Simple English definitions for legal terms
foreign assignment
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A quick definition of foreign assignment:
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Definition: A foreign assignment is a transfer of rights or property from one person to another in a foreign country or another jurisdiction . It can also refer to a task, job, or appointment given to someone in a foreign country.
Example: A company based in the United States sends one of its employees to work in their branch office in Japan. This is a foreign assignment because the employee is being transferred to a different country to work.
Explanation: In this example, the employee is being assigned to work in a foreign country, Japan. The transfer of the employee's rights and responsibilities from the US office to the Japan office is considered a foreign assignment.
foreign apposer | foreign bill of exchange
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A Successful International Assignment Depends on These Factors
- Boris Groysberg
- Robin Abrahams
Your marriage, your family, and your career will all benefit from advance planning.
The prospect of an international assignment can be equal parts thrilling and alarming: Will it make or break your career? What will it do to your life at home and the people you love? When you’re thinking about relocating, you start viewing questions of work and family — difficult enough under ordinary circumstances — through a kind of high-contrast, maximum-drama filter.
- BG Boris Groysberg is a professor of business administration in the Organizational Behavior unit at Harvard Business School and a faculty affiliate at the school’s Race, Gender & Equity Initiative. He is the coauthor, with Colleen Ammerman, of Glass Half-Broken: Shattering the Barriers That Still Hold Women Back at Work (Harvard Business Review Press, 2021). bgroysberg
- Robin Abrahams is a research associate at Harvard Business School.
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Overseas Assignments
Transition Center
An overseas assignment translates to months of preparation and planning. U.S. government employees and their family members assigned to a U.S. embassy or consulate overseas can visit the Overseas Briefing Center (OBC) in Arlington, VA to use their collection of resources for researching overseas posts and the logistics of an international move. Hours of operation .
Country Bidding Information
- OBC’s listing of country bidding resources assists in discovering more about an overseas location.
- U.S. government employees and their eligible family members who are bidding on or assigned to a U.S. embassy or consulate overseas can access post-specific information via the OBC’s Post Info To Go websites. For more information, contact the OBC .
Resources for an International Move to a Mission Overseas
- Activities to encourage curiosity and discovery
- Quotes from kids who have experienced moving overseas
- Games to prompt discussion, and more!
- ZINES! A new series of Teen Zine tell the stories of kids who travel from post to post and their struggle to find their place in the world, figure out a new school, find new friends, manage relationships, and handle the bumps along the way. Overall resilience themes are incorporated, including maintaining a positive attitude, finding one’s meaning and purpose, active problem-solving, self-care as the key to well-being, supportive social relationships, and developing a growth mindset. Download a PDF of the first ZINE: Transitions . Download a PDF of the second ZINE: Identity .
- The Foreign Service Assignment Notebook: What Do I Do Now? offers invaluable information and guidance for an international move and assignment to a U.S. embassy or consulate abroad. Topics include: overview of a U.S. Mission, children in the Foreign Service, resilience, post research, packing to go, finances, family member employment, insurance, traveling with pets, and more.
- For iOS: Apple’s App Store
- For Android: Google Play
Learn about Allowances for an International Move
- Department of State employees heading on assignment overseas are eligible for certain allowances, as outlined on the Office of Allowances website. Here is a quick guide to Allowances for Transitions .
Annual KidVid Contest
- The Foreign Service Institute’s Overseas Briefing Center (OBC), in collaboration with the Foreign Service Youth Foundation (FSYF), hosts the annual worldwide KidVid Contest. Contestants submit an original video that depicts life for Foreign Service youth at their post. The purpose of this contest is to develop a library of videos that will help FS families anticipate what life overseas is like from a kid’s perspective. The Overseas Briefing Center administers the contest and FSYF awards cash prizes to winners. Foreign Service youth, ages 10-18 who are posted overseas, are eligible to enter this contest.
Traveling with a Pet to an International Location Outside of the United States
- Getting a pet to a foreign country involves understanding country-specific import restrictions, paperwork procedures, and the various offices involved in the process. OBC’s guidelines for pet shipping are invaluable to understanding Pets and International Travel . U.S. government employees heading to a U.S. embassy or consulate overseas can contact the OBC for detailed country-specific guidelines.
Online Training Resources for an International Assignment
- Protocol for the Modern Diplomat – Ask OBC for this booklet designed to help readers master the basics of diplomatic protocol.
The Overseas Briefing Center staff is available to answer questions, share valuable resources, and assist with transition concerns. U.S. government employees assigned to an overseas U.S. Mission can contact the OBC for more information.
U.S. Department of State
The lessons of 1989: freedom and our future.
The Mercer Mobility Exchange website and its divisional websites may be translated for your convenience using translation software powered by Google Translate, a free online language translation service that can translate text and web pages into different languages. Reasonable efforts have been made to verify the reliability of the translation service, however, no automated translation is perfect nor is it intended to replace human translators. Mercer does not guarantee the accuracy of the translated text. Some pages may not be accurately translated due to the limitations of the translation software. Text in images, PDF files, Word documents or other document types cannot be translated. The official text is the English version of the website. Any discrepancies or differences created in the translation are not binding and have no legal effect for compliance or enforcement purposes. If any questions arise related to the accuracy of the information contained in the translated website, please refer to the English version of the website which is the official version
Managing international foreign hires
Policies, processes and best practices
Hiring foreign employees for permanent overseas assignments has long been part of how corporations do business. The reasons for hiring international foreign workers are varied; they include difficulty sourcing in-house or local talent, a drive to establish a more international workforce and cost-reduction.
The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated this trend in recent months and changed the way some organizations operate. On the one hand, businesses have had to think differently about their workforces, finding innovative ways to access talent, which has led to rethinking global mobility. On the other, factors such as increased global mobility compliance requirements, cost-cutting measures and travel restrictions have forced changes in employee mobility programs.
These pressures have resulted in an increase in international local hires and the policies and processes involved in managing international foreign hires.
This guide outlines the various approaches to acquiring and retaining international talent and offers actionable recommendations on best practices based on our extensive experience and the latest market research .
What is an international foreign hire?
The definition of an international foreign hire can vary from business to business, including the following:
- A foreigner (a non-local employee) hired from outside the country of employment
- An external candidate recruited from another country to work permanently for an organization
- An external candidate recruited for a permanent role in a market that differs from the one in which the candidate is currently based
However, any international foreign hire will involve the permanent transfer of a locally hired foreigner on an international assignment.
Policy approaches and segmentation
Findings from Mercer's 2021 International Foreign Hires survey report suggest that establishing a formal policy framework for managing global foreign hires is a work in progress, reflecting the rising profile of this employee group.
Almost half of the 112 organizations surveyed (46%) have a policy or guidelines specifically written for international foreign hires, and a further 11% use their permanent transfer policies (which are often quite suitable for what is typically a similar cohort of employees). Of those companies without a policy in place, more than a quarter (26%) are planning to implement such a policy but have not yet introduced it, while less than one-fifth (18%) of companies have no policy at all.
A certain degree of flexibility in a company’s international foreign hire policy is crucial. Depending on circumstances, the policy may be applied, adapted or segmented in different ways. The criticality of the move is often a major factor. For instance, entitlements may be approached with greater flexibility when a strategic international leader is hired. Similarly, emphasis on certain benefits may be greater for more senior hires or for employer-initiated moves. Different business units within an organization may also have different approaches due to cost constraints, and policy decisions may differ according to the country or region hiring.
You should consider case-by-case flexibility depending on the circumstances. Nevertheless, international foreign hire policies should contain core mandatory entitlements, including compliance-related components, to ensure all policies meet a basic standard of provisions.
Policy and process clarification
Compensation
Companies use various pay structures for international foreign hires. The Mercer spot survey shows almost half (46%) pay on the basis of the local market, but one-fifth of companies have adopted “local plus” compensation, and another fifth calculate it on a case-by-case basis. Only 7% pay in line with the employee’s previous or home country.
When considering compensation, organizations are often uncertain whether they should adopt a local or local-plus approach — one that incorporates additional benefits, such as housing and international schooling support. As mentioned above, we recommend that international foreign hire policies include a mandatory core level of package for consistency. However, for business-critical moves or positions above a certain job grade, a local-plus approach may offer greater flexibility to make the package attractive for the employee.
Cost projections
Should organizations perform cost estimates for their international foreign hires? If so, who should be responsible for carrying them out, and what should these cost estimates look like? Assuming cost control is crucial for the business sponsoring the move and cost projections are part of the international assignment process, logically, these should apply to permanent transfers as well.
If an organization uses a net-to-net compensation approach (in which costs need to be grossed up for taxes and social security in the hiring country), specific tools are available on the market for such calculations.
Given the numerous and complex compliance issues involved with international foreign hire cost planning (for example, defining the tax and social security positions), we believe it makes sense for the company’s global mobility function to be responsible for overseeing and managing cost projections.
Process and vendor management
When it comes to managing internal processes and any external providers related to international foreign hire policies — such as tax, immigration and relocation providers — there are important decisions to consider, especially if the organization has a decentralized structure. Does it make sense to continue using local country processes and service providers the organization may already have in place, or should the company engage a global vendor and move to a global approach?
Again, in terms of practicality and overall business consistency, we advise that organizations follow and implement the same processes for their international foreign hires as those already in place for international assignees. In some companies, local HR may oversee the deployment of foreign hires. In that case, HR should liaise with the global mobility function to leverage that team’s established global vendors, resources and specialist expertise.
Provision of benefits such as pensions, social security and health insurance can pose significant challenges when it comes to international foreign hires. Certain countries do not permit foreign employees to be covered under social security and pension schemes. In these cases, companies may need to consider alternative solutions. The use of an international pension plan is one possibility but may not be an ideal solution, as international plans can have certain disadvantages for the employee.
Healthcare, too, may pose challenges. To begin with, not all countries are able to offer the level of medical care foreign employees expect. At a more individual level, employees may be excluded from local private health insurance plans due to age or medical history. In such situations, the company may need to step in and provide international health insurance.
Given the importance of supporting and promoting employees’ health and well-being, consulting with the global mobility team on these issues is vital.
Allowances and entitlements
A number of entitlements and support services are typically included in international foreign hire policies.
Core support
The compliance-related elements of a package involve support with immigration and taxes and are provided by most organizations. These elements include work and residency permits for employees and their families and tax advice or support for what can be a complex process (especially in the first year, which is likely to be split between tax jurisdictions).
Transitional support
These cash or benefit-in-kind components help a family settle into the new location and may include relocation allowance, a pre-hire visit to the new location, shipment of household goods, temporary housing on arrival, language and cultural support, and spouse support.
Local-plus support
Housing and schooling may be an ongoing part of a local-plus package or may be a fixed-term benefit or phased out over time.
Other benefits
These include alternative social security and pension schemes as well as private healthcare and other insurance coverage. As we have seen, provision of such benefits is likely to be shaped by the social security systems in the countries involved and the personal circumstances of the employee.
The Mercer International Foreign Hires survey found that 93% of organizations provide immigration assistance, with temporary housing support, relocation travel and shipment of household belongings offered by almost 80%. More than two-thirds make tax support services available, and over half provide settling-in services.
