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Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemistry

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1.1: The Scope of Chemistry

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Learning Objectives

• To recognize the breadth, depth, and scope of chemistry.
• Define chemistry in relation to other sciences.
• Identify the main disciplines of chemistry.

Chemistry is the study of matter—what it consists of, what its properties are, and how it changes. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space—that is, anything that is physically real. Some things are easily identified as matter—the screen on which you are reading this book, for example. Others are not so obvious. Because we move so easily through air, we sometimes forget that it, too, is matter. Because of this, chemistry is a science that has its fingers in just about everything. Being able to describe the ingredients in a cake and how they change when the cake is baked, for example, is chemistry!

Chemistry is one branch of science. Science is the process by which we learn about the natural universe by observing, testing, and then generating models that explain our observations. Because the physical universe is so vast, there are many different branches of science (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Thus, chemistry is the study of matter, biology is the study of living things, and geology is the study of rocks and the earth. Mathematics is the language of science, and we will use it to communicate some of the ideas of chemistry.

Although we divide science into different fields, there is much overlap among them. For example, some biologists and chemists work in both fields so much that their work is called biochemistry. Similarly, geology and chemistry overlap in the field called geochemistry. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows how many of the individual fields of science are related. At some level, all of these fields depend on matter because they all involve "stuff"; because of this, chemistry has been called the "central science", linking them all together.

There are many other fields of science, in addition to the ones (biology, medicine, etc.) listed here.

Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Science Fields

Which fields of study are branches of science? Explain.

• Sculpture is not considered a science because it is not a study of some aspect of the natural universe.
• Astronomy is the study of stars and planets, which are part of the natural universe. Astronomy is therefore a field of science.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Which fields of study are branches of science?

• physiology (the study of the function of an animal’s or a plant’s body)
• agriculture

Areas of Chemistry

The study of modern chemistry has many branches, but can generally be broken down into five main disciplines, or areas of study:

• Physical chemistry: Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic properties, atomic properties, and phenomena in chemical systems. A physical chemist may study such things as the rates of chemical reactions, the energy transfers that occur in reactions, or the physical structure of materials at the molecular level.
• Organic chemistry: Organic chemistry is the study of chemicals containing carbon. Carbon is one of the most abundant elements on Earth and is capable of forming a tremendously vast number of chemicals (over twenty million so far). Most of the chemicals found in all living organisms are based on carbon.
• Inorganic chemistry: Inorganic chemistry is the study of chemicals that, in general, are not primarily based on carbon. Inorganic chemicals are commonly found in rocks and minerals. One current important area of inorganic chemistry deals with the design and properties of materials involved in energy and information technology.
• Analytical chemistry: Analytical chemistry is the study of the composition of matter. It focuses on separating, identifying, and quantifying chemicals in samples of matter. An analytical chemist may use complex instruments to analyze an unknown material in order to determine its various components.
• Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur in living things. Research may cover anything from basic cellular processes up to understanding disease states so better treatments can be developed.

In practice, chemical research is often not limited to just one of the five major disciplines. A particular chemist may use biochemistry to isolate a particular chemical found in the human body such as hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying component of red blood cells. He or she may then proceed to analyze the hemoglobin using methods that would pertain to the areas of physical or analytical chemistry. Many chemists specialize in areas that are combinations of the main disciplines, such as bioinorganic chemistry or physical organic chemistry.

History of Chemistry

The history of chemistry is an interesting and challenging one. Very early chemists were often motivated mainly by the achievement of a specific goal or product. Making perfume or soaps did not need a lot of theory , just a good recipe and careful attention to detail. There was no standard way of naming materials (and no periodic table that we could all agree on). It is often difficult to figure out exactly what a particular person was using. However, the science developed over the centuries by trial and error.

Major progress was made in putting chemistry on a solid foundation when Robert Boyle (1637 - 1691) began his research in chemistry Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). He developed the basic ideas about the behavior of gases. He could then describe gases mathematically. Boyle also helped form the idea that small particles could combine to form molecules. Many years later, John Dalton used these ideas to develop the atomic theory.

