number could vary depending on the prescribed number of words, say when you would like to submit your research paper to a popular scientific journal. A good abstract adheres to brevity.

The limited number of words required for the research abstract means that every word included in the abstract is necessary and should be coherent. Important information should fit into one paragraph. This format requires a little bit of thinking and practice for the beginning researcher.

flash games

Tense of the Abstract

In what tense should the abstract be written?

The abstract is usually written in the past tense because the investigation has transpired. However, statement of facts in, say, the results and discussion and the conclusion, must be in the present tense.

In recent years, however, many authors write in the active tense. They use the first-person perspective in writing the paper. You can see the following phrases in the abstract:

  • We analyze five years of sample visitor data…
  • We compare non-linear, Poisson, and negative binomial count data…
  • In this study, I challenge these interpretations…

Ultimately, the journal of publication defines the manner of abstract writing. But if you want the reader to grasp what you want to convey, bringing all the elements together would be more useful to the reader.

Example of an Abstract

I provide an example of a good abstract abiding with the precepts advanced in this article. It is for you to judge if this meets your expectations.

Young children’s exposure to violent computer games

This report discusses a two-year study on the effect of exposing four to six-year-old children to violent computer games. The study involved 200 children in nursery schools whose aggressive tendencies and anti-social behavior were observed with their teachers’ cooperation. The computer games they played at home were likewise assessed with the help of their parents. A strong correlation between violent computer game use and aggressive tendencies was obtained. Violent computer games, especially interactive ones, caused greater aggressiveness and anti-social behavior among children.

Although concisely written, the abstract captures the essence of the study. You can easily understand what transpired in that study, determine its relevance to your particular research, and decide whether to read the whole paper or merely cite the findings to strengthen your argument. But it always pays to read at least the method or methodology section of the full paper. While the study’s results are highly socially relevant, you might want to  critique the paper  by meticulously examining how the data was gathered and analyzed.

The example of an abstract given here is a real-life situation, as Dr. Perry Wilson reports in the following video.

Notice in the video that the study has its limitations. The participants, while young (8 to 12 years old), were conscious that they were observed in a university laboratory. This set-up may have affected their behavior.

Again, delving into the methodology of the study pays off. You cannot just blindly accept any scientific finding. It is always subject to error.

Final Notes

Have your style by deviating a little from the convention. The point is, the abstract should be interesting enough such that readers will want to read your investigation, learn from it, or skip it because it’s not directly relevant to their interest.

Since you want others to discover your work, select keywords or phrases that capture the essence of your research. Popular search engines like Chrome, Firefox, Microsoft Edge, or Safari need these keywords to effectively serve those who look for information on the issue that you cared to spend your time, money, and effort.

©P. A. Regoniel 9 November 2021

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Great ways to present your data, the relationship between bribery and the environment: 4 impacts, defining a research topic for your thesis, about the author, patrick regoniel.

Dr. Regoniel, a faculty member of the graduate school, served as consultant to various environmental research and development projects covering issues and concerns on climate change, coral reef resources and management, economic valuation of environmental and natural resources, mining, and waste management and pollution. He has extensive experience on applied statistics, systems modelling and analysis, an avid practitioner of LaTeX, and a multidisciplinary web developer. He leverages pioneering AI-powered content creation tools to produce unique and comprehensive articles in this website.

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I am writing an abstract on “reduce the use of antibiotics in food”…..can you help me out?

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Abstract PR-008: Modeling epigenetic lesions that cause gliomas

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Gilbert J. Rahme , Nauman M. Javed , Kaitlyn L. Puorro , Shouhui Xin , Volker Hovestadt , Sarah E. Johnstone , Bradley E. Bernstein; Abstract PR-008: Modeling epigenetic lesions that cause gliomas. Cancer Res 1 March 2024; 84 (5_Supplement_1): PR–008. https://doi.org/10.1158/1538-7445.BRAIN23-PR-008

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Epigenetic lesions that disrupt gene regulatory elements and expression are increasingly recognized as potential drivers of human cancers. However, we currently lack the in vitro and in vivo models required to functionally validate such lesions and their tumorigenic impact. Here we model aberrations that arise in Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (IDH) mutant lower-grade gliomas, which exhibit profound DNA hypermethylation as a direct consequence of mutant IDH. DNA hypermethylation may promote gliomagenesis by silencing tumor suppressor genes or, alternatively, by activating proto-oncogenes through disruption of CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) insulators. CTCF insulator sites define the three-dimensional shape of the genome by dictating the boundaries of topologically associated domains (TADs). Enhancers and promoters can interact when located in the same TAD but are restricted from interacting across different TADs. In IDH mutant gliomas, CpG sites around CTCF binding sites are frequently methylated, effectively compromising CTCF binding and thus TAD organization, allowing for cross-TAD interactions and aberrant activation of genes. We discovered a CTCF insulator downstream of the PDGFRA proto-oncogene that is recurrently disrupted in IDH mutant gliomas. We demonstrate that disruption of the syntenic insulator in mouse oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) allows an OPC-specific enhancer to contact and induce Pdgfra , thereby increasing proliferation. In contrast, insulator disruption did not affect Pdgfra expression in neural progenitor cells (NPCs), which lack the enhancer. We also model a second recurrent epigenetic lesion in IDH mutant gliomas, the methylation-dependent silencing of the CDKN2A tumor suppressor. We show that inactivation of Cdkn2a /p19ARF by de novo promoter methylation or mutation drives OPC proliferation and cooperates with Pdgfra insulator loss. Finally, we use lentiviruses to coordinately inactivate the Pdgfra insulator and Cdkn2a in mouse corpus callosum, resulting in low-grade gliomagenesis in vivo with histological features reminiscent of human IDH mutant gliomas. Our study recapitulates recurrent epigenetic lesions in mouse models and demonstrates that the combination of Pdgfra activation and Cdkn2a silencing can transform OPCs in vitro and drive gliomagenesis in vivo .

Citation Format: Gilbert J. Rahme, Nauman M. Javed, Kaitlyn L. Puorro, Shouhui Xin, Volker Hovestadt, Sarah E. Johnstone, Bradley E. Bernstein. Modeling epigenetic lesions that cause gliomas [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR Special Conference on Brain Cancer; 2023 Oct 19-22; Minneapolis, Minnesota. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2024;84(5 Suppl_1):Abstract nr PR-008.

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Title: genie: generative interactive environments.

Abstract: We introduce Genie, the first generative interactive environment trained in an unsupervised manner from unlabelled Internet videos. The model can be prompted to generate an endless variety of action-controllable virtual worlds described through text, synthetic images, photographs, and even sketches. At 11B parameters, Genie can be considered a foundation world model. It is comprised of a spatiotemporal video tokenizer, an autoregressive dynamics model, and a simple and scalable latent action model. Genie enables users to act in the generated environments on a frame-by-frame basis despite training without any ground-truth action labels or other domain-specific requirements typically found in the world model literature. Further the resulting learned latent action space facilitates training agents to imitate behaviors from unseen videos, opening the path for training generalist agents of the future.

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Meta-analysis, declaration of interests, author contributions, the impact of menthol cigarette bans: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

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Sarah D Mills, Snigdha Peddireddy, Rachel Kurtzman, Frantasia Hill, Victor Catalan, Jennifer S Bissram, Kurt M Ribisl, The Impact of Menthol Cigarette Bans: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, Nicotine & Tobacco Research , 2024;, ntae011, https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntae011

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This review investigates the impacts of banning the sale of menthol cigarettes at stores.