In summary - recommendations and takeaways
- If the organization has a global mobility program in place, don’t reinvent the wheel: Use the existing, tested processes for international transfers.
- If the global mobility function has service agreements already set up with specialist providers, use them. They are experts in international moves, and you may also benefit from renegotiated fees if they are dealing with greater volumes of business from the organization.
- Ensure international foreign hire policies are well balanced, in line and consistent with the organization’s other international hire packages
- Be prepared to be flexible : Managers and HR business partners know how difficult it may be to recruit the best talent.
- When assigning international foreign hire packages, be sure to consider any existing diversity and inclusion principles as well as the company’s employee value proposition .
- Establish a business case and cost-projection process to compare the benefits of alternative scenarios. This provides full transparency and demonstrates that the chosen route is the best solution for the circumstances.
- Understand the compliance and benefits landscapes of different countries and the possible risks specific to them.
- If you don’t have a suitable policy in place , establish a joint task force with all stakeholders, especially global mobility, to determine the most appropriate international hire approach for your company.
To learn more about managing international foreign hires, contact a Mercer consultant today.
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Events and training Throughout the year, Mercer conducts a variety of free webinars and paid training sessions, online and in person, to help you keep pace with the evolution of international talent mobility and global workforce management.
Policy benchmarking Gain insights into your peers' international assignment programs and global mobility policies and practices. Participate in Mercer surveys to access unique benchmarking solutions.
Need help? Whether your organization is looking to create a global mobility program, enhance the one you currently have, or get answers to any issues or concern you're facing, we can help.
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International Assignment Agreement
Jump to section, what is an international assignment agreement.
An international assignment agreement is a contract between an employer and employee that formally assigns the latter to a position in a foreign country. Several pieces of important information are contained within this contract, such as where the assignment is, how travel and lodging costs will be paid, how much the compensation is, and how long the assignment will last. It also lays out specific terms and conditions surrounding how to shorten or lengthen the assignment and what will take place if unforeseen circumstances occur, such as random acts of nature.
Common Sections in International Assignment Agreements
Below is a list of common sections included in International Assignment Agreements. These sections are linked to the below sample agreement for you to explore.
International Assignment Agreement Sample
Reference : Security Exchange Commission - Edgar Database, EX-10.10 25 dex1010.htm INTERNATIONAL ASSIGNMENT AGREEMENT - JOHN TOWNSEND , Viewed September 16, 2022, View Source on SEC .
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Meet some of our International Assignment Agreement Lawyers
A corporate and commercial attorney with experience in transactional legal services including corporate and finance transactions, mergers and acquisitions, real estate, commercial contracts, bankruptcy, restructuring, international business transactions and general counsel services. Additional background skills and experience include investment banking, financial analysis, and commercial litigation. Sectors covered include technology, media, franchises, and business services providers, from start-ups to medium and large enterprises.
Daliah Saper operates a cutting-edge internet and social media law practice that regularly leads local and national media outlets to solicit her commentary on emerging internet law issues involving cyberbullying, sexting, catfishing, revenge porn, anonymous online defamation, domain name and user-name squatting, privacy, and the latest business decisions made by social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube. As a litigator Daliah represents companies bringing or defending business and intellectual property disputes. (She has argued cases in a number of jurisdictions including taking a case all the way to the Illinois Supreme Court.) As a transactional lawyer she helps clients choose the right business entity, drafts contracts and licensing agreements, advises on sweepstakes and contest rules, and ensures website terms of use and privacy policies are compliant, and provides comprehensive trademark and copyright counseling. Since founding Saper Law Offices in 2005, Daliah has been named a 40 Under 40 by Law Bulletin Publishing Co., a top Media & Advertising attorney by Super Lawyers Magazine 14 years in a row, and has been repeatedly recognized as a leading media and entertainment lawyer by Chambers and Partners. For the past eleven years, she also has taught entertainment and social media law at Loyola University Chicago School of Law.
Alen Aydinian is a seasoned real estate attorney with a wealth of experience in handling transactional matters, real estate transactions, and lease agreements. As a licensed real estate broker, Alen Aydinian brings a unique perspective to the table, allowing clients to benefit from both legal expertise and practical industry knowledge. He is a trusted advisor in the realm of real estate transactions and lease agreements. Whether representing buyers, sellers, landlords, or tenants, Alen Aydinian is committed to providing strategic counsel and dedicated advocacy every step of the way. Clients rely on him for sound legal guidance, proactive problem-solving, and unwavering support throughout the transaction process.
The Law Office of George K. Fuiaxis, from the very beginning in 2002, has built a reputation with its clients as an unmatched, diligent, hands on law practice that is always on duty to find the best course of action for its clients. With a supreme pledge of exceptional service to its clients in the areas of Real Estate (Commercial & Residential), Loan Modifications, Intellectual Property, Corporate Law & Business Transactions, Wills, Trusts & Estates, the Law Office of George K. Fuiaxis creates solutions for the many faceted problems faced by its clients. The office represents several various clients, including well known lending institutions, foreign and domestic corporations, sellers and buyers of residential and commercial real estate, residential and commercial landlords and tenants, well known restaurant and business owners, automobile dealerships, airline companies, well known fashion, sports and entertainment industry individuals and corporations, information technology (IT) startups and well known IT companies.
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Mr. Mehdipour attended the University of California San Diego where he received his degree in political science. After graduating from UCSD, Mr. Mehdipour attended Southwestern University School of Law where he received his JD. Upon passing the bar, Mr. Mehdipour gained invaluable experience both in a law firm and business setting. Mr. Mehdipour uses his prior business and legal experiences to negotiate the most advantageous results for his clients.
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Example sentences overseas assignments
Even spending a lot of time on short-term overseas assignments without having to relocate can entitle executives to a 20% 'disruption allowance'.
I have had several long-term overseas assignments while working for an international company.
Men get to the top by seeking out powerful mentors, demanding overseas assignments , attending executive programmes of top business schools and making sure they are in business critical roles.
In contrast, the tax-free allowances paid during overseas assignments (especially the housing allowances) are generally considered to be an incentive to serve overseas, as they can be quite generous.
Definition of 'assignment' assignment
Definition of 'overseas' overseas
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Dictionary.net
- FOREIGN ASSIGNMENT
Definitions of FOREIGN ASSIGNMENT
- 1910 - Black's Law Dictionary (2nd edition)
An assignment made in a foreign country , or in another state . 2 Kent, Comm. 405, et seq.
Word of the day
Imbellishing.
- n. (Milt.). Same as EMBELLISHMENT.
Nearby Words
- foreign administrator
- foreign affairs, secretary of
- foreign agent
- foreign agents registration act
- foreign aid
- foreign attachment
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What Is an Expatriate?
Understanding expatriates.
- Retiring Abroad
Foreign Earned Income Exclusion
Foreign tax credit, expatriation tax.
- Pros and Cons of an Expatriate
The Bottom Line
- Taxpayer Types
Expatriate (Expat): Definition, With Pros/Cons of Living Abroad
Julia Kagan is a financial/consumer journalist and former senior editor, personal finance, of Investopedia.
Lea Uradu, J.D. is a Maryland State Registered Tax Preparer, State Certified Notary Public, Certified VITA Tax Preparer, IRS Annual Filing Season Program Participant, and Tax Writer.
Investopedia / Julie Bang
An expatriate, or expat, is an individual living and/or working in a country other than their country of citizenship, often temporarily and for work reasons. An expatriate can also be an individual who has relinquished citizenship in their home country to become a citizen of another.
Key Takeaways
- An expatriate is somebody who has left their country of origin in order to reside in another country.
- Expats may leave home for work reasons and seek more lucrative employment in a different country.
- Expatriates may live for a while overseas or completely renounce their citizenship of one country in favor of another.
- Retiring abroad has become an increasingly popular option.
- The IRS may impose an expatriation tax on individuals who renounce their citizenship, usually based on the value of a taxpayer's property or income in the United States.
An expatriate is a migrant worker who is a professional or skilled worker in their profession. The worker takes a position outside of their home country, either independently or as a work assignment scheduled by the employer, which can be a company, university, government, or non-governmental organization.
If your employer sends you from your job in its Silicon Valley office to work for an extended period in its Toronto office, you would be considered an expatriate or "expat" after you arrive in Toronto.
Expats usually earn more than they would at home, and more than local employees. In addition to salary, businesses sometimes give their expatriate employees benefits such as relocation assistance and housing allowance. The expat will need to open a local bank account that will allow them to function in their new home.
Living as an expatriate can be exciting and present an excellent opportunity for career advancement and global business exposure, but it can also be an emotionally difficult transition that involves separation from friends and family while adjusting to an unfamiliar culture and work environment. Hence, the reason behind the higher compensation offered to these migrant workers.
Special Considerations: Retiring Abroad
Much expatriation occurs during retirement. While most Americans spend their retirement in the U.S., a growing number are opting to retire overseas . People are motivated to relocate abroad at an older age for several reasons , including lower cost of living, better climate, access to beaches, or some combination of those and other reasons. However, it can also be tricky to navigate taxes, long-stay visas, and the language and cultural differences experienced when settling down in other countries.
Popular retirement destinations include countries in Central and South America, the Mediterranean, and parts of Europe.
A common choice presented to a retiree expat is between permanent residency and dual citizenship. Note that neither dual citizenship nor residency gets you out of filing a U.S. tax return every year. It is both surprising and burdensome, but Americans still have to pay income taxes wherever they live, and they owe it no matter where their income was earned.
You may also have to file an income tax return in your country of residence, although most deduct the amount American residents pay to the U.S. via treaties that minimize double taxation.
If you're a retiree or near-retiree who's on the fence, you face a tough decision that will require some soul searching and research—and maybe a trip abroad (or several) to test the waters before you make any decisions.
For Americans working abroad as expatriates, complying with United States income tax regulations is an added challenge and financial burden because the U.S. taxes its citizens on income earned abroad. To avoid double taxation , the U.S. tax code contains provisions that help to reduce tax liability . Taxes paid in a foreign country can be used as a tax credit in the U.S., which when applied against the expat’s tax bill, reduces it.
The Foreign Earned Income Exclusion (FEIE) , for example, allows expats to exclude from their tax returns a certain amount of their foreign income, which is indexed to inflation. For 2023, this amount is $120,000. For 2024, it is $126,500. An expat that earns, say $180,000 in 2023 from their job in a foreign country that is tax-free will only need to pay U.S. federal income tax on $180,000 - $120,00 = $60,000.
The FEIE does not apply to rental income or investment income. Therefore, any income made from interest or capital gains from investments will have to be reported to the IRS. The Foreign Tax Credit (FTC) is a provision that ensures expats are not double-taxed on their capital gains.
For example, assume an expat falls in the 35% income tax bracket in the U.S. This means their long-term capital gain on any investment is taxed at 15%.
Since the FTC provides a dollar-for-dollar credit against taxes paid to a foreign country if the expat paid 10% tax to the country where they work, they'd only have to pay 5% tax to the U.S. Likewise, if they pay no tax to the foreign country, they’ll owe the full 15% tax to the U.S. government.
If the income tax paid to a foreign government far exceeds the amount of the credit (because the foreign tax rate far exceeded the U.S. rate), the expat will forfeit that amount. The credit, however, can be carried into the future.
