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Child Development Theorists Cheat Sheet – Everything you Need to Know

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There are so many child development theorists and theories that one may easily be forgiven for getting overwhelmed. However, if you categorise them neatly, then according to the time these theories emerged, you can paint a pretty compact digestible picture. That’s what this blog aims to do. This is your ultimate child development theorists cheat sheet.

We will also make this a downloadable PDF copy so you can have a portable copy whenever you need to take a quick look at it.

So let’s talk about the theories and issues in child development.

Table of Content

Child Development Theory

Child development theory cheat sheet, sigmund freud, austrian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, erik erikson, german psychologist; later moved to america, arnold gesell, american psychologist, urie bronfenbrenner, american psychologist and lecturer, jean piaget, swiss biologist, psychologist, and educator, maria montessori, italian physician and educator, howard gardner, american psychologist and educator, lev vygotsky, russian psychologist and lecturer, b. f. skinner, american psychologist and educator, albert banduram, canadian psychologist, lawrence kohlberg, american psychologist and educator, robert coles, american psychiatrist and professor of literature and social ethic, carol gilligan, american psychologist and professor, what to read next:.

“Different theories about early childhood inform approaches to children’s learning and development. Early childhood educators draw upon a range of perspectives in their work …”

Belonging, Being & Becoming: The Early Years Learning Framework for Australia (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009) p.11

A theory is a collection of concepts that describe a specific topic in the area of children’s learning and development in the field of early childhood education and care. Theories are typically developed through a thoughtful, logical chain of thinking and discussion. Furthermore, a theory is frequently founded on general principles. They remain unrelated to the subject of the explanation.

So, a theorist is someone who studies facts and comes up with a probable explanation for those findings. Some argue that theorists come up with abstract concepts and views. Afterwards, they spend their careers attempting to prove them. Once a theory is proven, it obviously becomes a fact. Theories provide ‘ways of knowing’ that shape thinking and have a specific impact on practice.

So, what is child development theory?

Child development theories are sets of assumptions about how young children learn and develop, as well as what learning and instruction should look like. These assumptions impact how educators think and act, as well as their ideas and beliefs.

Choosing a perspective or theory entails deciding on a value system and, unavoidably, a set of beliefs.

So, what is a value system ?

It’s a set of principles or ideals that motivate and/or guide a person’s actions. For example, if one of your personal values is to protect the environment, you might install solar panels on your roof in the hopes of reducing your energy footprint. This will eventually end the mining of environmentally unhealthy things like coal and gas in order to achieve a more sustainable future.

In the field of child development theory, each theorist’s beliefs are distinct from one another. There are many diverse ideas. But when combined, they provide a comprehensive picture of how children develop as they grow older.

You can check out our other blog on the environmental factors that affect child development.

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The following is a list and details of child development theorists and their theories. We have divided them according to their value system or categories. This is your ultimate child development theorists cheat sheet. If you’re looking for an “early childhood theorists cheat sheet”, this blog addresses that too.

So, there are 5 main categories of child developmental theorists. However, this list is, by any means of the word, absolute. As research areas in child development broaden, so do the categories of theorists. But we’re going to discuss the major ones. With that said, here is the list:

Personality (Psychosocial) Development Theorists

Growth & development theories, cognitive (intellectual) development theories, social learning theories, moral reasoning theories.

For convenience, we’re also adding a child development theories chart and how they relate to researchers.

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Sigmund Freud believed that children’s experiences will have a significant impact on their adult lives. Children’s decisions, according to Freud, develop their personalities as teenagers and adults. Children’s caretakers should also be understanding and sympathetic to their emotional states. The personalities and emotional well-being of children are more likely to be secure and stable if they are emotionally nurtured.

His theory is also known as Freud’s psychosexual development.

Erik Erikson studied under Freud. He refined Freud’s theory by proposing that personality develops in eight phases, beginning in childhood and ending in the old life. The name of this theory is the Psychosocial stage theory.

Each stage has its own psychological crises, the fate of which is determined by how caregivers and important others respond to the stage’s needs. If a person has difficulty during any of the stages, they will experience an identity crisis later in life.

His theory is still regarded to be correct. From infancy to puberty, caregivers can use this approach to satisfy the various emotional needs of each age group effectively.

He is also one of the few theorists who has addressed the stages of early, middle, and elder adulthood. Thus, the parents can determine where their children are in their development.

He was the founder of the Gesell Institute of Human Behaviour in 1911. To understand Gesell’s theory , you first have to understand the Nature vs. Nurture debate. Nature refers to our genetic makeup, while Nurture refers to the environment in which we grow.

Gesell thought that nature influenced development more than nurture. He believed that children develop in a predictable pattern which genetics dictates. The development will take place only when the youngster is ready. Gesell gave the basic data on child development’s sequence and rate.

Gesell was honoured for his groundbreaking contributions to the approach of carefully observing and quantifying behaviour, as well as characterising the development of children. He was the first to use photography and one-way mirror observation as research methods . The Gesell Institute of Human Behaviour is still a world-renowned centre for child development research.

Urie Bronfenbrenner is famous for his Ecological systems theory. His field of research was the children and their families in the context of twentieth-century social transformations.

He developed the Ecological Systems Theory to better comprehend the complicated link that exists between the infant, the family, and society, as well as how these factors influence child development. Also, he had an impact on how psychologists and other social scientists viewed the study of people in their surroundings.

Furthermore, he linked child psychology to sociology (family studies), anthropology (society studies), economics, and political science. The goal here is to examine how all of these factors affect development rather than reviewing each independently.

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When his three children were born, he got interested in the scientific study of intelligence. He observed and took scientific notes on his children’s intellectual growth.

Better known for his Cognitive developmental stage theory , he was also the first person to conduct a scientific study of children based on real-life observations and meticulous note-taking. He observed that children’s intellectual growth is divided into four stages, beginning in infancy and ending in puberty.

As a youngster grows older, his or her thinking becomes more complicated. Each stage of development causes the youngster to view the world in a new light. He stated that a youngster must ‘master’ one stage before progressing to the next. They will never realise their full potential if they are unable to master a stage. Piaget thought that intellectual development is tightly linked to all other aspects of growth.

Maria Montessori believed that children from low-income families require a better start in life in order to succeed in school. She based her teaching methods and philosophy on Piaget’s theories.

Montessori believed that rather than forcing children to learn, they learn best by using their senses and pursuing their interests. You can call it self-directed learning. Children have inborn skills and talents. There are sensitive periods in a child’s life that can be used as an indicator to when the child is ready to learn.

The premise that children learn and think differently than adults is central to her Educational Philosophy. Many traditional types of achievement (like grades and tests) are discouraged, and Montessori schools all around the world (including Canada) implement her concepts as strictly as possible. Montessori thought that teachers should give the essential resources for children to learn independently while interfering as little as possible with the children’s learning experience.

Children will learn on their own if they receive affection. In essence, you can minimise group courses and emphasise the solo investigation of subjects like language, geography, and maths. Also, you can emphasise the importance of real-life experiences and hands-on activities. Children will take over the learning process if you can easily supply the age-appropriate learning resources.

Howard Gardner was tutored by Erik Erikson while studying law at Harvard University. There, his interest in psychology and the social sciences flourished, and he became interested in how people thought.

Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences contradicted the idea that humans have a single, fixed intelligence. He implies that intelligence is multidimensional. Each person has a different mix of several intelligences, resulting in a unique cognitive profile. Gardner believed that humans learned through seven (and later nine) separate intelligences.

One of socio behaviourist theories in early childhood- Lev Vygotsky is better known for his zone of proximal development (ZPD) theory. He began his laboratory studies while he was in his twenties and died of tuberculosis when he was in his thirties.

Vygotsky argued that nurture influences development more than nature in the nature vs nurture argument. The main concept of Vygotsky’s work was that social interaction is critical to learning. The development of a child is seen on two levels :

First , on a social level

Second , on an individual level

He thought that social interactions such as adult mentorship or peer collaboration help talents grow to a higher level. Adults, according to Vygotsky, were utilised by children to solve “knowledge issues”. Knowledge issues refer to their learning how their cultures operated and how they fit in. He also felt that thinking and linguistic skills are mutually reinforcing.

• F. Skinner’s theory (Behaviourist psychological theory) is founded on “operant conditioning”. The majority of his research involved tiny rats locked up in mazes. There was no systematic study of children. The theory states that a consequence follows behaviour. The nature of the result affects the tendency to repeat the behaviour. It’s a form of learning through rewards and punishment.

He claimed that youngsters would repeat rewarded behaviour in order to receive more rewards. It results in a higher likelihood of the behaviour occurring again. Similarly, youngsters will quit engaging in repeatedly penalised “bad” behaviour. Thus you can reduce the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again. Skinner also thought that parents play a critical role in training children by providing both positive and negative feedback.

As thus, he introduced the notions of-

• Positive reinforcement or reinforcing stimuli: If the desired behaviour is witnessed, something nice occurs.
• Negative reinforcement or aversive stimuli: When a bad behaviour is stopped by the desired behaviour.
• Extinction: It occurs when nothing happens while the behaviour occurs. As a result, the behaviour finally stops.
• Intermittent reinforcement : The most effective method of maintaining behaviour. It’s a combination of positive reinforcement and extinction . The most effective incentive here is the expectation of a reward.

Albert Banduram is famous for his social learning theory. Skinner’s theories heavily influenced him. But he did not agree with all of Skinner’s beliefs. He conducted a number of well-designed and tightly controlled studies on children’s behaviour.

Banduram implies that the environment determines children’s behaviour. But the behaviour also both shapes and modifies the environment. You can call it as “reciprocal determinism”. He looked at how personality interacts with the environment, behaviour, and a person’s psychological processes.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s research ( Moral understanding stage theory ) was inspired by Piaget’s theories and conducted during Skinner’s period. In order to monitor moral growth in children, he investigated male children.

Kohlberg argued that we could divide moral or ethical reasoning into six stages. Furthermore, we could classify each of them into three levels. According to Kohlberg, individuals can only move through the stages one at a time. We believe that the majority of moral development comes as a result of social interaction.

Robert Coles’ field of study was children’s moral growth. He thinks that their parent’s behaviour shapes the moral character of the children. In addition, their school, peers and their nurturing attitude also have the same influence.

Life stories are a great way to learn. He discovered that youngsters have a strong moral sensitivity to things like ideas and values, right and wrong. They are morally concerned about issues that affect their daily lives. In addition, our motivations behind what we do, feel and think nudges their thought faculty too. 

Carol Gilligan believed that most moral development theories were skewed since they were based on studies of “privileged white men” in the 1970s. She questioned if she could apply the statistics to women without additional research.

Gilligan stressed the role of gender in the formation of morality too.

If you ever dream of becoming a child psychologist, check out our other blog, “ How to Become a Child Psychologist in the UK .”

Who was the first child development theorists?

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was the first researcher to study children scientifically.

Who is the father of child development?

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is the father of the field of “child development theory”.

What was Erik Erikson’s theory?

You can call Erik Erikson’s theory the Psychosocial stage theory.

Who influenced Piaget?

Piaget’s theory expanded from the likes of Skinner and Pavlov’s behaviourist theories.

Where is Jean Piaget from?

Jean Piaget was from Switzerland.

How are Piaget and Erikson’s theories different?

The main distinction between Piaget’s and Erikson’s theory is that Erikson focused on development throughout life, whereas Piaget only looked at it from infancy to late adolescence.

Why is Piaget’s theory important?

Piaget’s cognitive development hypothesis contributed to our knowledge of children’s intellectual development. It also emphasised that children were not just passive consumers of information. Instead, as they develop their understanding of how the world works, children are continuously studying and experimenting.

What was Skinner’s theory?

Skinner’s theory focused on the Behaviourist Psychological Theory and you can find it in “operant conditioning”.

Although there are many more related topics inherent in our child development theorists cheat sheet, these are the major ones. If you still want more comprehensive information on how theories influence current practice, you may have to refer to a book that focuses on child development and child psychology. You may be looking for this sheet either for self-study or for professional development. “Child development and psychology course” offered by Lead Academy is a course that can help you with that. Professionally made courses like these will give you a deep dive into the field of child development.

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10 Major Child Development Theorists and their Theories Summarised

• June 18, 2023

Introduction

• Jean Piaget

Early Life and Background

Findings and philosophies.

• Stages of Cognitive Development

Significance of Philosophy for Child Development

Lev vygotsky, differences of vygotsky’s theory, jerome bruner, bruner’s three modes of representation, maria montessori.

• Differences of the Montessori Method
• Sigmund Freud

Freud’s 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development

• Albert Bandura

Key Factors in Observational Learning and Modelling Process

Burrhus frederic (b.f.) skinner, three operants of b.f. skinner’s theory, significant of philosophy for child development, erik erikson, arnold gesell, bibliography.

Childhood development and education are evolving topics that have caused disagreement and speculation in many societies and cultures for decades. Psychologists, theorists, parents, educators and allied professionals have strived to understand the stages of development, best learning methods and how to guide children successfully through thought-provoking practices. With time, observation, and practice, our arsenal of tools for teaching has expanded. 

However, with this expansion, comes more disagreement about which method is “right.” Understanding the ten theorists in which our beliefs about childhood, development, lifespan and how we learn, are vital to understanding early childhood development (from birth) to death and every learning experience in between. 10 key theorists and their philosophies shaped how we approach education today! 

The theorists discussed in this article are:

Each theorists or philosophy is summarised using the following headings:

Jean Piaget 

Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on August 9, 1896, where his early interests began in the subject of zoology. At the mere age of 11 years old, he began researching and reporting his findings on an albino sparrow. (Cherry, 2020) By the time he was 15, several reports were published, and famously his observations on mollusks gained renowned reputation with European zoologists (Britannica, 2021). This propelled Piaget to further his studies at the University of Neuchâtel, where he pursued further knowledge in zoology and philosophy, graduating with his doctorate in 1918. With his growing passion for psychology and biological sciences, Piaget began his interest in epistemology , otherwise referred to as the study of human knowledge, its origins and limits (Britannica, 2021). Piaget was preoccupied with understanding where knowledge originated from, how genetics impacts the process and the order in which it develops (Cherry, 2020). Shortly after receiving his Ph.D., he began his psychology studies under the teachings of Carl Jung (noted as being one of the most influential psychiatrists) and Paul Eugen Bleuler (a notable psychiatrist who coined many terms for mental illnesses that we know today, including Schizophrenia and Autism), at the University of Zürich, further exploring his passion in psychoanalysis (Biography, 2014).  Want more information on developmental psychology? Take our free professional development 1 hour course here .

In 1923, Piaget married his wife and mother of their three children, Valentine Châtenay. As a common practice with many theorists, his own children were the subjects of many of his observations. These observations led to the groundbreaking theories we know today (Cherry, 2020). Want to learn more about observational practices with actionable strategies for documentation and reflective practice in early childhood education? Watch our masterclass here with an optional certificate.

Before the findings of Jean Piaget’s theory came to light, children were considered to be tiny adults that were able to process their thinking the same way as any mature adult could. Anger and frustration was a typical response when children wouldn’t listen or understand a concept. After all, it was because “they’re just not listening” – right? It wasn’t until Piaget’s interest in psychoanalysis brought him to spend a year working at a boys’ institution founded by Albert Binet where things began to shift (Cherry, 2020).  Binet is famous for developing the world’s first intelligence test, where Piaget played a significant role in scoring the results. The assessments greatly impacted Piaget, encouraging him to explore a once-revolutionary notion – children think differently from adults (Cherry, 2020). 

During his time at the Binet Institute, Piaget’s intrigue for child development grew as he wanted to understand why children gave the wrong answers to questions that could be simply solved using logical thinking (McLeod, 2018). Piaget set out to understand the concepts from both findings logged in a diary about his own children and through controlled observations. Thus, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development was born, suggesting that children go through 4 stages in a specific order (McLeod, 2018). 

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1: The Sensorimotor Stage

From birth to approximately age 2, children are noted to understand the world primarily through their senses and movements (Cherry, 2020). During this stage, a number of cognitive abilities develop, such as: 

• Object permanence: knowing that an object still exists even though it is not in plain sight. 
• Self-recognition: having self-awareness of actions or consciousness.
• Deferred imitation: reproducing an action once observed.
• Representational play: engaging with toys mimicked after real-life scenarios, people, etc.

While learning in this stage, you may notice a child does not have object permanence, meaning that if something is hidden or out of sight, children at this stage believe it no longer exists (McLeod, 2018). The development goal during this period of an infant’s growth is to gain object permanence. It requires forming a schema (mental representation or memory) of the object, recalling it, and labelling it (McLeod, 2018). You can try this with a child at this stage. Show the child an object (e.g. a shiny rattle), they may even interact with it or touch it. After this, put the object under a cloth in front of the child. A child who does not have object permanence yet will not try to look for the object because if they cannot see it, to them, it does not exist.  Want more information on developmental psychology? Take our free professional development 1 hour course here .

Stage 2: The Preoperational Stage

From age two to age seven (approximately), children’s development is rooted in language and symbolic play (Cherry, 2020). In this stage, you’ll notice children are able to use language and mental imagery to interpret and represent their perspective on the world. However, logical thinking or problem-solving skills at this stage are rudimentary. Children may also demonstrate animism , a term that relates to believing non-living objects, such as a table or car, have feelings and life like a human being (McLeod, 2018). Towards the latter end of this stage, they begin to understand conservation . For example, children can understand how something can stay the same in quantity, even though the appearance changes. You can test this out by having two identical glasses with a third glass that is able to hold the same amount of liquid but a different size (e.g. two may be short, square glasses, while the third is a taller cylinder shape). Children at this stage also begin to understand symbols and their meaning. In their play, for example, they may pretend that a stick is a wand. Their pretend play becomes more advanced and they continue to use role playing activities to test and experiment.

Another one of Piaget’s beliefs was that the child during the preoperational stage is largely egocentric , meaning that they find it difficult to see things from other people’s perspectives. “The Three Mountain Task was developed by Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder in the 1940s to study children’s ability to coordinate spatial perspectives. In the task, a child faced a display of three model mountains while a researcher placed a doll at different viewpoints of the display. The researcher asked the child to reconstruct the display from the doll’s perspective, select from a set of pictures showing the doll’s view, and identify a viewpoint for the doll specified by a picture of the display. Some children around age four did not distinguish between their own view and that of the doll, a tendency interpreted by Piaget as evidence of egocentrism. Egocentrism was considered an indication of the preoperational period, a stage that preceded logical thinking. Research since the 1970s has shown young children’s perspective-taking ability to be affected by a variety of situational variables” (Encyclopedia, 2021).

Stage 3: The Concrete Operational Stage

From approximately age seven to 11, children begin to develop their own thought process at a more mature level matched with an ongoing struggle with theoretical thinking (Cherry, 2020). However, it’s important to note that children at this stage are more advanced when thinking logically about concrete events than speculative theories (McLeod, 2018). The turning point for a child’s development in this stage is the ability to work things out in their head (abstract reasoning).  Want more information on developmental psychology? Take our free professional development 1 hour course here .

Stage 4: The Formal Operational Stage

In the final stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory, from age 12 into adulthood, children are able to understand abstract ideas and theoretical scenarios without needing a physical aid, such as slicing up a cake to understand fractions (McLeod, 2018). 

In this stage, children will be able to speculate on possible ideas, consequences and outcomes for situations that may never come to be prepared for them. An example of this is being able to picture who is taller based on a sequence of information rather than a visual representation. 

“If Tyler is taller than Jamie, and Jamie is taller than Claire, who is the tallest?”

Piaget tested this theory in 1970 to understand operational thought processes. He asked children where they would put an extra eye if they could have a third one (McLeod, 2010). While children were in the concrete operational stage, they were quick to say it should be on their forehead. 11-year-olds in the formal operational stage had a different thought process, expressing that it would be better placed on their hand so they could see around corners (ibid, 2010). 

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development was significant in constructing the idea that intelligence wasn’t a fixed trait . Cognitive development was related to biological maturation and how a child interacts with their environment (McLeod, 2018).  Want more information on developmental psychology? Take our free professional development 1 hour course here .

This theory promotes children’s understanding of the world and how they experience differences in what they already know and what they discover through their surroundings, environment and experiences. Every child and adult relate what they learn into schemas (ibid, 2018). An advanced version of this is the process of going to the movie theatre. From looking at the selection of films, to buying tickets, purchasing snacks and selecting your seat, there is an order based on memory or a known event, known as your schema. 

While Piaget’s theory did not directly relate to education, it was later discovered how it could be applied to teaching and learning. In 1966, the UK government did a review of the primary education system – based strongly on Piaget’s theory (McLeod, 2018). Discovery learning was introduced and transformed the curriculum. Children could now learn better through actively exploring, playing, and using the environment around them (McLeod, 2018). A vital part of this theory acknowledges that educators should ‘not assume that only what is measurable is valuable’ (Gillard, 2002). According to this theory, readiness is a critical factor for development in the school system, indicating children should not be taught certain concepts until they have grasped or reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development (McLeod, 2018). This theory states that the role of the educator should be to: 

• Focus on the process of learning instead of the end result.
• Use active methods of reconstructing “truths” (i.e. a child’s past worldview).
• Introduce collaborative and individual activities.
• Evaluate children’s development to set practical tasks and expectations.
• Develop scenarios that present useful issues that will provoke an alternative thought process for the child. 

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who was born in Orsha, a city in the western region of the Russian Empire, on November 17, 1896 (Cherry, 2020). Initially interested in law, Vygotsky graduated with his degree in 1917 from Moscow State University, where he studied linguistics, psychology, philosophy and sociology. Taking a particular interest in psychology, Vygotsky began his formal education in 1924, attending the Institute of Psychology in Moscow (Cherry, 2020). 

During Vygotsky’s studies in 1925, he suffered from an acute tuberculosis relapse but was able to complete his dissertation and was awarded his degree (Cherry, 2020). He died of the disease years later, in 1934 at just 37 years old. During his career, Lev Vygotsky was renowned for being a thoughtful writer, publishing six books on psychology in a seven-year period. His work primarily centred around child development and education. 