A systematic search of studies published in English up to November 2022 was conducted. The following databases were searched: PubMed/Medline, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Embase, as well as a non-indexed journal. Studies evaluating either the impact of real-world or hypothesized menthol cigarette bans were included. Primary outcomes include tobacco use behaviors. Secondary outcomes include cigarette sales, retailer compliance, and the tobacco industry’s response to a menthol ban. Data on tobacco use behavior after a menthol ban were pooled using random-effects models. Two pairs of reviewers independently extracted data and assessed study quality.

Of the 964 articles that were identified during the initial search, 78 were included in the review and 16 were included in the meta-analysis. Cessation rates among menthol cigarette smokers were high after a menthol ban. Pooled results show that 24% (95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 20%, 28%) of menthol cigarette smokers quit smoking after a menthol ban, 50% (95% CI: 31%, 68%) switched to non-menthol cigarettes, 12% (95% CI: 3%, 20%) switched to other flavored tobacco products, and 24% (95% CI: 17%, 31%) continued smoking menthol cigarettes. Hypothesized quitting and switching rates were fairly close to real-world rates. Studies found the tobacco industry attempts to undermine menthol bans. National menthol bans appear more effective than local or state menthol bans.

Menthol cigarette bans promote smoking cessation suggesting their potential to improve public health.

Findings from this review suggest that menthol cigarette bans promote smoking cessation among menthol cigarette smokers and have the potential to improve public health.

Menthol cigarettes are of particular public health concern because studies show that the anesthetic and cooling effects of menthol mask the harshness of cigarettes, making it easier for youth to initiate smoking. 1 Menthol in cigarettes has been found to increase the bioavailability of nicotine, which is hypothesized to result in greater dependence, and smokers have greater difficulty in quitting menthol cigarettes compared to non-menthol cigarettes. 1

Prevalence rates of menthol cigarette use among cigarette smokers vary globally. 2 In a 2016 study of eight European countries, 7.4% of smokers, on average, used menthol cigarettes. 2 Prevalence rates ranged from 0.4% in Spain to 12.4% in England. In Kenya and Zambia, rates of menthol cigarette use among smokers were 21% (2012) and 43% (2014), respectively. 3 In the United States (US) 43.4% of adult past-month smokers used menthol cigarettes in 2020. 4 Menthol cigarettes are disproportionately used by youth, racial/ethnic minority, and lower-income smokers in the US. 4 Approximately 81% of non-Hispanic Black smokers in the US use menthol cigarettes, as compared to 34% of non-Hispanic White smokers. 4

More than 170 US localities and two states, several countries (eg, Canada, Ethiopia), and the European Union ban the sale of menthol cigarettes. 5 , 6 Research on the impacts of policies that ban the sale of menthol cigarettes is emerging. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first systematic review to incorporate a meta-analysis of research examining the impact of menthol cigarette bans (also referred to as menthol bans) on tobacco use behaviors. Secondary outcomes for the review include impacts on cigarette sales, retailer compliance, and the tobacco industry’s response to menthol bans. A prior scoping review of studies published until November 2019 suggested that banning flavored tobacco product sales would promote smoking cessation. 7 A systematic review of studies published through May 2020 concluded there was insufficient evidence to make definitive conclusions about the effects of flavor bans on tobacco use behavior. 8 The number of localities with menthol bans has grown rapidly in the US and internationally. 5 , 6 An updated comprehensive review of studies is needed to summarize the latest research. In addition, a meta-analysis may provide more precise quantitative estimates of changes in tobacco use behaviors after a menthol ban. Meta-analyses increase statistical power and provide more robust summary estimates with greater generalizability than the results of individual studies. 9

Data Sources and Search

A literature search of PubMed/Medline, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Embase was conducted on May 20, 2020, and updated on November 3, 2022. A manual search of Tobacco Regulatory Science was conducted in 2020, as the journal was not indexed in electronic databases at that time. The search strategy was developed for PubMed/Medline and translated for use in the other databases ( Appendix Table 1 ). This study was registered (CRD42020156087) with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO), an online database of review protocols, and was guided by the standards of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses Statement (PRISMA). 10 Prospectively registering a review aims to increase transparency and reduce bias in the conduct of research.

Study Selection

Studies investigating either the real-world or hypothesized impacts of menthol cigarette bans on tobacco use behavior (ie, quitting, switching to other products, continued use of menthol cigarettes) were included. Studies of hypothesized tobacco use behavior refer to studies where smokers in settings without menthol bans were asked to consider how their tobacco use behavior would change in the presence of a menthol ban (eg, “If menthol cigarettes were no longer sold in US stores, would you quit smoking?”). Grey literature was included, and studies were not restricted by methodology (eg, experimental, cross-sectional). Studies were also included if they examined any of the following secondary outcomes: impact of a menthol ban on cigarette sales, retailer compliance, or the tobacco industry’s response to a menthol ban. Opinion pieces, commentaries, and articles published in languages other than English were excluded.

Two pairs of investigators independently evaluated studies for potential inclusion in Covidence, a web-based tool that supports the screening and data extraction process in systematic reviews. 11 Titles/abstracts were screened to identify relevant articles. Next, full-text articles were reviewed to determine eligibility for inclusion. Disagreements between investigators were resolved by a third investigator. Inter-rater agreement between the two investigators was good for the title/abstract screen (2020 screen: 96% agreement; Cohen’s κ = 0.77; 2022 screen: 90% agreement; Cohen’s κ = 0.79) and moderate to good for the full text review (2020 screen: 83% agreement; Cohen’s κ = 0.46; 2022 screen: 88% agreement; Cohen’s κ = 0.67).

Data Extraction and Study Assessment

The following information was extracted from studies that met inclusion criteria: (1) sample characteristics, (2) location, (3) study design, (4) ban information, (5) study period, and (6) results. We used the PREFS checklist, a tool for assessing the quality of stated preference studies, to evaluate stated preference experimental studies and studies of hypothesized tobacco use behavior. 12 The PREFS checklist evaluates study quality based on the study purpose, respondent sampling, description of methods, bias in reporting of results, and use of significance testing. Scores range from zero to five, and higher scores indicate higher study quality. 12 The quality of the other studies in the review was assessed using the Study Quality Assessment Tools, an online set of tools specific to individual study designs focused on appraising internal validity. 13 The tools include items that assess for potential flaws in methodology, sources of bias (eg, patient selection), strength of causality in the association between the intervention and outcome, and other factors. 13 Items include, “Was the study population clearly specified and defined?” and “Were the outcome measures clearly defined, valid, reliable, and implemented consistently across all study participants?” 13 Some items in the tool were not applicable to the studies evaluated (eg, “For exposures that can vary in amount or level, did the study examine different levels of the exposure as related to the outcome”). Two pairs of reviewers independently assessed the quality of studies. For the Study Quality Assessment Tools, reviewers provided a rating of “good,” “fair,” or “poor” based on an overall assessment of quality informed by their evaluation of relevant items in the assessment tool. Discrepancies in quality ratings were resolved by a third reviewer.

Statistical Analysis

Meta-analytic techniques were used to pool estimates of menthol cigarette smokers’ real-world or hypothesized tobacco use behaviors in the setting of a menthol ban. Studies examining real-world menthol bans in the meta-analysis were restricted to longitudinal studies among pre-ban menthol cigarette smokers. Studies on sales and cross-sectional studies examining the prevalence of menthol cigarette use or other tobacco products in the setting of menthol bans, without accounting for individuals’ pre-ban tobacco use behavior, were excluded. These studies did not provide information on tobacco use behavior specific to pre-ban menthol cigarette smokers in the setting of a menthol ban.