An individual who has renounced their citizenship in their home country and moves to another is also referred to as an expatriate for tax purposes and is subject to an exit tax known as expatriation tax .
According to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), the expatriation tax provisions apply to U.S. citizens who have renounced their citizenship and long-term residents who have ended their U.S. residency for tax purposes, if one of the principal purposes of the action is the avoidance of U.S. taxes .
This emigration tax applies to individuals who:
- Have a net worth of at least $2 million on the date of expatriation or termination of residency
- Have an average annual net income tax liability that is more than $190,000 if the expatriation date was in 2023 ($201,000 if the expatriation date is in 2024) over the five years ending before the date of expatriation or termination of residency
- Do not (or cannot) certify five years of U.S. tax compliance for the five years preceding the date of their expatriation or termination of residency
Advantages and Disadvantages of Becoming an Expatriate
Living and working in another country for an extended period of time can have its benefits. These can range from new experiences and adventure to more practical considerations like a lower cost of living or being closer to extended family abroad. Depending on where you settle, you may also get government perks like free healthcare and education and more favorable taxation.
There are also some potential drawbacks. Regarding taxation, unless you fully relinquish your American citizenship, you will still need to file tax returns each year and may need to pay taxes to Uncle Sam, even on income earned in your new country.
You'll also be a long way from home, potentially. This can make seeing friends and family more difficult, and time zone differences can also interfere with finding a good time to link up by phone or video chat. Learning a new language and customs can also be difficult for some, and certain items or products that you like may not be available where you live. And remember that not all countries enjoy the same level of political and economic stability that the U.S. does.
New experiences and maybe a better climate
Potentially lower cost of living
Potential access to affordable healthcare
Potential for double taxation
Long way away from friends and family
Language, cultural, political, and economic barriers
Potential challenges securing the proper visa
What Does It Mean to Become an Expatriate?
An expatriate or "expat" is somebody who leaves their country of origin and settles abroad for an extended period of time, often permanently.
What Is Expat Taxation?
Americans living overseas still have to file U.S. tax returns unless they relinquish their American citizenship. Several international tax treaties exist to help minimize double taxation.
What Is an Expat Community?
When people relocate to a foreign country, they often find comfort in seeking out other foreigners, especially from their home country. Expat communities are enclaves of people from a similar national origin, often with their own school and shopping options. In many countries, English-speaking enclaves are called "Anglo" communities.
Expats typically have to navigate a complex web of tax rules and regulations, which can be challenging to understand and comply with. Though retiring abroad to a lower cost of living, there are retirement considerations to comply with. In addition, expat U.S. Federal taxes are complicated, though they may rely on tax credits and income exclusions to receive favorable U.S. tax treatment.
Bonache, Jaime, and et al. " The Interaction of Expatriate Pay Differential and Expatriate Inputs on Host Country Nationals' Pay Unfairness ." The International Journal of Human Resource Management , vol. 20, no. 10, October 2009, pp. 2137.
The Wall Street Journal. " Americans are Saving Money by Retiring Overseas ," Slide 2.
International Living. " The World’s Best Places to Retire in 2023 ."
World Economic Forum. " The World's Best Retirement Destinations Might Surprise You ."
Internal Revenue Service. " Publication 54, Tax Guide for U.S. Citizens and Resident Aliens Abroad ," Page 3.
Internal Revenue Service. " Tax Treaties ."
Internal Revenue Service. " IRS Provides Tax Inflation Adjustments for Tax Year 2024 ."
Internal Revenue Service. " Foreign Earned Income Exclusion ."
Internal Revenue Service. " Publication 54, Tax Guide for U.S. Citizens and Resident Aliens Abroad ," Page 15-16.
Internal Revenue Service. " Foreign Tax Credit ."
Internal Revenue Service. " Topic No. 409, Capital Gains and Losses ."
Internal Revenue Service. " Foreign Taxes that Qualify for the Foreign Tax Credit ."
Internal Revenue Service. " Publication 54, Tax Guide for U.S. Citizens and Resident Aliens Abroad ," Page 24.
Internal Revenue Service. " Publication 519, U.S. Tax Guide for Aliens ," Pages 23-24.
Internal Revenue Service. " Expatriation Tax ."
Internal Revenue Service. " 26 CFR 601.602: Tax Forms and Instructions; Rev. Proc. 2023-34 ," Page 21.
Internal Revenue Service. " 26 CFR 601.602: Tax Forms and Instructions: Rev. Proc. 2022-38 ," Page 19.
Internal Revenue Service. " Publication 519, U.S. Tax Guide for Aliens ," Page 24.
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International Assignments: Who's Going Where and Why?
What does the global-mobility landscape look like today?
According to global relocation services provider Cartus’ recent 2013 Trends in Global Relocation Survey, younger employees are most interested in taking international relocation assignments, with career development being the main reason, and sequential assignments are on the rise.
The survey’s findings shed light on who companies are moving (and where), what criteria they are using to select their mobile talent, and how they’re linking talent management to global mobility.
Assignee Demographics
The demographics of the expatriate population appear to be steady in terms of gender, with the percentages of both men (79 percent) and women (21 percent) shifting only slightly from 2012.
Generation X employees (56 percent) represent the largest age group of transferees. Baby Boomers (20 percent) posted a slight increase over 2012, while the youngest group—Millennials, or Generation Y (20 percent)—showed a significant increase.
Married expats with accompanying families are still the most common but have become a smaller percentage of global workers over the past six years. The category of those “married and traveling solo” has gained the most in percentage points over this period.
In general, younger, single male employees are showing the highest interest in global assignments, according to the survey. Women, Baby Boomers and employees with families are showing less interest in working abroad.
This profile holds true when the destination is an emerging market.
“Given the issues with schooling, housing and in many cases security, the lack of interest among assignees with families is not surprising,” the report said.
Some of the respondents’ comments include:
- “Dubai and the Middle East have their limitations for certain lifestyles. People with family are not so open to move their family to areas with little infrastructure.”
- “There is low interest in African regions.”
- “Employees seem to be less interested in going to certain locations if assignment allowances do not properly reflect the hardships that exist in the new work/life environment.”
- “As the quality of lifestyle in emerging markets can vary when compared to a developed country, it is difficult for entire families to relocate to these types of countries. We have implemented two-year assignments in these regions, which seem to be working, with a limited time in more challenging environments.”
- “Although Millennials are interested in these types of assignments, we need highly experienced people to go in and develop our emerging markets, so sometimes the interest and the experience needed to be successful are out of sync.”
- “Employees with families tend to shy away from emerging markets. They look for places with more stable economies and social systems, especially for reasons of safety, security and schooling. They are also concerned about fluctuations in currency and overall earning and savings power.”
Most and Least Desirable Locations for Assignments
When asked which of the developed countries generated the most employee interest for assignments, the clear choices were the U.S., U.K., Australia, Singapore and Canada.
Tier I India and China (developed cities such as Mumbai and Shanghai) ranked as the locations that workers were most resistant to relocating to among the developed countries, indicating these are still perceived as challenging markets.
For emerging-market locations, Brazil topped the list of nations to which employees most wanted to go, followed closely by the United Arab Emirates. Among the emerging-market countries that professionals were reluctant to work in are Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and Russia. Notably, Tiers II-IV for both India and China show up as generating significant interest and resistance. “This is likely attributable to the fact that as booming markets, they offer significant opportunities but also major challenges in infrastructure and other areas,” the report explained. “They are likely to be perceived differently depending on the assignee’s experience, appetite for adventure, and perception of the market’s importance to company goals.”
Motivating Factors
When asked for the main reasons why employees accepted an international assignment, companies said that while attractive compensation was named by a third of respondents (34 percent), the main motivating factors for employees were career development and advancement.
“This finding is a clear indicator that now is the time for companies to really start focusing on creating synergies across HR and businesses in order to ensure assignees are no longer ‘out of sight, out of mind’ and they are aware that the company is also focusing on their career. If employees’ value is not recognized, particularly the Gen Y/Millennial population, attrition rates will continue to rise,” according to the report.
Qualifying Criteria
As for the business criteria and qualifications that organizations seek when considering someone for an international assignment, leadership potential (80 percent) and technical skills (75 percent) were cited the most. A significant number of respondents (61 percent) also noted that the criteria depended on the project. Notably, only 33 percent are factoring in minimum performance ratings in selection criteria.
Flexibility and the ability to adapt to fluid circumstances (71 percent) led the list of behavioral characteristics businesses look for when considering an employee for an assignment abroad.
Second and third on the list of behavioral traits were career orientation and the desire to advance (63 percent), and the ability to work productively in an independent setting (57 percent).
Questioned about the family criteria their organization takes into account when considering someone for an international assignment, 68 percent of respondents said family status was not considered, while 25 percent said family criteria depended on the project.
Linking Talent Management and Global Mobility
When asked whether they agreed with the statement “The impact of an international assignment on an assignee’s career is positive,” 82 percent said yes, a 30 percent increase from 2009. “This supports the feeling that companies are paying more attention to, and realizing the importance of, how international assignments support employee growth, business value and retention,” the report said.
Building effective linkages between talent and global mobility will help ensure that assignments truly contribute to company business strategies, the report said.
According to respondents, the most frequently implemented strategies were:
- Ensuring assignment objectives are incorporated into the employee’s performance review while on assignment (62 percent).
- Collaborating with HR to ensure that employee performance ratings are considered for all workers on overseas assignments (60 percent).
The top three strategies under consideration:
- Tracking postassignment employee advancement (63 percent).
- Tracking postassignment employee retention (57 percent).
- Developing a global talent pool for future assignments (56 percent).
Sequential Assignments Rising
Not all expatriates get to return home after an assignment. Fifty-eight percent of respondents have either many (13 percent) or a few (45 percent) “global nomads” who are on back-to-back assignments. More than half (57 percent) expect the sequential-assignment trend to stay about the same, and about a third (31 percent) expect the trend to increase.
Of organizations that said they have sequential assignments, 80 percent said they were typically long term, and the most frequent demographic profile was an older employee, Generation X worker or a Baby Boomer. This supports a general trend of companies sending more senior employees on this type of assignment, often with newer employees accompanying them for professional development, the report said.
Repatriation Lacking
Responding organizations ranked repatriation and career development highest among aspects of their relocation programs they most want to improve.
More than half (58 percent) of companies said they did not offer formal repatriation programs. Of those that offer these programs, only a third (33 percent) typically offer repatriation programs for long-term assignments. The most common reasons given for not offering these programs were lack of perceived value by the organization (60 percent) and cost considerations (35 percent).
Roy Maurer is an online editor/manager for SHRM.
Follow him at @SHRMRoy
Related Articles:
Developing an Effective Global Mobility Program , SHRM Online Global HR, August 2013 International Assignments Expected to Increase in 2013 , SHRM Online Global HR, May 2013
Managing International Assignments , SHRM Online Templates and Samples, July 2012
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Expatriate Family Adjustment: An Overview of Empirical Evidence on Challenges and Resources
Mojca filipič sterle.
