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Harness Strain to Harvest Solar Energy

  • Hefei National Laboratory, Anhui, China

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The quest for an efficient method to convert solar energy into electricity is crucial in the pursuit of carbon neutrality and environmental sustainability. Traditional solar cells are based on junctions between semiconductors, where a current is produced by photogenerated carriers separated by an electric field at the junction. Efforts to enhance solar-cell performance have focused on refining semiconductor properties and on perfecting devices. Concurrently, researchers are exploring alternative photovoltaic mechanisms that could work in synergy with the junction-based photovoltaic effect to boost solar-cell efficiency. Within this context, the engineering of a strain gradient in the material has emerged as a promising research direction. In this phenomenon, known as the flexophotovoltaic effect, an inhomogeneous strain in the material produces a photovoltaic effect in the absence of a junction [ 1 ]. Now a team led by Gustau Catalan of the Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology in Spain and Longlong Shu of Nanchang University in China has uncovered a pronounced flexophotovoltaic effect in halide perovskites—materials pivotal to the development of fourth-generation solar cells with high efficiency and low production costs [ 2 ]. Remarkably, the effect is orders of magnitude larger than in previously studied flexophotovoltaic materials, offering great promise for improving solar-cell technologies.

Photovoltaic effects require devices or materials that break inversion symmetry. The symmetry breaking creates a preferential direction for photogenerated electrons and holes to flow, generating a sizeable current before the carriers recombine. In traditional solar cells, symmetry is inherently broken at the interface between two different materials—a p– n junction between a hole-doped ( p ) and an electron-doped ( n ) material.

Certain materials, known as piezoelectrics, also display inversion-symmetry breaking in their crystallographic structures [ 3 ]. These materials display a bulk photovoltaic effect. Unlike the junction-based effect, the bulk one relies on a charge separation mechanism arising from the asymmetric distribution of photoexcited carriers in real and momentum space [ 4 ]. This behavior leads to unique characteristics, such as a photocurrent that depends on light polarization and a photovoltage that can exceed the band gap of the semiconducting material. In contrast, the photovoltage obtained in a junction-based device cannot exceed the material band gap, limiting the maximum power output of a solar cell, which scales with the product of photovoltage and photocurrent. With judicious design, both junction-based and bulk photovoltaic effects can operate in concert within a single device, boosting its performance. However, the bulk photovoltaic effect is typically plagued by low efficiency. What’s more, the semiconductors typically used in mainstream solar cells are centrosymmetric, hence do not display the bulk photovoltaic effect.

A viable approach to addressing this challenge involves altering the semiconductor structure to disrupt its symmetry. The engineering of a strain gradient, a deformation of the material structure that increases along a spatial coordinate, has proven to be an effective means to break inversion symmetry and induce an electric dipole in materials regardless of their symmetry [ 5 ]. Centrosymmetric materials subject to a strain gradient can exhibit the piezoelectric effect and transform mechanical energy into electrical energy, a phenomenon known as the flexoelectric effect [ 6 ]. Similarly, the breaking of inversion symmetry obtained by applying a strain gradient to a semiconductor can lead to the emergence of the bulk photovoltaic effect. This strain-gradient-induced photovoltaic effect is referred to as the flexophotovoltaic effect and was first demonstrated by Dong Jik Kim, Marin Alexe, both of the University of Warwick, UK, and me in the oxide perovskite SrTiO 3 (STO) [ 1 ]. However, the magnitude of the effect achievable in materials—in particular, those integral to solar-cell technologies—remained until now insufficiently explored.

Catalan and collaborators investigate the flexophotovoltaic effect in single crystals of two halide perovskites called MAPbBr 3 (MAPB) and MAPbI 3 (MAPI), where MA stands for methylammonium, CH 3 NH 3 . Thanks to low production cost, long carrier lifetime, and excellent charge-transport properties, these hybrid perovskites, which combine both organic and inorganic compounds, have emerged as some of most attractive solar-cell materials. These and related materials led perovskite-cell efficiency to surge from about 3% in 2009 to over 25% today—a figure that rivals that of the best silicon-based solar cells [ 7 ]. Catalan, Shu, and co-workers fabricated capacitor structures by depositing electrodes on either side of these crystals. They then bent these crystals vertically to introduce an out-of-plane strain gradient and performed experiments to characterize the flexophotovoltaic efficiency (Fig 1 ).

Since MAPB is centrosymmetric at room temperature, the MAPB capacitor generates a negligible photocurrent when flat, but bending it activates the photovoltaic effect. Under illumination, both the measured photocurrent and the photovoltage increase linearly with the applied strain gradient. The observed response outperforms that of STO by nearly 3 orders of magnitude. Furthermore, the researchers showed that by increasing the strain gradient (through an extremely large local deformation obtained by applying pressure with the tip of an atomic force microscope), they could substantially increase the photovoltage in the crystal, achieving values more than twice larger than the material’s band gap. This achievement is groundbreaking, as it marks the first demonstration of a flexophotovoltaic-induced voltage exceeding the material band gap, underscoring the vast potential of strain gradients in enhancing photovoltaic efficiency.