When at least two studies provided prevalence estimates for a tobacco use behavior outcome (eg, percentage of menthol smokers that quit), pooled prevalence estimates were obtained across studies using random effects models. Studies were pooled if they examined tobacco use behavior in similar policy environments (eg, national vs. local menthol bans) and time periods after the ban. In each study included in the meta-analysis, the prevalence estimate of the tobacco use behavior outcome was extracted. The standard error of each estimate was calculated using standard formulas based on the 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) of the estimate or the sample sizes reported in the study. The meta-analysis was conducted using metan in STATA version 18. The logits of the prevalence estimates and their standard errors were used to obtain the pooled prevalence estimates. For the forest plots, random effect regression logits and 95% confidence intervals were back transformed so absolute prevalence estimates, instead of logits, are presented. Statistical heterogeneity in the estimates were assessed using the I 2 statistic.

Systematic Review

The search yielded 964 unique articles. Seventy-eight articles met inclusion criteria ( Figure 1 ). The majority examined real-world or hypothesized tobacco use behaviors after a ban (real-world: k (number of studies) = 20; hypothesized: k  = 32). Fewer studies assessed the industry’s response ( k  = 9), retailer compliance ( k  = 6), and cigarette sales after a ban ( k  = 11). The quality of most studies was high ( Appendix Table 2 ). Informed by the studies identified in the review and health behavior theories that propose behavior is determined in part by attitudes and beliefs, intentions, and environmental factors, we developed a theoretical model describing the relationship between a menthol ban and tobacco use behavior ( Figure 2 ). 14

Literature flow diagram. *Additional records were identified from Tobacco Regulatory Science, a journal that was not indexed in an electronic database at the time of the initial search.

Literature flow diagram. *Additional records were identified from Tobacco Regulatory Science , a journal that was not indexed in an electronic database at the time of the initial search.

Theoretical model describing the relationship between a menthol cigarette ban and tobacco use behavior. The model was informed by studies identified in the review and health behavior theories that propose health behavior is determined, in part, by attitudes and beliefs, intentions, and environmental factors. The model indicates that a menthol ban impacts tobacco use behavior and sales by affecting individuals’ attitudes and beliefs and quit/use intentions. In addition, retailer and consumer compliance and the tobacco industry’s response to a menthol ban moderate the relationship between a menthol ban and individuals’ attitudes and beliefs. For example, studies identified in the review suggest the tobacco industry interferes with menthol bans by introducing new replacement products for menthol smokers to the market. Studies about attitudes and beliefs about menthol bans were not reviewed or summarized in this review.

Theoretical model describing the relationship between a menthol cigarette ban and tobacco use behavior. The model was informed by studies identified in the review and health behavior theories that propose health behavior is determined, in part, by attitudes and beliefs, intentions, and environmental factors. The model indicates that a menthol ban impacts tobacco use behavior and sales by affecting individuals’ attitudes and beliefs and quit/use intentions. In addition, retailer and consumer compliance and the tobacco industry’s response to a menthol ban moderate the relationship between a menthol ban and individuals’ attitudes and beliefs. For example, studies identified in the review suggest the tobacco industry interferes with menthol bans by introducing new replacement products for menthol smokers to the market. Studies about attitudes and beliefs about menthol bans were not reviewed or summarized in this review.

Tobacco Use Behaviors

Quitting and reducing consumption.

Compared to non-menthol cigarette smokers, menthol cigarette smokers quit smoking at higher rates after a menthol ban.

Canada . Seven studies assessed quitting among menthol cigarette smokers after menthol bans in Canada. 15–21 In a longitudinal study, Chaiton et al. 15 assessed smoking behavior 1 month after the 2017 ban in Ontario among a sample ( N  = 325) of smokers who had used at least one menthol cigarette in the past year. 15 In October 2017 menthol cigarettes and most flavored cigars were banned nationally. 22 Flavored e-cigarettes were excluded from the bans. Chaiton et al. 15 found that 29.1% of pre-ban menthol smokers reported they attempted to quit, whereas only 14.5% of respondents believed they would attempt to quit prior to the ban. Twelve percent of pre-ban menthol smokers were not smoking at 1-month follow-up. 15 In a cross-sectional study of lower quality, 3 months after policy implementation in Ontario, Soule et al. 16 surveyed past-year menthol smokers ( N  = 67) and found the majority (76.1%) reported using cigarettes most days or every day; 7.5% reported using cigarettes (menthol or non-menthol) “not at all.” Among pre-ban menthol smokers who had quit post-ban, 30.7% of smokers reported the menthol ban helped with smoking cessation. 18 Pooling data from a cohort study 17 of smokers in Ontario and another cohort study of smokers in provinces across Canada, 19 Fong et al. 20 found that 22.3% of pre-ban menthol smokers successfully quit when surveyed approximately 1 to 2 years post-ban. 20 Only 15.0% of non-menthol smokers successfully quit, indicating that a menthol ban was associated with a net cessation effect size of 7.3 percentage points. 20 Another study following the Ontario cohort 2 years post-ban found similar effect sizes. 21 Twelve percent of daily and 10% of occasional menthol smokers reported having quit smoking, as compared to 3% of non-menthol smokers. 21

European Union . Two studies examined tobacco use behavior among smokers in the Netherlands and England after the menthol ban in the European Union (EU). 23 , 24 In May 2020 the EU banned menthol cigarettes. 6 , 25 Flavored cigarillos, cigars, smokeless tobacco products, and e-cigarettes were exempted from the ban. 6 , 25 In a cohort study of adult smokers living in the Netherlands, 26.1% of menthol cigarette smokers quit approximately 1 year after the EU menthol ban was implemented, as compared to 14.1% of non-menthol cigarette smokers (% difference = 12.0, p  = .002). 23 In a repeated cross-sectional survey of youth in England, 12.1% of youth reported smoking a menthol (including capsule) cigarette brand prior to the menthol ban in February 2020. 24 Approximately 3 months after the ban, 3% of youth reported smoking a menthol cigarette brand. 24

United States . In a small longitudinal study of pre-ban menthol cigarette smokers in Massachusetts ( N  = 14), 50% (7 out of 14) reported making a quit attempt because of the 2020 flavored tobacco products ban in the state, and two reported successfully quitting 6 months post-ban. 26 The Massachusetts policy bans the sale of menthol cigarettes, other flavored tobacco products (eg, flavored cigars), and flavored e-cigarettes in most retailers. 27 The use of flavored tobacco products is restricted to smoking bars for onsite consumption only. 27 A San Francisco, California, study found only one of 20 (5%) pre-ban menthol smokers quit approximately 1 year after the comprehensive flavored tobacco products ban on menthol cigarettes, e-cigarettes, and other flavored tobacco products in the city. 28

A cross-sectional study compared trends in tobacco use among youth in Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, where menthol bans were implemented in 2018, to trends in the rest of the state that did not have a menthol ban. 29 Cigarette use declined at a faster rate from 2016 (pre-policy) to 2019 (post-policy) in Minneapolis and St. Paul as compared to the rest of the state. 29 In a qualitative study conducted in Minneapolis and Duluth, Minnesota, youth reported that the impact of the menthol bans may have been limited because many youth regularly travel to adjacent cities without bans. 30 The local policies in Minnesota ban sales of fruit-, candy-, and menthol-flavored tobacco products but have exemptions for adult-only tobacco stores and liquor stores in Minneapolis and St. Paul and exemptions for adult-only tobacco shops in Duluth. 29 , 30

Hypothesized behavior . Ten studies assessed hypothesized smoking behaviors in the event of a menthol ban in the US. Across studies, between 7% and 64.6% of menthol smokers reported they would quit or try to quit smoking. 31–40 Smokers who identified as Black, female, had less than a high school education, smoked less than a pack per day, were not a daily smoker, did not smoke soon after waking, and had current intentions to quit were more likely to express intentions to quit after a menthol ban. 33–36 , 41 One study 36 found that being older was associated with greater intentions to quit after a potential ban, while another study 41 found the opposite. In a qualitative study conducted among young adult (18–24 years) menthol smokers in New Jersey, Wackowski et al. 42 found that, despite not supporting a menthol ban, participants reported that a ban would help them quit smoking.