1 Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
2 Department of Marital and Family Therapy, Faculty of Theology, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Johnny R. J. Fontaine
3 Department of Personnel Management, Work and Organizational Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
4 Psychological Sciences Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Lesley L. Verhofstadt
The current theoretical paper presents a comprehensive overview of findings from research attempting to understand what happens with expatriates and their families while living abroad. Our paper draws on research on adjustment of individual family members (expatriates, their partners, and children) and families as a whole, across different literatures (e.g., cultural psychology, family psychology, stress literature). The key challenges of expatriation are discussed, as well as family members’ resources. Our findings lead to the following conclusions: First, there is lack of systematic research as studies are either missing a theoretical background or largely neglect the multi-informant approach. A comprehensive theory of expatriate family adjustment integrating multiple theoretical perspectives, including the culture identity formation and the impact of home country and host country culture, is called upon. Second, the majority of studies paid little attention to define the concept of family or failed to take into account the cultural aspect of relocation. Third, there is a call for more longitudinal studies including all family members as adjustment is a process that unfolds over time and therefore cannot be sufficiently explained by cross-sectional studies. Suggestions for future research and practical implications are provided, with a special focus on how families could be assisted during their adjustment process.
Introduction
The vast research literature on expatriate adjustment has been long characterized by a predominant focus on individual adjustment of an expatriate employee ( James et al., 2004 ). Despite some recent research on successful outcomes of expatriate family adjustment and growing awareness that expatriate families need to receive special attention before and during the assignment, challenges of international assignments are still generally underestimated, both by organizations and families ( Lazarova et al., 2015 ). This is remarkable as family members’ inability to adjust to foreign environments has been noted as one of the most critical causes of expatriate failure ( Fukuda and Chu, 1994 ; Haslberger and Brewster, 2008 ). Expatriate success has been the major focus of management perspective on expatriation, traditionally studying traditional corporate expatriates who were supported by the company. Stress and coping literature identified several stressors and hardships of expatriate life ( Brown, 2008 ) and social capital theories tried to explain what kind of social support should be provided to expatriates in the host country (e.g., Copeland and Norell, 2002 ; Lauring and Selmer, 2010 ). Family systems theory was generally used as theoretical background to study adjustment of expatriate families and expatriate children (e.g., Van der Zee et al., 2007 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ). In contrast, cultural theories explaining the process of family adjustment to a new environment are lacking. The expatriate family adjustment literature needs a comprehensive up-to date general theory to incorporate different aspects of this very complex matter. The lack of an overview of findings resulting from different focuses taken in different domains of research on expatriate family adjustment provides a rationale for a narrative review of the research on this topic. More specifically, the aim of the current paper was to synthesize the contemporary research literature (family systems, family stress, cross-cultural adjustment, social support, identity theory, work-family literature) on expatriate family adjustment.
After conceptualizing the terms expatriate , family and adjustment , we outline the evidence on challenges and resources in the adjustment process of expatriates, partners, children, and an entire family system. Details will be provided about the major constructs studied, the methodology (designs of the studies), and the theoretical framework within which studies explored the expatriate experience of families. Major conclusions will be presented and implications for future research and practice will be discussed. We drew on empirical quantitative and qualitative studies published in English in peer-reviewed journals and listed in the Web of Science, Academic Search Complete and Google Scholar, in the last 30 years (between 1988 and 2018). In this paper we also refer to some theoretical articles and reviews, particularly when outlining definitions and discussing theoretical backgrounds of the reviewed studies. A narrative literature review as a type of a review article has been chosen because it allows the literature coverage and flexibility to deal with a wide range of issues (i.e., challenges and resources of expatriate family members) within a given comprehensive topic (i.e., expatriate family adjustment) ( Collins and Fauser, 2005 ). The contributions of our narrative review consist of conclusions derived from a holistic interpretation of the current state of the literature on expatriate family adjustment and are based on the synthesis of the empirical studies that have focused on this topic.
Conceptualization of Expatriate Family Adjustment
In the context of international work experience, acculturation is a dual process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more cultural groups and their individual members and which involves various forms of mutual accommodation ( Berry, 2005 ). The outcome of acculturation is a longer-term psychological and sociocultural adjustment , in other words, relatively stable changes that take place in an individual or a group in response to external demands ( Berry, 2005 ). The acculturation literature identifies different types of global workers, such as sojourners, immigrants, refugees, expatriates, etc. ( Sam and Berry, 2006 ). To clarify the distinction between different types of cultural groups, Berry et al. (2011) proposed the following criteria: (a) migration, (b) voluntariness, and (c) foreseen permanence. For expatriates , the profile includes migration, voluntariness, and no foreseen permanence. Moreover, expatriates further differentiate themselves on average by a high educational level, and if not self-initiated, by support from their organization.
Expatriates were further defined as individuals who move to another country, change a place of residence and have a specific goal to work in the new environment ( Andresen et al., 2014 ); or as assignees across a range of assignment types involving international relocation (e.g., long-term, short-term, and extended business travel assignments) ( McNulty, 2015 ). In the work-family literature, family is any combination of two life partners, with or without children ( Caligiuri et al., 1998 ); or as two committed partners, where a partner refers to both spouses and significant others and it refers to a traditional expatriate situation where one partner works and one is unemployed ( Lazarova et al., 2010 ). McNulty (2014 , p. 5) provided the following comprehensive definition of an expatriate family: “married, de-facto, live-in, or long-term partners of the opposite or same sex, with or without children, with family members that reside in one or many locations; and legally separated or divorced (single) adults with children, with family members that reside in one or many locations.” This definition includes non-traditional types of expatriates which is a new field of enquiry evolving in recent research. It differs from traditional expatriates regarding their family composition (step, single parent, split, overseas adoption, multigenerational), family challenges (special needs or gifted children), family status (single expatriates, accompanying family members besides children), sexual orientation, and gender ( McNulty and Hutchings, 2016 ).
Black and Stephens (1989) defined adjustment as a degree of fit or psychological comfort and familiarity that individuals feel with different aspects of the foreign culture. Shaffer and Harrison (2001) described personal adjustment as identity reformation where personal and social roles are redefined when attachment and routines established in one’s home countries are broken, thereby adding a link between culture and personality changes in the context of expatriate adjustment. Haslberger and Brewster (2009 , p. 387) defined adjustment as follows: “Expatriates shall be called adjusted to a facet if they are effective in dealings in the new environment (in their own eyes and in the eyes of their hosts), perceive themselves as adequately knowledgeable about the local environment, and feel neutral or positive emotions overall.” Adjustment has been understood as a process that involves managing change, new experiences, and new challenges. As a positive outcome it can enrich expatriates’ lives ( Kempen et al., 2015 ), however, failure to successfully deal with the challenges can result in mental health consequences ( Brown, 2008 ). The underlying stressors are expatriate’s adjustment to a new job together with a move abroad, a partner giving up a job, children attending a new school, long periods of separation from their loved ones, occupying a new residence, changing family routines, a change in financial status, cultural differences, role conflict, etc. ( Patterson, 1988 ; Hechanova et al., 2003 ; Haslberger and Brewster, 2008 ; Bahn, 2015 ). Some of the stressors caused by adapting to life in a new environment may remain unresolved and become ongoing tensions (i.e., strains) ( Patterson, 1988 ), resulting in increased psychosocial distress ( Silbiger and Pines, 2014 ), depression ( Magdol, 2002 ), increased alcohol and substance abuse ( Anderzén and Arnetz, 1997 ), decreased physical and mental health, lower marriage satisfaction and readiness to re-assign ( Lazarova et al., 2015 ), and worsening subjective work environment ( Anderzén and Arnetz, 1999 ). Their emotional complaints are linked to identity issues, uprooting, repeated goodbyes, losses, constant changes, and unresolved grief ( Bushong, 2013 ).
Confrontation with stressors and challenges described above will trigger expatriates’ application of resources and coping behaviors ( Patterson, 1988 ). Previous studies found several individual characteristics that modify stress response and foster the expatriate’s adjustment to a foreign environment, such as internal locus of control, self-esteem, education, good command of languages, past foreign experience, cultural intelligence, communication ability, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability, and open-mindedness (e.g., Caligiuri, 2000 ; Ali et al., 2003 ; Hechanova et al., 2003 ; Copeland, 2004 ; Holopainen and Björkman, 2005 ; Lin et al., 2012 ).
Not much empirical research, however, has focused on how families of expatriate workers–both individual members and family as a whole- deal with stress and challenges of expatriate assignments, and which resources impact their adjustment. This is surprising for multiple reasons: first, according to the 2016 Global mobility trends survey which included respondents from 163 global companies representing over 11 million employees, 73% of expatriates were accompanied by a partner and 52% of expatriates who accepted overseas assignment took their children with them ( Brookfield Global Relocation Services, 2016 ). Second, family members’ inability to adjust to a foreign assignment has been identified as one of the most critical causes of expatriate failure ( Haslberger and Brewster, 2008 ; Lazarova et al., 2010 ). Finally, it has been argued, that an expatriate assignment is often seen as offering to a family and its members an opportunity to enrich their cultural and general life (e.g., new international experiences, educational possibilities) ( Suutari and Brewster, 2000 ; Richardson, 2006 ; Dickmann et al., 2008 ; Kempen et al., 2015 ).
Taken together, the literature on expatriate family adjustment shows that career decisions of expatriate workers are influenced by their family (and vice versa) and that understanding the challenges and the processes of adjustment of individual family members in determining the outcome of an expatriate family experience is therefore critical ( McNulty and Selmer, 2017 ; Shockley et al., 2018 ).
In the following sections we will summarize the main empirical findings about the specific challenges and application of resources of expatriate workers’ trailing partners, children/adolescents, and families as a whole. In line with the aim of the current paper, the inclusion of studies in each section was based on their unit of interest (i.e., partners, children/adolescents and family as a whole). The unit of measurement in most studies was the individual. In the partners section, the informants were partners themselves or expatriate employees reporting about their partner; in the children/adolescent section – the informants were children reporting about themselves and expatriate employees/partners reporting about their children. In the family section informants were expatriates, partners and children. In other words, the measures were administered to individual informants, and they measured individuals’ perception of themselves and their families/relationships.
Trailing Partner
Crossover effects.
Within the HR framework, the most frequently reported reason for a failure in an international assignment (when defined as a premature return) was found an inability or an unwillingness of a partner to adapt to the foreign environment ( Punnett, 1997 ; Haslberger and Brewster, 2008 ), together with a trailing partner’s career concerns ( Lazarova et al., 2015 ). Similarly, Black and Stephens (1989 ; a cross-sectional study; 220 expatriate managers and 157 expatriate spouses; assigned in Asia), showed that partner’s positive opinion about the overseas assignment is predictive of their own adjustment, which is in its turn, highly correlated with the adjustment of expatriate managers.