The field of chemistry began to develop rapidly in the 1700's. Joseph Priestley (1733 - 1804) isolated and characterized several gases: oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitrous oxide. It was later discovered that nitrous oxide ("laughing gas") worked as an anesthetic. This gas was used for that purpose for the first time in 1844 during a tooth extraction. Other gases discovered during that time were chlorine, by C.W. Scheele (1742 - 1786) and nitrogen, by Antoine Lavoisier (1743 - 1794). Lavoisier has been considered by many scholars to be the "father of chemistry". Among other accomplishments, he discovered the role of oxygen in combustion and definitively formulated the law of conservation of matter.

Chemists continued to discover new compounds in the 1800's. The science also began to develop a more theoretical foundation. John Dalton (1766 - 1844) put forth his atomic theory in 1807. This idea allowed scientists to think about chemistry in a much more systematic way. Amadeo Avogadro (1776 - 1856) laid the groundwork for a more quantitative approach to chemistry by calculating the number of particles in a given amount of a gas. A lot of effort was put forth in studying chemical reactions. These efforts led to new materials being produced. Following the invention of the battery by Alessandro Volta (1745 - 1827), the field of electrochemistry (both theoretical and applications) developed through major contributions by Humphry Davy (1778 - 1829) and Michael Faraday (1791 - 1867). Other areas of the discipline also progressed rapidly.

It would take a large book to cover developments in chemistry during the twentieth century and up to today. One major area of expansion was in the area of the chemistry of living processes. Research in photosynthesis in plants, the discovery and characterization of enzymes as biochemical catalysts, elucidation of the structures of biomolecules such as insulin and DNA - these efforts gave rise to an explosion of information in the field of biochemistry.

The practical aspects of chemistry were not ignored. The work of Volta, Davy, and Faraday eventually led to the development of batteries that provided a source of electricity to power a number of devices (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).

Charles Goodyear (1800 - 1860) discovered the process of vulcanization, allowing a stable rubber product to be produced for the tires of all the vehicles we have today. Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895) pioneered the use of heat sterilization to eliminate unwanted microorganisms in wine and milk. Alfred Nobel (1833 - 1896) invented dynamite ( Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). After his death, the fortune he made from this product was used to fund the Nobel Prizes in science and the humanities. J.W. Hyatt (1837 - 1920) developed the first plastic. Leo Baekeland (1863 - 1944) developed the first synthetic resin, widely used for inexpensive and sturdy dinnerware.

Today, chemistry continues to be essential to the development of new materials and technologies, from semiconductors for electronics to powerful new medicines, and beyond.

• Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes and considers both macroscopic and microscopic information.
• Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
• The five main disciplines of chemistry are physical chemistry, organic chemistry, Inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry and biochemistry.
• Many civilizations contributed to the growth of chemistry. A lot of early chemical research focused on practical uses. Basic chemistry theories were developed during the nineteenth century. New materials and batteries are a few of the products of modern chemistry.

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Marisa Alviar-Agnew  ( Sacramento City College )

Henry Agnew (UC Davis)

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“ Introduction to Chemistry”

Apr 04, 2019

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“ Introduction to Chemistry”. Chemistry. OBJECTIVES: Identify five traditional areas of study in chemistry. Chemistry. OBJECTIVES: Relate pure chemistry to applied chemistry. Chemistry. OBJECTIVES: Identify reasons to study chemistry. What is Chemistry?.

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“Introduction to Chemistry”

Chemistry • OBJECTIVES: • Identify five traditional areas of study in chemistry.

Chemistry • OBJECTIVES: • Relate pure chemistry to applied chemistry.

Chemistry • OBJECTIVES: • Identify reasons to study chemistry.

What is Chemistry? • Chemistry is the study of the composition of “matter” – (matter is anything with mass and occupies space), its composition, properties, and the changes it undergoes. • Has a definite affect on everyday life - taste of foods, grades of gasoline, etc. • Living and nonliving things are made of matter.

Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, and properties of matter and the changes it undergoes – such as burning fuels. C2H5OH+3O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + Energy Reactants  Products

5 Major Areas of Chemistry • Analytical Chemistry- concerned with the composition of substances. • Inorganic Chemistry- primarily deals with substances without carbon • Organic Chemistry- essentially all substances containing carbon • Biochemistry- Chemistry of living things • Physical Chemistry- describes the behavior of chemicals (ex. stretching); involves lots of math! Boundaries not firm – they overlap and interact

What is Chemistry? • Pure chemistry- gathers knowledge for the sake of knowledge • Applied Chemistry- is using chemistry to attain certain goals, in fields like medicine, agriculture, and manufacturing – leads to an application * Nylon – Figure 1.3, page 9 * Aspirin (C9H8O4) - to relieve pain * Use of TECHNOLOGY (benefit!)

Why Study Chemistry? • Everyone and everything around us involves chemistry – explains our world • What in the world isn’t Chemistry? • Helps you make choices; helps make you a better informed citizen • A possible career for your future • Used to attain a specific goal • What did we describe as “pure” and “applied” chemistry?

Chemistry Far and Wide • OBJECTIVES: • Identify some areas of research affected by chemistry.

Chemistry Far and Wide • OBJECTIVES: • Describe some examples of research in chemistry.

Chemistry Far and Wide • OBJECTIVES: • Distinguish between macroscopic and microscopic views.

Chemistry Far and Wide • Chemists design materials to fit specific needs – velcro (Patented in 1955) on page 12 • perfume, steel, ceramics, plastics, rubber, paints, nonstick cooking utensils, polyester fibers • Two different ways to look at the world: macroscopic and microscopic

Chemistry Far and Wide • Energy – we constantly have greater demands • We can conserve it; use wisely • We can try to produce more; oil from soybeans to make biodiesel • fossil fuels, solar, batteries (that store energy – rechargeable?), nuclear (don’t forget pollution!)

Chemistry Far and Wide • Medicine and Biotechnology- • Supply materials doctors use to treat patients • vitamin C, penicillin, aspirin (C9H8O4) • materials for artery transplants and hipbones • bacteria producing insulin

Chemistry Far and Wide • Agriculture • Produce the world’s food supply • Use chemistry for better productivity – soil, water, weeds • plant growth hormones • ways to protect crops; insecticides • disease resistant plants

Chemistry Far and Wide • The Environment • both risks and benefits involved in discoveries • Pollutants need to be 1) identified and 2) prevented • Lead paint was prohibited in 1978; Leaded gasoline? Drinking water? • carbon dioxide, ozone, global warming

- Page 16 Let’s examine some information from a graph. 88.2% 440,000 After lead was banned in gasoline and public water supply systems, less lead entered the environment.

Chemistry Far and Wide • The Universe • Need to gather data from afar, and analyze matter brought back to Earth • composition of the planets • analyze moon rocks • planet atmospheres • life on other planets?

Thinking Like a Scientist • OBJECTIVES: • Describe how Lavoisier transformed chemistry.

Thinking Like a Scientist • OBJECTIVES: • Identify three steps in the scientific method.

Thinking Like a Scientist • OBJECTIVES: • Explain why collaboration and communication are important in science.

Alchemy – developed the tools and techniques for working with chemicals • The word chemistry comes from alchemy – practiced in China and India since 400 B.C. • Alchemy has two sides: • Practical: techniques for working with metals, glass, dyes, etc. • Mystical: concepts like perfection – gold was a perfect metal

An Experimental Approach • In the 1500s, a shift started from alchemy to science – King Charles II was a supporter of the sciences • “Royal Society of London for the Promotion of Natural Knowledge” • Encouraged scientists to use more experimental evidence, and not philosophical debates

Lavoisier • In the late 1700s, Antoine Lavoisier helped transform chemistry from a science of observation to the science of measurement – still used today • He settled a long-standing debate about burning, which was… • Oxygen was required!