While his research is not as famous as Skinner, Pavlov, Freud and Piaget’s, this has been speculated to be due to the criticism received from the Communist party, making his writings inaccessible to the Western World for sometime, paired with his untimely death (ibid, 2020). Much of his writings remained incomplete and proved to be challenging to translate from their original Russian form but has been noted in educational practice since 1970.  

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who is well known for his sociocultural theory ; he believed that social interaction plays a crucial role in children’s learning and development (Cherry, 2020). His view promoted the distinct idea that most skills and knowledge developed by children stemmed from cultural values, beliefs and problem-solving strategies that were taught through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society (i.e. teachers, role models, older children, celebrities, peers, etc) and then on an individual level within the child (McLeod, 2018). Compared to Piaget, you may notice that Vygotsky’s theory does not have specific developmental stages but rather, the community/culture and social interaction are the foundation for cognitive development. 

While studying Vygotsky’s theory, you may notice similarities and subtle differences between Piaget’s socio-cultural context. While Piaget regards cognitive development as universal, noted through stages, Vygotsky argues that cultural differences play a huge role and can affect cognitive development stages (McLeod, 2018). 

Vygotsky believed that guided learning within the zone of proximal development was the key. The zone of proximal development is the distance between problem-solving independently and the level of potential development determined by problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. (Cherry, 2020). This “zone” is referred to as what the child knows and what they don’t know yet. In order to acquire missing information on the “unknown,” the child must move forward with the help of someone more knowledgeable to teach them. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) is anyone who has more knowledge about the task at hand that the child does (Vygotsky 1980). The MKO can be an educator, parent or even a peer. An example of this is guided reading activities where a young child is supported by an older child.

With this theory, learning relies heavily on the environment in which children grow up and the tools they learn from others to process information while placing a high degree of importance on learning from others. In contrast, Piaget promotes independent knowledge and learning (McLeod, 2018). 

A famous case study performed by Shaffer in 1996 showcases this theory with the example of a young girl working her way through her first jigsaw puzzle. While attempting this alone, she struggled to complete the puzzle by herself. Her father then sat with her, and described and demonstrated basic strategies, such as finding edge pieces and provided a few pieces for the child to put together with words of encouragement (McLeod, 2018). 

If the child were left unattended, they would not be able to solve the jigsaw puzzle, or it would have taken a long time to do so. With social interaction and guidance from her father, the child was able to develop the skill that she could apply to future jigsaw puzzles. Once competency shines through, the child is able to problem solve more successfully in an independent setting after the collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development in this case (McLeod, 2018).  Want more information on developmental psychology? Take our free professional development 1 hour course here .

The significance of the adult or more knowledgeable other is vital to child development. Imitation, guided learning, and collaborative learning are all critical parts of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural theory (Cherry, 2020). 

In order to promote learning that is within a child’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), teachers can partner ‘less skilled’ children with more advanced peers or older children to help them discover learning experiences. In these scenarios, children are encouraged to observe, imitate or receive instructions to acquire the information or skills they need from The More Knowledgeable Other. Compared to Piaget’s theory, Vygotsky emphasizes the interaction with more knowledgeable adults and peers while Piaget stresses peer interaction with lesser focus on their skill level (McLeod, 2018).  

To break it down, consider the jigsaw example and Vygotsky’s theory that every function in a child’s cultural development surfaces twice. The first is on the social level, and the second is on the individual level. To utilize this theory in the successful learning development of children, he advocates for the use of collaborative learning exercises or pairing ‘less competent children with more experienced peers (ZPD) (ibid, 2018).

Through collaborative dialogue, you’ll notice a child gives more attention and is able to retain the information by seeking to understand the instructions provided by an educator, adult or peer. Keep in mind, an adult is not always The Knowledgeable Other in this situation. If a child was learning a new video game, they may seek guidance from an older sibling or friend who has had the game longer (ibid, 2018). 

In today’s educational system, Vygotsky’s theory is reflected through collaboration and learning with others, as a fundamental way of introducing new ideas before exploring independent learning. 

Jerome Bruner was an American Psychologist and educator. Born blind on October 1st, 1915, in New York City. Bruner regained his sight and spent the remainder of his years studying how the human mind perceives the world (Schudel, 2016). His research and findings had an instrumental role in today’s educational system. His theories ranged in the topics of perception, memory, learning and other ideologies around cognition in young children (Britannica, 2021). 

When Bruner was only 12 years old, his father, a watch manufacturer, died but not before selling the family business to Bulova, leaving them well off (Schudel, 2016). Bruner began his educational studies at Duke University before attending Harvard, where he received his doctorate in psychology in 1941. After receiving his degree, he served as an expert on psychological warfare during World War 2 for the United States military (Britannica, 2021). 

After 1945, he returned to Harvard but this time as a professor, until he left in 1972 to become a professor of experimental psychology at the University of Oxford. He later went on to teach at the New School for Social Research in New York City and at the New York University of Law (ibid, 2021). In the 1960s, Dr. Bruner was also a science adviser to presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, where he went on to develop the “spiral curriculum.” 

While Bruner lived to the age of 100, his 70-year academic career was founded in ongoing research. His educational theories were embraced after American school systems feared that students were falling behind in science after the Soviet launch of the Sputnik satellite in 1957 (Schudel, 2016). He believed that students could grasp any information as long as it was presented in a way that they could understand.

Bruner’s studies were influenced strongly by Jean Piaget and B.F. Skinner. However, he argued that if any subject is presented to a child at any stage of their development, with proper instruction, they can learn it even if challenging (Britannica, 2021). Compared to Piaget and Vygotsky, Bruner did not agree that children couldn’t comprehend material if they had not reached the proper development stage. Instead, he suggested that as long as you learn in an organized manner, from enactive representation, to iconic and then symbolic, you can learn and retain information better (McLeod, 2019). 

Bruner’s findings were based on his curiosity about how knowledge is represented and organized through different modes of thinking. During his research, he proposed three modes of representation in which we process our information (McLeod, 2019)

• Enactive representation (action based)
• Iconic representation (image-based)
• Symbolic representation (language-based)

When describing this theory, modes of representation are related to how information is stored in our memory. This development is not age-related as much as it is in sequential order (McLeod, 2019). The three modes are:

The best way to describe enactive representation is learning by doing. This often happens in the first year of life, where an infant learns by physical actions, such as shaking a rattle or moving around in a jolly jumper. Later in life, this physical learning ability can be observed when first riding a bike or typing on a computer (McLeod, 2019).

Iconic refers to sensory images (aka, icons) such as pictures in your mind, smells, or noises that you can imagine without physically experiencing at that moment. During this stage of learning, when dealing with something new, it may be helpful to have visual aids through diagrams or pictures. 

This is when information is stored and is usually seen in children after the age of six. Children can store information as symbols during the symbolic stage, such as words, math equations, or other systems like music notes (McLeod, 2019). 

Another key finding of Bruner’s was Discovery Learning. This theory proposed that learners construct their own way of thinking by categorizing information within their own coding system (McLeod, 2019). The basis of this is that students learn their own method of discovery rather than being told what to do by the teacher. Instead, the teacher’s role is to facilitate the learning process and give the right tools for the children to draw conclusions from their own method of learning.  Want more information on developmental psychology? Take our free professional development 1 hour course here .

Significance of Bruner’s Philosophy for Child Development

According to Bruner’s theories, children have a natural curiosity and crave to be seen as competent. However, if not taught in the proper order, they can be easily bored with tasks that are too challenging and overwhelm them. (Britannica, 2021). The best way for them to learn is for the educator to find the right balance between challenging and difficult tasks. Today, we see this happening in our school system with Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum. This teaches subjects at a more manageable level, to begin with, gradually increasing in complexity as children’s learn until they are able to solve the problems independently (McLeod, 2019)

We see this theory practiced today with most of the subjects taught in our educational systems. You wouldn’t give an algebra equation to a child when they have just began to understand multiplication. However, Bruner believed that with the proper instruction or guidance and order of complexity, children will be able to learn more math concepts and even translate new ones independently without the need for much guidance. This is in part because of Bruner’s emphasis on not only teaching information for learning’s sake but for teaching how to learn. Educators must facilitate problem-solving skills and thinking strategies that can be applied to a variety of subjects and real-life experiences. 

The significance of this finding is that although it may be similar to Piaget, this theory stresses the importance of instructions aligned with practice and experience, promoting the learning process to strengthen the overall comprehension of new subjects. 

Maria Montessori was notably the first female physician, born in Italy on August 31st, 1870 (Biography, 2014). Growing up in the late 1800s, Italy’s old-fashioned conservative values regarding women’s roles did not impede Montessori’s ideologies. From a young age, she rebelled against gender norms and, at the age of 14, attended school at a boys’ technical institute where her understanding of math and sciences, particularly in biology grew (Biography, 2014). Although her father resisted her rebellion initially, her mother’s support propelled her success, where she graduated from the medical school of the University of Rome in 1896 with high honours. As a physician, she specialized in pediatrics and psychiatry and treated many poor and working-class children who attended the free clinics at the medical-school alma mater where she taught. 

Maria Montessori was in charge of Casa dei Bambini school, and her teachings exploded by 1925 with more than 1,000 Montessori schools across the United States. In 1940, the movement was quickly diminishing. Maria Montessori died on May 6, 1952, in the Netherlands, with a surge of Montessori schools led by Dr. Nancy McCormick Rambush returning in the 1960s where her teachings live on (Biography, 2014) 

Montessori became intrigued in early childhood development and education during her time as co-director of the Orthophrenic School for developmentally disabled children in 1900, where she trained teachers in the best approaches for educating unique individuals. While studying the experimentations with the capabilities of children with additional needs from renowned physicians Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard and Édouard Séguin, Montessori began to devise her own method for applying their theories which she began to test in the school system. This eventually led to improvements in the children’s development (Biography, 2014). 

Taking what she learned while teaching children with cognitive additional needs, Montessori believed that she could modify her methods to suit any educational system, regardless of the children’s level of development ability. On January 6, 1907, she was awarded her first classroom, the Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House), which was developed for children ages two to seven and opened initially with roughly 60 children (Ruhl, 2021). 

In the first classroom, you wouldn’t just find your typical tables, chairs and blackboard. You could find children engaged in activities that varied from gardening to dusting and even dressing. Montessori noted that free choice allowed students to develop interest on their own. 

Three Major Differences of the Montessori Method

Number 1 Learning Materials

The way children learn in the Montessori method differs depending on the child’s age and capabilities. The thought behind this practice is that a child should understand concrete concepts before complex or abstract ones. For example, before learning how to read, a child will learn how to grip a pencil and begin to write letters. Their motor skills toward the subject are focused on first before understanding the concept of reading (Ruhl, 2021). 

Number 2 Engaging with Learning Materials

A widely criticized method of Montessori teachings is being guided by the child, especially in the way they choose what to learn. Montessori observed that children could focus for an extended period of time if they were interested in that particular subject, which started the “internal work cycle.” As long as a child is willing to set up the activity or space in which they learn and put it away afterwards, they are free to learn what they please, for how long they please and choose who they learn with. (Ruhl, 2021). 

Number 3 Classroom Size

A Montessori classroom is very different from the typical classroom, which is age-based. Sometimes you may see a split class of 6-9-year-olds, but it’s rare. In a Montessori classroom, you can find diverse age ranges, which promote leadership skills for older children to serve as mentors for the younger age groups (Ruhl, 2021).  

In addition to classroom set-up two other fundamental principles guided Montessori’s belief in child development.

• One: Children and adults engage in realizing their own identity (self-construction) by interacting with their environment and;
• Two: Children have a natural path for psychological development.

Maria Montessori believed that schools that foster self-construction, can propel a child to reach their full potential and that children follow a similar development trajectory. This development takes place on four “planes of development”, which have different characteristics and learning modes that can be applied (Ruhl, 2021). 

First Plane of Development

The first plane typically includes children anywhere from age 0-6 and is the most essential stage. During this time, children should be exploring their physical environment using their senses. You’ll notice that at this stage children may begin to learn language skills and gain interest in small objects, perhaps their favourite toy (Ruhl, 2021).

Second Plane of Development

This plane is typically explored with children aged 6-12. This is generally realized once children work together in a group, rather than individually. During this stage, it’s vital for children to socialise, while also beginning to think independently. An example of this could be discovering more details about the planets, while a friend could be more interested in animals (Ruhl, 2021). 

Third Plane of Development

Children tend to fall in the ages of 12-18 during this developmental stage, normally referred to as adolescence, as they hit puberty. You’ll notice children in this stage crave praise, tangible rewards or recognition for their work (Ruhl, 2021). 

Fourth Plane of Development

Young adults from the ages of 18-24 in this stage begin to embrace their education, findings and begin to lead others from their knowledge. Financial and economic independence are crucial components so that youths can transition to individual adulthood (Ruhl, 2021).

Maria Montessori’s methods play a significant role in today’s education system, where successful executives such as Jeff Bezos, Larry Page and Sergey Brin (co-founders of Google), Prince William, Prince Harry and more have fostered their learning experience from (Ruhl, 2021). 

Although it is widely criticized and difficult to pinpoint research that can distinguish the reasonings that Montessori learners are more advanced, a few case studies were able to prove the favourable results. 

In a study conducted between Montessori students and traditional students in France, one hundred fifty-nine, 7-12-year-olds were tested on five different tasks that focused on both divergent and integrative thinking over a long period of time. For every task at both testing periods, Montessori children scored higher than conventional school children (Ruhl, 2021). 

In today’s classrooms, this is what you’ll typically see with Montessori methods and philosophies in action. 

Toddler Programs

The toddler program is typically for children under the age of 3 and encourages children to develop movement and independence, such as potty training. Children are typically given materials and learning opportunities that suit their size and/or skill level during this development stage. It’s common to notice parents present or teachers assistants to actively participate with the children (Ruhl, 2021). 

Preschool and Kindergarten

You’ll find a classroom with Montessori methods at this stage with roughly 20-30 children of mixed ages with an entire team of teachers that can promote both independent learning and social interaction opportunities. An example of this type of learning is when a teacher introduces the activities, puts a variety of them on shelves throughout the room, and lets the children choose which one to explore at their own pace. Activities range from hands-on approaches such as washing tables and sweeping to academic subjects like language, math and art (Ruhl, 2021). 

Elementary Classrooms

Children in Montessori schools for elementary classes can range anywhere from age 6-12, where the philosophy of children’s personal interest in learning supersedes conventional methods. An educator will first teach the lessons to groups of children and then allow them to freely learn and explore independently. A vital component of this approach is investigating outside the classroom and exploring new learning methods (Ruhl, 2021). 

Middle and High School

For middle and high school students, Montessori methods continue to nurture individual learning while inspiring children to explore subjects that interest them through positive discovery. 

Overall, Montessori’s philosophies were significant in showcasing the “guided by children” method that celebrated learning and exploration over specific academic results in predetermined categories.  Want more information on developmental psychology? Take our free professional development 1 hour course here .

While David Weikart organized the HighScope education method, the leading theorists behind this curriculum are Piaget and Vygotsky. With the headquarters located in Ypsilanti, Michigan, this educational process was founded in 1970 as a nonprofit organization that promotes the development of children and youth worldwide. It also supports educators and parents as they help children learn with participative engagement. (Rock, 2020)

After examining 123 African American children that were born into poverty and were at risk for failing out of school,  the High/Scope Perry Preschool Study concluded that individuals who received a high-quality preschool program excelled compared to those in their neighbourhood who did not attend a similar program (Schweinhart, 2003). 

The HighScope method is recognized for taking an “intentional learning” approach that engages both educators and children. In this method, you can find Montessori, Piaget and Vygotsky’s ideologies woven together for supportive learning where teachers are in place to both support and guide the learning process (Rock, 2020). 

This approach tackles the intention that teachers will validate what the child already knows and, when the time is right, use a scaffolding method to teach the next step in learning, similar to Bruner’s theory about appropriate stages for learning complex teachings. In the classroom, you may recognize a HighScope curriculum as a busy environment with students simultaneously working independently and coming together to discuss what they’ve learned (Rock, 2020). 

Founded in 1970, this method was introduced as part of the Perry Preschool Project, which strived to provide early childhood education to young children that belonged to low-income families in Ypsilanti, Michigan. After introducing this philosophy to the education program, students were reported:

• More likely to graduate from high school
• Less likely to commit crimes
• Had better employment opportunities
• Earned more income than those who did not attend preschool or engage in a HighScope program (Rock, 2020). 

With this philosophy comes a high emphasis on documentation in order to improve the education and individual hands-on approach of parents with their children (UK Essays, 2018). 

This theory thrives on the basis that children are intentional learners who grasp new information better if they are able to be involved in the educational planning process, carry out activities on their own and review their findings. A teacher and parent’s role in this is to observe, support and challenge ideologies. In order for this study to be successful, home visits were conducted to ensure there was educational support at home as well (Schweinhart, 2003).

The significance of the HighScope method for child development directly relates to essential learning experiences, how they are divided and the active learning that takes place between the educator and the child. With a consistent yet flexible approach, children are able to express initiative and participate in the learning process. 

While this method takes care and attention to a child’s specific needs, it can be time-consuming for educators who must be keen on observations throughout the child’s studies. A Child Observation Record is kept, which is noted on a daily basis around 58 key developmental indicators (Rock, 2020). 

In order for this philosophy to be successful for educators today, the national High/Scope Training of Trainers must be available to provide teachers with hands-on workshops, observation, feedback and follow-up sessions for effective learning (Schweinhart, 2003). 

While these reports prove the value of high-quality education in Preschool, especially for children of poverty, it is not the only circumstance that affects society’s education methods. It is difficult to maintain in densely populated areas with education support staff that is spread thin. 

Sigmund Freud 

On May 6, 1856, Sigmund Freud was born in Freiberg, Moravia, now known as Příbor, Czech Republic and died at the age of 83 on September 23rd, 1939, in London, England. Although many are wildly critiqued, Freud is world-renowned for his theories. He was an Austrian neurologist who created psychoanalysis, and his thought-provoking work changed the way we view culture, society, and the human psyche (Jay, 2021). 

His history begins as the son of a Jewish wool merchant, Jakob, who is remembered as a strict authority figure while Freud was being nurtured emotionally by his mother, Amalie Nathansohn. In 1859, the family moved to Leipzig and settled a year later in Vienna, where Freud remained for the next 78 years (Jay, 2021). 

Freud pursued his career in medicine at the University of Vienna and by 1885 was appointed as a lecturer in neuropathology with research on the brain’s medulla. During this time, he also found an interest in the pharmaceutical benefits of cocaine, with an unpleasant outcome of addiction within his peers that tarnished his reputation for years to come (Jay, 2021). 

In 1886, Freud married Martha Bernays, daughter of a prominent Jewish family and had six children, one of whom was to carry his legacy as a psychoanalyst. In the early 1900s, Freud began his groundbreaking work in Psychosexual Stages of Development, highlighting the importance of child milestones and how a misstep can lead to mental illness and emotional distress (Kassel, 2020). 

If you’ve heard the terms “oral fixation” or “penis envy,” these were coined by Sigmund Freud during his study of psychosexual stages of development (Kassel, 2020). He described that children go through a series of these stages that directly affect the personality developed throughout childhood. During these stages, the erogenous zone associates itself with a source of pleasure. If specific issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can begin to occur and last throughout adulthood. An example of this could be someone who did not overcome the oral stage and is now over-dependent on others, seeking stimulation through eating, smoking or drinking (Cherry, 2020). 

Stage 1: Oral Stage

This stage will be familiar to parents and educators as they recall their infant instinctively putting everything in their mouth. The reason for this is that the mouth is vital to an infant and all gratification they receive. Oral stimulation comes from activities such as tasting or sucking, and the infant primarily experiences this by depending on their provider. At this stage, the weaning process begins, and if fixation occurs, Freud believed it directly impacted adult problems, such as nail-biting, smoking or overeating (Cherry, 2020).

Stage 2: Anal Stage

The age range for this stage is typically 1 to 3 years, with the main focus on bowel and bladder control as the libido is trying to focus on these movements. During this stage, the conflict that parents are overcoming in their child’s development is potty training. Success is solely dependent on the parent’s performance of motivating the toilet training. Too lenient, you may find that an anal-expulsive personality develops when the child becomes messy or destructive into adulthood. Freud explained that anal-retentive character could develop with a too strict approach, which is expressed in adulthood as obsessive or rigid (Cherry, 2020).

Stage 3: Phallic Stage

This tends to occur in children ages 3 to 6 years old with a sudden curiosity for genitals. You may notice that children are asking questions about the differences between boys and girls. Freud believed that boys might view fathers as rivals for mothers’ affection during this stage, while girls may experience penis envy. However, psychologist Karen Horney disputed this theory as inaccurate and demeaning, also suggesting that boys could also have womb envy and feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth. 

The Latent Stage

From age 6 to puberty, adolescents develop social skills and relationships with both peers outside of the family and family members. Children are entering an explorative stage with their energy during this time, yet the sexual curiosity is dormant. While in the latent stage, children are encouraged to develop social skills, communication skills and self-confidence. If “stuck” on this developmental threshold, fixation can result in difficulty forming relationships as an adult or persistent immaturity (Cherry, 2020). 

The Genital Stage

This stage takes us through the rest of our life after it sets in during puberty. The libido is activated and begins its final stage in developing strong sexual interest. In Freud’s time, he concluded this could only be possible for members of the opposite sex, which has since seen fewer supporters. Adolescents who are successfully developing in this stage can balance their needs with conforming to the demands of reality and caring for the welfare of others (Cherry, 2020). 

Today, Freud’s complex theory can be described as simply this: Sexual pleasure plays a significant role in human development. For a child to be considered developing at a “healthy” rate, they must evolve through the five stages with the specific parts of the body. As Dr. Mark Mayfield, founder and CEO of Mayfield Counseling Centers, explains, “A child’s ability to resolve that conflict determines whether or not they were able to move onto the next stage”  (Kessel, 2020). 

Freud believed that children, and in turn, adults, can get “stuck” for one of two reasons. 

• Their needs weren’t met during this stage, causing frustration and fixation. 
• Their needs were overindulged, so they didn’t want to leave that stage. 

While Freud is famous for his ideologies, he is widely criticized for his male-focused and hetero-centric findings the stages bring. Although things have changed, Freud played a big part in today’s society due to his theories which inspired other psychologists to continue comparative research (Kessel, 2020). 