Many studies have indeed shown significant crossover effects among partners (e.g., Black and Gregersen, 1991a , b ; Forster, 1997 ). Van der Zee et al. (2005) conducted a cross-sectional empirical study in the Netherlands with a sample of expatriate partners from 21 home countries and found a crossover of stressors from the expatriate to their partner’s subjective well-being, and a crossover of the expatriates’ emotional distress to their partner’s distress and vice-versa. Based on the work-family and cross-cultural adjustment literature, Takeuchi et al. (2002) empirically tested and confirmed a crossover and spillover model of expatriate’s adjustment (cross-sectional study including 215 Japanese expatriates assigned in the midwestern United States, 169 spouses, and their superiors). Spillover effects related to the impact of expatriate attitudes in a particular domain (e.g., work) on other domains (e.g., home), whereas crossover effects related to the impact of expatriate attitudes on partner’s attitudes and vice versa. They found evidence for the reciprocal crossover effects between the cross-cultural adjustment of the expatriate worker and their partner. More specifically, a negative or a positive synergy between both partners had a significant impact on their cross-cultural adjustment (i.e., failure of one partner to adjust affected the other’s adjustment, causing a downward spiral of losses that could result in premature termination of the international assignment). Still in the framework of work-family interface, and integrating social capital and social networks theories, Lauring and Selmer (2010) conducted a systematic ethnographic field study using observation and semi-structured interviews with Danish expatriate partners in a compound in Saudi Arabia. They found that partners who feel well adjusted to the general environment in the host culture can have a positive influence on expatriates as they can support them with information on how to use transportation services, or in their social interaction, or even further the expatriates’ careers and repatriation opportunities by using different social strategies.
Specific Challenges
Lack of preparation, relocation, and cultural novelty induce quite some stress for partners ( Forster, 1997 ; a qualitative study with United Kingdom expatriate partners; Shaffer and Harrison, 2001 ). Some studies documented that expatriate partners have to link up more with the local culture as compared to the expatriate employee or their children ( Ali et al., 2003 ; a study with 247 expatriate spouses from 29 different countries, the majority from the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and the Netherlands). Therefore, the adjustment challenges for partners are not only considered as different, but also greater ( Punnett, 1997 ). According to a field study of 45 male expatriate accompanying partners in the Asia Pacific region conducted by Cole (2012) , particularly male trailing partners feel isolated due to a small peer group; they clearly need assistance with establishing personal support network by joining a peer group in a host country. Partners often feel lost in a sense that they do not have an outside professional identity or a specific clarification of their family identity ( Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ). A lot of partners see their employment status change and lose their career because of a move which causes disturbance within home and lowers the interactional adjustment (i.e., interaction with the host–country nationals) ( Shaffer and Harrison, 2001 ; Cole, 2011 ). In case where both partners pursue their careers in the host country, women seem to experience more work-personal life conflict than men ( Mäkelä et al., 2017 ). Brown (2008) in a cross-sectional study in London, the United Kingdom, used a public sample of expatriate couples and found that dominant stressors of partners of expatriates were reduced self, local pressures, and isolation. More specifically, partners (as well as expatriates) reported to be stressed by spending insufficient time together, not having close friends to confide in, by concerns over children and family, and by feelings of uncertainty about their future after the current expatriate assignment. Similarly, an interesting study by Lazarova et al. (2015) highlighted the most common causes of expatriate failure were partner’s career concerns, partner’s resistance to move and marital breakdown. The latter has only recently been addressed in the research literature, although relationship issues appear to be a big challenge for expatriate couples which may result in expatriate divorce ( McNulty, 2015 ). McNulty (2015) conducted a qualitative exploratory case-based study using data from 13 face-to-face interviews and 25 online survey participants. She found that expatriate marriages end in divorce because of two main reasons; either there has been a core issue in the marriage before expatriation (e.g., alcoholism), or one or both spouses are negatively influenced by expatriate culture to such an extent that it induces polarization behavior that is counter to how they would behave in their own culture (e.g., infidelity). In either case, findings showed that the outcomes of expatriate divorce were significant and may involve bankruptcy, homelessness, depression, alienation from children, even suicide. Taken together, the expatriate literature points to a more difficult situation of a trailing partner as compared to an expatriate employee ( Cole, 2011 ). However, the literature also revealed some factors that may foster partners’ adjustment.
The first category of resources consists of partners’ individual characteristics. Intercultural personality traits–emotional stability, social initiative, and open-mindedness- were found to be important resources for expatriate partners (and the expatriate employees’) psychological and sociocultural adjustment ( Ali et al., 2003 ; Van Erp et al., 2014 ). Intercultural personality traits as coping resources for expatriate couples’ adjustment were explored by Van Erp et al. (2014) , in a cross-sectional study with a sample of 98 Dutch expatriate couples (196 expatriates), and a longitudinal analysis of 45 couples from 43 different countries. They found the so-called compensation effect, whereby a partner’s lack of intercultural personality traits (as listed above) was compensated for by the other partner’s higher levels of those traits. High motivation, favorable opinion about the overseas assignment, previous expatriate experience, pre-move visit, cross cultural training and/or language training, host country language proficiency, social efficacy, self-efficacy and certainty about the duration of assignment proved to be positively related to partner’s adjustment ( Black and Stephens, 1989 ; Shaffer and Harrison, 2001 ; Copeland, 2004 ).
The second category of resources includes identity reestablishment and feelings of psychological security. For example, drawing upon identity theory and the expatriate literature, Shaffer and Harrison (2001) studied spouse adjustment using a mixed method design with a sample of 211 expatriate couples in 37 countries and six continents. Findings showed that cross-cultural adjustment depends to some extent on whether partners can re-establish their identity in the new culture, including their individual/personal base of identity (i.e., language fluency), interpersonal/social base of identity (i.e., having preschool aged children), and environmental/situational base of identity (i.e., culture novelty and favorability of living conditions). Similar findings–on professional identity and social status- were reported by Copeland (2004) . Herleman et al. (2008) found that a partner’s sense of comfort and psychological security in specific locations they regularly visit, a concept coming from Japanese culture called Ibasho , proved to be an important predictor of their adjustment and well-being. This study was conducted in Belgium and used a mixed method design with sample of 104 expatriate wives mainly coming from the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
Thirdly, and at a more social level, company assistance prior and during expatriation, support from families, and support (e.g., network size, breadth of support, depth of support) from host country nationals, but also contacts with other expatriate partners, and time with old friends as well as new acquaintances were found to be essential to partners’ adjustment ( De Cieri et al., 1991 ; Shaffer and Harrison, 2001 ; Caligiuri and Lazarova, 2002 ; Ali et al., 2003 ; Copeland, 2004 ). Copeland and Norell (2002) studied the role of social support within the framework of social support theory with 194 trailing partners (American women residing in 17 host countries in Europe, Asia, the Middle East, Latin America) and found that better adjusted women had participated in the decision to relocate, experienced fewer losses in friendships, had more functions of social support adequately met and could rely on the support from local rather than long-distance providers, and they were coming from families with higher cohesion. Further empirical evidence showed that family cohesion and adaptability (i.e., the ability to change and adapt to new environments while at the same time remaining closely tied to each other), open communication among partners ( Ali et al., 2003 ), satisfaction with family relationships and extended family support ( De Cieri et al., 1991 ; Shaffer and Harrison, 2001 ) facilitate partner’s adjustment. In a qualitative study Gupta et al. (2012) used the grounded theory methodology with 26 Indian trailing partners accompanying their partners on assignments in four continents (Asia, Europe, North America, and Australia). Findings of this study corroborated previous research such that the level of trailing partners’ adjustment was greatly impacted by cultural novelty, support from family, peers and the organization, and their personality. Moreover, they found that expatriates’ perceived gender-role ideology and marital obligations toward their partners played a significant role.
Children and Adolescents
Third culture kids (tcks).
Pollock and Van Reken (2009) have introduced the following description of a TCK: “A Third Culture Kid is a person who has spent a significant part of his or her development years outside the parent’s culture. The TCK builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership in any. Although elements from each culture are assimilated into the TCK’s life experience, the sense of belonging is in relationship to others of similar background.” ( Pollock and Van Reken, 2009 , p. 13). The identity formation of TCKs and their cultural and intellectual development is taking place in the third culture, particularly in the international environment in the host country (first culture is understood as parents’ culture and the second culture is a host culture). TCKs share more common experience to other TCKs than to their peers who grew up in their home or host cultures ( Bonebright, 2010 ). Among difficulties, such as struggling with a sense of belonging and disruption of identity formation, having lived in different cultures also provided TCKs with skills to handle change, to be more open and accepting to different cultures and to successfully handle these differences. Bonebright (2010) in her review also pointed out the potential that adult TCKs can bring to HR looking for business expatriates. Besides being used to frequent travel and changes as part of an international mobile lifestyle and having good education and language skills, they also have experience of adjusting to a new work and life situation in a new location.
Selmer and Lam (2004) conducted a survey study with British expatriate adolescents (63 respondents living in Hong Kong, mean age 14 years), local Hong Kong adolescents ethnic Chinese (a sample of 103 adolescents, mean age 17 years), and a sample of British adolescents living in the United Kingdom with 88 respondents. They showed that British expatriate adolescents had distinct characteristics in terms of their perceptions of being international as well as their international mobility preferences and consequences. Moore and Barker (2012) were interested in cultural identity of third culture individuals and employed a biographical phenomenology or life story interviewing as a qualitative data collection method with a sample of 19 individuals between the ages of 18 and 44, of six nationalities, from 23 countries in all continents, with varied intercultural experiences. They found that TCKs possessed multiple identities or multicultural identity, they lacked clear sense of belonging but are competent intercultural communicators and perceive their experience as mainly beneficial.
Expatriate’s work satisfaction has been found to positively affect children’s adjustment ( Van der Zee et al., 2007 ). Further, the research has documented that effective adjustment of adolescents might lead an expatriate family to stay abroad longer than originally planned ( Weeks et al., 2010 ). However, little is known about the extent that demands faced by children have on their parents’ adjustment. It has been noted that crossover effects of family stress to children need to be acknowledged and talked about within the family ( Lazarova et al., 2015 ).
Depending on their own age, children have to face additional challenges and these may have significant effects on the moving family as a whole. One of these challenges, described by Rosenbusch and Cseh (2012) is children’s confusion about their role (specifically gender role expectations), as a result of being raised in different cultures. Other challenges for young children are linked to loss of their home and their social network, change of schools, making of new friends, and learning a new language ( Pollari and Bullock, 1988 ; McLachlan, 2008 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 ). Feelings of uncertainty, a sense of belonging to a culture and identity loss have been frequently reported ( Ali, 2003 ; Moore and Barker, 2012 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ). Emotional instability and an ambivalent attachment style were identified to be important risk factors that made children more susceptible to adjustment problems ( Ali, 2003 ; Van der Zee et al., 2007 ). In the framework of adolescent development theory and the concept of third culture kids, Weeks et al. (2010) used in-depth interviews to study the adjustment of expatriate 18 students age 14–19 of private international school in Shanghai, China, who were coming from the United States (the majority), Australia, Canada, Malaysia, and Philippines. They found that expatriate children have unique challenges of adjustment to a foreign environment, among which were the disruption of the identity formation process during their adolescence, concerns related to making friends, fitting in, and to be successful in school. One of the difficulties they tend to experience is that in their host culture they may stand out because of different look and usually they act differently than host country nationals. Lucier-Greer et al. (2015) explored normative and context risk factors and the role of relationships (family, informal networks, formal systems) as protective factors among adolescents from military families (a sample of 1036 adolescents between 11 and 18 years of age) located at four United States army installations, one of which was in Europe. They found that higher levels of cumulative risk experienced by adolescents were associated with more depressive symptoms, lower academic performance and lower persistence ( Lucier-Greer et al., 2015 ). International move can disrupt adolescents’ identity formation process, which is characterized by a growth toward more autonomy, becoming more independent from parents, and peers becoming new attachment figures.