The Scientific Method • A logical approach to solving problems or answering questions. • Starts with observation- noting and recording information and facts • hypothesis- a proposed explanation for the observation; must be tested by an experiment

Steps in the Scientific Method 1. Observations (uses your senses) a)quantitative involves numbers = 95oF b)qualitative is word description = hot 2. Formulating hypotheses (ideas) - possible explanation for the observation, or “educated” guess 3. Performing experiments (the test) - gathers new information to help decide whether the hypothesis is valid

Scientific Method • “controlled” experiment- designed to test the hypothesis • only two possible answers: • hypothesis is right • hypothesis is wrong • We gather data and observations by doing the experiment • Modify hypothesis - repeat the cycle

Scientific Method • We deal with variables, or factors that can change. Two types: 1) Manipulated variable (or independent variable) is the one that we change 2) Responding variable (or dependent variable) is the one observed during the experiment • For results to be accepted, the experiment needs to always produce the same result

Outcomes over the long term… • Theory (Model) - A set of well-tested hypotheses that give an overall explanation of some natural phenomenon – not able to be proved • Natural Law (or Scientific Law) - The same observation applies to many different systems; summarizes results - an example would be: the Law of Conservation of Mass

Law vs. Theory • A law summarizes what has happened. • A theory (model) is an attempt to explain why it happened – this changes as new information is gathered.

- Page 22 The procedure that is used to test the hypothesis Using your senses to obtain information Hypothesis is a proposed explanation; should be based on previous knowledge; an “educated” guess Tells what happened A well-tested explanation for the observations; cannot be proven due to new discoveries

Collaboration / Communication • When scientists share ideas by collaboration and communication, they increase the likelihood of a successful outcome • Collaboration – Fig. 1.21, p. 24 • How is communication done? • Is the Internet reliable information? • http://www.dhmo.org

Problem Solving in Chemistry • OBJECTIVES: • Identify two general steps in problem solving.

Problem Solving in Chemistry • OBJECTIVES: • Describe three steps for solving numeric problems.

Problem Solving in Chemistry • OBJECTIVES: • Describe two steps for solving conceptual problems.

Problem Solving in Chemistry • We are faced with problems each day, and not just in chemistry • A solution (answer) needs to be found • Trial and Error may work sometimes? • But, there is a method to problem solving that works better, and these are skills that no one is born knowing – they need to be learned.

Problem Solving in Chemistry • Effective problem solving usually involves two general steps: • Developing a plan • Implementing that plan • The skills you use to solve a word problem in chemistry are NOT different from those techniques used in shopping, cooking, or planning a party.

Solving Numeric Problems • Measurements are an important part of chemistry; thus many of our word problems involve use of mathmatics • Word problems are real life problems, and sometimes more information is presented than needed for a solution • Following skills presented will help you become more successful

Solving Numeric Problems • The three steps we will use for solving a numeric word problem are: • Analyze • Calculate • Evaluate • The following slides tell the meaning of these three steps in detail. Let’s learn how to ACE these numeric word problems!

Solving Numeric Problems • Analyze: this is the starting point • Determine what are the known factors, and write them down on your paper! • Determine what is the unknown. If it is a number, determine the units needed • Plan how to relate these factors- choose an equation; use table or graph • This is the heart of successful problem solving techniques – it is the PLAN

Solving Numeric Problems • Calculate:perform the mathematics • If your plan is correct, this is the easiest step. • Calculator used? Do it correctly! • May involve rearranging an equation algebraically; or, doing some conversion of units to some other units.

Solving Numeric Problems • Evaluate: – the finishing step • Is it reasonable? Make sense? Do an estimate for the answer, and check your calculations. • Need to round off the answer? • Do you need scientific notation? • Do you have the correct units? • Did you answer the question?

Solving Conceptual Problems • Not all word problems in chemistry involve doing calculations • Nonnumeric problems are called conceptual problems – ask you to apply concepts to a new situation • Steps are: • Analyze and 2) Solve • Plan needed to link known to unknown, but no checking units or calculations

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