Albert Bandura 

Albert Bandura was born in a small Canadian town just 50 miles from Edmonton, known as Mundare, on December 4th, 1925. He was the youngest of six and his early years in the education system took place in a small school with only two educators for high school. According to Bandura’s recollection, “The students had to take charge of their own education.” (Cherry, 2020). 

His secondary education began in biological sciences at the University of British Columbia, where his interest in psychology supposedly formed as an accident. He arrived at school earlier than his courses began, which motivated him to take “filler classes” to pass the time where he stumbled upon psychology, which propelled him into his career. He later went on to earn his MA degree in 1951 and Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1952 (Cherry, 2020).

Albert Bandura put a focus on the importance of observing behaviours, modelling them and then imitating the behaviours based on the reaction of others. Many behavioural theories suggest that learning must be directly related by associations and formed by either conditioning, reinforcement or punishment. Bandura’s social learning theory suggested that learning can also occur just by watching others and observing their actions (Cherry, 2020).Want to learn more about guiding positive behaviour in children with strategies you can use immediately? Watch this 40 minute masterclass with an optional certificate here .

Think of it like “monkey see, monkey do.” Kids often imitate actions they observe, whether it’s from other kids, siblings, parents or digital influences that are considered to be models of behaviour. One of the well-known experiments showcasing how this theory can be proven is the Bobo Doll study. Bandura had children observe an adult acting violently towards a Bobo Doll. Later, when children were allowed to play with the doll, they imitated what they saw and played more aggressively (Cherry, 2020). 

While the theory was proven through a live demonstration in this instance, the social behaviour philosophy can also occur through symbolic modelling in books or movies or through verbal instruction. 

For this theory to prove successful, four mediational processes must occur in order for the learned behaviour or skill to be repeated. 

For either a child or adult to learn a new skill through this process, they have to be paying attention. With attention spans averaging 8 seconds, not every behaviour will be observed as they need to be noteworthy and grab the observer’s attention.

During the retention stage, in order for observational learning to occur, you must store information and recall it when necessary. Sometimes the behaviour is difficult to reproduce, which is where repetition makes retention of observed behaviour easier. 

Reproduction

Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, the next step is to reproduce that behaviour. This isn’t always possible, and further practice is where skills develop. A child may be able to pay attention to the workings of a piano, observe an adult playing, and retain information on the notes. However, they may not be able to play a complex Mozart melody until further practice is performed. Another hurdle is physical capability. An elderly woman with a recent hip replacement may be able to watch a group of talented skateboarders understand how to do the trick but cannot reproduce the result. 

The final stage of observational learning is the motivation to do the behaviour again. Reinforcement and ridicule play an integral part in this theory, both externally and internally. This can occur when a younger sibling observes their older sister get praised when they make dinner for the family. The child may start asking questions about how they can help or take the initiative and cook a terrible batch of scrambled eggs. While the correct thought process is there, they may need repetition to advance this skill. 

The Social Learning Theory has been a significant philosophy for child development by giving educators an additional tool to motivate children through positive reinforcement and by teaching new concepts through the 4 step process. 

Flaws in this theory lie in the learner’s internal motivation to make a change in their behaviour or develop a new skill. You can give positive reinforcement to a student and model exemplary behaviour when it comes to recycling, but if their inner motivation doesn’t care, they won’t reproduce this positive behaviour. 

When working with children, it’s essential to understand that teachers are often noted as models of behaviour and other students in the room. It’s critical to be vocal about positive and negative reinforcement to promote stopping or continuing a behaviour. 

Burrhus Frederick Skinner (known as B.F. Skinner for reasons you can likely assume) was born on March 20, 1904, in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, where he spent his childhood. The son of a lawyer and stay-at-home mother, Skinner, began to show an interest in building inventions at an early age (Biography.com Editors, 2014). 

He began his studies at Hamilton College with a flair for writing and pursued it professionally after graduation in 1926. Two years later, after little success, he pursued psychology at Harvard University. During his time there, he was persistent in finding an objective way to measure and study behaviour – thus, the Skinner Box was born. He went on to publish reports on his findings which are well known today, such as The Behavior of Organisms (Biography.com Editors, 2014). Want to learn more about guiding positive behaviour in children with strategies you can use immediately? Watch this 40 minute masterclass with an optional certificate here .

In 1990, Skinner died on August 18 after battling leukemia for the past year, but his beliefs live on through the B.F. Skinner Foundation, which is led by his daughter, Julie Vargas (Biography.com Editors, 2014). 

B.F. Skinner is known as the father of Reinforcement, otherwise referred to as Operant Conditioning, based on Thorndike’s 1898 law of effect. Through this theory, Skinner developed a study in which he experimented on animals within a ‘Skinner Box.’ Animals would either be punished or rewarded for engaging in behaviours, such as a rat pressing a lever.  (McLeod, 2018)

Neutral Operants

In this case, responses from the environment are neither positive nor negative impact a repetition in the behaviour. 

Reinforcers

This positive or negative response suggests that if that behaviour is repeated, the same positive or negative response will happen again. 

This is a purely negative response that is set to weaken the subject’s behaviour and decrease the likeliness of that behaviour being repeated. 

Positive reinforcement can be found everywhere, and in Skinner’s study, was revealed to rats who pressed a lever in order to get food. This can translate to earning an extra 15 minutes of playtime at recess for finishing your homework in the classroom. Negative reinforcement and punishers are tough to distinguish as they are similar in practice. Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour because it removes an unpleasant experience. If you had to take out the classroom garbage if you forgot to do your homework, you might quickly remember to come to class prepared with it completed. When a behaviour you want to be changed occurs, a punisher directly applies the punishment, such as cancelling recess for any child with unfinished homework (McLeod, 2018).

Throughout this study, a fundamental critique was the schedule of reinforcement and if the behaviour would continue without these motivations. This is known as the response rate (how quickly the behaviour happened) and the extinction rate (how quickly it stopped). Using the example of education as the scenario, the theory continued as follows (McLeod, 2018): 

Continuous Reinforcement

A child is positively reinforced every time a specific behaviour occurs, e.g. cleaning up their work table/desk earns them licorice. With this sentiment, the response rate is slow, learning that it will happen every time while the extinction rate is fast. Once the positive reinforcement stops, the child may keep things messy longer and not change overall behaviour (McLeod, 2018). 

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behaviour is only reinforced in this scenario if the same behaviour is repeated a specified number of times. For example, if a child has a clean desk every day for five days, they receive licorice. Through this notion, the response rate is fast while the extinction rate is medium (McLeod, 2018). 

Fixed Interval Reinforcement

If you reward a child every 3 hours if they keep their desk clean, this is an example of fixed-interval reinforcement. As long as the correct behaviour persists during the interval time, they are rewarded. This is recognized to have a medium response rate with a medium extinction rate (McLeod, 2018). 

Variable Ratio Reinforcement

This practice is often compared to gambling or fishing in the sense that it is unpredictable when you will receive the reward. A child may volunteer to play a game of chance in school, knowing there will be a reward with licorice if the results are favourable. The response rate is fast in this case, with a slow extinction rate due to its unpredictable nature (McLeod, 2018).

Variable Interval Reinforcement

Given that positive behaviour has been established, a child may be given licorice after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, varying from 5 minutes to 5 hours and beyond. In an adult’s life, this can be found in a self-employed person being paid unpredictably. Under this assumption, the response rate is fast, with a slow extinction rate (McLeod, 2018).  Want to learn more about guiding positive behaviour in children with strategies you can use immediately? Watch this 40 minute masterclass with an optional certificate here .

In today’s classroom, educators often practice B.F. Skinner’s behaviour modification theory without even realizing it. Every time they punish a student for doing a behaviour they wish to be corrected, they display negative reinforcement acts. Rather than this theory lending to the learning aspect of education, it is more suited in terms of behaviour. 

This theory doesn’t always hold water and can be considered parallel to bribery, extinguishing meaning after the reinforcement rewards are no longer in effect. When practicing this theory to advance learning performance, teachers can shape behaviour by encouraging students to answer questions in class by praising them on participation alone, whether they get the answer right or wrong. Introducing a variable ratio to this practice will then only praise students who get the answer right, therefore offering this praise during intervals (McLeod, 2018).

Another example of this in today’s child development stages is by using the “token economy” system. They can be in the form of stickers, gold stars, fake money, etc., that add up to a reward for an exchange of tokens. Just like the flaws in Skinner’s theory, when this was found to be effective for psychiatric patients, it was proven to be difficult when adjusting to society when the system of tokens as they understood it no longer existed (McLeod, 2018). 

In all, this theory is famous for its behaviour modification results but questionable in the length the desired results will last. Success will only be realized through successive approximation, where rewards and punishments are adjusted to encourage those results.  

Erik Erikson is famous for his identity crisis theory which marked a significant shift in thinking on personality and development well through the age of maturity. In his early life, Erikson was introduced to the disparity of identity crisis when he learned that the man raising him was not his biological father (Cherry, 2020). 

Born in Frankfurt, Germany, on June 15, 1902, Erik’s young Jewish mother, Karla Abrahamsen, raised him by herself until marrying a physician, Dr. Theodore Homberger. This sparked Erik’s interest in identity and was fueled further after his rejection from grammar school because of his Jewish background. In the same instance, his Jewish temple school also teased Erikson for being the only tall, blue-eyed blonde around (Cherry, 2020). 

Erikson was not on the path to learning about identity in the traditional manner. After dropping out of medical school, he went on to explore his crisis while wandering Europe with close friends. It wasn’t until a friend of Anna Freud (Sigmund Freud’s daughter) invited him to teach at a progressive school did he start his studies into psychoanalysis (Cherry, 2020). 

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed a popular theory that was influenced by Sigmund Freud’s work. Still, instead of psychosexual development as the basis, he believed psychosocial development proved to be prominent (Cherry, 2021). 

Comparative to Freud in terms of developmental stages, Erikson’s theory promotes that personality is developed in a series of stages that lead to conflict. If the conflict is not realized and overcome, the child or young adult may not build confidence or a strong self and may lack social normalcies compared to their peers. In contrast to other theorists, Erikson is generous with his theory and believes that development continues well into matured adult years and any stage can be successfully resolved at a later time (McLeod, 2018). A quick summary of these stages can be viewed below.

(Cherry, 2021). 

Erikson’s theory did have notable limitations and gained valid criticism but acted as a framework to view the entire lifespan in terms of development. There are no specific experiences that need to happen to successfully complete a stage and no root cause for moving on to the next (Cherry, 2021). 

The significance of Erikson’s philosophy for child development amplifies the importance of ego strength and how it aligns with continued growth. Being able to identify the underlying conflict or struggle based on the child’s age or stage is helpful for educators and parents to guide them to a sense of accomplishment and a healthy personality. 

Let’s compare the early years to common areas of development for children and how Erikson’s theory explains the behaviour and what needs to occur to move to the next stage. 

Trust vs. Mistrust 

During a child’s infancy, they are entirely dependent on their caregivers for the basic needs to survive. If an infant receives consistent, predictable care, they will move onto the net stage with a feeling of security. However, if their needs are not met, they may develop mistrust towards adults being able to provide for their needs. Success in this stage leads to the outcome & virtue of hope. Failure may lead to fear and anxiety (McLeod, 2018). 

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

This stage is primarily focused on personal control, independence and physical skills with a successful outcome leading to the virtue of will. Increased independence breeds increased confidence, while an overly controlled environment promotes self-doubt. During this stage, it’s important to let children explore and not be criticized harshly for mistakes made during this stage (McLeod, 2018). 

Initiative vs. Guilt

In the third stage of Erikson’s theory, you’ll recognize children planning activities and initiating play with others. When encouraged to explore this behaviour, children feel secure in making decisions and being a leader. If a child is being criticized or controlled during this stage, they will begin to feel guilt. An example of negativity is when a child asks too many questions and is treated as a bother, causing them to stop asking questions and quiet their curiosity (McLeod, 2018).  Want more information on developmental psychology? Take our free professional development 1 hour course here .

Industry vs. Inferiority 

During this stage, children are turning to peers and teachers for support, beginning a turning point for their self-esteem. During this development, children will feel pride in accomplishments that society is placing value on. This can be evident if a classroom particularly likes soccer and the child is the star goalie. However, a child can feel inferior if they can’t attain a skill that is perceived as important by their community. Success is mirrored through the virtue of competence in this stage, while failure can be recognized through modesty. While in balance, modesty and competence are the perfect pair, be careful to ensure a child is not shying away from activities (McLeod, 2018). 

Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erikson’s theory and how it pertains to child development occurs during the adolescent stage of 12-18-year-olds, where they are searching for self and personal identity. Essentially, it is the bridge between childhood and adulthood. Children begin to learn their role as adults, observe their identity, and figure out who they are. In Erikson’s belief, this is in two parts: sexual and occupational (McLeod, 2018). 

Understanding the conflicts and potential outcomes through a child’s development is crucial in supporting their learning environment as well as personal growth. 

Arnold Gesell was born in Alma, Wisconsin, on June 21st, 1880. He was considered to be the pioneer of research that followed the process of human development from birth through adolescence through his recordings. He went on to receive his Bachelor’s Degree in 1906 from the University of Wisconsin before pursuing his Ph.D. in psychology from Clark University, where he later accepted an assistant professor position in 1911. He also earned his M.D. in 1915 and set up a “psycho-clinic,” now known as the Clinic of Child Development, where he acted as Professor of Child Hygiene at Yale from 1930-1948. While his work initially began as a curiosity in the development of disabled children, it evolved to understanding typical infant behaviour in contrast. (Mayes, 2018). 

In the early 20th century, Arnold Gesell was a clinical psychologist and pediatrician who developed a theory on child development that was based on observations of children from birth to adulthood that displayed both ordinary and exceptional patterns of behaviour. His Maturation Theory is considered what we know today as developmental milestones (Britannica, 2012). 

His research started with his concern to understand children with development challenges and concluded that he must first understand the typical patterns of development before being able to comprehend abnormalities. In order to observe the behaviour he needed for his studies, Gesell introduced a movie camera in 1926 to record his findings and monitor changes in behaviour. He put children in controlled environments with predetermined stimulations and recorded them through a one-way mirror (Britannica, 2012). Want to learn more about guiding positive behaviour in children with strategies you can use immediately? Watch this 40 minute masterclass with an optional certificate here .

From his research, Gesell found that children have to reach specific maturational stages before any learning can influence behaviour, and there was a hereditary connection for four key areas: motor skills, adaptive behaviour, language development and personal social skills (Britannica, 2012). 

From this, he created the Gesell Developmental Schedules, which were applicable for children from four weeks to six years of age that would test them for situations and measure both qualitatively and quantitatively (Mayes, 2018). 

Gesell’s methodology of using motion pictures and one-way screens to observe behaviour is now used by many researchers today who rely on the longevity of these studies. His findings are used as a benchmark for developmental schedules, now used as a standard method for assessing children’s development (Mayes, 2018). 

His maturation theory was based on the premise that there was a series of fixed sequences after birth, such as tongue movement first before control of the neck and shoulders. While development was believed by Gesell to be influenced by genetics and environment, he also upheld the importance of psychological development as the key to later success (Mayes, 2018). 

Under Gesell’s theory, he suggests that teaching children should be done in the order of things – i.e. only teach them when they are both physically and mentally ready. If you go ahead of the child’s developmental structure, it could do more harm than good. While educators and theorists use these evaluations as a baseline for normalcy, many questions are left unanswered, like if a child falls behind in their development stage and how they can catch up (Mayes, 2018).

From Freud’s theory on behaviour modification to Piaget’s stages of development, we can see pieces of each theorists’ philosophy woven into our current approaches to learning and the education system, which ultimately shapes child development. There is no “right” or “wrong” way to understand the developmental stages, but rather an encouragement to continue exploration in education to spark new ideas that will assist in the expansion of our methods to promote healthy growth and development in children. 

About TeachKloud 

TeachKloud is an innovative platform designed for early childhood educators and childcare providers. It offers a range of tools and resources to streamline administrative tasks, improve communication with parents, and enhance overall childcare management. With features such as attendance tracking, learning journals, parent engagement tools, and curriculum planning, TeachKloud aims to empower educators, simplify daily operations, and create a nurturing and engaging environment for young learners. By utilising TeachKloud, childcare professionals can focus more on teaching and nurturing children while efficiently managing the administrative aspects of their work. We also provide resources such as these, videos, webinars and free training for the TeachKloud community. Learn more here .

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• Biography (2014) ‘Jean Piage Biographyt’, The Biography.com website, 2 April. Available at: https://www.biography.com/scientist/jean-piaget (Accessed: 25 October 2021). 
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• Cherry, K. (2021) ‘Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development’, Very Well Mind, 18 July. Available at: https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740   (Accessed 27 October 2021). 
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• Kassel, G. (2020) ‘What Are Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development’, Healthline, 20 February. Available at: https://www.healthline.com/health/psychosexual-stages (Accessed 26 October 2021)
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• McLeod, S. A. (2018) ‘Concrete Operational Stage’, Simply Psychology, 14 January . Available at: https://www.simplypsychology.org/concrete-operational.html (Accessed: 25 October 2021). 
• McLeod, S. A. (2018). ‘Lev Vygotsky’, Simply Psychology, 05 August. Available at: https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html (Accessed 25 October 2021)
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• Schudel, M. (2016) ‘Jerome S. Bruner, influential psychologist of perception, dies at 100’, Washington Post, 7 June. Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/jerome-s-bruner-influential-psychologist-of-perception-dies-at-100/2016/06/07/033e5870-2cc3-11e6-9b37-42985f6a265c_story.html (Accessed 25 October 2021). 
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• UKEssays (2018) ‘High Scope Approach Overview and Implementation’, UK Essays , November. Available at: https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/the-philosophy-under-the-scope-curriculum-approach-education-essay.php?vref=1 (Accessed 26 October 2021).
• Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in Society The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press.

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1.5: Developmental Theories

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What is a Theory?

Students sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, “Now we are going to look at some theories...” is met with blank stares and other indications that the audience is now lost. But theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; in fact, they are proposed explanations for the “how” and “whys” of development. Have you ever wondered, “Why is my three year old so inquisitive?” or “Why are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?” Theories can help explain these and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we develop, why we change over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.

A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.

Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them.20

Let’s take a look at some key theories in Child Development.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O’Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.

Freud’s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.

• The id is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.
• The ego develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.
• The superego represents society’s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.

The personality is thought to develop in response to the child’s ability to learn to manage biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the child may not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud’s stages.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

Freud’s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud’s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices. Freud’s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud’s views.22

Main Points to Note About Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Freud believed that:

• Development in the early years has a lasting impact.
• There are three parts of the self: the id, the ego, and the superego
• People go through five stages of psychosexual development: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, latency, and the genital stage

We study Freud because his assumptions the importance of early childhood experience provide a framework for later theories (the both elaborated and contradicted/challenged his work).

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Now, let’s turn to a less controversial theorist, Erik Erikson. Erikson (1902-1994) suggested that our relationships and society’s expectations motivate much of our behavior in his theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was a student of Freud’s but emphasized the importance of the ego, or conscious thought, in determining our actions. In other words, he believed that we are not driven by unconscious urges. We know what motivates us and we consciously think about how to achieve our goals. He is considered the father of developmental psychology because his model gives us a guideline for the entire life span and suggests certain primary psychological and social concerns throughout life.

Erikson expanded on his Freud’s by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968).

He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.

Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living. Here is a brief overview of the eight stages:

These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is a prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.24

Main Points to Note About Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Erikson was a student of Freud but focused on conscious thought.

• His stages of psychosocial development address the entire lifespan and suggest primary psychosocial crisis in some cultures that adults can use to understand how to support children’s social and emotional development.
• The stages include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.

Behaviorism

While Freud and Erikson looked at what was going on in the mind, behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior.25

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov (1880-1937) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. “This,” he thought, “is not natural!” One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when food hit their palate, but BEFORE the food comes? Of course, what had happened was . . . you tell me. That’s right! The dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The key word here is “learned”. A learned response is called a “conditioned” response.

Pavlov began to experiment with this concept of classical conditioning . He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus . The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov’s jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).

Let’s think about how classical conditioning is used on us. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.

John B. Watson

John B. Watson (1878-1958) believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He had gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public.

He tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18-month-old boy named “Little Albert”. Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced. Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order.

Operant conditioning, on the other hand, looks at the way the consequences of a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. So let’s look at this a bit more.

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who brought us the principles of operant conditioning, suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment. By focusing on strengthening desirable behavior, we have a greater impact than if we emphasize what is undesirable. Reinforcement is anything that an organism desires and is motivated to obtain.

A reinforcer is something that encourages or promotes a behavior. Some things are natural rewards. They are considered intrinsic or primary because their value is easily understood. Think of what kinds of things babies or animals such as puppies find rewarding.

Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are things that have a value not immediately understood. Their value is indirect. They can be traded in for what is ultimately desired.

The use of positive reinforcement involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior. For example, if I give a child a cookie for cleaning a room, the addition of the cookie makes cleaning more likely in the future. Think of ways in which you positively reinforce others.

Negative reinforcement occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior. For example, I have an alarm clock that makes a very unpleasant, loud sound when it goes off in the morning. As a result, I get up and turn it off. By removing the noise, I am reinforced for getting up. How do you negatively reinforce others?

Punishment is an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful. Punishment is often less effective than reinforcement for several reasons. It doesn’t indicate the desired behavior, it may result in suppressing rather than stopping a behavior, (in other words, the person may not do what is being punished when you’re around, but may do it often when you leave), and a focus on punishment can result in not noticing when the person does well. Not all behaviors are learned through association or reinforcement. Many of the things we do are learned by watching others. This is addressed in social learning theory.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura (1925-) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation

Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we’ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).

Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment.30

Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiment & Today’s Children and the Media

Other social influences: TV or not TV? Bandura (et als. 1963) began a series of studies to look at the impact of television, particularly commercials, on the behavior of children. Are children more likely to act out aggressively when they see this behavior modeled? What if they see it being reinforced? Bandura began by conducting an experiment in which he showed children a film of a woman hitting an inflatable clown or “bobo” doll. Then the children were allowed in the room where they found the doll and immediately began to hit it. This was without any reinforcement whatsoever. Not only that, but they found new ways to behave aggressively. It’s as if they learned an aggressive role.