Quasi-experimental studies and other studies that assessed hypothesized behavior suggest that banning menthol cigarettes may also encourage smokers to reduce the number of cigarettes smoked per day 2 , 43–49 and support smoking cessation by reducing immediate relapse after a cessation attempt. 50 For example, to simulate the effect of a menthol ban, Bold et al. 43 examined changes in tobacco use behavior when study participants who used menthol cigarettes were switched to non-menthol cigarettes for 2 weeks. After switching to non-menthol cigarettes, participants on average smoked 2.2 fewer cigarettes per day and reported lower nicotine dependence and cravings. One of the studies that found a menthol ban would encourage smokers to reduce the number of cigarettes smoked was of lower quality because only an abstract with limited study information was published. 46

Three studies from the same research group used simulation modeling to estimate the potential effects of a menthol ban in the US. 51–53 If a menthol ban were implemented in 2021, overall smoking prevalence was estimated to decline by 16% within 5 years post-ban. 52 Among non-Hispanic Black adults, smoking prevalence would decline by 25.3%. 53 An earlier study conducted by Levy et al. 51 simulated the impact of a menthol ban if implemented in 2011. These earlier predictions were more conservative. The model predicted a 4.8%–9.7% relative reduction in smoking prevalence in the US population 40 years post-ban. 51 The relative reduction among Black individuals was also higher than the general population in this study, at 9.1%–24.8%. 51

Levy et al. 54 also conducted an expert elicitation to estimate the impact of a menthol ban on tobacco use in the US. Expert elicitation is a process to integrate knowledge among experts to estimate unknown parameters. 54 Experts hypothesized that 2 years after a menthol ban, compared to pre-ban rates, combustible tobacco product use would decline by 20% among menthol cigarette users 35–54 years old. Among those no longer using combustible tobacco products post ban, half were expected to quit smoking and half would switch to non-combustible products such as e-cigarettes. 54 Young adult (18–24) menthol cigarette smokers were expected to reduce combustible tobacco product use by 30% in the setting of a ban. 54

Zeng et al. 55 simulated the impact of a menthol ban in Singapore. They estimated that 50 years after a menthol ban smoking prevalence would decrease by 2.1 percentage points. In the status quo scenario with no menthol ban, smoking prevalence was expected to increase from 12.7% in 2018 to 15.2% in 2068. 55

Switching to Non-menthol Cigarettes

Among pre-ban menthol cigarette smokers, rates of switching to non-menthol cigarettes were higher in settings of national menthol bans in Canada and the Netherlands as compared to switching rates found in the setting of a statewide menthol ban in the US. 15 , 19 , 23 , 26

Canada . In a longitudinal study in Ontario, 1 month after ban implementation in the province, 28.2% of menthol smokers had switched to non-menthol cigarettes compared to 59.7% who hypothesized they would switch prior to the ban. 15 In a separate study following a Canadian cohort, 59.1% of pre-ban menthol cigarette smokers switched to non-menthol cigarettes 1 to 2 years post-ban. 19

European Union . In a longitudinal study in the Netherlands, 1 year after the EU menthol ban 40.0% of menthol cigarette smokers switched to non-menthol cigarettes. 23

United States . In a small longitudinal study examining the 2020 Massachusetts ban, two of 14 (14%) pre-ban menthol smokers reported starting to use non-menthol cigarettes 6 months post-ban. 26 Another study examined the impact of the 2018 comprehensive flavored tobacco products ban in San Francisco, California. 56 A difference-in-difference analysis was conducted using data from the cross-sectional Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System survey. Contrary to expectations, the ban was associated with 2.24 [95% CI, 1.42, 3.53] higher odds of past 30-day cigarette smoking among high school students. 56 The authors reported that their results suggest youth substituted e-cigarettes with non-menthol cigarettes after the flavor ban. 56 Some researchers have noted that the results of this study are misleading. 57 , 58 Among other critiques, the flavor ban in San Francisco was not enforced at the time of data collection for the study. 58

Hypothesized behavior . In studies conducted in the US, 10.7%–53.6% of menthol cigarette smokers reported they would switch to non-menthol cigarettes in the event of a ban. 31 , 33–37 , 39–41 In a study of eight European countries, 20% of menthol cigarette smokers reported they would switch to a non-menthol brand. 2 In a study conducted in Brazil, 21.1% of menthol cigarette smokers reported they would switch to non-menthol cigarettes. 47

Switching to E-cigarettes and Other Flavored Tobacco Products

In the setting of a menthol ban, menthol cigarette smokers switch to e-cigarettes and other flavored tobacco products (OTPs; eg, flavored cigars) on the market. Studies suggest that a ban on menthol cigarettes without an accompanying ban on flavored e-cigarettes may increase e-cigarette use. 48 , 59–63

Canada . Three longitudinal studies by the same lead author assessed rates of e-cigarette and OTP use among pre-ban menthol cigarette smokers at different time periods after the ban. One month after implementation of the menthol cigarette ban in Ontario, Canada, 29.1% of menthol cigarette smokers had switched to flavored e-cigarettes and OTPs, whereas only 5.8% reported they would switch to flavored e-cigarettes or OTPs prior to the ban. 15 The menthol ban exempts flavored e-cigarettes and OTPs such as alcohol-flavored cigars without filters. 64 In the year after implementation of the ban in Ontario, 18% of daily menthol smokers reported using flavored tobacco products and 34% reported using e-cigarettes. 64 Approximately 2 years after the Ontario ban, 14.6% of pre-ban daily menthol smokers reported using additive cards, drops, or oil to add menthol flavoring. 65 Prior to the ban 4.4% of daily menthol smokers tried flavor additives. 65

United States . In a longitudinal study examining the 2020 flavored tobacco products ban in Massachusetts, one of 14 (7%) pre-ban menthol smokers reported starting to use e-cigarettes 6 months post-ban. 26

Hypothesized behavior . In two studies conducted in the US assessing hypothesized behavior, 8% and 22% of menthol cigarette smokers reported they would switch to OTPs and flavored e-cigarettes. 31 , 41 In another study, 12% of menthol cigarette smokers reported they would switch to flavored cigars. 32 An estimated 12.3%–25.6% of menthol cigarette smokers reported they would switch to e-cigarettes (flavored and/or non-flavored). 36 , 37 , 40 , 41 In a qualitative study of 35 menthol cigarette smokers in Rhode Island, the majority (23/35) reported they would begin using e-cigarettes at least some of the time. 39 Predictors of hypothesized product switching included greater nicotine dependence, 33 current use of OTPs, 35 and being White and male. 34

Continued Menthol Cigarette Use

Rates of continued menthol cigarette use were typically higher in settings of local or state menthol bans as compared to national menthol bans.