MAPI capacitors, on the other hand, display a substantial bulk photovoltaic effect even in the flat state. This effect is ascribed to the presence of a macroscopic polarization within the crystal whose origin has yet to be established (it may be due to either a ferroelectric effect or chemical gradients in the material). Analogous to the behavior previously observed in ferroelectric materials, this bulk photovoltaic effect in MAPI crystal can be modulated by the application of an external bias. By bending the crystal, the flexophotovoltaic effect adds to the innate bulk photovoltaic effect, leading to an enhanced or depressed photocurrent depending on the sign of the applied strain gradient. The experiments with MAPI capacitors thus show that the flexophotovoltaic effect can coexist with other bulk photovoltaic effects—offering an option for combining multiple efficiency-enhancing phenomena.

The remarkable performance of the flexophotovoltaic effect observed by Catalan, Shu, and collaborators in halide perovskite crystals validates the ability of strain gradients to boost the efficiency of solar-energy harvesting. The relatively low elastic modulus of these halide perovskite materials suggests a higher tolerance for mechanical deformation compared to traditional organic semiconductors like silicon, meaning that significant strain gradients could be incorporated in an operational device. The next step would be the demonstration of the combination of traditional and flexophotovoltaic effects. Such a step would involve designing device configurations that integrate both built-in fields at a p–n junction and strain gradients. The results obtained for halide perovskites show that the combination of the two effects holds great potential for overcoming the tyranny of the Shockley-Queisser limit—which states that the maximum efficiency of a solar cell based on a single p–n junction cannot exceed about 30%.

  • M.-M. Yang et al. , “Flexo-photovoltaic effect,” Science 360 , 904 (2018) .
  • Z. Wang et al. , “Flexophotovoltaic effect and above-band-gap photovoltage induced by strain gradients in halide perovskites,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 132 , 086902 (2024) .
  • W. G. Candy, Piezoelectricity (Dover Publications, Mineola, New York, 2018)[ Amazon ][ WorldCat ].
  • B. I. Sturman and V. M. Fridkin, The Photovoltaic and Photorefractive Effects in Noncentrosymmetric Materials (Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Philadelphia, 1992)[ Amazon ][ WorldCat ].
  • B. Wang et al. , “Flexoelectricity in solids: Progress, challenges, and perspectives,” Prog. Mater. Sci. 106 , 100570 (2019) .
  • P. Zubko et al. , “Flexoelectric effect in solids,” Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 43 , 387 (2013) .
  • A. K. Jena et al. , “Halide perovskite photovoltaics: Background, status, and future prospects,” Chem. Rev. 119 , 3036 (2019) .

About the Author

Image of Mingmin Yang

Mingmin Yang obtained his BS in material science from the University of Technology of Wuhan, China, in 2011 and his PhD from the University of Warwick, UK, in 2018. He then conducted postdoctoral research at the University of Warwick and the the RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science, Japan. After working as an assistant professor at the Department of Physics of the University of Warwick, he joined the Hefei National Laboratory in China as a research scientist and group leader. His research focus is on the study of efficient energy transduction processes in multifunctional polar materials and of devices for quantum technology, information communications, and green-energy applications.

Flexophotovoltaic Effect and Above-Band-Gap Photovoltage Induced by Strain Gradients in Halide Perovskites

Zhiguo Wang, Shengwen Shu, Xiaoyong Wei, Renhong Liang, Shanming Ke, Longlong Shu, and Gustau Catalan

Phys. Rev. Lett. 132 , 086902 (2024)

Published February 20, 2024

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Review article, solar photovoltaic energy optimization and challenges.

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  • 1 Department of Electrical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan
  • 2 Processes, Energy, Environment and Electrical Systems, University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
  • 3 Faculty of Electrical and Control Engineering, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gdańsk, Poland
  • 4 Department of Materials Technologies, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland

The study paper focuses on solar energy optimization approaches, as well as the obstacles and concerns that come with them. This study discusses the most current advancements in solar power generation devices in order to provide a reference for decision-makers in the field of solar plant construction throughout the world. These technologies are divided into three groups: photovoltaic, thermal, and hybrid (thermal/photovoltaic). As a result, this article begins by outlining the approach that will be employed to undertake this research. Following that, solar energy production methods are researched and their sub-classifications are described in order to establish their resource needs and features. Following that, a detailed conversation is held. Each technology’s environmental and economic performance will be evaluated. Furthermore, a statistical analysis is conducted to emphasize the efficiency and performance of each solar technology, as well as to identify their global rankings in terms of power output. Finally, research trends in the development of solar power plants are presented. The credibility of the Photovoltaic system, types and limitations is the discussion under study system makes use of sun’s energy to generate electricity with the help of varied procedural systems; stand-alone, hybrid or grid charged. Based on this research, it is possible to infer that the primary goals of optimization approaches are to reduce investment, operation and maintenance costs, and emissions in order to improve system dependability. This paper also includes a brief overview of several solar energy optimization problems and issues.