Children view far more television today than in the 1960s; so much, in fact, that they have been referred to as Generation M (media). The amount of screen time varies by age. As of 2017, children 0-8 spend an average of 2 hours and 19 minutes. Children 8-12 years of age spend almost 6 hours a day on screen media. And 13- to 18-year-olds spend an average of just under 9 hours a day in entertainment media use.

The prevalence of violence, sexual content, and messages promoting foods high in fat and sugar in the media are certainly cause for concern and the subjects of ongoing research and policy review. Many children spend even more time on the computer viewing content from the internet. The amount of time spent connected to the internet continues to increase with the use of smartphones that essentially serve as mini-computers. And the ways children and adolescents interact with the media continues to change. The popularity of YouTube and the various social media platforms are examples of this. What might be the implications of this?31

Main Points to Note About Behaviorism

Behaviorists look at observable behavior and how it can be predicted and controlled.

• Pavlov experimented with classical conditioning, the process of conditioning a response to stimulus (the dog’s salivating to the bell).
• Watson offered advice to parents to show them how classical conditioning can be used. His most famous experiment was conditioning Little Albert to fear a white rate.
• Skinner believed that reinforcing behavior is the most effective way of increasing desirable behavior. This is done through operant conditioning.
• Bandura noted that many behaviors are not learned through any type of conditioning, but rather through imitation. And he believed that people are not only influenced by their surroundings, but that they also have an impact on their surroundings.

Theories also explore cognitive development and how mental processes change over time.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired to explore children’s ability to think and reason by watching his own children’s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children’s thought differs from that of adults. His interest in this area began when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.

Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive equilibrium . This is an agreement or balance between what we sense in the outside world and what we know in our minds. If we experience something that we cannot understand, we try to restore the balance by either changing our thoughts or by altering the experience to fit into what we do understand. Perhaps you meet someone who is very different from anyone you know. How do you make sense of this person? You might use them to establish a new category of people in your mind or you might think about how they are similar to someone else.

A schema or schemes are categories of knowledge. They are like mental boxes of concepts. A child has to learn many concepts. They may have a scheme for “under” and “soft” or “running” and “sour”. All of these are schema. Our efforts to understand the world around us lead us to develop new schema and to modify old ones.

One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know. This is assimilation . So the person we meet who is very different may be understood as being “sort of like my brother” or “his voice sounds a lot like yours.” Or a new food may be assimilated when we determine that it tastes like chicken!

Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind. We can make a cognitive accommodation to this new experience by adding new schema. This food is unlike anything I’ve tasted before. I now have a new category of foods that are bitter-sweet in flavor, for instance. This is accommodation . Do you accommodate or assimilate more frequently? Children accommodate more frequently as they build new schema. Adults tend to look for similarity in their experience and assimilate. They may be less inclined to think “outside the box.” Piaget suggested different ways of understanding that are associated with maturation. He divided this into four stages:

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget has been criticized for overemphasizing the role that physical maturation plays in cognitive development and in underestimating the role that culture and interaction (or experience) plays in cognitive development. Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages. Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances.33

Main Points To Note About Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget, one of the most influential cognitive theorists, believed that

• Understanding is motivated by trying to balance what we sense in the world and what we know in our minds.
• Understanding is organized through creating categories of knowledge. When presented with new knowledge we may add new schema or modify existing ones.

Children’s understanding of the world of the world changes are their cognitive skills mature through four stages: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concreate operational stage, and formal operational stage.

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s but became more widely known in the 1980s. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development .34 His belief was that development occurred first through children’s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning.35

Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food. Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you all through the process. You gave them assistance when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go. This is scaffolding and can be seen demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance. You can see how Vygotsky would be very popular with modern day educators.37

Main Points to Note About Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky concentrated on the child’s interactions with peers and adults. He believed that the child was an apprentice, learning through sensitive social interactions with more skilled peers and adults.

Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky concentrated more on the child’s immediate social and cultural environment and his or her interactions with adults and peers. While Piaget saw the child as actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it, Vygotsky saw the child as more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child’s needs and abilities.38

Like Vygotsky’s, Bronfenbrenner looked at the social influences on learning and development.

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) offers us one of the most comprehensive theories of human development. Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and learning theorists and believed that all of those theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context. What is being taught and how society interprets situations depends on who is involved in the life of a child and on when and where a child lives.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model explains the direct and indirect influences on an individual’s development.

For example, in order to understand a student in math, we can’t simply look at that individual and what challenges they face directly with the subject. We have to look at the interactions that occur between teacher and child. Perhaps the teacher needs to make modifications as well. The teacher may be responding to regulations made by the school, such as new expectations for students in math or constraints on time that interfere with the teacher’s ability to instruct. These new demands may be a response to national efforts to promote math and science deemed important by political leaders in response to relations with other countries at a particular time in history.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model challenges us to go beyond the individual if we want to understand human development and promote improvements.41

Main Points to Note About Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model

After studying all of the prior theories, Bronfenbrenner added an important element of context to the discussion of influences on human development.

• He believed that the people involved in children’s lives and when and where they live are important considerations.
• He created a model of nested systems that influence the child (and are influenced by the child) that include: microsystems, mesosystems, the exosystem, macrosystems, and chronosystems.

Maria Montessori 'Method'

Maria M ontessori (1870-1952) was n Italian physician and educator who developed the Montessori Method of teaching.  She grew up with an interest in education and pedagogy, eventually opening up a center for underprivileged children.  She discovered that children learn through a specialized environment, choosing what they wanted to work on and teaching themselves in the process.  Maria is best known for the philosophy of education that bears her name for over 100 years, as well as her writing on scientific pedagogy.  She developed learning materials and environments that supported a child’s innate interest in learning.  "The key areas of learning in a Montessori environment include: Practical life, sensorial, language, mathematics and culture.  She identified developmental phases, each with its own set of goals for learning: the development of individual self, social development, the ‘birth’ of the adult phase and the mature phase.  In each phase, referred to as ‘windows of opportunity’, designed classrooms, with age-appropriate tasks and materials, are provided to maximize learning during these stages" (AMSHQ, 2021).  

Within 6 years of opening her first school, there were teacher training sites and Montessori schools on 5 continents.  Her first book "The Montessori Method" has been translated in 10 languages.  Today, more than a million children attend public Montessori schools worldwide.   

Her classrooms are designed around three key points: the teacher, the child and the environment.  The teacher only offers guidance for building on skills as needed. The key principles of this method applied across all ages are: 

Individual Instruction: Individual didactic materials are provided to allow children to learn at their own pace.  Lessons are short, concise, direct and aimed at enhancing the child’s self-worth.

Self-Education: A carefully prepared learning environment is set up to respond to the needs of children exposing them to materials and experiences that stimulate intelligence and promote physical and psychological development.

Didactic Materials: Simple learning tools are provided for the toddlers and gradually moving up to more complex materials. Each piece of equipment is specifically designed to provide the child with a clear-cut experience, and then gradually lead to more complicated tasks, working at their own pace.

Specially designed environment: Maria Montessori came up with he concepts of child-sized furniture.  All learning materials are within the child's reach.  Classrooms are compromised of living plants and pets that the children care for.  Mixed age groups (typically 2-6 year olds) encourages older children to be role models for their younger counterparts (it also creates a context of security), Learners also remain under the care of a teacher over a longer period of time than in a traditional setting. 

Teacher’s role:   Emphasis on learning rather than teaching.  Teachers prepare and maintain the classroom to ensure that everything needed is within the children’s reach.  They are consistently available to respond to a child's needs and guide them towards self-study, independence, and self-confidence.

Preparation for Multicultural Perspectives

As US schools are becoming more diverse, we need to have multiple ways of knowing, from multicultural perspectives in order to be culturally responsive, develop our cultural competence and critical consciousness (Broughton A., 2020).  The influences of race, ethniciy, geography and sociopolitical traditions may not be considered in conventional child psychological theories.  Unlike conventional theories, the NAEYC's position statement is inclusive of multi-ethnic perspectives, which provides a deeper context to what is known as child development. 42 

The US Educations system needs to remember, and center the work of scholars of Black intellectual thoughts on early childhood link Oneida Cockrell, Lulu Sadler Craig, Amos N. Wilson, Gayle Cunningham, Beverly Tatum, Randy Story, Jean Monroe, Sarah Greene, Frances Brock Starms, Janice Hale-Benson, Jerlean E. Daniel, Maryann Cornish...and the list goes on.  Entering their names to honor their contributions to the field of education (Broughton A., 2020).  One such early childhood education expert is Brian L. Wright, Ph.D., whom has helped us understand and identify the promise, potential, and possibilities of black boys pre K- 12. 

Brian L. Wright, Ph.D.

Dr. Brian L. Wright is a Program Coordinator of Early Childhood Education in the Department of Instruction and Curriculum Leadership in the College of Education and Coordinator of the Middle School Cohort of the African American Male Academy at the University of Memphis.  Dr. Wrights research examines the role of racial and ethnic identity in African-­American boys/males in urban schools pre K-12. Dr. Wright’s current research examining quality Early Childhood Education Programs for all children, but especially those children living in poverty, Culturally Responsive and Responsible School Readiness for African American boys (preschool and kindergarten), Literacy and African American males, African American and Latino males as Early Childhood Teachers, and Teacher Identity Development. Drawing from the wealth of experience in early childhood education, Wright presents an asset- and strengths-based view of educating Black boys ages pre K-12. 43 

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"What is Montessori Education"  by  American Montessori Academy  is licensed under  CC BY 4.0

"Black Skin, White Theorists"  by  Sage Journals  is licensed under  CC BY 4.0

Contributors and Attributions:

20. Introduction to Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0

22. Psychodynamic Theory by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ; Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0

24. Psychosocial Theory by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0

25. History of Psychology by David B. Baker and Heather Sperry is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

30. Exploring Behavior by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ; Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0

31. Exploring Behavior by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0

Rasmussen, Eric (2017, Oct 19). Screen Time and Kids: Insights from a New Report . Retrieved from https://www.pbs.org/parents/thrive/screen-time-and-kids-insights-from-a-new-report

33. Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Jennifer Paris)

Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0

34. Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0

35. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0

37. Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0

38. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0

41. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0

42.  "NAEYC Position Statement"  by  NAEYC  is licensed under  CC BY 4.0

43.  "Brian L. Wright"  by  University of Memphis  is licensed under  CC BY 4.0

Piaget’s Theory and Stages of Cognitive Development

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Key Takeaways

• Jean Piaget is famous for his theories regarding changes in cognitive development that occur as we move from infancy to adulthood.
• Cognitive development results from the interplay between innate capabilities (nature) and environmental influences (nurture).
• Children progress through four distinct stages , each representing varying cognitive abilities and world comprehension: the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage (11 years and beyond).
• A child’s cognitive development is not just about acquiring knowledge, the child has to develop or construct a mental model of the world, which is referred to as a schema .
• Piaget emphasized the role of active exploration and interaction with the environment in shaping cognitive development, highlighting the importance of assimilation and accommodation in constructing mental schemas.

Stages of Development

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children’s thought

Each child goes through the stages in the same order (but not all at the same rate), and child development is determined by biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

At each stage of development, the child’s thinking is qualitatively different from the other stages, that is, each stage involves a different type of intelligence.

Although no stage can be missed out, there are individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages, and some individuals may never attain the later stages.

Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age – although descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average child would reach each stage.

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

The first stage is the sensorimotor stage , during which the infant focuses on physical sensations and learning to coordinate its body.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving around and exploring their environment).
• During the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include: object permanence; self-recognition (the child realizes that other people are separate from them); deferred imitation; and representational play.
• They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to represent the world mentally
• At about 8 months, the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will still exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them when they disappear.

During the beginning of this stage, the infant lives in the present. It does not yet have a mental picture of the world stored in its memory therefore it does not have a sense of object permanence.

If it cannot see something, then it does not exist. This is why you can hide a toy from an infant, while it watches, but it will not search for the object once it has gone out of sight.

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence – knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.

Towards the end of this stage the general symbolic function begins to appear where children show in their play that they can use one object to stand for another. Language starts to appear because they realise that words can be used to represent objects and feelings.

The child begins to be able to store information that it knows about the world, recall it, and label it.

Individual Differences

• Cultural Practices : In some cultures, babies are carried on their mothers’ backs throughout the day. This constant physical contact and varied stimuli can influence how a child perceives their environment and their sense of object permanence.
• Gender Norms : Toys assigned to babies can differ based on gender expectations. A boy might be given more cars or action figures, while a girl might receive dolls or kitchen sets. This can influence early interactions and sensory explorations.

Learn More: The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 – 7 Years

Piaget’s second stage of intellectual development is the preoperational stage . It takes place between 2 and 7 years. At the beginning of this stage, the child does not use operations, so the thinking is influenced by the way things appear rather than logical reasoning.

A child cannot conserve which means that the child does not understand that quantity remains the same even if the appearance changes.

Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people see the world as he does. This has been shown in the three mountains study.

As the preoperational stage develops, egocentrism declines, and children begin to enjoy the participation of another child in their games, and let’s pretend play becomes more important.

Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policemen), and may play these roles with props that symbolize real-life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary playmate.

• Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery.
• During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
• A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet capable of logical (problem-solving) type of thought.
• Moreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves classifying objects as belonging to two or more categories simultaneously.
• Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.

By 2 years, children have made some progress toward detaching their thoughts from the physical world. However, have not yet developed logical (or “operational”) thought characteristics of later stages.

Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective judgments about situations) and egocentric (centered on the child’s own view of the world).

• Cultural Storytelling : Different cultures have unique stories, myths, and folklore. Children from diverse backgrounds might understand and interpret symbolic elements differently based on their cultural narratives.
• Race & Representation : A child’s racial identity can influence how they engage in pretend play. For instance, a lack of diverse representation in media and toys might lead children of color to recreate scenarios that don’t reflect their experiences or background.

Learn More: The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 – 11 Years

By the beginning of the concrete operational stage , the child can use operations (a set of logical rules) so they can conserve quantities, realize that people see the world in a different way (decentring), and demonstrate improvement in inclusion tasks. Children still have difficulties with abstract thinking.

• During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
• Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
• During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g., picture a ball of plasticine returning to its original shape).
• During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel.

The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully if they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them.

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child’s cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world).

Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.

But operational thought is only effective here if the child is asked to reason about materials that are physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.

• Cultural Context in Conservation Tasks : In a society where resources are scarce, children might demonstrate conservation skills earlier due to the cultural emphasis on preserving and reusing materials.
• Gender & Learning : Stereotypes about gender abilities, like “boys are better at math,” can influence how children approach logical problems or classify objects based on perceived gender norms.

Learn More: The Concrete Operational Stage of Development

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Over

The formal operational period begins at about age 11. As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think in an abstract manner, the ability to combine and classify items in a more sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-order reasoning.

Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is (not everyone achieves this stage). This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning.

Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas: e.g. they can understand division and fractions without having to actually divide things up, and solve hypothetical (imaginary) problems.

• Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints.
• During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).
• They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific examples.
• Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if asked ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time? they could speculate about many possible consequences.

From about 12 years children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference to its content. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.

This stage sees the emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypotheses when faced with a problem.

• Culture & Abstract Thinking : Cultures emphasize different kinds of logical or abstract thinking. For example, in societies with a strong oral tradition, the ability to hold complex narratives might develop prominently.
• Gender & Ethics : Discussions about morality and ethics can be influenced by gender norms. For instance, in some cultures, girls might be encouraged to prioritize community harmony, while boys might be encouraged to prioritize individual rights.

Learn More: The Formal Operational Stage of Development

Piaget’s Theory

• Piaget’s theory places a strong emphasis on the active role that children play in their own cognitive development.
• According to Piaget, children are not passive recipients of information; instead, they actively explore and interact with their surroundings.
• This active engagement with the environment is crucial because it allows them to gradually build their understanding of the world.

1. How Piaget Developed the Theory

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking.

He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget branched out on his own with a new set of assumptions about children’s intelligence:

• Children’s intelligence differs from an adult’s in quality rather than in quantity. This means that children reason (think) differently from adults and see the world in different ways.
• Children actively build up their knowledge about the world . They are not passive creatures waiting for someone to fill their heads with knowledge.
• The best way to understand children’s reasoning is to see things from their point of view.

Piaget did not want to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of number , time, quantity, causality , justice , and so on emerged.

Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence using naturalistic observation of his own three babies and sometimes controlled observation too. From these, he wrote diary descriptions charting their development.

He also used clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations.

2. Piaget’s Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

Piaget’s (1936, 1950) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process that occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

Children’s ability to understand, think about, and solve problems in the world develops in a stop-start, discontinuous manner (rather than gradual changes over time).

• It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.
• It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.
• It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.

The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.

To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.

Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

Piaget claimed that knowledge cannot simply emerge from sensory experience; some initial structure is necessary to make sense of the world.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.

Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a mental representation of the world.

Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as: “a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.”

In more simple terms, Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts.

Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as “index cards” filed in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information.

When Piaget talked about the development of a person’s mental processes, he was referring to increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned.

When a child’s existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e., mental) balance.

Operations are more sophisticated mental structures which allow us to combine schemas in a logical (reasonable) way.

As children grow they can carry out more complex operations and begin to imagine hypothetical (imaginary) situations.

Apart from the schemas we are born with schemas and operations are learned through interaction with other people and the environment.

Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and described how they were developed or acquired.

A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them when needed.

Examples of Schemas

A person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and paying the bill.

This is an example of a schema called a “script.” Whenever they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation.

The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this – especially those used by infants. He described how – as a child gets older – his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate.

Piaget believed that newborn babies have a small number of innate schemas – even before they have had many opportunities to experience the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us.

For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby’s lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person’s finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby has a “sucking schema.”

Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby’s hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, are innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking.

4. The Process of Adaptation

Piaget also believed that a child developed as a result of two different influences: maturation, and interaction with the environment. The child develops mental structures (schemata) which enables him to solve problems in the environment.

Adaptation is the process by which the child changes its mental models of the world to match more closely how the world actually is.

Adaptation is brought about by the processes of assimilation (solving new experiences using existing schemata) and accommodation (changing existing schemata in order to solve new experiences).

The importance of this viewpoint is that the child is seen as an active participant in its own development rather than a passive recipient of either biological influences (maturation) or environmental stimulation.

When our existing schemas can explain what we perceive around us, we are in a state of equilibration . However, when we meet a new situation that we cannot explain it creates disequilibrium, this is an unpleasant sensation which we try to escape, and this gives us the motivation to learn.

According to Piaget, reorganization to higher levels of thinking is not accomplished easily. The child must “rethink” his or her view of the world. An important step in the process is the experience of cognitive conflict.

In other words, the child becomes aware that he or she holds two contradictory views about a situation and they both cannot be true. This step is referred to as disequilibrium .

Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.

To get back to a state of equilibration, we need to modify our existing schemas to learn and adapt to the new situation.

This is done through the processes of accommodation and assimilation . This is how our schemas evolve and become more sophisticated. The processes of assimilation and accommodation are continuous and interactive.

5. Assimilation

Piaget defined assimilation as the cognitive process of fitting new information into existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding. Overall beliefs and understanding of the world do not change as a result of the new information.

Assimilation occurs when the new experience is not very different from previous experiences of a particular object or situation we assimilate the new situation by adding information to a previous schema.

This means that when you are faced with new information, you make sense of this information by referring to information you already have (information processed and learned previously) and trying to fit the new information into the information you already have.

• Imagine a young child who has only ever seen small, domesticated dogs. When the child sees a cat for the first time, they might refer to it as a “dog” because it has four legs, fur, and a tail – features that fit their existing schema of a dog.
• A person who has always believed that all birds can fly might label penguins as birds that can fly. This is because their existing schema or understanding of birds includes the ability to fly.
• A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” (Siegler et al., 2003).
• If a baby learns to pick up a rattle he or she will then use the same schema (grasping) to pick up other objects.

6. Accommodation

Accommodation: when the new experience is very different from what we have encountered before we need to change our schemas in a very radical way or create a whole new schema.

Psychologist Jean Piaget defined accommodation as the cognitive process of revising existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding so that new information can be incorporated.

This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.

In order to make sense of some new information, you actually adjust information you already have (schemas you already have, etc.) to make room for this new information.

• A baby tries to use the same schema for grasping to pick up a very small object. It doesn’t work. The baby then changes the schema by now using the forefinger and thumb to pick up the object.
• A child may have a schema for birds (feathers, flying, etc.) and then they see a plane, which also flies, but would not fit into their bird schema.
• In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh. With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”.
• A person who grew up thinking all snakes are dangerous might move to an area where garden snakes are common and harmless. Over time, after observing and learning, they might accommodate their previous belief to understand that not all snakes are harmful.

7. Equilibration

Piaget believed that all human thought seeks order and is uncomfortable with contradictions and inconsistencies in knowledge structures. In other words, we seek “equilibrium” in our cognitive structures.

Equilibrium occurs when a child’s schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).

Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).

Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.

Equilibration is a regulatory process that maintains a balance between assimilation and accommodation to facilitate cognitive growth. Think of it this way: We can’t merely assimilate all the time; if we did, we would never learn any new concepts or principles.

Everything new we encountered would just get put in the same few “slots” we already had. Neither can we accommodate all the time; if we did, everything we encountered would seem new; there would be no recurring regularities in our world. We’d be exhausted by the mental effort!

Applications to Education

Think of old black and white films that you’ve seen in which children sat in rows at desks, with ink wells, would learn by rote, all chanting in unison in response to questions set by an authoritarian old biddy like Matilda!

Children who were unable to keep up were seen as slacking and would be punished by variations on the theme of corporal punishment. Yes, it really did happen and in some parts of the world still does today.

Piaget is partly responsible for the change that occurred in the 1960s and for your relatively pleasurable and pain-free school days!

“Children should be able to do their own experimenting and their own research. Teachers, of course, can guide them by providing appropriate materials, but the essential thing is that in order for a child to understand something, he must construct it himself, he must re-invent it. Every time we teach a child something, we keep him from inventing it himself. On the other hand that which we allow him to discover by himself will remain with him visibly”. Piaget (1972, p. 27)

Plowden Report

Piaget (1952) did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later researchers have explained how features of Piaget’s theory can be applied to teaching and learning.

Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching practice. For example, a review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on Piaget’s theory. The result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden Report (1967).

In the 1960s the Plowden Committee investigated the deficiencies in education and decided to incorporate many of Piaget’s ideas into its final report published in 1967, even though Piaget’s work was not really designed for education.

The report makes three Piaget-associated recommendations:

• Children should be given individual attention and it should be realized that they need to be treated differently.
• Children should only be taught things that they are capable of learning
• Children mature at different rates and the teacher needs to be aware of the stage of development of each child so teaching can be tailored to their individual needs.

“The report’s recurring themes are individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum, the centrality of play in children’s learning, the use of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance of the evaluation of children’s progress – teachers should “not assume that only what is measurable is valuable.”

Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring – was seen as central to the transformation of the primary school curriculum.

How to teach

Within the classroom learning should be student-centered and accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition.

Because Piaget’s theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of “readiness” is important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught.

According to Piaget’s theory, children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development.

According to Piaget (1958), assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive one, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered.

Therefore, teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:

• Educational programs should be designed to correspond to Piaget’s stages of development. Children in the concrete operational stage should be given concrete means to learn new concepts e.g. tokens for counting.
• Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child.
• Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it. Instead of checking if children have the right answer, the teacher should focus on the student’s understanding and the processes they used to get to the answer.
• Child-centered approach. Learning must be active (discovery learning). Children should be encouraged to discover for themselves and to interact with the material instead of being given ready-made knowledge.
• Accepting that children develop at different rates so arrange activities for individual children or small groups rather than assume that all the children can cope with a particular activity.
• Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing “truths.”
• Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other).
• Evaluate the level of the child’s development so suitable tasks can be set.
• Adapt lessons to suit the needs of the individual child (i.e. differentiated teaching).
• Be aware of the child’s stage of development (testing).
• Teach only when the child is ready. i.e. has the child reached the appropriate stage.
• Providing support for the “spontaneous research” of the child.
• Using collaborative, as well as individual activities.
• Educators may use Piaget’s stages to design age-appropriate assessment tools and strategies.

Classroom Activities

Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years):.

Although most kids in this age range are not in a traditional classroom setting, they can still benefit from games that stimulate their senses and motor skills.

• Object Permanence Games : Play peek-a-boo or hide toys under a blanket to help babies understand that objects still exist even when they can’t see them.
• Sensory Play : Activities like water play, sand play, or playdough encourage exploration through touch.
• Imitation : Children at this age love to imitate adults. Use imitation as a way to teach new skills.

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):

• Role Playing : Set up pretend play areas where children can act out different scenarios, such as a kitchen, hospital, or market.
• Use of Symbols : Encourage drawing, building, and using props to represent other things.
• Hands-on Activities : Children should interact physically with their environment, so provide plenty of opportunities for hands-on learning.
• Egocentrism Activities : Use exercises that highlight different perspectives. For instance, having two children sit across from each other with an object in between and asking them what the other sees.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

• Classification Tasks : Provide objects or pictures to group, based on various characteristics.
• Hands-on Experiments : Introduce basic science experiments where they can observe cause and effect, like a simple volcano with baking soda and vinegar.
• Logical Games : Board games, puzzles, and logic problems help develop their thinking skills.
• Conservation Tasks : Use experiments to showcase that quantity doesn’t change with alterations in shape, such as the classic liquid conservation task using different shaped glasses.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older):

• Hypothesis Testing : Encourage students to make predictions and test them out.
• Abstract Thinking : Introduce topics that require abstract reasoning, such as algebra or ethical dilemmas.
• Problem Solving : Provide complex problems and have students work on solutions, integrating various subjects and concepts.
• Debate and Discussion : Encourage group discussions and debates on abstract topics, highlighting the importance of logic and evidence.
• Feedback and Questioning : Use open-ended questions to challenge students and promote higher-order thinking. For instance, rather than asking, “Is this the right answer?”, ask, “How did you arrive at this conclusion?”

While Piaget’s stages offer a foundational framework, they are not universally experienced in the same way by all children.

Social identities play a critical role in shaping cognitive development, necessitating a more nuanced and culturally responsive approach to understanding child development.

Piaget’s stages may manifest differently based on social identities like race, gender, and culture:

• Race & Teacher Interactions : A child’s race can influence teacher expectations and interactions. For example, racial biases can lead to children of color being perceived as less capable or more disruptive, influencing their cognitive challenges and supports.
• Racial and Cultural Stereotypes : These can affect a child’s self-perception and self-efficacy . For instance, stereotypes about which racial or cultural groups are “better” at certain subjects can influence a child’s self-confidence and, subsequently, their engagement in that subject.
• Gender & Peer Interactions : Children learn gender roles from their peers. Boys might be mocked for playing “girl games,” and girls might be excluded from certain activities, influencing their cognitive engagements.
• Language : Multilingual children might navigate the stages differently, especially if their home language differs from their school language. The way concepts are framed in different languages can influence cognitive processing. Cultural idioms and metaphors can shape a child’s understanding of concepts and their ability to use symbolic representation, especially in the pre-operational stage.

Curriculum Development

According to Piaget, children’s cognitive development is determined by a process of maturation which cannot be altered by tuition so education should be stage-specific.

For example, a child in the concrete operational stage should not be taught abstract concepts and should be given concrete aid such as tokens to count with.

According to Piaget children learn through the process of accommodation and assimilation so the role of the teacher should be to provide opportunities for these processes to occur such as new material and experiences that challenge the children’s existing schemas.

Furthermore, according to this theory, children should be encouraged to discover for themselves and to interact with the material instead of being given ready-made knowledge.

Curricula need to be developed that take into account the age and stage of thinking of the child. For example there is no point in teaching abstract concepts such as algebra or atomic structure to children in primary school.

Curricula also need to be sufficiently flexible to allow for variations in the ability of different students of the same age. In Britain, the National Curriculum and Key Stages broadly reflect the stages that Piaget laid down.

For example, egocentrism dominates a child’s thinking in the sensorimotor and preoperational stages. Piaget would therefore predict that using group activities would not be appropriate since children are not capable of understanding the views of others.

However, Smith et al. (1998), point out that some children develop earlier than Piaget predicted and that by using group work children can learn to appreciate the views of others in preparation for the concrete operational stage.

The national curriculum emphasizes the need to use concrete examples in the primary classroom.

Shayer (1997), reported that abstract thought was necessary for success in secondary school (and co-developed the CASE system of teaching science). Recently the National curriculum has been updated to encourage the teaching of some abstract concepts towards the end of primary education, in preparation for secondary courses. (DfEE, 1999).

Child-centered teaching is regarded by some as a child of the ‘liberal sixties.’ In the 1980s the Thatcher government introduced the National Curriculum in an attempt to move away from this and bring more central government control into the teaching of children.

So, although the British National Curriculum in some ways supports the work of Piaget, (in that it dictates the order of teaching), it can also be seen as prescriptive to the point where it counters Piaget’s child-oriented approach.

However, it does still allow for flexibility in teaching methods, allowing teachers to tailor lessons to the needs of their students.

Social Media (Digital Learning)

Jean Piaget could not have anticipated the expansive digital age we now live in.

Today, knowledge dissemination and creation are democratized by the Internet, with platforms like blogs, wikis, and social media allowing for vast collaboration and shared knowledge. This development has prompted a reimagining of the future of education.

Classrooms, traditionally seen as primary sites of learning, are being overshadowed by the rise of mobile technologies and platforms like MOOCs (Passey, 2013).

The millennial generation, defined as the first to grow up with cable TV, the internet, and cell phones, relies heavily on technology.

They view it as an integral part of their identity, with most using it extensively in their daily lives, from keeping in touch with loved ones to consuming news and entertainment (Nielsen, 2014).

Social media platforms offer a dynamic environment conducive to Piaget’s principles. These platforms allow for interactions that nurture knowledge evolution through cognitive processes like assimilation and accommodation.

They emphasize communal interaction and shared activity, fostering both cognitive and socio-cultural constructivism. This shared activity promotes understanding and exploration beyond individual perspectives, enhancing social-emotional learning (Gehlbach, 2010).

A standout advantage of social media in an educational context is its capacity to extend beyond traditional classroom confines. As the material indicates, these platforms can foster more inclusive learning, bridging diverse learner groups.

This inclusivity can equalize learning opportunities, potentially diminishing biases based on factors like race or socio-economic status, resonating with Kegan’s (1982) concept of “recruitability.”

However, there are challenges. While the potential of social media in learning is vast, its practical application necessitates intention and guidance. Cuban, Kirkpatrick, and Peck (2001) note that certain educators and students are hesitant about integrating social media into educational contexts.

This hesitancy can stem from technological complexities or potential distractions. Yet, when harnessed effectively, social media can provide a rich environment for collaborative learning and interpersonal development, fostering a deeper understanding of content.

In essence, the rise of social media aligns seamlessly with constructivist philosophies. Social media platforms act as tools for everyday cognition, merging daily social interactions with the academic world, and providing avenues for diverse, interactive, and engaging learning experiences.

Applications to Parenting

Parents can use Piaget’s stages to have realistic developmental expectations of their children’s behavior and cognitive capabilities.

For instance, understanding that a toddler is in the pre-operational stage can help parents be patient when the child is egocentric.

Play Activities

Recognizing the importance of play in cognitive development, many parents provide toys and games suited for their child’s developmental stage.

Parents can offer activities that are slightly beyond their child’s current abilities, leveraging Vygotsky’s concept of the “Zone of Proximal Development,” which complements Piaget’s ideas.

• Peek-a-boo : Helps with object permanence.
• Texture Touch : Provide different textured materials (soft, rough, bumpy, smooth) for babies to touch and feel.
• Sound Bottles : Fill small bottles with different items like rice, beans, bells, and have children shake and listen to the different sounds.
• Memory Games : Using cards with pictures, place them face down, and ask students to find matching pairs.
• Role Playing and Pretend Play : Let children act out roles or stories that enhance symbolic thinking. Encourage symbolic play with dress-up clothes, playsets, or toy cash registers. Provide prompts or scenarios to extend their imagination.
• Story Sequencing : Give children cards with parts of a story and have them arranged in the correct order.
• Number Line Jumps : Create a number line on the floor with tape. Ask students to jump to the correct answer for math problems.
• Classification Games : Provide a mix of objects and ask students to classify them based on different criteria (e.g., color, size, shape).
• Logical Puzzle Games : Games that involve problem-solving using logic, such as simple Sudoku puzzles or logic grid puzzles.
• Debate and Discussion : Provide a topic and let students debate on pros and cons. This promotes abstract thinking and logical reasoning.
• Hypothesis Testing Games : Present a scenario and have students come up with hypotheses and ways to test them.
• Strategy Board Games : Games like chess, checkers, or Settlers of Catan can help in developing strategic and forward-thinking skills.

Critical Evaluation

• The influence of Piaget’s ideas on developmental psychology has been enormous. He changed how people viewed the child’s world and their methods of studying children.

He was an inspiration to many who came after and took up his ideas. Piaget’s ideas have generated a huge amount of research which has increased our understanding of cognitive development.

• Piaget (1936) was one of the first psychologists to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
• His ideas have been of practical use in understanding and communicating with children, particularly in the field of education (re: Discovery Learning). Piaget’s theory has been applied across education.
• According to Piaget’s theory, educational programs should be designed to correspond to the stages of development.
• Are the stages real? Vygotsky and Bruner would rather not talk about stages at all, preferring to see development as a continuous process. Others have queried the age ranges of the stages. Some studies have shown that progress to the formal operational stage is not guaranteed.

For example, Keating (1979) reported that 40-60% of college students fail at formal operation tasks, and Dasen (1994) states that only one-third of adults ever reach the formal operational stage.

The fact that the formal operational stage is not reached in all cultures and not all individuals within cultures suggests that it might not be biologically based.

• According to Piaget, the rate of cognitive development cannot be accelerated as it is based on biological processes however, direct tuition can speed up the development which suggests that it is not entirely based on biological factors.
• Because Piaget concentrated on the universal stages of cognitive development and biological maturation, he failed to consider the effect that the social setting and culture may have on cognitive development.

Cross-cultural studies show that the stages of development (except the formal operational stage) occur in the same order in all cultures suggesting that cognitive development is a product of a biological process of maturation.

However, the age at which the stages are reached varies between cultures and individuals which suggests that social and cultural factors and individual differences influence cognitive development.

Dasen (1994) cites studies he conducted in remote parts of the central Australian desert with 8-14-year-old Indigenous Australians. He gave them conservation of liquid tasks and spatial awareness tasks. He found that the ability to conserve came later in the Aboriginal children, between ages of 10 and 13 (as opposed to between 5 and 7, with Piaget’s Swiss sample).

However, he found that spatial awareness abilities developed earlier amongst the Aboriginal children than the Swiss children. Such a study demonstrates cognitive development is not purely dependent on maturation but on cultural factors too – spatial awareness is crucial for nomadic groups of people.

Vygotsky , a contemporary of Piaget, argued that social interaction is crucial for cognitive development. According to Vygotsky the child’s learning always occurs in a social context in cooperation with someone more skillful (MKO). This social interaction provides language opportunities and Vygotsky considered language the foundation of thought.

• Piaget’s methods (observation and clinical interviews) are more open to biased interpretation than other methods. Piaget made careful, detailed naturalistic observations of children, and from these, he wrote diary descriptions charting their development. He also used clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations.

Because Piaget conducted the observations alone the data collected are based on his own subjective interpretation of events. It would have been more reliable if Piaget conducted the observations with another researcher and compared the results afterward to check if they are similar (i.e., have inter-rater reliability).

Although clinical interviews allow the researcher to explore data in more depth, the interpretation of the interviewer may be biased.

For example, children may not understand the question/s, they have short attention spans, they cannot express themselves very well, and may be trying to please the experimenter. Such methods meant that Piaget may have formed inaccurate conclusions.

• As several studies have shown Piaget underestimated the abilities of children because his tests were sometimes confusing or difficult to understand (e.g., Hughes , 1975).

Piaget failed to distinguish between competence (what a child is capable of doing) and performance (what a child can show when given a particular task). When tasks were altered, performance (and therefore competence) was affected. Therefore, Piaget might have underestimated children’s cognitive abilities.

For example, a child might have object permanence (competence) but still not be able to search for objects (performance). When Piaget hid objects from babies he found that it wasn’t till after nine months that they looked for it.

However, Piaget relied on manual search methods – whether the child was looking for the object or not.

Later, researchers such as Baillargeon and Devos (1991) reported that infants as young as four months looked longer at a moving carrot that didn’t do what it expected, suggesting they had some sense of permanence, otherwise they wouldn’t have had any expectation of what it should or shouldn’t do.

• The concept of schema is incompatible with the theories of Bruner (1966) and Vygotsky (1978). Behaviorism would also refute Piaget’s schema theory because is cannot be directly observed as it is an internal process. Therefore, they would claim it cannot be objectively measured.
• Piaget studied his own children and the children of his colleagues in Geneva to deduce general principles about the intellectual development of all children. His sample was very small and composed solely of European children from families of high socio-economic status. Researchers have, therefore, questioned the generalisability of his data.
• For Piaget, language is considered secondary to action, i.e., thought precedes language. The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) argues that the development of language and thought go together and that the origin of reasoning has more to do with our ability to communicate with others than with our interaction with the material world.

Piaget’s Theory vs Vygotsky

Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from independent explorations in which children construct knowledge of their own.

Whereas Vygotsky argues that children learn through social interactions, building knowledge by learning from more knowledgeable others such as peers and adults. In other words, Vygotsky believed that culture affects cognitive development.

These factors lead to differences in the education style they recommend: Piaget would argue for the teacher to provide opportunities that challenge the children’s existing schemas and for children to be encouraged to discover for themselves.

Alternatively, Vygotsky would recommend that teachers assist the child to progress through the zone of proximal development by using scaffolding.

However, both theories view children as actively constructing their own knowledge of the world; they are not seen as just passively absorbing knowledge.

They also agree that cognitive development involves qualitative changes in thinking, not only a matter of learning more things.

What is cognitive development?

Cognitive development is how a person’s ability to think, learn, remember, problem-solve, and make decisions changes over time.

This includes the growth and maturation of the brain, as well as the acquisition and refinement of various mental skills and abilities.

Cognitive development is a major aspect of human development, and both genetic and environmental factors heavily influence it. Key domains of cognitive development include attention, memory, language skills, logical reasoning, and problem-solving.

Various theories, such as those proposed by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, provide different perspectives on how this complex process unfolds from infancy through adulthood.

What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s theory?

Piaget divided children’s cognitive development into four stages; each of the stages represents a new way of thinking and understanding the world.

He called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence , (2) preoperational thinking , (3) concrete operational thinking , and (4) formal operational thinking . Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately.

According to Piaget, intellectual development takes place through stages that occur in a fixed order and which are universal (all children pass through these stages regardless of social or cultural background).

Development can only occur when the brain has matured to a point of “readiness”.

What are some of the weaknesses of Piaget’s theory?

Cross-cultural studies show that the stages of development (except the formal operational stage) occur in the same order in all cultures suggesting that cognitive development is a product of a biological maturation process.

However, the age at which the stages are reached varies between cultures and individuals, suggesting that social and cultural factors and individual differences influence cognitive development.

What are Piaget’s concepts of schemas?

Schemas are mental structures that contain all of the information relating to one aspect of the world around us.

According to Piaget, we are born with a few primitive schemas, such as sucking, which give us the means to interact with the world.

These are physical, but as the child develops, they become mental schemas. These schemas become more complex with experience.

Baillargeon, R., & DeVos, J. (1991). Object permanence in young infants: Further evidence . Child development , 1227-1246.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press.

Cuban, L., Kirkpatrick, H., & Peck, C. (2001). High access and low use of technologies in high school classrooms: Explaining an apparent paradox.  American Educational Research Journal ,  38 (4), 813-834.

Dasen, P. (1994). Culture and cognitive development from a Piagetian perspective. In W .J. Lonner & R.S. Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and culture (pp. 145–149). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Gehlbach, H. (2010). The social side of school: Why teachers need social psychology.  Educational Psychology Review ,  22 , 349-362.

Hughes, M. (1975). Egocentrism in preschool children . Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Edinburgh University.

Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence . New York: Basic Books.

Keating, D. (1979). Adolescent thinking. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 211-246). New York: Wiley.

Kegan, R. (1982).  The evolving self: Problem and process in human development . Harvard University Press.

Nielsen. 2014. “Millennials: Technology = Social Connection.” http://www.nielsen.com/content/corporate/us/en/insights/news/2014/millennials-technology-social-connecti on.html.

Passey, D. (2013).  Inclusive technology enhanced learning: Overcoming cognitive, physical, emotional, and geographic challenges . Routledge.

Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1945). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood . London: Heinemann.

Piaget, J. (1957). Construction of reality in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children . New York, NY: International University Press.

Piaget, J. (1981).  Intelligence and affectivity: Their relationship during child development.(Trans & Ed TA Brown & CE Kaegi) . Annual Reviews.

Plowden, B. H. P. (1967). Children and their primary schools: A report (Research and Surveys). London, England: HM Stationery Office.

Siegler, R. S., DeLoache, J. S., & Eisenberg, N. (2003). How children develop . New York: Worth.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wadsworth, B. J. (2004). Piaget’s theory of cognitive and affective development: Foundations of constructivism . New York: Longman.

Further Reading

• BBC Radio Broadcast about the Three Mountains Study
• Piagetian stages: A critical review
• Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

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Education Standards

Nebraska family and consumer science standards.

Learning Domain: Early Childhood Education and Services

Standard: Compare and contrast developmental theories.

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1_myU1oJjjfQrKWm6PRNS-ZvHdkF1GIoC9B2ktgaQGLw/edit?usp=sharing

Https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/12sfz5m2b6qmxxfzsv00ufdsr3s8k0qqrbhcndlukhyw/editusp=sharing, https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1shh5qmluhs0a-yfbccvnnxsv-zf0crka8vvhdmb6pfa/editusp=sharing, https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1t4i6ywrk0y47gxb4z3lgai4a6uuox_7ke8gqxkdtbuc/editusp=sharing, https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1u_srcpebho2tmpcgwydbaakinxxmehe0glhhlmodthc/editusp=sharing, child development theorist: jean piaget (lesson 1).

This unit comprises a series of introductory lessons about child development theories.  It is intended to help students differentiate each theory and its theorist, not necessarily help students learn the particulars of each theory.  That will come later.  The notes are given in a very visual manner with the student writing directly on the image of the theorist they are studying.  

Interactive reviews are provided to help students solidify their learning.  These theories will come up throughout a child or lifespan development class, so it is important that the information be learned and retained.

Piaget, Erikson, and Kohlberg are all studied.  It is best if they are studied in this order as bell ringers and review materials are designed accordingly.

All lesson materials can be found at this link  Jean Piaget Notes

Lesson Particulars

Standards:  HSE. HS.30.1a  Describe theories, current issues, and trends.

Objectives:  Students will identify and distinguish between notable developmental theorists.

Essential Question:  What are the benefits of studying the works of developmental theorists, and how does it contribute to our understanding of human development and the improvement of various aspects of society?

Lesson Plan

Background:  Summarize the background information provided in the Piaget Summary .

Notes:  Distribute paper copy of the Piaget Notes

Present the slideshow Piaget Notes in slideshow mode.  Each term will appear with the click of a mouse.  See Slideshow notes.

Homework:  Review notes for tomorrow. 

Erikson Lesson Link Kohlberg Lesson Link

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1 Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development

Chapter objectives.

After this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe the principles that underlie development.
• Differentiate periods of human development.
• Evaluate issues in development.
• Distinguish the different methods of research.
• Explain what a theory is.
• Compare and contrast different theories of child development.

Introduction

Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn.

We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence. 1

Principles of Development

There are several underlying principles of development to keep in mind:

• Development is lifelong and change is apparent across the lifespan (although this text ends with adolescence). And early experiences affect later development.
• Development is multidirectional. We show gains in some areas of development, while showing loss in other areas.
• Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and social and emotional.
• The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, changes in gross and fine motor skills, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness.
• The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language.
• The social and emotional domain (also referred to as psychosocial) focuses on changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends.