Canada . Three longitudinal studies from the same lead author examined the percentage of menthol cigarette smokers who continued using menthol cigarettes after the menthol ban in Ontario, Canada. In a sample of past-year menthol smokers, 14.1% reported using contraband menthol cigarettes (eg, purchasing cigarettes online or from another country) 1 month after the ban. 15 In another sample of menthol cigarette smokers in Ontario, 46.3% of participants reported using menthol cigarettes at least rarely 3 months after implementation of the ban. 16 In a separate sample surveyed at least a year after ban implementation, 22% of daily menthol smokers reported purchasing menthol cigarettes since the beginning of the ban. 17 Participants primarily reported purchasing on First Nations Reservations. 17 Stoklosa et al. 66 compared the number of illicit cigarettes seized by the Provincial Tax Commission in Nova Scotia, Canada, before and after the menthol ban and found no surge in illicit cigarettes. 66

European Union . In a cohort study of smokers in the Netherlands, 2.9% of menthol cigarette smokers reported using menthol cigarettes 1 year after the EU menthol ban. 23 In a cross-sectional study of smokers in England, 15.7% smoked menthol cigarettes between July 2020 and June 2021 after the EU ban (implemented in May 2020). 67

United States . In a longitudinal study examining the 2020 Massachusetts flavor ban, eight of 14 (57%) pre-ban menthol smokers reported continuing to smoke menthol cigarettes exclusively 6 months post-ban. 26 Most reported purchasing menthol cigarettes out of state. 26 A cross-sectional study of individuals in residential substance use disorder treatment in San Francisco, California, found 50% of menthol smokers reported recently purchasing menthol cigarettes in San Francisco approximately 1 year after the comprehensive flavor ban. 68 Another cross-sectional study found 70% of pre-ban menthol smokers continued using menthol cigarettes in San Francisco approximately 1 year post-ban. 28

Hypothesized behavior . In studies examining hypothesized behavior in the US, 24.1%–54.5% of menthol smokers reported they would find a way to buy a menthol brand or purchase from illicit sources. 32 , 39 , 40 In a qualitative study of 27 African American menthol cigarette smokers in Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, individuals reported they would find a way to obtain menthol cigarettes by asking friends to purchase them, traveling to other cities, or finding illegal sources. 69

In samples of European, Brazilian, and Canadian menthol smokers, 27%, 16.8%, and 11.1% reported they would find a way to get the banned product or use contraband menthol cigarettes, respectively. 2 , 15 , 47 Kulick et al. 70 modeled the unintended consequences of cigarette prohibition and suggested that a menthol ban would shift demand to illicit products. The study was contracted by Altria Client Services. 70

Canada . Three studies examined cigarette sales pre- and post-implementation of menthol cigarette bans in Canada. 22 , 71 , 72 Brown et al. 72 compared cigarette sales pre- (January–June 2016) and post-menthol ban (January–June 2017) in Ontario, Canada. Per capita sales of menthol cigarettes decreased by 93% in Ontario, compared with only a 2% decline in British Columbia, a comparison Canadian province without a ban. 72 The authors reported that substitution of menthol cigarettes with non-menthol cigarettes or other tobacco products appeared minimal. 72 Using wholesale cigarettes sales data from all 10 provinces in Canada between 2010 and 2018, Chaiton et al. 71 found that menthol cigarette sales increased from 2013 to 2017, prior to the nationwide ban implemented in October 2017. After the national ban, sales of menthol cigarettes fell to zero in all Canadian provinces. 22 , 71 Total cigarette sales declined by 4.6% as compared to the same month in the previous year. 22 , 71

United States . Six studies examined change in tobacco product sales associated with menthol bans in the US. 73–76 Four of these studies assessed sales in Massachusetts, 73–76 which implemented the first statewide menthol ban in the US in June 2020. One study assessed sales in San Francisco, California, 77 and another study assessed sales in St. Paul and Minneapolis, Minnesota. 78 The Massachusetts studies found that after ban implementation menthol cigarette sales decreased by more than 90% in the state compared to sales prior to the ban. 73–76 There was some evidence, including from one study of lower quality, that individuals were going to other states to purchase tobacco products. 73 , 75 However, overall, there was a net decline in total cigarette sales in Massachusetts and neighboring states. 79 In San Francisco, average weekly sales of menthol cigarettes declined by 96% from pre-policy to post-enforcement periods and at a higher rate than in comparison cities without menthol bans (11% decline in San Jose and 20% decline in San Diego). 77 In St. Paul and Minneapolis, weekly unit sales of menthol cigarettes decreased by 67.1% and 72.4% post-policy implementation, respectively, compared to approximately 2 years prior. These rates were higher than menthol cigarette sales reductions in the rest of the state and in the US. 78 The St. Paul and Minneapolis policies exempted some liquor stores and tobacco product shops, which may explain the lesser effect on sales as compared to the comprehensive menthol bans in Massachusetts and San Francisco. 77 , 78

European Union . Liber et al. 80 examined cigarette sales in Poland pre- and post-implementation of the 2020 EU menthol ban. Overall, there was no significant change in the sale of cigarettes (menthol and non-menthol) that could be attributed to the menthol ban. 80 Sales of menthol cigarettes declined by 97% from May 2018 to April 2021 in Poland but sales of non-flavored cigarettes increased by 38%. 80 In particular regions in Poland with relatively high menthol share of cigarettes before the ban (eg, 36.8% in Warsaw), there was a significant reduction in total cigarette sales. 80 On the other hand, in regions with below the nationwide average menthol share of cigarette sales pre-ban, there was no significant reduction in total cigarette sales. 80 Liber et al. 80 noted that the ban may have not had its intended impact in part because the tobacco industry released new alternative products for menthol smokers like cigarette pack inserts with a menthol flavor.

Retailer Compliance

Retailer compliance with menthol bans was evaluated in two Canadian provinces, Chicago, Illinois, and cities in Minnesota and California. See Table 1 for a summary of studies examining retailer compliance.

Summary of Studies Examining the Tobacco Industry’s Response to Menthol Cigarette Bans and Retailer Compliance

Canada . In province-wide menthol bans in Alberta and Nova Scotia, Canada, Brown et al. 83 purchased a sample of cigarette packs post-ban and found no packs labeled as “menthol.”

United States . Czaplicki et al. 90 evaluated retailer compliance in Chicago, Illinois, 1 year after implementation of their policy that restricted retailers within 500 feet of high schools from selling flavored tobacco products including menthol cigarettes. Only 57% of affected stores were compliant. Compared to larger/chain stores, gas stations had an 81% lower odds of compliance. 90 D’Silva et al. 91 found higher (97.5%–100%) compliance rates in a sample of retailers in Minneapolis, St. Paul, Duluth, and Falcon Heights, Minnesota, where sales of menthol cigarettes were restricted to adult-only tobacco shops and liquor stores. Two convenience stores in Minneapolis sampled added interior adult-only tobacco shops to circumvent the policy. 91

In three studies of California communities with menthol bans, 12.9%–35.4% of retailers sold menthol cigarettes or Newport menthol cigarettes, the most popular menthol cigarette brand. Pre-policy 87.9%–89.6% of stores sold menthol or Newport menthol cigarettes. 92–94 Vyas et al. 95 evaluated retailer compliance in San Francisco, California, before and after the San Francisco Department of Public Health began enforcing the policy with compliance inspections and penalties. Prior to enforcement 17% of retailers inspected were compliant with the ban. After enforcement began, 80% of retailers were compliant. 95

In Oakland, California, Kurti et al. 96 found that approximately half (46.0%) of discarded cigarette packs on streets and sidewalks were menthol 7 months after a menthol ban exempting adult-only tobacco shops went into effect. The authors concluded that a comprehensive ban is needed to reduce product availability. 96

Industry Response

See Table 1 for a summary of studies examining the industry’s response to menthol bans.