At the individual level, being open-minded (i.e., understanding that cultures are different and that people around the world have different perspectives on a variety of issues) was reported by adolescents to be key to adjusting well ( Weeks et al., 2010 ). Secure attachment, emotional stability, and high level of social initiative were found to foster children’s adjustment ( Ali, 2003 ; Van der Zee et al., 2007 ). Because of having multiple experiences with different situations and people it is easier for them to interact with different people and to adapt to new situations ( Moore and Barker, 2012 ).
In terms of family resources, Van der Zee et al. (2007) studied family characteristics such as family adaptability (i.e., the extent to which a family is flexible and able to change its functioning; Olson et al., 1984 ), family cohesion (i.e., the amount of emotional bonding between family members; Olson et al., 1984 ), and family communication (i.e., the tool through which families can create a shared sense of meaning, develop and orchestrate coping strategies, and maintain harmony and balance; McCubbin et al., 1996 ). To examine the determinants of effective coping with cultural transition, they used a survey with a sample of 104 expatriate children and adolescents from 21 different home countries (the majority from the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium; who lived in 37 different countries; the majority in the Netherlands, Singapore, and France). They found that all three characteristics contributed to higher levels of intercultural adjustment of children, with family cohesion being the strongest predictor of both quality of life and sociocultural adjustment of expatriate children and adolescents. Traits and attachment styles were directly associated with better adjustment, and moreover, they also moderated the relationship between family and work-related factors and intercultural adjustment.
Family cohesion may also impact expatriate children’s ability to establish and maintain friendships with other children in the host country ( Caligiuri et al., 1998 ). In the early stage of a relocation to an unfamiliar environment, family members need to rely primarily on each other. The emotional support from parents and siblings and good discussion with parents about the move, where parents show sensitivity to children’s specific needs in the host country, were found as important facilitators in the adjustment process of children and teenagers ( De Leon and McPartlin, 1995 ; Ali, 2003 ; Weeks et al., 2010 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 ).
Another important social resource for children and adolescents is the support they receive from friends, primarily at school ( Weeks et al., 2010 ). Teenagers don’t seem to be bothered by the fact that they are often isolated from the host culture ( Weeks et al., 2010 ), however, they really seem to need friendships with peers who speak their mother tongue. Overall, some evidence shows that family support and informal networks buffer against depressive symptoms with adolescents and their academic performance as well as persistence were higher ( Lucier-Greer et al., 2015 ).
Family as a Whole
Expatriation demands major changes in family roles and living circumstances. Takeuchi (2010) and Lämsä et al. (2017) underscored the importance of considering the family and its members as stakeholders of a company to examine family’s expectations with regard to company support. Our overview of empirical evidence of the research on expatriate family adjustment showed that there is a limited number of studies that explored expatriate family as a unit and included all family members as informants. Below we discuss the studies that examined family level variables or explicitly focused on family adjustment (see e.g., Caligiuri et al., 1998 ; McLachlan, 2008 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 ). Lazarova et al. (2015) conducted a large study using a convenience sampling approach with 656 expatriates, expatriate spouses and teenage children coming from 51 home countries and assigned in 77 countries using work-life balance, family systems, and crossover theory to explore family narratives on international mobility. Findings showed that a successful movable family should be adventurous, have a sense of humor and good communication where all members ‘pull in the same direction’ and all members are treated as important in family decisions, family members need to make an effort to socialize outside of the family and all the members should be committed to the move. Family members may have different needs that also surface at different times, and some tensions linked to the strains of moving, nevertheless, these stressful events may also bring family together. On the other hand, there is the need to perform, to be brave and to keep going, although at times it is barely manageable. Further, this study pointed to the changing face of expatriate family including both parents and children.
Indeed, there is a growing body of research on non-traditional family forms, such as women as breadwinners, single parents, step families, same sex families with dual careers and children ( McNulty and Selmer, 2017 ). McNulty (2014) reported on a case study with a sample of four female western expatriates living in Singapore, China, Brussels, and North Carolina – a single parent, overseas adoption, split family and lesbian assignees in their breadwinner roles. Fischlmayr and Puchmüller (2016) used social capital theory as a theoretical base for their study on the experiences of 25 female international business travelers living in dual-career families from four Western and non-Western countries on four different continents. The analysis of the interviews showed both similar and different experiences (i.e., childcare and support networks, and social acceptance), and understanding of integrating family and career life as female non-traditional expatriates across cultures.
An expatriate assignment offers opportunities for families: relocating may bring the family closer, especially if the host country is marked by limited social resources and strong cultural differences ( Copeland and Norell, 2002 ). De Cieri et al. (1991) found that a large proportion of women commented that their relationships with their children had become closer through the relocation, because they had similar challenges. It was documented that the expatriate experience usually starts with great excitement and positive expectations ( Punnett, 1997 ; Osland, 2000 ). In an interesting qualitative study by Osland (2000) , expatriates reported that the stage of leaving home and crossing the physical and cultural threshold of a foreign land lasts about 6 months and is characterized by strangeness, difficulties, ups and downs, by the feelings of uncertainty (questioning their own identity, their values, and their understanding of everyday life), a sense of uneasy responsibility for uprooting their family with no guarantee that every family member will adjust to the new culture, and by intense, accelerated learning. After their return home expatriates reported being proud of succeeding difficult work challenges, making it ‘on their own,’ feeling ‘special,’ and taking pride in their ability to acculturate and adapt to change.
Spillover Effects
Caligiuri et al. (1998) were the first to report on spillover effects between family life and work adjustment: if expatriates are well adjusted to working in the host country, their positive feelings will spill over to their family and facilitate family’s cross-cultural adjustment. This study used family systems theory as theoretical background and collected data from 110 families (mostly coming from Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom) on global assignments in 26 different countries. Some other studies confirmed a positive spillover of adjustment to expatriates’ partners and children ( Ali, 2003 ; Trompetter et al., 2016 ). Van der Zee et al. (2005) reported a negative spillover of expatriates’ home demands to their work roles. Shaffer and Harrison (1998) showed that expatriates with greater family responsibilities paid increasingly more attention to non-work factors in making their withdrawal decisions.
Rosenbusch and Cseh (2012) used family systems theory and expatriate adjustment as theoretical knowledge base to study cross-cultural adjustment of expatriate families in a multinational organization based in the United States. They recruited a sample of 15 expatriate families (111 expatriates, 15 spouses, and 7 adolescent children) and applied a case study with mixed method approach. Cultural, relational and psychological stressors had the highest impact on the cross-cultural adjustment, among which cultural stress seemed to be the greatest. Overcoming cultural differences, grasping the art of a new language and being understood by host country nationals were found big challenges in the adjustment process of expatriate families. Challenging were also physical health (i.e., weight gain), physical stress, feelings of loneliness, struggle to maintain a sense of stability and comfort within the family unit, attempts to make new friends and to keep in touch with old ones ( Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ). Emotional distress (i.e., anxiety or depression) may result from expatriate family’s unsuccessful attempts of adjustment ( Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ). A relocation takes extra toll on marriage and it has been argued that expatriate divorce increases stress and psychological trauma as it involves separation and custody disputes across geographical boundaries ( McNulty, 2015 ). Extreme novelty, stress of a new environment, and expatriate’s lack of knowledge about how to obtain social reinforcement in the new culture, often compels expatriate families to seek professional help ( Osland, 2000 ) and family counseling ( Lazarova et al., 2015 ). It has been noted that special attention needs to be given to non-traditional family structures, such as status reversal marriage (i.e., females as breadwinners), single parents, split families and gay partnerships ( McNulty, 2014 ).
A few studies focused on family characteristics/dynamics that may foster or inhibit adjustment of its individual members or the family as a whole. Having a sense of adventure, good and open communication, commitment to the move of all family members, trying to socialize outside the family unit were all found to facilitate family adjustment ( Lazarova et al., 2015 ). Rosenbusch and Cseh (2012) showed that of the six components of family flexibility, the components of roles, rules, leadership and assertiveness had the most impact on cross-cultural adjustment of expatriate families. More specifically, families experienced lack of role differentiation and were in need of specific clarification of family identity. Partners reported feelings of loss outside the professional identity due to career interruption. Leadership within the family seemed to be a core issue during the move, as family members found that part of their responsibility was to assist other family members in adjusting to a new environment. Sharing their opinions with one another ( assertiveness ) and staying connected as a family was important for family members. Families with a supportive climate, good family communication, and a positive perception of the international assignment experienced more successful adjustment ( Caligiuri et al., 1998 ; Copeland and Norell, 2002 ). Also, family members’ satisfaction with their family relationships has been shown to be significantly associated with psychological adjustment to relocation and satisfaction with life throughout the expatriation ( De Cieri et al., 1991 ; Richardson, 2006 – informants were expatriates). In particular, healthy relationships between partners were found critical for a successful expatriate family ( Lazarova et al., 2015 ).
The second category of family resources are external to the family . Help from the company in dealing with financial concerns related to the move and life in a new country, and good organizational and practical support, including providing contacts in the new country are all important support systems for adjustment of an expatriate family ( Lazarova et al., 2015 ). Active involvement within a church, school, youth organization, employing organization, health or welfare organization in the host country helps family members to adjust quicker to a new location ( Cornille, 1993 ). Schools (most often international ones) can offer support for families by encouraging dialog among families and the school and facilitate parent-adolescent communication during relocation ( McLachlan, 2008 – a qualitative study with 45 families at an international school in southern England).
A long-distance family support is crucial during assignment-imposed separation ( Richardson, 2006 ; Starr and Currie, 2009 – both empirical studies drew from expatriates as informants), and different forms of electronic communication allow family members to stay connected with their extended family and friends ( Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ). The internet and social media is increasingly providing a new form of social communication with family and friends and thus enable emotional support provision from them ( Haslberger and Brewster, 2008 ), and which were also found to be reasonably good predictors of levels of perceived social support, loneliness and depressive states of adult expatriates shortly after their residential move ( Shklovski et al., 2006 ).
Conclusion and Implications
Summary of findings.
Based on the empirical evidence from the studies included in our review, the following conclusions can be made about the challenges and stressors that come along with living as an expatriate family. Cultural novelty, lack of preparation and relocation (financial) support, loss of home, change of social environment, increased demands related to organizing life in a new location (i.e., schooling system, learning about local culture and language, daily hassles, new work situation for expatriate employees), adjustment to work (expatriate employee), together with feelings of uncertainty, up-rooting and isolation are stressors that all family members need to face to certain extent (e.g., Osland, 2000 ; Haslberger and Brewster, 2008 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 ).
However, there are some differences among family members, too. Children and adolescents are most concerned by fitting into new schools and making new friends and not so much by learning the local language and creating social networks outside school (e.g., Weeks et al., 2010 ). Trailing partners, on the other hand, are preoccupied with finding ways to organize family life, learning the culture and language of the host country, finding a job, and can feel isolated and lost without outside professional identity (e.g., Brown, 2008 ; Cole, 2011 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 ). Establishing social contacts with local nationals and other expatriates, getting familiar with local culture and languages are necessary and important for the whole family ( Black and Stephens, 1989 ). International experience can bring family members together, which is an important positive outcome of expatriation, however, family as a whole may also feel isolated and lonely (e.g., De Cieri et al., 1991 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ). Taken together, during their adjustment process, expatriate families are confronted with the following challenges: children’s education, partners’ resistance and career issues, location difficulties, cultural adjustment, language issues, and support for other family members.