All three domains influence each other. It is also important to note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains.

• Development is characterized by plasticity, which is our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. Early experiences are important, but children are remarkably resilient (able to overcome adversity).
• Development is multicontextual. 2 We are influenced by both nature (genetics) and nurture (the environment) – when and where we live and our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to circumstances surrounding us.  The key here is to understand that behaviors, motivations, emotions, and choices are all part of a bigger picture. 3

Now let’s look at a framework for examining development.

Periods of Development

Think about what periods of development that you think a course on Child Development would address. How many stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three: infancy, childhood, and teenagers. Developmentalists (those that study development) break this part of the life span into these five stages as follows:

• Prenatal Development (conception through birth)
• Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth through two years)
• Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
• Middle Childhood (6 to 11 years)
• Adolescence (12 years to adulthood)

This list reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and adolescence that will be explored in this book. So while both an 8 month old and an 8 year old are considered children, they have very different motor abilities, social relationships, and cognitive skills. Their nutritional needs are different and their primary psychological concerns are also distinctive.

Prenatal Development

Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns.

Figure 1.1 – A tiny embryo depicting some development of arms and legs, as well as facial features that are starting to show. 4

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.

Figure 1.2 – A swaddled newborn. 5

Early Childhood

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years and consists of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for action that brings the disapproval of others.

Figure 1.3 – Two young children playing in the Singapore Botanic Gardens 6

Middle Childhood

The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students.

Figure 1.4 – Two children running down the street in Carenage, Trinidad and Tobago 7

Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. 8

Figure 1.5 – Two smiling teenage women. 9

There are some aspects of development that have been hotly debated. Let’s explore these.

Issues in Development

Nature and nurture.

Why are people the way they are? Are features such as height, weight, personality, being diabetic, etc. the result of heredity or environmental factors-or both? For decades, scholars have carried on the “nature/nurture” debate. For any particular feature, those on the side of Nature would argue that heredity plays the most important role in bringing about that feature. Those on the side of Nurture would argue that one’s environment is most significant in shaping the way we are. This debate continues in all aspects of human development, and most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture.

Continuity versus Discontinuity

Is human development best characterized as a slow, gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of more abrupt change? The answer to that question often depends on which developmental theorist you ask and what topic is being studied. The theories of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are called stage theories. Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and adults have different qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume development is more discontinuous. Others, such as the behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information processing theorists, assume development is a more slow and gradual process known as continuous development. For instance, they would see the adult as not possessing new skills, but more advanced skills that were already present in some form in the child. Brain development and environmental experiences contribute to the acquisition of more developed skills.

Figure 1.6 – The graph to the left shows three stages in the continuous growth of a tree. The graph to the right shows four distinct stages of development in the life cycle of a ladybug. 10

Active versus Passive

How much do you play a role in your own developmental path? Are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you? Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own development. Piaget, for instance believed that children actively explore their world and construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In contrast, many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process. 11

How do we know so much about how we grow, develop, and learn? Let’s look at how that data is gathered through research

Research Methods

An important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information. The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon. Some people are hesitant to trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story. That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur. Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey. In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice. So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.

Take a moment to write down two things that you know about childhood. Now, how do you know? Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality) or based on what others have told you or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). There are several problems with personal inquiry. Read the following sentence aloud:

Paris in the

Are you sure that is what it said? Read it again:

If you read it differently the second time (adding the second “the”) you just experienced one of the problems with personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe. Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. This problem may just be a result of cognitive ‘blinders’ or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views. Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence. Popper suggests that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005). Theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific. And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.

Science offers a more systematic way to make comparisons guard against bias.

Scientific Methods

One method of scientific investigation involves the following steps:

• Determining a research question
• Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)
• Determining a method of gathering information
• Conducting the study
• Interpreting results
• Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research
• Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have your work scrutinized by others)

Your findings can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest and through this process a literature or knowledge base is established. This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question. And it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied. Many academic journals publish reports on studies conducted in this manner.

Another model of research referred to as qualitative research may involve steps such as these:

• Begin with a broad area of interest
• Gain entrance into a group to be researched
• Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest
• Ask open ended, broad “grand tour” types of questions when interviewing subjects
• Modify research questions as study continues
• Note patterns or consistencies
• Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed
• Report findings

In this type of research, theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants. The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer & Strauss, 1967). Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.

Let’s look more closely at some techniques, or research methods, used to describe, explain, or evaluate. Each of these designs has strengths and weaknesses and is sometimes used in combination with other designs within a single study.

Observational Studies

Observational studies involve watching and recording the actions of participants. This may take place in the natural setting, such as observing children at play at a park, or behind a one-way glass while children are at play in a laboratory playroom. The researcher may follow a checklist and record the frequency and duration of events (perhaps how many conflicts occur among 2-year-olds) or may observe and record as much as possible about an event (such as observing children in a classroom and capturing the details about the room design and what the children and teachers are doing and saying). In general, observational studies have the strength of allowing the researcher to see how people behave rather than relying on self-report. What people do and what they say they do are often very different. A major weakness of observational studies is that they do not allow the researcher to explain causal relationships. Yet, observational studies are useful and widely used when studying children. Children tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched (known as the Hawthorne effect) and may not survey well.

Experiments

Experiments are designed to test hypotheses (or specific statements about the relationship between variables) in a controlled setting in efforts to explain how certain factors or events produce outcomes. A variable is anything that changes in value. Concepts are operationalized or transformed into variables in research, which means that the researcher must specify exactly what is going to be measured in the study.

Three conditions must be met in order to establish cause and effect. Experimental designs are useful in meeting these conditions.

The independent and dependent variables must be related. In other words, when one is altered, the other changes in response. (The independent variable is something altered or introduced by the researcher. The dependent variable is the outcome or the factor affected by the introduction of the independent variable. For example, if we are looking at the impact of exercise on stress levels, the independent variable would be exercise; the dependent variable would be stress.)

The cause must come before the effect. Experiments involve measuring subjects on the dependent variable before exposing them to the independent variable (establishing a baseline). So we would measure the subjects’ level of stress before introducing exercise and then again after the exercise to see if there has been a change in stress levels. (Observational and survey research does not always allow us to look at the timing of these events, which makes understanding causality problematic with these designs.)

The cause must be isolated. The researcher must ensure that no outside, perhaps unknown variables are actually causing the effect we see. The experimental design helps make this possible. In an experiment, we would make sure that our subjects’ diets were held constant throughout the exercise program. Otherwise, diet might really be creating the change in stress level rather than exercise.

A basic experimental design involves beginning with a sample (or subset of a population) and randomly assigning subjects to one of two groups: the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group is the group that is going to be exposed to an independent variable or condition the researcher is introducing as a potential cause of an event. The control group is going to be used for comparison and is going to have the same experience as the experimental group but will not be exposed to the independent variable. After exposing the experimental group to the independent variable, the two groups are measured again to see if a change has occurred. If so, we are in a better position to suggest that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable.

The major advantage of the experimental design is that of helping to establish cause and effect relationships. A disadvantage of this design is the difficulty of translating much of what happens in a laboratory setting into real life.

Case Studies

Case studies involve exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation. Case studies are helpful when investigating unusual situations such as brain trauma or children reared in isolation. And they are often used by clinicians who conduct case studies as part of their normal practice when gathering information about a client or patient coming in for treatment. Case studies can be used to explore areas about which little is known and can provide rich detail about situations or conditions. However, the findings from case studies cannot be generalized or applied to larger populations; this is because cases are not randomly selected and no control group is used for comparison.

Figure 1.7 – Illustrated poster from a classroom describing a case study. 12

Surveys are familiar to most people because they are so widely used. Surveys enhance accessibility to subjects because they can be conducted in person, over the phone, through the mail, or online. A survey involves asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects. In a highly structured survey, subjects are forced to choose from a response set such as “strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree”; or “0, 1-5, 6-10, etc.” This is known as Likert Scale . Surveys are commonly used by sociologists, marketing researchers, political scientists, therapists, and others to gather information on many independent and dependent variables in a relatively short period of time. Surveys typically yield surface information on a wide variety of factors, but may not allow for in-depth understanding of human behavior.

Of course, surveys can be designed in a number of ways. They may include forced choice questions and semi-structured questions in which the researcher allows the respondent to describe or give details about certain events. One of the most difficult aspects of designing a good survey is wording questions in an unbiased way and asking the right questions so that respondents can give a clear response rather than choosing “undecided” each time. Knowing that 30% of respondents are undecided is of little use! So a lot of time and effort should be placed on the construction of survey items. One of the benefits of having forced choice items is that each response is coded so that the results can be quickly entered and analyzed using statistical software. Analysis takes much longer when respondents give lengthy responses that must be analyzed in a different way. Surveys are useful in examining stated values, attitudes, opinions, and reporting on practices. However, they are based on self-report or what people say they do rather than on observation and this can limit accuracy.

Developmental Designs

Developmental designs are techniques used in developmental research (and other areas as well). These techniques try to examine how age, cohort, gender, and social class impact development.

Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal research involves beginning with a group of people who may be of the same age and background, and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time. One of the benefits of this type of research is that people can be followed through time and be compared with them when they were younger.

Figure 1.8 – A longitudinal research design. 13

A problem with this type of research is that it is very expensive and subjects may drop out over time. The Perry Preschool Project which began in 1962 is an example of a longitudinal study that continues to provide data on children’s development.

Cross-sectional Research

Cross-sectional research involves beginning with a sample that represents a cross-section of the population. Respondents who vary in age, gender, ethnicity, and social class might be asked to complete a survey about television program preferences or attitudes toward the use of the Internet. The attitudes of males and females could then be compared, as could attitudes based on age. In cross-sectional research, respondents are measured only once.

Figure 1.9 – A cross-sectional research design. 14

This method is much less expensive than longitudinal research but does not allow the researcher to distinguish between the impact of age and the cohort effect. Different attitudes about the use of technology, for example, might not be altered by a person’s biological age as much as their life experiences as members of a cohort.

Sequential Research

Sequential research involves combining aspects of the previous two techniques; beginning with a cross-sectional sample and measuring them through time.

Figure 1.10 – A sequential research design. 15

This is the perfect model for looking at age, gender, social class, and ethnicity. But the drawbacks of high costs and attrition are here as well. 16

Table 1 .1 – Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Research Designs 17

Consent and Ethics in Research

Research should, as much as possible, be based on participants’ freely volunteered informed consent. For minors, this also requires consent from their legal guardians. This implies a responsibility to explain fully and meaningfully to both the child and their guardians what the research is about and how it will be disseminated. Participants and their legal guardians should be aware of the research purpose and procedures, their right to refuse to participate; the extent to which confidentiality will be maintained; the potential uses to which the data might be put; the foreseeable risks and expected benefits; and that participants have the right to discontinue at any time.

But consent alone does not absolve the responsibility of researchers to anticipate and guard against potential harmful consequences for participants. 18 It is critical that researchers protect all rights of the participants including confidentiality.

Child development is a fascinating field of study – but care must be taken to ensure that researchers use appropriate methods to examine infant and child behavior, use the correct experimental design to answer their questions, and be aware of the special challenges that are part-and-parcel of developmental research. Hopefully, this information helped you develop an understanding of these various issues and to be ready to think more critically about research questions that interest you. There are so many interesting questions that remain to be examined by future generations of developmental scientists – maybe you will make one of the next big discoveries! 19

Another really important framework to use when trying to understand children’s development are theories of development. Let’s explore what theories are and introduce you to some major theories in child development.

Developmental Theories

What is a theory.

Students sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, “Now we are going to look at some theories…” is met with blank stares and other indications that the audience is now lost. But theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; in fact they are proposed explanations for the “how” and “whys” of development. Have you ever wondered, “Why is my 3 year old so inquisitive?” or “Why are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?” Theories can help explain these and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we develop, why we change over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.

A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.

Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation.  Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them. 20

Let’s take a look at some key theories in Child Development.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O’Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.

Figure 1.11 – Sigmund Freud. 21

Freud’s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.

The id is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.

The ego develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.

The superego represents society’s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.

The personality is thought to develop in response to the child’s ability to learn to manage biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the child may not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud’s stages.

Table 1. 2 – Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

Freud’s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud’s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices. Freud’s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud’s views. 22

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Now, let’s turn to a less controversial theorist, Erik Erikson. Erikson (1902-1994) suggested that our relationships and society’s expectations motivate much of our behavior in his theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was a student of Freud’s but emphasized the importance of the ego, or conscious thought, in determining our actions. In other words, he believed that we are not driven by unconscious urges. We know what motivates us and we consciously think about how to achieve our goals. He is considered the father of developmental psychology because his model gives us a guideline for the entire life span and suggests certain primary psychological and social concerns throughout life.

Figure 1.12 – Erik Erikson. 23

Erikson expanded on his Freud’s by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.

Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome.  Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living. Here is a brief overview of the eight stages:

Table 1. 3 – Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices. 24

Behaviorism

While Freud and Erikson looked at what was going on in the mind, behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior. 25

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov (1880-1937) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. “This,” he thought, “is not natural!” One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when food hit their palate, but BEFORE the food comes? Of course, what had happened was . . . you tell me. That’s right! The dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The key word here is “learned”. A learned response is called a “conditioned” response.

Figure 1.13 – Ivan Pavlov. 26

Pavlov began to experiment with this concept of classical conditioning . He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus . The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov’s jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).

Let’s think about how classical conditioning is used on us. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.

John B. Watson

John B. Watson (1878-1958) believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He had gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public.

Figure 1.14 – John B. Watson. 27

He tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18 month old boy named “Little Albert”. Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced. Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order.

Operant conditioning, on the other hand, looks at the way the consequences of a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. So let’s look at this a bit more.

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who brought us the principles of operant conditioning, suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment. By focusing on strengthening desirable behavior, we have a greater impact than if we emphasize what is undesirable. Reinforcement is anything that an organism desires and is motivated to obtain.

Figure 1.15 – B. F. Skinner. 28

A reinforcer is something that encourages or promotes a behavior. Some things are natural rewards. They are considered intrinsic or primary because their value is easily understood. Think of what kinds of things babies or animals such as puppies find rewarding.

Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are things that have a value not immediately understood. Their value is indirect. They can be traded in for what is ultimately desired.

The use of positive reinforcement involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior. For example, if I give a child a cookie for cleaning a room, the addition of the cookie makes cleaning more likely in the future. Think of ways in which you positively reinforce others.

Negative reinforcement occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior. For example, I have an alarm clock that makes a very unpleasant, loud sound when it goes off in the morning. As a result, I get up and turn it off. By removing the noise, I am reinforced for getting up. How do you negatively reinforce others?

Punishment is an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful. Punishment is often less effective than reinforcement for several reasons. It doesn’t indicate the desired behavior, it may result in suppressing rather than stopping a behavior, (in other words, the person may not do what is being punished when you’re around, but may do it often when you leave), and a focus on punishment can result in not noticing when the person does well.

Not all behaviors are learned through association or reinforcement. Many of the things we do are learned by watching others. This is addressed in social learning theory.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura (1925-) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation

Figure 1.16 – Albert Bandura. 29

Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we’ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).

Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment. 30

Theories also explore cognitive development and how mental processes change over time.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired to explore children’s ability to think and reason by watching his own children’s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children’s thought differs from that of adults. His interest in this area began when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.

Figure 1.17 – Jean Piaget. 32

Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive equilibrium . This is an agreement or balance between what we sense in the outside world and what we know in our minds. If we experience something that we cannot understand, we try to restore the balance by either changing our thoughts or by altering the experience to fit into what we do understand. Perhaps you meet someone who is very different from anyone you know. How do you make sense of this person? You might use them to establish a new category of people in your mind or you might think about how they are similar to someone else.

A schema or schemes are categories of knowledge. They are like mental boxes of concepts. A child has to learn many concepts. They may have a scheme for “under” and “soft” or “running” and “sour”. All of these are schema. Our efforts to understand the world around us lead us to develop new schema and to modify old ones.

One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know. This is assimilation . So the person we meet who is very different may be understood as being “sort of like my brother” or “his voice sounds a lot like yours.” Or a new food may be assimilated when we determine that it tastes like chicken!

Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind. We can make a cognitive accommodation to this new experience by adding new schema. This food is unlike anything I’ve tasted before. I now have a new category of foods that are bitter-sweet in flavor, for instance. This is  accommodation . Do you accommodate or assimilate more frequently? Children accommodate more frequently as they build new schema. Adults tend to look for similarity in their experience and assimilate. They may be less inclined to think “outside the box.”

Piaget suggested different ways of understanding that are associated with maturation. He divided this into four stages:

Table 1.4 – Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget has been criticized for overemphasizing the role that physical maturation plays in cognitive development and in underestimating the role that culture and interaction (or experience) plays in cognitive development. Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages. Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances. 33

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s but became more widely known in the 1980s. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development . 34 His belief was that development occurred first through children’s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning. 35

Figure 1.18- Lev Vygotsky. 36

Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food. Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you all through the process. You gave them assistance when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go. This is scaffolding and can be seen demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance. You can see how Vygotsky would be very popular with modern day educators. 37

Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky concentrated more on the child’s immediate social and cultural environment and his or her interactions with adults and peers. While Piaget saw the child as actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it, Vygotsky saw the child as more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child’s needs and abilities. 38

Like Vygotsky’s, Bronfenbrenner looked at the social influences on learning and development.

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) offers us one of the most comprehensive theories of human development. Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and learning theorists and believed that all of those theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context. What is being taught and how society interprets situations depends on who is involved in the life of a child and on when and where a child lives.

Figure 1.19 – Urie Bronfenbrenner. 39

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model explains the direct and indirect influences on an individual’s development.

Table 1.5 – Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

For example, in order to understand a student in math, we can’t simply look at that individual and what challenges they face directly with the subject. We have to look at the interactions that occur between teacher and child. Perhaps the teacher needs to make modifications as well. The teacher may be responding to regulations made by the school, such as new expectations for students in math or constraints on time that interfere with the teacher’s ability to instruct. These new demands may be a response to national efforts to promote math and science deemed important by political leaders in response to relations with other countries at a particular time in history.

Figure 1.20 – Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. 40

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model challenges us to go beyond the individual if we want to understand human development and promote improvements. 41

In this chapter we looked at:

underlying principles of development

the five periods of development

three issues in development

Various methods of research

important theories that help us understand development

Next, we are going to be examining where we all started with conception, heredity, and prenatal development.

Child Growth and Development Copyright © by Jean Zaar is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care

• Published: 29 October 2021
• Volume 51 , pages 15–30, ( 2023 )

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• Olivia N. Saracho   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4108-7790 1  

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Developmental theorists use their research to generate philosophies on children’s development. They organize and interpret data based on a scheme to develop their theory. A theory refers to a systematic statement of principles related to observed phenomena and their relationship to each other. A theory of child development looks at the children's growth and behavior and interprets it. It suggests elements in the child's genetic makeup and the environmental conditions that influence development and behavior and how these elements are related. Many developmental theories offer insights about how the performance of individuals is stimulated, sustained, directed, and encouraged. Psychologists have established several developmental theories. Many different competing theories exist, some dealing with only limited domains of development, and are continuously revised. This article describes the developmental theories and their founders who have had the greatest influence on the fields of child development, early childhood education, and care. The following sections discuss some influences on the individuals’ development, such as theories, theorists, theoretical conceptions, and specific principles. It focuses on five theories that have had the most impact: maturationist, constructivist, behavioral, psychoanalytic, and ecological. Each theory offers interpretations on the meaning of children's development and behavior. Although the theories are clustered collectively into schools of thought, they differ within each school.

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The author is grateful to Mary Jalongo for her expert editing and her keen eye for the smallest details.

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Saracho, O.N. Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care. Early Childhood Educ J 51 , 15–30 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01271-5

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Child Growth and Development

(12 reviews)

Jennifer Paris

Antoinette Ricardo

Dawn Rymond

Alexa Johnson

Copyright Year: 2018

Last Update: 2019

Publisher: College of the Canyons

Language: English

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Reviewed by Mistie Potts, Assistant Professor, Manchester University on 11/22/22

This text covers some topics with more detail than necessary (e.g., detailing infant urination) yet it lacks comprehensiveness in a few areas that may need revision. For example, the text discusses issues with vaccines and offers a 2018 vaccine... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This text covers some topics with more detail than necessary (e.g., detailing infant urination) yet it lacks comprehensiveness in a few areas that may need revision. For example, the text discusses issues with vaccines and offers a 2018 vaccine schedule for infants. The text brushes over “commonly circulated concerns” regarding vaccines and dispels these with statements about the small number of antigens a body receives through vaccines versus the numerous antigens the body normally encounters. With changes in vaccines currently offered, shifting CDC viewpoints on recommendations, and changing requirements for vaccine regulations among vaccine producers, the authors will need to revisit this information to comprehensively address all recommended vaccines, potential risks, and side effects among other topics in the current zeitgeist of our world.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

At face level, the content shared within this book appears accurate. It would be a great task to individually check each in-text citation and determine relevance, credibility and accuracy. It is notable that many of the citations, although this text was updated in 2019, remain outdated. Authors could update many of the in-text citations for current references. For example, multiple in-text citations refer to the March of Dimes and many are dated from 2012 or 2015. To increase content accuracy, authors should consider revisiting their content and current citations to determine if these continue to be the most relevant sources or if revisions are necessary. Finally, readers could benefit from a reference list in this textbook. With multiple in-text citations throughout the book, it is surprising no reference list is provided.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

This text would be ideal for an introduction to child development course and could possibly be used in a high school dual credit or beginning undergraduate course or certificate program such as a CDA. The outdated citations and formatting in APA 6th edition cry out for updating. Putting those aside, the content provides a solid base for learners interested in pursuing educational domains/careers relevant to child development. Certain issues (i.e., romantic relationships in adolescence, sexual orientation, and vaccination) may need to be revisited and updated, or instructors using this text will need to include supplemental information to provide students with current research findings and changes in these areas.