Canada . Borland et al. 81 conducted a content analysis of cigarette packs before and after a menthol ban in Ontario, Canada. Menthol descriptors were typically removed from “non-menthol alternative” packs post-ban. These packs did not have menthol but were promoted by tobacco companies as being the best replacement. Instead of using green as the prominent pack color, some replacement packs used blue as the prominent color and variant name (eg, LD Super Kings Blue) post-ban. 81 In addition, prior to the ban, new menthol products with prominent blue coloring emerged on the market and were cheaper than traditional menthol packs. 81 In a small study with lower-quality evidence, Schwartz et al. 82 also reported similar changes in products and packaging in Ontario. In Alberta, Canada, Brown et al. 83 found “menthol replacement” packs post-ban that used green as the prominent color, like menthol cigarette packs pre-ban. The majority (87.3%) of menthol replacement packs had a cellophane wrapper that stated “smooth taste without menthol.” 83

United States . Schroth et al. 97 discussed potential industry responses to a national menthol ban in the US. For example, Altria and Reynolds will likely challenge a menthol ban in court and claim that a ban on menthol cigarettes would increase illicit trade. 97 The authors report that scientific evidence supporting the ban will be sufficient for a court to uphold the policy. 97 In cities in Minnesota, the tobacco industry stated a menthol ban would have large negative financial impacts on tobacco retailers, including job loss, and a menthol ban would result in more policing of black men. 87 , 88 The industry disseminated messages opposing menthol bans by sending mailers to households, putting postcards about the ban at the point-of-sale and hosting forums. 87 , 88

European Union . In the United Kingdom, Hiscock et al. 84 and Branston et al. 85 observed that after the EU ban on menthol cigarettes was announced, the tobacco industry introduced new products including cigarillos with menthol capsules and menthol accessories that provide menthol flavor if inserted into cigarettes. Branston et al. 85 reported that to encourage retailers to stock a new cigarillo product with a menthol capsule, the industry offered a wholesale price that provided retailers a higher profit margin on the product. Similarly, Brink et al. 86 reported that tobacco companies introduced tobacco flavor accessories that could be inserted into cigarette packs, filters, and roll-your-own tobacco in Denmark. Tobacco companies included descriptors on packs that suggested the cigarette would have a menthol-like flavor, which the authors reported may violate the EU Tobacco Products Directive. 86 Prior to the EU ban in 2020, two new variants of cigarillos with menthol flavor were put on the market in Denmark, and cigarillo and cigar sales rose by 7% in 2019 and 2020. 86

Brazil . In Brazil, Oliveira da Silva et al. 89 reported that the industry used several strategies to delay ban implementation including political interference, litigation, and sponsoring research.

Findings from 16 studies were used for the meta-analysis ( Figures 3 and 4 ). Among studies of real-world behavior, we pooled estimates across three studies that assessed tobacco use behavior 1   to 2 years after national menthol bans. 17 , 19 , 23 We did not pool estimates from studies of local or state bans; there were not enough local or state-level studies identified in the review conducted around the same time period after a menthol ban to pool estimates. Studies assessing hypothesized behavior after a menthol ban asked about behavior broadly without specifying a particular time period and thus were pooled together without subdivision. One study of hypothesized behavior was excluded because it did not provide the information needed to calculate the standard error of the prevalence estimate. 36

Results from the meta-analysis of real-world studies examining the impact of menthol cigarette bans on tobacco use behavior among menthol cigarette smokers. 95% CI = 95% confidence interval. Studies examined tobacco use behavior among pre-ban menthol cigarette smokers 1 to 2 years after ban implementation. In the graphical display in the figure, each line represents a single study. The black diamond on the line symbolizes the point estimate of the effect. The width of the line extending through the black diamond shows the confidence interval for the point estimate. The unshaded diamond represents the pooled estimate.

Results from the meta-analysis of real-world studies examining the impact of menthol cigarette bans on tobacco use behavior among menthol cigarette smokers. 95% CI = 95% confidence interval. Studies examined tobacco use behavior among pre-ban menthol cigarette smokers 1 to 2 years after ban implementation. In the graphical display in the figure, each line represents a single study. The black diamond on the line symbolizes the point estimate of the effect. The width of the line extending through the black diamond shows the confidence interval for the point estimate. The unshaded diamond represents the pooled estimate.

Results from meta-analysis of studies examining the hypothesized impact of menthol cigarette bans on tobacco use behavior among menthol cigarette smokers. 95% CI = 95% confidence interval; E-cig = e-cigarettes; OTP = other flavored tobacco products (eg, flavored cigars). Studies examining hypothesized tobacco use behavior asked about behavior after a menthol ban without specifying a time period (eg, “If menthol cigarettes were no longer sold in US stores, would you quit smoking?”). In the graphical display in the figure, each line represents a single study. The black diamond on the line symbolizes the point estimate of the effect. The width of the line extending through the black diamond shows the confidence interval for the point estimate. The unshaded diamond represents the pooled estimate.

Results from meta-analysis of studies examining the hypothesized impact of menthol cigarette bans on tobacco use behavior among menthol cigarette smokers. 95% CI = 95% confidence interval; E-cig = e-cigarettes; OTP = other flavored tobacco products (eg, flavored cigars). Studies examining hypothesized tobacco use behavior asked about behavior after a menthol ban without specifying a time period (eg, “If menthol cigarettes were no longer sold in US stores, would you quit smoking?”). In the graphical display in the figure, each line represents a single study. The black diamond on the line symbolizes the point estimate of the effect. The width of the line extending through the black diamond shows the confidence interval for the point estimate. The unshaded diamond represents the pooled estimate.

Tobacco Use Behavior

Findings from the meta-analysis indicate that 24% (95% CI: 20%, 28%) of menthol cigarette smokers quit smoking approximately 1 to 2 years after a real-world menthol ban. Among studies examining hypothesized behavior, 33% (95% CI: 24%, 41%) of menthol smokers hypothesize they would quit or try to quit smoking.

Pooling across real-world studies, 50% (95% CI: 31%, 68%) of menthol smokers switched to non-menthol cigarettes approximately 1 to 2 years after a ban. Pooling across studies examining hypothesized behavior, 26% (95% CI: 18%, 34%) of menthol smokers hypothesize they would switch to non-menthol cigarettes after a ban.

Switching to Flavored E-cigarettes and Other Flavored Tobacco Products

There were not enough real-world studies to obtain a pooled estimate of the percentage of menthol smokers who switched to flavored e-cigarettes or OTPs post-ban. Among studies examining hypothesized behavior, 12% (95% CI: 3%, 20%) of menthol smokers hypothesize they would switch to flavored e-cigarettes or OTPs.

Pooling across real-world studies, 24% (95% CI: 17%, 31%) of menthol smokers reported continued use of menthol cigarettes after a menthol ban. Among studies examining hypothesized behavior, 28% (95% CI: 11%, 45%) of menthol smokers hypothesized continued use of menthol cigarettes.