Our narrative review also documents the process by which individuals and families cope with the challenges and stressors described above (i.e., their coping resources ). Personal/psychological resources such as open-mindedness, emotional stability, high level of social initiative (e.g., Ali et al., 2003 ; Weeks et al., 2010 ; Van Erp et al., 2014 ) together with family resources such as flexibility, adaptability, and cohesion (e.g., Caligiuri, 2000 ; Ali et al., 2003 ; Van der Zee et al., 2007 ) act as resources for expatriates as well as for their family members. Good relationships within the family and beyond contribute to the subjective well-being of expatriates and their family members (e.g., Richardson, 2006 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 ). Turning to more social-level resources, maintaining contact with the extended family ( Richardson, 2006 ), friends and former colleagues–with the use of social media and internet- helps family members to overcome feelings of loneliness and isolation (e.g., Shklovski et al., 2006 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ). Talking to other people when in need of emotional support and asking for help with the everyday engagements alleviates distress with expatriates ( Caligiuri and Lazarova, 2002 ). Social support networks play an important role in the adjustment process – although expatriates, partners and children may use different ways to integrate socially. For children, good integration at their school is crucial ( Weeks et al., 2010 ), for partners support from host country nationals (e.g., Shaffer and Harrison, 2001 ; Copeland and Norell, 2002 ), and for expatriates and partners organizational support and company assistance are important (e.g., Ali et al., 2003 ; Cole, 2011 , 2012 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 ).
The third conclusion concerns reciprocal influence between family members in terms of stressors, application of resources, and adjustment. Crossover effects (for instance of stressors, subjective well-being, emotional distress) between partners have been documented in the literature (e.g., Takeuchi et al., 2002 ; Van der Zee et al., 2005 ; Lauring and Selmer, 2010 ). Also, family situation and work adjustment of expatriate employees are strongly related ( Caligiuri et al., 1998 ). Finally, crossover effects for all family members, including children, need to be taken into account when relocating with children ( Lazarova et al., 2015 ).
The fourth conclusion concerns the methodological characteristics of the studies included in our review. At the level of study designs, we can conclude that there is a growing body of qualitative studies attempting to provide insights into the subjective experience of expatriate family members, or studies using both quantitative and qualitative methods (see e.g., Lauring and Selmer, 2010 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 ; McNulty, 2015 ; Fischlmayr and Puchmüller, 2016 ). Qualitative studies mostly used interviews to gather data from expatriates to understand their expatriate complexity. The research on expatriate families, expatriate children and TCKs, is still evolving and such qualitative designs are helpful for better understanding the lived experience of the emerging expatriate (sub)groups. While most studies used methodological perspectives of cross-cultural psychology, cultural psychology perspectives are barely presented in the area of expatriate family adjustment. Research including empirical ethnographic field studies that incorporate the lived experience of a host country culture is scarce (see e.g., Lauring and Selmer, 2010 as an important exception). Finally, the majority of quantitative studies used cross-sectional designs, and longitudinal study designs are hardly applied.
Concerning the samples and geographical location we can conclude that the majority of studies used samples with English speaking expatriates, mainly coming from the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia. The exceptions used samples from Asia (e.g., Japan, India), and Europe (mostly from Western Europe). There is a huge gap in studies featuring populations from Central, Southern and Eastern Europe, Africa, Latin America and most of Asia, and studies using non-English speaking samples.
Fifth, at the level of the theoretical background , it can be concluded that family systems theories, cross-cultural adjustment, expatriate literature and social support network theory prevail as the knowledge base for the research. Another observation is that management theories have studied adjustment through the lens of success – for a company and also for the expatriate and expatriate family. The successful assignment presents less costs for the organization. Cultural perspectives, on the other hand, remain largely unaddressed (see Shaffer and Harrison, 2001 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 , for notable exceptions).
Sixth, and also at the conceptual level is the observation that the majority of studies failed to explain the definition of a family used in the study (see Caligiuri et al., 1998 ; Lazarova et al., 2010 ; McNulty, 2014 , for exceptions). It is understood that they involve parents and children, however, the traditional family definition is no longer useful because of the changing family constellations. The most comprehensive family definition was proposed by McNulty (2014) who also included non-traditional family forms such as long-term partners of opposite sex, single adults with children, and families of which members may reside in different locations. There is a huge gap in the research about self-initiated expatriate families. The majority of studies used the term spouse or wife to refer to a partner accompanying (usually) male expatriates on assignment. For our review we therefore decided to use the term trailing partner to refer to a significant person in an expatriate life that accompanies them on international assignment.
Taken together, the majority of the empirical research used quantitative methods studying expatriates in a given context, the focus in the existing research is predominately on challenges and hardships of expatriate life whereby the positive experiences of expatriation have been largely neglected. During the last decade the research agendas are also shifting from company based western male expatriates to new forms of expatriation and new types of non-traditional families.
Directions for Future Research
Based on the findings of our review, we can conclude that despite the fact that research on expatriate family adjustment is growing ( Caligiuri et al., 1998 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ; McNulty, 2014 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 ), the available empirical evidence is limited. Our review identifies the following avenues for future research .
First, the neglected area remains adjustment of expatriate children and adolescents , which cannot be explained by current adult-focused theories as children have different challenges than their parents ( Shaffer and Harrison, 2001 ). The existent TCK literature tends to rely upon the work of Pollock and Van Reken (2009) . More research is needed about identity formation and challenges that come along with living abroad, and particularly about resources that they can apply while growing up in the international environment. Namely, their culturally mobile upbringing defines them as being the very essence of multicultural individuals in a global society ( Moore and Barker, 2012 ). With many new forms of non-traditional expatriate families, TCKs’ profiles are also changing into even more globally oriented and independent. This is very important as TCKs have a great potential to become future expatriates and can be in advantage in the world labor market due to their specific international experiences ( Bonebright, 2010 ). The literature on TCKs needs an all-inclusive definition to explain the specifics of the identity formation of TCKs, taking into account the characteristics of different cultures and also the influence of parents’ culture. Furthermore, different types of families and also multicultural families need to be considered when studying the international experience of young people.
Second, more research is needed on the reciprocal influence between all family members (e.g., impact of expatriates on partners; impact of children on parents and vice versa). Since families living in a foreign country often become closer and need to rely on their own resources ( De Cieri et al., 1991 ; Copeland and Norell, 2002 ), their role to support each other to overcome potential crises may be even more important than in their home country (in which community/social sources of support are more available).
Third, so far studies on expatriate adjustment have mostly been overly restrictive in their focus and only a limited number of variables were investigated ( Takeuchi, 2010 ). Therefore, future research should broaden its scope to different stress variables (e.g., chronic strains, daily hassles) as well as to different outcome variables (e.g., short term crisis, long term adjustment). Further research should include the adaptation to changing family roles, to map relationships among forms of adjustment and to offer a systematic way to group adjustment antecedents ( Lazarova et al., 2010 ). Recently published articles on expatriate family experience (e.g., Lazarova et al., 2015 ; McNulty, 2015 ) call for more research on topics that do not focus on expatriate success but rather give in-depth insight into experience of expatriation for a family. Additionally, with the increased globalization, studies on expatriation could learn more from migration studies to improve conceptual refinements of concepts of expatriation and to deepen the knowledge base and provide relevant practical advice for different types of expatriates ( Andresen et al., 2014 ).
Fourth, many studies examining expatriate family adjustment lack a theoretical background or invoke the stressor-stress-strain perspective ( Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005 ), or the work-family literature as their underlying theoretical basis (see Caligiuri et al., 1998 ; Van der Zee et al., 2007 ; Takeuchi, 2010 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 , as important exceptions). Studies on expatriate families, however, could integrate family psychology literature, family systems theory, and family stress models, positive psychology, and in particular, cultural psychology and cultural identity formation. A different culture and language barriers in the host country may be a challenging experience for expatriates, their partners and children involving the need to restructure, develop, and adapt in response to the requirements of the new environment. Capturing the cultural experience of the expatriate family would add to the existing knowledge where currently family and its members seem to be the sole generators of their adjustment process. More research interest is needed to better understand the interface between expatriate family adjustment and cultural aspects of relocation, and specifically, into the identity change of expatriate family members and family as a whole.
Fifth, on the methodological level, there is a need for longitudinal designs that examine adjustment as a long-term process rather than a momentary event ( Haslberger and Brewster, 2009 ). Most of the studies included in the current review were cross-sectional in nature and cannot inform us about the directionality of potential causal relationships between the variables under study. Qualitative designs including ethnographic field studies in different parts of the world and different cultures will be particularly useful to further our understanding of family members’ perception of their experience and meaning making during international assignments. So far cultural psychologists have not taken much interest in the research field. However, the understanding of expatriate family adjustment could be largely enriched and refined by cultural psychology’s specific concept of culture, its interest in thick descriptions and its preference for qualitative/hermeneutic approaches. More qualitative studies are needed also to provide insights and understanding of expatriate experience, particularly for non-traditional family compositions. For example, qualitative method interpretative phenomenological analysis ( Smith et al., 2009 ) could provide insights into the expatriates’ subjective lived experience as this method is suitable to gain rich understandings of topics with little theoretical and empirical evidence. Further, quantitative studies should include large samples of homogenous groups of expatriates and aim to explain different constructs and processes related to expatriate family adjustment. More mixed methods research designs are called for to gain more knowledge on the breadth and depth of the expatriate family experience of adjustment. Replication of findings with larger and more diverse samples (e.g., across countries of location of assignments) is also needed ( Herleman et al., 2008 ). Particularly, scholars should try to study different cultures in different parts of the world, as opposed to using mostly English-speaking samples from western countries.
Sixth, our recommendation points to the necessity of studies using a multi-informant approach where all family members – expatriates, trailing partners and children/adolescents – report on the variables of interest. The impression from the existing research is that such approach with large samples of expatriate families is difficult to apply ( Takeuchi, 2010 ). One plausible explanation could be that expatriate families are probably very difficult to recruit for research because of increased stress and lack of time after the move. Also, there is no particular spot where they report to when they come to live in a host country. Therefore, more research effort and perhaps collaboration with scholars in different countries and cultures should be enhanced to produce studies across different cultures.
Seventh, many studies have looked into the relationship between personality and cross-cultural adjustment, however, very few focused on partners’ and children’s personality traits (see Ali et al., 2003 ; Van der Zee et al., 2007 , for exceptions). Furthermore, we need more studies to focus on the positive side of expatriation for a family and how to address motives for international life.
Eighth, there is a call for more research on new family forms and non-traditional family structures, blended families with step-parents and half-siblings from prior relationships, single parents and status reversal marriages ( McNulty, 2014 ), the emerging self-initiated expatriate families, and dual-careers families.