Clarity rating: 4

The text reads like an encyclopedia entry. It provides bold print headers and brief definitions with a few examples. Sprinkled throughout the text are helpful photographs with captions describing the images. The words chosen in the text are relatable to most high school or undergraduate level readers and do not burden the reader with expert level academic vocabulary. The layout of the text and images is simple and repetitive with photographs complementing the text entries. This allows the reader to focus their concentration on comprehension rather than deciphering a more confusing format. An index where readers could go back and search for certain terms within the textbook would be helpful. Additionally, a glossary of key terms would add clarity to this textbook.

Consistency rating: 5

Chapters appear in a similar layout throughout the textbook. The reader can anticipate the flow of the text and easily identify important terms. Authors utilized familiar headings in each chapter providing consistency to the reader.

Modularity rating: 4

Given the repetitive structure and the layout of the topics by developmental issues (physical, social emotional) the book could be divided into sections or modules. It would be easier if infancy and fetal development were more clearly distinct and stages of infant development more clearly defined, however the book could still be approached in sections or modules.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The text is organized in a logical way when we consider our own developmental trajectories. For this reason, readers learning about these topics can easily relate to the flow of topics as they are presented throughout the book. However, when attempting to find certain topics, the reader must consider what part of development that topic may inhabit and then turn to the portion of the book aligned with that developmental issue. To ease the organization and improve readability as a reference book, authors could implement an index in the back of the book. With an index by topic, readers could quickly turn to pages covering specific topics of interest. Additionally, the text structure could be improved by providing some guiding questions or reflection prompts for readers. This would provide signals for readers to stop and think about their comprehension of the material and would also benefit instructors using this textbook in classroom settings.

Interface rating: 4

The online interface for this textbook did not hinder readability or comprehension of the text. All information including photographs, charts, and diagrams appeared to be clearly depicted within this interface. To ease reading this text online authors should create a live table of contents with bookmarks to the beginning of chapters. This book does not offer such links and therefore the reader must scroll through the pdf to find each chapter or topic.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No grammatical errors were found in reviewing this textbook.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

Cultural diversity is represented throughout this text by way of the topics described and the images selected. The authors provide various perspectives that individuals or groups from multiple cultures may resonate with including parenting styles, developmental trajectories, sexuality, approaches to feeding infants, and the social emotional development of children. This text could expand in the realm of cultural diversity by addressing current issues regarding many of the hot topics in our society. Additionally, this textbook could include other types of cultural diversity aside from geographical location (e.g., religion-based or ability-based differences).

While this text lacks some of the features I would appreciate as an instructor (e.g., study guides, review questions, prompts for critical thinking/reflection) and it does not contain an index or glossary, it would be appropriate as an accessible resource for an introduction to child development. Students could easily access this text and find reliable and easily readable information to build basic content knowledge in this domain.

Reviewed by Caroline Taylor, Instructor, Virginia Tech on 12/30/21

Each chapter is comprehensively described and organized by the period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped together, they are logically organized and discussed within each chapter. One helpful addition that would largely... read more

Each chapter is comprehensively described and organized by the period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped together, they are logically organized and discussed within each chapter. One helpful addition that would largely contribute to the comprehensiveness is a glossary of terms at the end of the text.

From my reading, the content is accurate and unbiased. However, it is difficult to confidently respond due to a lack of references. It is sometimes clear where the information came from, but when I followed one link to a citation the link was to another textbook. There are many citations embedded within the text, but it would be beneficial (and helpful for further reading) to have a list of references at the end of each chapter. The references used within the text are also older, so implementing updated references would also enhance accuracy. If used for a course, instructors will need to supplement the textbook readings with other materials.

This text can be implemented for many semesters to come, though as previously discussed, further readings and updated materials can be used to supplement this text. It provides a good foundation for students to read prior to lectures.

Clarity rating: 5

This text is unique in its writing style for a textbook. It is written in a way that is easily accessible to students and is also engaging. The text doesn't overly use jargon or provide complex, long-winded examples. The examples used are clear and concise. Many key terms are in bold which is helpful to the reader.

For the terms that are in bold, it would be helpful to have a definition of the term listed separately on the page within the side margins, as well as include the definition in a glossary at the end.

Each period of development is consistently described by first addressing physical development, cognitive development, and then social-emotional development.

Modularity rating: 5

This text is easily divisible to assign to students. There were few (if any) large blocks of texts without subheadings, graphs, or images. This feature not only improves modularity but also promotes engagement with the reading.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The organization of the text flows logically. I appreciate the order of the topics, which are clearly described in the first chapter by each period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped into one period of development, development is appropriately described for both infants and toddlers. Key theories are discussed for infants and toddlers and clearly presented for the appropriate age.

Interface rating: 5

There were no significant interface issues. No images or charts were distorted.

It would be helpful to the reader if the table of contents included a navigation option, but this doesn't detract from the overall interface.

I did not see any grammatical errors.

This text includes some cultural examples across each area of development, such as differences in first words, parenting styles, personalities, and attachments styles (to list a few). The photos included throughout the text are inclusive of various family styles, races, and ethnicities. This text could implement more cultural components, but does include some cultural examples. Again, instructors can supplement more cultural examples to bolster the reading.

This text is a great introductory text for students. The text is written in a fun, approachable way for students. Though the text is not as interactive (e.g., further reading suggestions, list of references, discussion points at the end of each chapter, etc.), this is a great resource to cover development that is open access.

Reviewed by Charlotte Wilinsky, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Holyoke Community College on 6/29/21

This text is very thorough in its coverage of child and adolescent development. Important theories and frameworks in developmental psychology are discussed in appropriate depth. There is no glossary of terms at the end of the text, but I do not... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This text is very thorough in its coverage of child and adolescent development. Important theories and frameworks in developmental psychology are discussed in appropriate depth. There is no glossary of terms at the end of the text, but I do not think this really hurts its comprehensiveness.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The citations throughout the textbook help to ensure its accuracy. However, the text could benefit from additional references to recent empirical studies in the developmental field.

It seems as if updates to this textbook will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement given how well organized the text is and its numerous sections and subsections. For example, a recent narrative review was published on the effects of corporal punishment (Heilmann et al., 2021). The addition of a reference to this review, and other more recent work on spanking and other forms of corporal punishment, could serve to update the text's section on spanking (pp. 223-224; p. 418).

The text is very clear and easily understandable.

Consistency rating: 4

There do not appear to be any inconsistencies in the text. The lack of a glossary at the end of the text may be a limitation in this area, however, since glossaries can help with consistent use of language or clarify when different terms are used.

This textbook does an excellent job of dividing up and organizing its chapters. For example, chapters start with bulleted objectives and end with a bulleted conclusion section. Within each chapter, there are many headings and subheadings, making it easy for the reader to methodically read through the chapter or quickly identify a section of interest. This would also assist in assigning reading on specific topics. Additionally, the text is broken up by relevant photos, charts, graphs, and diagrams, depending on the topic being discussed.

This textbook takes a chronological approach. The broad developmental stages covered include, in order, birth and the newborn, infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Starting with the infancy and toddlerhood stage, physical, cognitive, and social emotional development are covered.

There are no interface issues with this textbook. It is easily accessible as a PDF file. Images are clear and there is no distortion apparent.

I did not notice any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

This text does a good job of including content relevant to different cultures and backgrounds. One example of this is in the "Cultural Influences on Parenting Styles" subsection (p. 222). Here the authors discuss how socioeconomic status and cultural background can affect parenting styles. Including references to specific studies could further strengthen this section, and, more broadly, additional specific examples grounded in research could help to fortify similar sections focused on cultural differences.

Overall, I think this is a terrific resource for a child and adolescent development course. It is user-friendly and comprehensive.

Reviewed by Lois Pribble, Lecturer, University of Oregon on 6/14/21

This book provides a really thorough overview of the different stages of development, key theories of child development and in-depth information about developmental domains. read more

This book provides a really thorough overview of the different stages of development, key theories of child development and in-depth information about developmental domains.

The book provides accurate information, emphasizes using data based on scientific research, and is stated in a non-biased fashion.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The book is relevant and provides up-to-date information. There are areas where updates will need to be made as research and practices change (e.g., autism information), but it is written in a way where updates should be easy to make as needed.

The book is clear and easy to read. It is well organized.

Good consistency in format and language.

It would be very easy to assign students certain chapters to read based on content such as theory, developmental stages, or developmental domains.

Very well organized.

Clear and easy to follow.

I did not find any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

General content related to culture was infused throughout the book. The pictures used were of children and families from a variety of cultures.

This book provides a very thorough introduction to child development, emphasizing child development theories, stages of development, and developmental domains.

Reviewed by Nancy Pynchon, Adjunct Faculty, Middlesex Community College on 4/14/21

Overall this textbook is comprehensive of all aspects of children's development. It provided a brief introduction to the different relevant theorists of childhood development . read more

Overall this textbook is comprehensive of all aspects of children's development. It provided a brief introduction to the different relevant theorists of childhood development .

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Most of the information is accurately written, there is some outdated references, for example: Many adults can remember being spanked as a child. This method of discipline continues to be endorsed by the majority of parents (Smith, 2012). It seems as though there may be more current research on parent's methods of discipline as this information is 10 years old. (page 223).

The content was current with the terminology used.

Easy to follow the references made in the chapters.

Each chapter covers the different stages of development and includes the theories of each stage with guided information for each age group.

The formatting of the book makes it reader friendly and easy to follow the content.

Very consistent from chapter to chapter.

Provided a lot of charts and references within each chapter.

Formatted and written concisely.

Included several different references to diversity in the chapters.

There was no glossary at the end of the book and there were no vignettes or reflective thinking scenarios in the chapters. Overall it was a well written book on child development which covered infancy through adolescents.

Reviewed by Deborah Murphy, Full Time Instructor, Rogue Community College on 1/11/21

The text is excellent for its content and presentation. The only criticism is that neither an index nor a glossary are provided. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The text is excellent for its content and presentation. The only criticism is that neither an index nor a glossary are provided.

The material seems very accurate and current. It is well written. It is very professionally done and is accessible to students.

This text addresses topics that will serve this field in positive ways that should be able to address the needs of students and instructors for the next several years.

Complex concepts are delivered accurately and are still accessible for students . Figures and tables complement the text . Terms are explained and are embedded in the text, not in a glossary. I do think indices and glossaries are helpful tools. Terminology is highlighted with bold fonts to accentuate definitions.

Yes the text is consistent in its format. As this is a text on Child Development it consistently addresses each developmental domain and then repeats the sequence for each age group in childhood. It is very logically presented.

Yes this text is definitely divisible. This text addresses development from conception to adolescents. For the community college course that my department wants to use it is very adaptable. Our course ends at middle school age development; our courses are offered on a quarter system. This text is adaptable for the content and our term time schedule.

This text book flows very clearly from Basic principles to Conception. It then divides each stage of development into Physical, Cognitive and Social Emotional development. Those concepts and information are then repeated for each stage of development. e.g. Infants and Toddler-hood, Early Childhood, and Middle Childhood. It is very clearly presented.

It is very professionally presented. It is quite attractive in its presentation .

I saw no errors

The text appears to be aware of being diverse and inclusive both in its content and its graphics. It discusses culture and represents a variety of family structures representing contemporary society.

It is wonderfully researched. It will serve our students well. It is comprehensive and constructed very well. I have enjoyed getting familiar with this text and am looking forward to using it with my students in this upcoming term. The authors have presented a valuable, well written book that will be an addition to our field. Their scholarly efforts are very apparent. All of this text earns high grades in my evaluation. My only criticism is, as mentioned above, is that there is not a glossary or index provided. All citations are embedded in the text.

Reviewed by Ida Weldon, Adjunct Professor, Bunker Hill Community College on 6/30/20

The overall comprehensiveness was strong. However, I do think some sections should have been discussed with more depth read more

The overall comprehensiveness was strong. However, I do think some sections should have been discussed with more depth

Most of the information was accurate. However, I think more references should have been provided to support some claims made in the text.

The material appeared to be relevant. However, it did not provide guidance for teachers in addressing topics of social justice, equality that most children will ask as they try to make sense of their environment.

The information was presented (use of language) that added to its understand-ability. However, I think more discussions and examples would be helpful.

The text appeared to be consistent. The purpose and intent of the text was understandable throughout.

The text can easily be divided into smaller reading sections or restructured to meet the needs of the professor.

The organization of the text adds to its consistency. However, some sections can be included in others decreasing the length of the text.

Interface issues were not visible.

The text appears to be free of grammatical errors.

While cultural differences are mentioned, more time can be given to helping teachers understand and create a culturally and ethnically focused curriculum.

The textbook provides a comprehensive summary of curriculum planing for preschool age children. However, very few chapters address infant/toddlers.

Reviewed by Veronica Harris, Adjunct Faculty, Northern Essex Community College on 6/28/20

This text explores child development from genetics, prenatal development and birth through adolescence. The text does not contain a glossary. However, the Index is clear. The topics are sequential. The text addresses the domains of physical,... read more

This text explores child development from genetics, prenatal development and birth through adolescence. The text does not contain a glossary. However, the Index is clear. The topics are sequential. The text addresses the domains of physical, cognitive and social emotional development. It is thorough and easy to read. The theories of development are inclusive to give the reader a broader understanding on how the domains of development are intertwined. The content is comprehensive, well - researched and sequential. Each chapter begins with the learning outcomes for the upcoming material and closes with an outline of the topics covered. Furthermore, a look into the next chapter is discussed.

The content is accurate, well - researched and unbiased. An historical context is provided putting content into perspective for the student. It appears to be unbiased.

Updated and accurate research is evidenced in the text. The text is written and organized in such a way that updates can be easily implemented. The author provides theoretical approaches in the psychological domains with examples along with real - life scenarios providing meaningful references invoking understanding by the student.

The text is written with clarity and is easily understood. The topics are sequential, comprehensive and and inclusive to all students. This content is presented in a cohesive, engaging, scholarly manner. The terminology used is appropriate to students studying Developmental Psychology spanning from birth through adolescents.

The book's approach to the content is consistent and well organized. . Theoretical contexts are presented throughout the text.

The text contains subheadings chunking the reading sections which can be assigned at various points throughout the course. The content flows seamlessly from one idea to the next. Written chronologically and subdividing each age span into the domains of psychology provides clarity without overwhelming the reader.

The book begins with an overview of child development. Next, the text is divided logically into chapters which focus on each developmental age span. The domains of each age span are addressed separately in subsequent chapters. Each chapter outlines the chapter objectives and ends with an outline of the topics covered and share an idea of what is to follow.

Pages load clearly and consistently without distortion of text, charts and tables. Navigating through the pages is met with ease.

The text is written with no grammatical or spelling errors.

The text did not present with biases or insensitivity to cultural differences. Photos are inclusive of various cultures.

The thoroughness, clarity and comprehensiveness promote an approach to Developmental Psychology that stands alongside the best of texts in this area. I am confident that this text encompasses all the required elements in this area.

Reviewed by Kathryn Frazier, Assistant Professor, Worcester State University on 6/23/20

This is a highly comprehensive, chronological text that covers genetics and conception through adolescence. All major topics and developmental milestones in each age range are given adequate space and consideration. The authors take care to... read more

This is a highly comprehensive, chronological text that covers genetics and conception through adolescence. All major topics and developmental milestones in each age range are given adequate space and consideration. The authors take care to summarize debates and controversies, when relevant and include a large amount of applied / practical material. For example, beyond infant growth patterns and motor milestone, the infancy/toddler chapters spend several pages on the mechanics of car seat safety, best practices for introducing solid foods (and the rationale), and common concerns like diaper rash. In addition to being generally useful information for students who are parents, or who may go on to be parents, this text takes care to contextualize the psychological research in the lived experiences of children and their parents. This is an approach that I find highly valuable. While the text does not contain an index, the search & find capacity of OER to make an index a deal-breaker for me.

The text includes accurate information that is well-sourced. Relevant debates, controversies and historical context is also provided throughout which results in a rich, balanced text.

This text provides an excellent summary of classic and updated developmental work. While the majority of the text is skewed toward dated, classic work, some updated research is included. Instructors may wish to supplement this text with more recent work, particularly that which includes diverse samples and specifically addresses topics of class, race, gender and sexual orientation (see comment below regarding cultural aspects).

The text is written in highly accessible language, free of jargon. Of particular value are the many author-generated tables which clearly organize and display critical information. The authors have also included many excellent figures, which reinforce and visually organize the information presented.

This text is consistent in its use of terminology. Balanced discussion of multiple theoretical frameworks are included throughout, with adequate space provided to address controversies and debates.

The text is clearly organized and structured. Each chapter is self-contained. In places where the authors do refer to prior or future chapters (something that I find helps students contextualize their reading), a complete discussion of the topic is included. While this may result in repetition for students reading the text from cover to cover, the repetition of some content is not so egregious that it outweighs the benefit of a flexible, modular textbook.

Excellent, clear organization. This text closely follows the organization of published textbooks that I have used in the past for both lifespan and child development. As this text follows a chronological format, a discussion of theory and methods, and genetics and prenatal growth is followed by sections devoted to a specific age range: infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood (preschool), middle childhood and adolescence. Each age range is further split into three chapters that address each developmental domain: physical, cognitive and social emotional development.

All text appears clearly and all images, tables and figures are positioned correctly and free of distortion.

The text contains no spelling or grammatical errors.

While this text provides adequate discussion of gender and cross-cultural influences on development, it is not sufficient. This is not a problem unique to this text, and is indeed a critique I have of all developmental textbooks. In particular, in my view this text does not adequately address the role of race, class or sexual orientation on development.

All in all, this is a comprehensive and well-written textbook that very closely follows the format of standard chronologically-organized child development textbooks. This is a fantastic alternative for those standard texts, with the added benefit of language that is more accessible, and content that is skewed toward practical applications.

Reviewed by Tony Philcox, Professor, Valencia College on 6/4/20

The subject of this book is Child Growth and Development and as such covers all areas and ideas appropriate for this subject. This book has an appropriate index. The author starts out with a comprehensive overview of Child Development in the... read more

The subject of this book is Child Growth and Development and as such covers all areas and ideas appropriate for this subject. This book has an appropriate index. The author starts out with a comprehensive overview of Child Development in the Introduction. The principles of development were delineated and were thoroughly presented in a very understandable way. Nine theories were presented which gave the reader an understanding of the many authors who have contributed to Child Development. A good backdrop to start a conversation. This book discusses the early beginnings starting with Conception, Hereditary and Prenatal stages which provides a foundation for the future developmental stages such as infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence. The three domains of developmental psychology – physical, cognitive and social emotional are entertained with each stage of development. This book is thoroughly researched and is written in a way to not overwhelm. Language is concise and easily understood.

This book is a very comprehensive and detailed account of Child Growth and Development. The author leaves no stone unturned. It has the essential elements addressed in each of the developmental stages. Thoroughly researched and well thought out. The content covered was accurate, error-free and unbiased.

The content is very relevant to the subject of Child Growth and Development. It is comprehensive and thoroughly researched. The author has included a number of relevant subjects that highlight the three domains of developmental psychology, physical, cognitive and social emotional. Topics are included that help the student see the relevancy of the theories being discussed. Any necessary updates along the way will be very easy and straightforward to insert.

The text is easily understood. From the very beginning of this book, the author has given the reader a very clear message that does not overwhelm but pulls the reader in for more information. The very first chapter sets a tone for what is to come and entices the reader to learn more. Well organized and jargon appropriate for students in a Developmental Psychology class.

This book has all the ingredients necessary to address Child Growth and Development. Even at the very beginning of the book the backdrop is set for future discussions on the stages of development. Theorists are mentioned and embellished throughout the book. A very consistent and organized approach.

This book has all the features you would want. There are textbooks that try to cover too much in one chapter. In this book the sections are clearly identified and divided into smaller and digestible parts so the reader can easily comprehend the topic under discussion. This book easily flows from one subject to the next. Blocks of information are being built, one brick on top of another as you move through the domains of development and the stages of development.

This book starts out with a comprehensive overview in the introduction to child development. From that point forward it is organized into the various stages of development and flows well. As mentioned previously the information is organized into building blocks as you move from one stage to the next.

The text does not contain any significant interface issued. There are no navigation problems. There is nothing that was detected that would distract or confuse the reader.

There are no grammatical errors that were identified.

This book was not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

This book is clearly a very comprehensive approach to Child Growth and Development. It contains all the essential ingredients that you would expect in a discussion on this subject. At the very outset this book went into detail on the principles of development and included all relevant theories. I was never left with wondering why certain topics were left out. This is undoubtedly a well written, organized and systematic approach to the subject.

Reviewed by Eleni Makris, Associate Professor, Northeastern Illinois University on 5/6/20

This book is organized by developmental stages (infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence). The book begins with an overview of conception and prenatal human development. An entire chapter is devoted to birth and... read more

This book is organized by developmental stages (infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence). The book begins with an overview of conception and prenatal human development. An entire chapter is devoted to birth and expectations of newborns. In addition, there is a consistency to each developmental stage. For infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence, the textbook covers physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development for each stage. While some textbooks devote entire chapters to themes such as physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development and write about how children change developmentally in each stage this book focuses on human stages of development. The book is written in clear language and is easy to understand.

There is so much information in this book that it is a very good overview of child development. The content is error-free and unbiased. In some spots it briefly introduces multicultural traditions, beliefs, and attitudes. It is accurate for the citations that have been provided. However, it could benefit from updating to research that has been done recently. I believe that if the instructor supplements this text with current peer-reviewed research and organizations that are implementing what the book explains, this book will serve as a strong source of information.

While the book covers a very broad range of topics, many times the citations have not been updated and are often times dated. The content and information that is provided is correct and accurate, but this text can certainly benefit from having the latest research added. It does, however, include a great many topics that serve to inform students well.

The text is very easy to understand. It is written in a way that first and second year college students will find easy to understand. It also introduces students to current child and adolescent behavior that is important to be understood on an academic level. It does this in a comprehensive and clear manner.

This book is very consistent. The chapters are arranged by developmental stage. Even within each chapter there is a consistency of theorists. For example, each chapter begins with Piaget, then moves to Vygotsky, etc. This allows for great consistency among chapters. If I as the instructor decide to have students write about Piaget and his development theories throughout the life span, students will easily know that they can find this information in the first few pages of each chapter.