There has been policy debate over menthol cigarette bans. 98 The Tobacco Products Scientific Advisory Committee, a Congressionally-mandated committee formed to advise the Food and Drug Administration, concluded that removing menthol cigarettes from the marketplace would benefit public health. 1 Critics of menthol bans, however, report that such policies will have little benefit because menthol smokers will not quit after a ban and instead switch to non-menthol cigarettes and OTPs. 98 Concern about an increase in illicit trade of cigarettes is another argument against a ban. 98 In contrast, findings from this review suggest that menthol cigarette smokers quit smoking at relatively high rates after a menthol ban. Research from Canada found no increase in the number of illicit cigarettes seized after the ban. 66

A prior review concluded that there was moderate evidence flavored tobacco sales bans decrease tobacco use prevalence and low-quality evidence that a flavored tobacco sales ban has intended effects on quit attempts and cessation. 8 At the time of the prior review, the authors identified only one study conducted on quitting behavior after a menthol ban. The study found only 1 of 20 pre-ban menthol smokers quit after the comprehensive flavor ban in San Francisco. 28 Unlike the prior review, which was limited to US studies, the present review also included studies examining menthol bans implemented internationally. In this review, compared to non-menthol cigarette smokers, quit rates among menthol smokers were 7 to 12 percentage-points higher 1 to 2 years after menthol bans in Canada and the Netherlands. 20 , 21 , 23 More studies conducted in US cities have been published since the prior review. Research finds cigarette use declined at a faster rate in US cities with menthol bans as compared to those without. 29 Studies examining sales found significant declines in menthol cigarette sales and total cigarette sales after a menthol ban. 22 , 71 , 73–76 As expected, rates of continued menthol cigarette use were lower in settings of national bans and highest in settings of local or statewide menthol bans. 26 , 28 , 68 Individuals can more easily access menthol cigarettes in settings of local menthol bans by traveling to nearby jurisdictions without a ban. The effects of a ban on tobacco use behavior were also less pronounced in settings with policies that exempted particular store types like liquor stores. 77 , 78 In Poland, there was no significant change in cigarette sales after the menthol ban. 80 This may have been due to the relatively low share of menthol cigarette sales in the country. 80

In the US, racial/ethnic minority and lower-income smokers use menthol cigarettes at higher rates than non-Hispanic White and higher-income smokers, respectively. 4 Therefore, a menthol ban may promote cessation disproportionately among racial/ethnic minority and lower-income groups. Using simulation modeling, Levy et al. 52 and Issabakhsh et al. 53 estimated a 16% reduction in smoking prevalence in the total US population within 5 years after a menthol ban and 25.3% reduction among non-Hispanic black adults. 52 , 53 A menthol ban appears to be a strong policy option to support equity-focused goals.

Studies in this review highlight the importance of promoting retailer compliance, implementing comprehensive flavored products bans and preparing for the tobacco industry’s response to undermine flavor bans. Policy enforcement coupled with retailer education may help increase compliance. 95 In addition, studies suggest a menthol ban that is not comprehensive may slightly increase e-cigarette and OTP use. 15 , 17 , 59 , 60 Presently, bans on the sale of menthol cigarettes vary across US localities, and some policies do not apply to e-cigarettes. 5 Also, policies should anticipate the industry’s response by prohibiting new products like menthol accessories for cigarettes, synthetic coolants, and regulating changes to packaging. 84 , 99

There are limitations to this review. Not all studies examining the impact of menthol bans may have been identified because our search strategy may not have identified all relevant articles. We included abstracts and grey literature that emerged from our search but did not conduct a separate review of industry or sales data. In addition, there was significant heterogeneity in many of the pooled estimates from the meta-analysis. This is, in part, a result of the limited number of studies available. To date, studies examining real-world menthol bans that could be pooled were limited to those conducted in Canada and the Netherlands. In addition, it is common for I 2 values to be high in meta-analyses of proportions. 100 Another study found a median I 2 of 96.9% in 134 meta-analyses of proportions. 100 Researchers note that high I 2 values do not necessarily mean that study estimates are inconsistent. 100 Considering the expected range of estimates is recommended. 100 Also, the majority of studies evaluated in the meta-analysis were derived from studies of hypothesized behavior. Although rates of switching to non-menthol cigarettes in real-world studies were higher than studies of hypothesized behavior, estimates from real-world and hypothesized studies for the other tobacco use behavior outcomes examined were similar. Findings from hypothesized studies were also typically consistent with studies examining cigarette sales. In addition, studies in this review focused on pre-ban menthol cigarette smokers. Future studies should assess tobacco use behavior in the setting of menthol bans among other tobacco product users.

Menthol bans promote smoking cessation. This review provides a snapshot of what is known about the impacts of menthol bans. This literature is an evolving area as more localities and countries implement menthol bans, the tobacco industry responds to the changing regulatory environment with new products, and the longer-term impacts of menthol bans emerge.

Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Cancer Institute and FDA Center for Tobacco Products (K01CA242530). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health or the Food and Drug Administration.

KMR has served as a paid expert consultant representing plaintiffs in litigation against e-cigarette and tobacco companies. All other authors have no conflicts of interest.

Sarah Mills (Conceptualization [lead], Data curation [lead], Formal analysis [lead], Funding acquisition [lead], Project administration [lead], Supervision [lead], Writing—original draft [lead], Writing—review & editing [lead]), Snigdha Peddireddy (Formal analysis [supporting], Writing—original draft [supporting], Writing—review & editing [supporting]), Rachel Kurtzman (Formal analysis [supporting], Writing—original draft [supporting], Writing—review & editing [supporting]), Frantasia Hill (Formal analysis [supporting], Writing—original draft [supporting], Writing—review & editing [supporting]), Victor Catalan (Formal analysis [supporting], Writing—original draft [supporting], Writing—review & editing [supporting]), Jennifer Bissram (Data curation [equal], Methodology [supporting]), and Kurt Ribisl (Conceptualization [supporting], Funding acquisition [supporting], Supervision [supporting], Writing—review & editing [supporting])

Tobacco Products Scientific Advisory Committee . Menthol cigarettes and public health: review of the scientific evidence and recommendations . 2011 . https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170404143901/ https://www.fda.gov/AdvisoryCommittees/CommitteesMeetingMaterials/TobaccoProductsScientificAdvisoryCommittee/ucm237359.htm . Accessed January 4, 2023 .

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Chiral Meissner state in time-reversal invariant Weyl superconductors

Vira shyta, jeroen van den brink, and flavio s. nogueira, phys. rev. research 6 , 013240 – published 5 march 2024.

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  • INTRODUCTION
  • VORTEX IN TRI WEYL SC
  • MEISSNER STATE
  • CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
  • ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Weyl semimetals have nodes in their electronic structure at which electrons attain a definite chirality. Due to the chiral anomaly, the nonconservation of charges with given chirality, the axion term appears in their effective electromagnetic action. We determine how this affects the properties of time-reversal invariant Weyl superconductors (SCs) in the London regime. For type II SCs the axion coupling generates magnetic B fields transverse to vortices, which become unstable at a critical coupling so that a transition into type I SC ensues. In this regime an applied B field not only decays inside the SC within the London penetration depth, but the axion coupling generates an additional perpendicular field. Consequently, when penetrating into the bulk the B field starts to steadily rotate away from the applied field. At a critical coupling the screening of the magnetic field breaks down. The novel chiral superconducting state that emerges has a periodically divergent susceptibility that separates onsets of chiral Meissner regimes. The chiral anomaly thus leaves very crisp experimental signatures in structurally chiral Weyl SCs with an axion response.