Ninth, as research points to the fact that an expatriate assignment may affect the psychological well-being of the family system as a whole as well as each individual family member, attention should be given to the development of clinical interventions with the expatriate population. Feelings of alienation, uprooting, constant changes and goodbyes are common complaints expatriates which expatriates can address in psychological counseling ( Bushong, 2013 ). Specifics of multicultural counseling combined with family therapy could be useful professional support for families during their adjustment process. Findings of this narrative review therefore point to the need for future research on relational and family processes (i.e., dynamics, interactions, and stories) that influence the decision to move back or to prolong the stay.
Finally, there is a call for more research and more publishing on expatriate family adjustment. As mentioned above, expatriate families may be a difficult sample to recruit for the research. Further, one might argue that there is more research on expatriate families actually conducted than it appears in peer-reviewed journals.
Practical Implications
Based on our narrative review on expatriate family adjustment, some practical and clinical implications can be outlined. For example, families could benefit from pre-departure cross-cultural and language training ( Punnett, 1997 ; Copeland, 2004 ). During this training, the specifics of the host culture, past foreign expatriate experience, language skills, intercultural competences, and personal resources of the whole family could be targeted ( Shaffer et al., 2006 ; Van Erp et al., 2014 ). The preparation part should also not overlook the importance of family members’ perception of and motives for the international relocation ( Suutari and Brewster, 2000 ; Dickmann et al., 2008 ). Companies sending families on international assignments should be encouraged to include all family members in the pre-departure training ( Shaffer and Harrison, 2001 ) where their different roles and expectations should be taken into account. Family counseling could forewarn of the upcoming changes and clarify family roles and family functioning, and could alleviate problems ( Lazarova et al., 2010 ; Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012 ). Additionally, more emphasis should be put on explaining the motives and positive aspects of relocation.
The preparation before the move and the actual process of adjustment may be highly influenced by the nature of the host culture. Particularly, it should be acknowledged that there is a difference if the host country is multicultural with different sub-cultures (e.g., the United States, big cities, such as London, Brussels, etc.) or monocultural (e.g., Japan). In cases where expatriate parents belong to one (the same) culture, they may not be completely aware that their children growing up as TCKs have different challenges. Therefore, it is of huge importance that parents receive counseling about how to support children during their most crucial developmental years, taking into account their identity formation and their developmental needs. While parents may be struggling with homesickness and planning their eventual return to their home country, for children the move may provoke additional stress as they may perceive it as adjusting to a new culture. TCKs belong to a ‘third culture’ which is placeless, and their restlessness and feeling uprooted may lead them to change places over and over again. TCKs feel best among other people with similar experiences which parents may find hard to understand and accept. In short, TCKs are different from their parents in terms of their cultural identity and families need to be educated and supported to deal with this challenge.
The possibility and availability of psychological support (e.g., family counseling) in the new location should be discussed with the family. Partners could specifically focus on how to use their time and resources when abroad ( Lauring and Selmer, 2010 ). Direct communication and support between the company and trailing partner could facilitate adjustment of the whole family, as it is usually trailing partners who have to deal more with hassles of relocation ( Lazarova et al., 2015 ). Children and teenagers could be prepared for the international assignment through video information about the life in the new school and friendships abroad ( Weeks et al., 2010 ). Further, family members who are moving abroad and host country nationals should be put in contact before the departure so that hosts in the host countries could play an active role in the preparation activities.
Even with the most thorough pre-departure training families cannot avoid experiencing some degree of adjustment stress shortly after the relocation, and therefore some follow-up on the adjustment process after the move is warranted. For example, host country nationals could be considered to assist newcomer expatriate families with learning about the host culture and local customs in the new location ( Osland, 2000 ). In particular human resources management could add value by providing adjustment assistance within the expatriate communities. For example, by supporting the development of friendships in the new environment (i.e., community groups, workplaces and online social media) ( Bahn, 2015 ). Furthermore, employer provided career assistance and consideration of roles and responsibilities of both partners is needed for expatriate partners who plan to continue their career in the host country ( Cole, 2011 ; Lazarova et al., 2015 ; Mäkelä et al., 2017 ). To be able to offer clear guidelines on how children facing many relocations in their life can obtain some degree of sense of stability when their family moves on international assignments, more research is needed on the nature of adjustment of children and teenagers.
In sum, our narrative review provides a summary of contemporary findings on expatriate family adjustment, including identification of challenges as well as personal, family, and community resources that foster adjustment of family members. Notably, clear conceptualization of expatriate family or expatriate family adjustment is needed. A general theory of expatriate family adjustment is called upon that would in a comprehensive way integrate multiple theoretical perspectives on expatriate family adjustment; work-family literature, adjustment and expatriate literature, stress and positive psychology, cultural and cross-cultural psychology, social theories, work transitions, family functioning, family relations, different types of families, and communication. Further, studies should not neglect culture identity formation of children and the impact of both home country and host country cultures. In particular, research using cultural psychology perspective is needed to enrich the understanding of expatriate family experience. Finally, more research should focus on shedding light on positive outcomes and opportunities of expatriate families.
Our narrative review represents an important contribution to expatriate family adjustment literature. It may serve as an important source of knowledge for experts in the field of expatriate family adjustment and related fields of research, such as cultural, cross-cultural psychology, family and organizational psychology. Because of its broad scope it can be accessible to broader audience, such as HR experts, teachers in international schools, clinicians working with expatriates, and of course present and future expatriate families.
Author Contributions
MFS and JF conceived the contents of the review. MFS reviewed the papers and drafted the manuscript. LV conceived the structure of the article. LV, JF, and JDM edited the whole manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Meaning of assignment in English
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- It was a plum assignment - more of a vacation really.
- He took this award-winning photograph while on assignment in the Middle East .
- His two-year assignment to the Mexico office starts in September .
- She first visited Norway on assignment for the winter Olympics ten years ago.
- He fell in love with the area after being there on assignment for National Geographic in the 1950s.
- act as something
- all work and no play (makes Jack a dull boy) idiom
- be at work idiom
- be in work idiom
- housekeeping
- in the line of duty idiom
- short-staffed
- undertaking
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Define Foreign Assignment. with respect to each Foreign Receivable (other than a L/C Receivable) and each Affiliate Receivable, each document, instrument, agreement (whether an assignment, security agreement, mortgage or otherwise) and certificate appropriate for filing in the applicable office in the applicable jurisdiction and necessary to evidence (i) in the case of Affiliate Receivables ...
An international assignment is an overseas task set by a company to an employee. Companies that engage in international assignments are mainly multinational corporations (MNCs). MNCs send employees from the home country to a different country for business operations at overseas offices or subsidiaries. [1] These employees are called expatriates.
International assignment management is one of the hardest areas for HR professionals to master—and one of the most costly. The expense of a three-year international assignment can cost millions ...
A more thorough explanation: Definition: A foreign assignment is a transfer of rights or property from one person to another in a foreign country or another jurisdiction.It can also refer to a task, job, or appointment given to someone in a foreign country.. Example: A company based in the United States sends one of its employees to work in their branch office in Japan.
A Successful International Assignment Depends on These Factors. by. Boris Groysberg. and. Robin Abrahams. February 13, 2014. Post. The prospect of an international assignment can be equal parts ...
An overseas assignment translates to months of preparation and planning. U.S. government employees and their family members assigned to a U.S. embassy or consulate overseas can visit the Overseas Briefing Center (OBC) in Arlington, VA to use their collection of resources for researching overseas posts and the logistics of an international move. Hours of operation. […]
However, any international foreign hire will involve the permanent transfer of a locally hired foreigner on an international assignment. Policy approaches and segmentation Findings from Mercer's 2021 International Foreign Hires survey report suggest that establishing a formal policy framework for managing global foreign hires is a work in ...
Additionally, some states could deem taxpayers to be continuing tax residents even while away on foreign assignments, if their ultimate intention is to return to the state after the termination of their foreign assignment (basic domicile definition). For more information on state residency issues, please consult us separately.
What is an International Assignment Agreement? An international assignment agreement is a contract between an employer and employee that formally assigns the latter to a position in a foreign country. Several pieces of important information are contained within this contract, such as where the assignment is, how travel and lodging costs will be ...
OVERSEAS ASSIGNMENTS definition | Meaning, pronunciation, translations and examples
Foreign assignment - An assignment made in a foreign country, or in another state. 2 Kent, Comm. 405, et seq. Dictionary.net. ... Definitions of FOREIGN ASSIGNMENT. 1910 - Black's Law Dictionary (2nd edition) Sort: Oldest first . An assignment made in a foreign country, or in another state. 2 Kent, Comm. 405, et seq.
Define Foreign Assignment Agreement. means, with respect to a Foreign Purchased Asset, a security agreement between the applicable Seller and Buyer pursuant to which such Seller assigns to Buyer all of its right, title and interest under and in relation to each related Foreign Finance Document (including its rights against any Security Agent) and any professional report delivered with respect ...
ASSIGNMENT definition: 1. a piece of work given to someone, typically as part of their studies or job: 2. a job that…. Learn more.
foreign exchange ( foreign exchanges plural ) 1 n-plural Foreign exchanges are the institutions or systems involved with changing one currency into another. On the foreign exchanges, the US dollar is up point forty-five. 2 n-uncount Foreign exchange is used to refer to foreign currency that is obtained through the foreign exchange system. oft N n.
Expatriate: An expatriate is an individual living in a country other than their country of citizenship, often temporarily and for work reasons. An expatriate can also be an individual who has ...
adj. 1 of, involving, located in, or coming from another country, area, people, etc. a foreign resident. 2 dealing or concerned with another country, area, people, etc. a foreign office. 3 not pertinent or related. a matter foreign to the discussion. 4 not familiar; strange. 5 in an abnormal place or position.
Related to Foreign Assignment Employees. Assignment of Claims Act means the Assignment of Claims Act of 1940 (41 U.S.C. Section 15, 31 U.S.C. Section 3737, and 31 U.S.C. Section 3727), including all amendments thereto and regulations promulgated thereunder.. Special Government employee means an officer or employee of EPA who is retained, designated, appointed or employed to perform, with or ...
Define Working abroad on foreign assignment. means that the employee is actually performing the duties of his or her Irish employment abroad for a temporary period. Browse Resources
Motivating Factors. When asked for the main reasons why employees accepted an international assignment, companies said that while attractive compensation was named by a third of respondents (34 ...
Crossover Effects. Within the HR framework, the most frequently reported reason for a failure in an international assignment (when defined as a premature return) was found an inability or an unwillingness of a partner to adapt to the foreign environment (Punnett, 1997; Haslberger and Brewster, 2008), together with a trailing partner's career concerns (Lazarova et al., 2015).
Foreign assignments will require differential levels of relevant attributes (e.g., language fluency, openness, cooperation, experience with the specific culture, as examples). ... In an effort to define more precisely the relationship that specific internal (e.g., business strategy) and external environmental factors (e.g., ...
Many translated example sentences containing "foreign assignment" - German-English dictionary and search engine for German translations. Look up in Linguee; Suggest as a translation of "foreign assignment" ... Currently, the foreign assignment may last for 12 months, which can be extended once, by a further 12 months.
British finance minister Jeremy Hunt moved on Wednesday to abolish a long-contentious "non-dom" status that lets wealthy, often foreign residents avoid tax on overseas income, adopting a major ...
ASSIGNMENT meaning: 1. a piece of work given to someone, typically as part of their studies or job: 2. a job that…. Learn more.