Certainly instructors will find the modularity of this book easy. Within each chapter the topics are self-contained and extensive. As I read the textbook, I envisioned myself perhaps not assigning entire chapters but assigning specific topics/modules and pages that students can read. I believe the modules can be used as a strong foundational reading to introduce students to concepts and then have students read supplemental information from primary sources or journals to reinforce what they have read in the chapter.

The organization of the book is clear and flows nicely. From the table of context students understand how the book is organized. The textbook would be even stronger if there was a more detailed table of context which highlights what topics are covered within each of the chapter. There is so much information contained within each chapter that it would be very beneficial to both students and instructor to quickly see what content and topics are covered in each chapter.

The interface is fine and works well.

The text is free from grammatical errors.

While the textbook does introduce some multicultural differences and similarities, it does not delve deeply into multiracial and multiethnic issues within America. It also offers very little comment on differences that occur among urban, rural, and suburban experiences. In addition, while it does talk about maturation and sexuality, LGBTQ issues could be more prominent.

Overall I enjoyed this text and will strongly consider using it in my course. The focus is clearly on human development and has very little emphasis on education. However, I intend to supplement this text with additional readings and videos that will show concrete examples of the concepts which are introduced in the text. It is a strong and worthy alternative to high-priced textbooks.

Reviewed by Mohsin Ahmed Shaikh, Assistant Professor, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania on 9/5/19

The content extensively discusses various aspects of emotional, cognitive, physical and social development. Examples and case studies are really informative. Some of the areas that can be elaborated more are speech-language and hearing... read more

The content extensively discusses various aspects of emotional, cognitive, physical and social development. Examples and case studies are really informative. Some of the areas that can be elaborated more are speech-language and hearing development. Because these components contribute significantly in development of communication abilities and self-image.

Content covered is pretty accurate. I think the details impressive.

The content is relevant and is based on the established knowledge of the field.

Easy to read and follow.

The terminology used is consistent and appropriate.

I think of using various sections of this book in some of undergraduate and graduate classes.

The flow of the book is logical and easy to follow.

There are no interface issues. Images, charts and diagram are clear and easy to understand.

Well written

The text appropriate and do not use any culturally insensitive language.

I really like that this is a book with really good information which is available in open text book library.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development
• Chapter 2: Conception, Heredity, & Prenatal Development
• Chapter 3: Birth and the Newborn
• Chapter 4: Physical Development in Infancy & Toddlerhood
• Chapter 5: Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
• Chapter 6: Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
• Chapter 7: Physical Development in Early Childhood
• Chapter 8: Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
• Chapter 9: Social Emotional Development in Early Childhood
• Chapter 10: Middle Childhood - Physical Development
• Chapter 11: Middle Childhood – Cognitive Development
• Chapter 12: Middle Childhood - Social Emotional Development
• Chapter 13: Adolescence – Physical Development
• Chapter 14: Adolescence – Cognitive Development
• Chapter 15: Adolescence – Social Emotional Development

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn. We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence.

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Double-blind, Placebo-controlled, Randomized Study of the Tolerability, Safety and Immunogenicity of an Inactivated Whole Virion Concentrated Purified Vaccine (CoviVac) Against Covid-19 of Children at the Age of 12-17 Years Inclusive"

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Recruitment of volunteers will be competitive. A maximum of 450 children aged 12 to 17 years inclusive will be screened in the study, of which it is planned to include and randomize 300 children who meet the criteria for inclusion in the study and do not have non-inclusion criteria, data on which will be used for subsequent safety and immunogenicity analysis.

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40 facts about elektrostal.

Written by Lanette Mayes

Modified & Updated: 02 Mar 2024

Reviewed by Jessica Corbett

Elektrostal is a vibrant city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia. With a rich history, stunning architecture, and a thriving community, Elektrostal is a city that has much to offer. Whether you are a history buff, nature enthusiast, or simply curious about different cultures, Elektrostal is sure to captivate you.

This article will provide you with 40 fascinating facts about Elektrostal, giving you a better understanding of why this city is worth exploring. From its origins as an industrial hub to its modern-day charm, we will delve into the various aspects that make Elektrostal a unique and must-visit destination.

So, join us as we uncover the hidden treasures of Elektrostal and discover what makes this city a true gem in the heart of Russia.

Key Takeaways:

• Elektrostal, known as the “Motor City of Russia,” is a vibrant and growing city with a rich industrial history, offering diverse cultural experiences and a strong commitment to environmental sustainability.
• With its convenient location near Moscow, Elektrostal provides a picturesque landscape, vibrant nightlife, and a range of recreational activities, making it an ideal destination for residents and visitors alike.

Known as the “Motor City of Russia.”

Elektrostal, a city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia, earned the nickname “Motor City” due to its significant involvement in the automotive industry.

Home to the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Elektrostal is renowned for its metallurgical plant, which has been producing high-quality steel and alloys since its establishment in 1916.

Boasts a rich industrial heritage.

Elektrostal has a long history of industrial development, contributing to the growth and progress of the region.

Founded in 1916.

The city of Elektrostal was founded in 1916 as a result of the construction of the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Located approximately 50 kilometers east of Moscow.

Elektrostal is situated in close proximity to the Russian capital, making it easily accessible for both residents and visitors.

Known for its vibrant cultural scene.

Elektrostal is home to several cultural institutions, including museums, theaters, and art galleries that showcase the city’s rich artistic heritage.

A popular destination for nature lovers.

Surrounded by picturesque landscapes and forests, Elektrostal offers ample opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, and birdwatching.

Hosts the annual Elektrostal City Day celebrations.

Every year, Elektrostal organizes festive events and activities to celebrate its founding, bringing together residents and visitors in a spirit of unity and joy.

Has a population of approximately 160,000 people.

Elektrostal is home to a diverse and vibrant community of around 160,000 residents, contributing to its dynamic atmosphere.

Boasts excellent education facilities.

The city is known for its well-established educational institutions, providing quality education to students of all ages.

A center for scientific research and innovation.

Elektrostal serves as an important hub for scientific research, particularly in the fields of metallurgy, materials science, and engineering.

Surrounded by picturesque lakes.

The city is blessed with numerous beautiful lakes, offering scenic views and recreational opportunities for locals and visitors alike.

Well-connected transportation system.

Elektrostal benefits from an efficient transportation network, including highways, railways, and public transportation options, ensuring convenient travel within and beyond the city.

Famous for its traditional Russian cuisine.

Food enthusiasts can indulge in authentic Russian dishes at numerous restaurants and cafes scattered throughout Elektrostal.

Home to notable architectural landmarks.

Elektrostal boasts impressive architecture, including the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord and the Elektrostal Palace of Culture.

Offers a wide range of recreational facilities.

Residents and visitors can enjoy various recreational activities, such as sports complexes, swimming pools, and fitness centers, enhancing the overall quality of life.

Provides a high standard of healthcare.

Elektrostal is equipped with modern medical facilities, ensuring residents have access to quality healthcare services.

Home to the Elektrostal History Museum.

The Elektrostal History Museum showcases the city’s fascinating past through exhibitions and displays.

A hub for sports enthusiasts.

Elektrostal is passionate about sports, with numerous stadiums, arenas, and sports clubs offering opportunities for athletes and spectators.

Celebrates diverse cultural festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal hosts a variety of cultural festivals, celebrating different ethnicities, traditions, and art forms.

Electric power played a significant role in its early development.

Elektrostal owes its name and initial growth to the establishment of electric power stations and the utilization of electricity in the industrial sector.

Boasts a thriving economy.

The city’s strong industrial base, coupled with its strategic location near Moscow, has contributed to Elektrostal’s prosperous economic status.

Houses the Elektrostal Drama Theater.

The Elektrostal Drama Theater is a cultural centerpiece, attracting theater enthusiasts from far and wide.

Popular destination for winter sports.

Elektrostal’s proximity to ski resorts and winter sport facilities makes it a favorite destination for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter activities.

Promotes environmental sustainability.

Elektrostal prioritizes environmental protection and sustainability, implementing initiatives to reduce pollution and preserve natural resources.

Home to renowned educational institutions.

Elektrostal is known for its prestigious schools and universities, offering a wide range of academic programs to students.

Committed to cultural preservation.

The city values its cultural heritage and takes active steps to preserve and promote traditional customs, crafts, and arts.

Hosts an annual International Film Festival.

The Elektrostal International Film Festival attracts filmmakers and cinema enthusiasts from around the world, showcasing a diverse range of films.

Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation.

Elektrostal supports aspiring entrepreneurs and fosters a culture of innovation, providing opportunities for startups and business development.

Offers a range of housing options.

Elektrostal provides diverse housing options, including apartments, houses, and residential complexes, catering to different lifestyles and budgets.

Home to notable sports teams.

Elektrostal is proud of its sports legacy, with several successful sports teams competing at regional and national levels.

Boasts a vibrant nightlife scene.

Residents and visitors can enjoy a lively nightlife in Elektrostal, with numerous bars, clubs, and entertainment venues.

Promotes cultural exchange and international relations.

Elektrostal actively engages in international partnerships, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic collaborations to foster global connections.

Surrounded by beautiful nature reserves.

Nearby nature reserves, such as the Barybino Forest and Luchinskoye Lake, offer opportunities for nature enthusiasts to explore and appreciate the region’s biodiversity.

Commemorates historical events.

The city pays tribute to significant historical events through memorials, monuments, and exhibitions, ensuring the preservation of collective memory.

Promotes sports and youth development.

Elektrostal invests in sports infrastructure and programs to encourage youth participation, health, and physical fitness.

Hosts annual cultural and artistic festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal celebrates its cultural diversity through festivals dedicated to music, dance, art, and theater.

Provides a picturesque landscape for photography enthusiasts.

The city’s scenic beauty, architectural landmarks, and natural surroundings make it a paradise for photographers.

Connects to Moscow via a direct train line.

The convenient train connection between Elektrostal and Moscow makes commuting between the two cities effortless.

A city with a bright future.

Elektrostal continues to grow and develop, aiming to become a model city in terms of infrastructure, sustainability, and quality of life for its residents.

In conclusion, Elektrostal is a fascinating city with a rich history and a vibrant present. From its origins as a center of steel production to its modern-day status as a hub for education and industry, Elektrostal has plenty to offer both residents and visitors. With its beautiful parks, cultural attractions, and proximity to Moscow, there is no shortage of things to see and do in this dynamic city. Whether you’re interested in exploring its historical landmarks, enjoying outdoor activities, or immersing yourself in the local culture, Elektrostal has something for everyone. So, next time you find yourself in the Moscow region, don’t miss the opportunity to discover the hidden gems of Elektrostal.

Q: What is the population of Elektrostal?

A: As of the latest data, the population of Elektrostal is approximately XXXX.

Q: How far is Elektrostal from Moscow?

A: Elektrostal is located approximately XX kilometers away from Moscow.

Q: Are there any famous landmarks in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to several notable landmarks, including XXXX and XXXX.

Q: What industries are prominent in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal is known for its steel production industry and is also a center for engineering and manufacturing.

Q: Are there any universities or educational institutions in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to XXXX University and several other educational institutions.

Q: What are some popular outdoor activities in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal offers several outdoor activities, such as hiking, cycling, and picnicking in its beautiful parks.

Q: Is Elektrostal well-connected in terms of transportation?

A: Yes, Elektrostal has good transportation links, including trains and buses, making it easily accessible from nearby cities.

Q: Are there any annual events or festivals in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal hosts various events and festivals throughout the year, including XXXX and XXXX.

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Childcare :: Ft. Belvoir :: US Army MWR

Joann blanks cdc, north post cdc, fort belvoir north cdc 1# and #2, woodlawn cdc, south post cdc.

• Markham School Age Center (SAC)
• Youth Center

Facilities:

• JoAnn Blanks CDC*
• North Post CDC*
• Fort Belvoir North CDC #1 (FBNA 1)*
• Fort Belvoir North CDC #2 (FBNA 2)*
• Woodlawn CDC*
• South Post CDC*
• Rivanna Station CDC*
• Family Child Care (FCC)

Full Day/Part Day/Hourly Care

Ages 6 weeks-Kindergarten*

  CDCs are on-post child care centers that offer full-day, part-day and hourly care for children in nationally accredited environments.

* In some communities, Kindergarten children may be located in the School Age Center

Army School Age Centers provide care during:

• Before school and after school
• School closures
• Seasonal and holiday school breaks
• Summer Camp
• Hourly Care

* Depending on school configuration

Looking for a Teen Babysitter? Looking to be a Teen Babysitter? CYS offers training following the 4-H babysitter curriculum in becoming a certified Teen Babysitter. Teen military family members in grades 7 and up who wish to to expand and market themselves for babysitting jobs can be placed on the babysitter’s referral list with parent permission.

CYS offers Babysitting Referral Services for registered families. Babysitters on the referral list are 13 years or older, have certification in First Aid and CPR, and are trained in: 

• Developmentally appropriate play
• Recognition of child abuse/neglect
• Emergency procedures and interviewing

Stop by Parent Central Services or go back to the Register section to find out more information.

CYS provides additional child care beyond the regular facility opening hours.

• Kids On Site! (KOS)  – On-site child care in a room adjacent to the parents attending unit meetings or events  

• Volunteer Child Care in a Unit Setting (VCCUS) –  CYS can help units to train volunteers to provide child care for unit functions

Units interested in the VCCUS program should contact Parent & Outreach Services for more information.

CYS offers parents a Friday or Saturday night out on the town for children ages 6 weeks through 5th grade. We provide a snack and developmentally appropriate activities for your child.   

Contact Parent & Outreach Services for more information. 

* Available at select communities

CYS Services offers parents a day out on Friday or Saturday for children ages 6 weeks through 5th grade. We provide meals and snacks and developmentally appropriate activities for your child.    

Military Child Care dot com is your portal for child care at installations around the world. Children can only be placed in child care after submitting a request for care through Military Child Care com.

Rivanna Station CDC is a sub-installation of Fort Belvoir located in Charlottesville Virginia, home to the U.S. Army’s National Ground Intelligence Center with elements of the following Intelligence Community organizations: selected components of the Defense Intelligence Agency, the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency and others. Rivanna Station Child Development Center offers personnel within this community full day care services providing a safe and healthy environment for early childhood development and preschool programs.

• Army Fee Assistance Family Handbook (PDF)
• Army Fee Assistance (Web)
• Other Branches of Service (Web)
• US Army Child & Youth Services, USAG Fort Belvoir (Web)

The Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (CSEFEL) is focused on promoting the social emotional development and school readiness of young children birth to age 5.

CSEFEL is a national resource center funded by the Office of Head Start and Child Care Bureau for disseminating research and evidence-based practices to early childhood programs across the country.

The Teaching Pyramid (PDF)

The Pyramid Model provides guidance for early childhood, special education and early intervention personnel, early educators, families and other professionals on evidence-based practices for promoting young children’s healthy social and emotional development. The goal of the CSEFEL Pyramid Model Implementation in Army Child and Youth Programs is to ensure that staff members are well-equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to promote the social and emotional development of children and address challenging behavior.

Fostering Healthy Social and Emotional Development in Young Children Tip Sheet (PDF)

Social-Emotional Competence of Children (PDF)

There is growing evidence that social-emotional development is associated with better outcomes at home, at school, and in the community. Social-emotional development represents a child’s growing ability to interact with others, to form attachments and relationships, to identify and regulate emotions, and to feel confident exploring the environment.

The Backpack Connection Series was created by TACSEI to provide a way for teachers and parents/caregivers to work together to help young children develop social emotional skills and reduce challenging behavior.

The Backpack Connection Series includes handouts in four categories:

• Addressing Behavior
• Routines and Schedules
• Social Skills

Read the Backpack Series topics any time!

 Learn more on the CSEFEL website.

Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) provides aid to child and adult care institutions and family or group day care homes for the provision of nutritious foods that contribute to the wellness, healthy growth, and development of young children, and the health and wellness of older adults and chronically impaired disabled people.

Through CACFP, more than 4.2 million children and 130,000 adults receive nutritious meals and snacks each day as part of the day care they receive.

• Menus coming soon.

Home : Child Development Centers, Inc.

2022 Annual Appeal

Click here to give today!

Pre-K Counts Openings!

It’s not too late to enroll your 3, 4, or 5-year-old child!

Click here to view our openings in each county!

Preschool Enrollment

Enroll your 3-, 4-, or 5-year-old for the 2022-23 preschool year today!

Begin the Enrollment Process Now!

Asbury CDC is Erie’s Choice winner for Preschool AND Childcare in Erie!

Thank you all for taking the time to nominate and vote for us!

New Roosevelt location opening March 2023 in Erie!

As seats are filling up quickly, be sure to complete our online enrollment form today!

Secure your child’s seat now!

Teachers Wanted!

Apply to join our family today!

Updated Parent’s Corner!

Click here to visit the updated Parent’s Corner!

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We are a private, nonprofit organization that provides child care and early childhood education to children in a safe, happy and healthy learning environment.

CDC offers a variety of programs for infants, toddlers, preschoolers and school-age children. Join the CDC family today!

 View all programs and services

Infants and Toddlers

We provide individualized care for your child beginning at 6 weeks of age.

Curriculum-based programs help to give your child an early educational boost. We offer Free preschool programs based on income, as well as private, tuition-based programs.

Outer Limits

Outer Limits is a free program that gives children and teens the opportunity to participate in sports, the arts and other activities.

90% of Brain Growth Happens Before Kindergarten

Kindergartens, nurseries (DOE), gymnasiums : Elektrostal : Moscow region : GosRegion

Legal advice: +7-800-301-63-78

State institutions of the Moscow region

+7 (496) 573-22-25

Go to the official website >>

Postal code: 144004 +7 (496) 573-22-25 Senior educator: Nina Zhevlakova, +7 (496) 573-22-25

How to find us: travel by bus or minibus to the Yuzhny shop stop

Elementary school-kindergarten for children with disabilities

Moscow region / Elektrostal

8 (496) 573-27-21

Kindergarten No. 1 of a general developmental type

8 (496) 576-43-00

) 8 (466) -17-25

Child Development Center-Kindergarten No. 4

Moscow Region / Elektrostal

Telephone(s):

8 (496) 573-13-33

8 (496) 573-003 9005

Child development center-kindergarten №5

8 (496) 571-65-51

8 (49)6) 571-65-58

MPARISANSKAYA

8 (49657) 359-11

8 (49657) 306-03

kindergarten No. 9 of a general developmental type

Moscow Moscow region / Elektrostal

8 (496) 574-22-59

Children’s Development-kindergarten No. 12

8 (496) 573-25-18

8 (496) 573-75-77

, 4 Zapadnaya, 8

8 (496) 573-81-55; 8 (496) 573-28-75

Kindergarten No. 20 of a general developmental type

8 (496) 573-45-16

Kindergarten No. 22 Combined type

8 (496) 573-16-48

8 (496) 575-34-52

Kindergarten No. 24 (with groups for children with ONR)

8 (495) 575-93-65

Child development center-kindergarten №26

Moscow region / Elektrostal 496) 576-05-30

Kindergarten No. 28 of general development type

8 (496) 574-43-10

8 (496) 575-55-68

kindergarten No. 30 general developmental species

8 (496) 575-97-33

8 (496) 575-97-60

Kindergarten No. 32 of a general developmental type

8 (496) 576-14-41

8 (496) 574-20-88

8 (496) 574-29-89

Child Development Center-Kindergarten No. 36

8 (496) 574-48-04

9 (496) 574-3003-75 Address:

Kindergarten No. 37 of general developmental type

8 (496) 574-26-81

Telephone (s):

8 (496) 572-51-73

8 (496) 576-43-55

kindergarten No. 44 of general developmental species

8 (496) 573-20-85

8 (496) 573-17-27

Child development center-kindergarten №46

8 (496) 573-67-22

8 (496) 575-02-52

Kindergarten No. 50 of a general developmental type

8 (496) 574-27-66

9 (496) 574-3006-7

Kindergarten No. 53 General Development

8 (496) 573-78-94

8 (496) 573-99-31

Kindergarten No. 55 of a general developmental type

8 (496) 571-83-64

Kindergarten No. 56 of a general developmental type

8 (496) 576-35-82

8 (496) 573-60-71

Kindergarten No. 63 of a general developmental type

8 (496) 573-66-33

8 (496) 573-63-53

Child Development Center-Kindergarten No. 65

8 (496) 575-58-28

8 (496) 575-11-44

8 (496) 574-36-68

Southern Federal University | Press Center: SFedU celebrated Lyceum Student’s Day

Southern Federal University | Press Centre: SFedU celebrated Lyceum Student’s Day nine0002 Font size

Line spacing

Information about the educational organization

Lyceum Student Day was celebrated in SFU

In 1811, on October 19, the Imperial Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was opened, known as the school that brought up the great Russian poet and writer Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. The day of its opening became the date of the celebration of the All-Russian Lyceum Student Day. This holiday, according to Anna Dmitrova , director of the SFU Lyceum , is the preservation of the traditions of lyceum education in Russia.

On this day, the SFedU Lyceum holds many interesting and socially significant events, one of which is a poster contest related to the life and work of the lyceum, in which not only students, but also teachers took part. All works are posted in the Lyceum building, as well as in the official VKontakte group, where you can vote for your favorite work. Also, the literary club prepared tasks on the history of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum for the holiday. nine0005

In addition, the election of the chairman of the council of students was held in the lyceum, already from the school bench the children have the opportunity to feel social responsibility to the team of students and teachers.

“I met the SFedU Lyceum last year at an open day, and I was very inspired by the atmosphere of this educational institution and the activities that constantly take place here. It’s great that teachers communicate with students on an equal footing, they are always ready to help and suggest, they are attentive to absolutely every student, and it’s also nice to see that each teacher simply burns with his subject and also tells it interestingly. Being the chairman of the council of students is not only an honor, it is also a great responsibility, and I hope that this will help me gain more self-confidence, develop my leadership qualities and, of course, benefit my Lyceum in the face of its students and teachers” , – Ekaterina Marchenko shared .

Congratulations to Ekaterina on her election to a high post, as well as to all lyceum students on the holiday! We wish you excellent, interesting studies and high achievements!