Figure

  • Received 9 October 2023
  • Revised 22 January 2024
  • Accepted 9 February 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.013240

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  • Physical Systems

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  • 1 Institute for Theoretical Solid State Physics, IFW Dresden, Helmholtzstr. 20, 01069 Dresden, Germany
  • 2 Institute for Theoretical Physics and Würzburg-Dresden Cluster of Excellence ct.qmat, TU Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany

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Vol. 6, Iss. 1 — March - May 2024

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  • Condensed Matter Physics
  • Superconductivity

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Magnetic induction profiles for different values of the axion coupling a [(a) and (b) for the field components B φ and B z , respectively]. Fields are plotted in units of M 2 Φ 0 / ( 2 π ) against the radial coordinate r in units of M . (c) and (d) correspond to a situation where a is very close to the critical value a c = 2 M for which the vortex solution ceases to exist. We note that as a approaches a c from below the field profiles start to become more oscillatory. The onset of these spatial oscillations is illustrated by the three-dimensional plots for B z in (e) and (f).

(a) and (b) Magnetic field components of a semi-infinite superconductor located at x > 0 and in the presence of an applied magnetic field, B ap = B ap y ̂ . The chiral magnetic screening occurs for a < a c (a) and is absent for a ≥ a c (b). (c)–(f) Magnetic field profiles in a finite TRI Weyl SC. At (c)–(e) we have a < a c , corresponding to a = 0.4 a c ,   a = 0.75 a c , and a = 0.95 a c , respectively. We can see once more the onset of spatial oscillations in the magnetic induction as a increases. In (f) a = 1.1 a c leading to the case where the axion coupling completely dominates over Meissner screening.

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    Set a 1-inch (2.54 centimeter) margin on all sides. The running head should be aligned to the left at the top of the page. The abstract should be on the second page of the paper (the first one is reserved for the title). Avoid indentations, unless you must include a keywords section at the end of the abstract.

  10. PDF How to Write an Abstract Proposal

    An abstract is a brief summary of a completed research/innovation project. What should an abstract include? An abstract should include the following components: 1. ... that offer new conclusions that contribute to GME research and practice. Innovation Abstracts include completed programs, projects, or strategies, with measurable results, that ...

  11. How to write an abstract that will be accepted

    An abstract comprises five parts of equal importance: the title, introduction and aims, methods, results, and conclusion. Allow enough time to write each part well. The title should go straight to the point of the study. Make the study sound interesting so that it catches people's attention. The introduction should include a brief background ...

  12. How to Write an Abstract?

    An abstract is a crisp, short, powerful, and self-contained summary of a research manuscript used to help the reader swiftly determine the paper's purpose. Although the abstract is the first paragraph of the manuscript it should be written last when all the other sections have been addressed. Research is formalized curiosity.

  13. How to Write an Abstract

    Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary. Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings. Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar. Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors.

  14. The Writing Center

    An abstract is a 150- to 250-word paragraph that provides readers with a quick overview of your essay or report and its organization. It should express your thesis (or central idea) and your key points; it should also suggest any implications or applications of the research you discuss in the paper. According to Carole Slade, an abstract is ...

  15. How To Write An Effective Research Abstract

    Key Components of an Effective Abstract. Concise: It's a concise description of your research: 150-200 words. Tense Usage: Since you're describing completed work, it should be written in the past tense. Choose the Right Voice: Since you're describing the work you performed, it should be written in an active rather than passive voice.

  16. Research Paper Abstract

    Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research paper that describes the study's purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions. It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper's content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around ...

  17. What Exactly is an Abstract?

    Overview. An abstract is a short summary of your completed research. It is intended to describe your work without going into great detail. Abstracts should be self-contained and concise, explaining your work as briefly and clearly as possible. Different disciplines call for slightly different approaches to abstracts, as will be illustrated by ...

  18. How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper

    While your research paper may delve into various details and nuances, your abstract should focus on the most crucial elements. Identify the core components of your study—the problem, methodology, findings, and conclusions—and ensure that these elements are prominently featured in your abstract. 5. Active voice narration.

  19. How To Write an Abstract in 7 Steps (With an Example)

    Here are the basic steps to follow when writing an abstract: 1. Write your paper. Since the abstract is a summary of a research paper, the first step is to write your paper. Even if you know what you will be including in your paper, it's always best to save your abstract for the end so you can accurately summarize the findings you describe in ...

  20. PDF Abstract and Keywords Guide, APA Style 7th Edition

    Abstract Format. recommended fonts: 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode, 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, or 10-point Computer Modern2. 1-in. margins on all sides. placement: second page of the paper. section label: "Abstract". ° centered and in bold. ° written on the first line of the page.

  21. How to Create an APA Abstract: Structure, Formatting, and Length

    The essential elements of an APA abstract are: Running header containing the title of the paper and page number. Section label, centered and in bold, containing the word "abstract". The main content of the abstract, 150-250 words in length and double-spaced. A list of keywords, indented and introduced with the word "keywords" in italics.

  22. How to Write a Good Abstract: 4 Essential Elements

    An abstract is a summary of your research paper, thesis, or scientific paper. The abstract describes an unpublished or published research study in capsule form. It is a brief overview of the investigation so that researchers can comprehend the content of the research quickly. A good abstract is a mini-version of the whole research paper.

  23. 15 Abstract Examples: A Comprehensive Guide

    Informative Abstract Example 8. Mindfulness-based meditation and mindfulness-based stress reduction techniques have been shown to reduce burnout and improve employee engagement. Using a pretest/posttest design, the researchers randomly assigned nurses (n = 136) to the control and experimental groups.

  24. Abstract PR-008: Modeling epigenetic lesions that cause gliomas

    Abstract. Epigenetic lesions that disrupt gene regulatory elements and expression are increasingly recognized as potential drivers of human cancers. However, we currently lack the in vitro and in vivo models required to functionally validate such lesions and their tumorigenic impact. Here we model aberrations that arise in Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (IDH) mutant lower-grade gliomas, which ...

  25. [2402.15391] Genie: Generative Interactive Environments

    Download PDF HTML (experimental) Abstract: We introduce Genie, the first generative interactive environment trained in an unsupervised manner from unlabelled Internet videos. The model can be prompted to generate an endless variety of action-controllable virtual worlds described through text, synthetic images, photographs, and even sketches.

  26. Impact of Menthol Cigarette Bans: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

    Three studies from the same research group used simulation modeling to estimate the potential effects of a menthol ban in the US. 51-53 If a menthol ban were implemented in 2021, overall smoking prevalence was estimated to decline by 16% within 5 years post-ban. 52 Among non-Hispanic Black adults, smoking prevalence would decline by 25.3%. 53 ...

  27. EpimAb Biotherapeutics to Present Late-breaking Abstract on ...

    SHANGHAI--(BUSINESS WIRE)-- EpimAb Biotherapeutics a global clinical stage biotechnology company specializing in the development of bispecific antibodies, is pleased to announce the acceptance of a late-breaking abstract featuring our novel T-cell engager (TCE) EMB-07 as a poster presentation at the American Association for Cancer Research (AACR) Annual Meeting in San Diego, California between ...

  28. Phys. Rev. Research 6, 013240 (2024)

    Phys. Rev. Research 6, 013240 - Published 5 March 2024. More. ... Abstract . Weyl semimetals have nodes in their electronic structure at which electrons attain a definite chirality. Due to the chiral anomaly, the nonconservation of charges with given chirality, the axion term appears in their effective electromagnetic action. ...

  29. Submit Abstracts for CHOP Research Poster Day 2024

    Abstracts are due Saturday, April 6, at 11:59 p.m. Researchers may submit only one abstract. A maximum of 114 abstracts will be accepted on a first-come, first-serve basis. Only presenters who have completed the abstract submission form by the deadline will be accommodated. All submitted abstracts will be judged; there is no display-only option.