1 Introduction

Global warming is an element in climate change and explicitly refers to the influence of greenhouse gases on the overall surface temperature of the Earth. When describing extreme weather events produced by greenhouse gases; the label “global warming” is appropriate. When characterizing other long-term changes to the planet’s weather patterns, however, climate change is the most appropriate phrase. Opponents of climate change and global warming have noted out how the Earth’s temperature patterns have fluctuated for generations, and that current climatic changes are not as severe as stated, nor are they only the consequence of human activity.

The Earth’s atmosphere is made up of several gases that work as a layer, trapping heat from the sun and blocking it from escaping back into space. Human actions have contributed to rising global temperatures, according to 97% of active climate experts throughout the world. According to climate experts, such negativity arises from a fear of confronting the scale of the harm caused by human actions to the environment. Little fluctuations in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun enable the ice sheets to develop and disappear. Solar radiation levels fluctuate. Such changes have a wide range of consequences in space, the Earth’s atmosphere, and on the Earth’s surface ( Mohamed et al., 2014 ). Upshot changes in solar activity, according to current scientific opinion, have only a little role in the Earth’s temperature. The warming induced by increasing levels of man-made greenhouse gas emissions is several times more than any other factors: Recent changes in solar activity are to blame. In fact, solar energy is a lot more beneficial for human beings. As the modern technological world is getting updated day by day. There is dire need to find a credible energy source in order to ensure a promising ground. In terms of solar energy, the sun is the most major source which can turn into feasible means if it is used to produce photovoltaic energy. Photovoltaic energy can be produced with the help of solar energy and is converted into electricity with the aid of solar photovoltaic panels.

Many activities rely on solar energy. Pumping water is mostly used in agriculture. PV panels and electric batteries are utilized to power the electro-pumps, allowing the irrigation system to be completely self-sufficient. In the construction sector, solar energy is used for air conditioning, water heating, lighting, and refrigeration systems. Desalination of water is another key application of solar energy. Solar energy is utilized to extract low-salt water from saltwater in this technique. Telecommunications is another key sector that makes use of solar energy. Satellites’ electrical demands are met by solar panels installed on their spinning limbs. Solar energy is occasionally utilized as a backup power source for established telecommunications networks. Hydrogen generation and consumption by electrolysis of water is one of the most promising ways to achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Figure 1 shows the typical Photovoltaic system. Solar energy has shown to be the most cost-effective and environmentally friendly option for electrolysis procedures. For power generation, three primary technologies are used, namely thermal, photovoltaic, and hybrid thermal photovoltaic. Numerous nations have already implemented similar systems in their electrical grids, including the United States, Spain, Morocco, India, China, and. Furthermore, in order to select the most appropriate technology for a specific country, a thorough examination and knowledge of the many solar technologies and their underlying challenges is required to assist responsible institutions in making decisions. As a result, a comprehensive assessment of all solar technologies for energy generation is required. As a result, the purpose of this study is to cover several research gaps in the literature, such as the absence of statistical analysis of existing solar power plants throughout the world. Moreover, decision-makers will be able to implement the most appropriate solar power technology for a specific geographic region. The second gap in the literature concerns a recent comprehensive study of solar energy technology for power generation. The third significant research gap is an in-depth comparison of the performance of the three primary solar technologies and their modifications, which, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, has yet to be addressed in any contemporary study.

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FIGURE 1 . Photovoltaic system (Flickr).

As a result, the following are the primary additions and innovations of the present article:

• A new summary of the three primary solar methods for generating power.

• Updated solar technology economic and environmental assessments.

• Audit of linear Fresnel reflectors, parabolic trough technology, Parabolic dish collectors, Heliostat field collectors, photovoltaic, and concentrated photovoltaic solar power plants.

• PV-CSP and PVT/CPVT are two hybrid systems for generating thermal solar electricity ( Getie et al., 2020 ).

The layout of this paper is as follows. Section methodology introduces the adopted methodology in this review paper. Section Technologies Overview for Generating Thermal Power describes the three main solar technologies for electricity production. The discussion and comparison of these technologies alongside future trends and evaluation of their environmental and economic aspects are conducted in section Discussions. Section Optimization Method discuses PV Base Hybrid System, PV Based Grid System and PV Based Standalone System. Section Utilization of Solar Photovoltaic Energy discusses application. Section Optimization Issues and Challenges highlight limitations, while Section Conclusion , provides the conclusion of this paper ( Bishoyi and Sudhakar, 2017 ).

2 Methodology

An accurate literature study was undertaken to assess the most recent relevant research and their conclusions in order to investigate solar technologies for power production. These latter have been investigated based on the accepted solar technologies, their working principle, their capabilities, and the environmental difficulties linked with them. Moreover, an analysis of the operating solar-powered power plants has been created. Finally, a comparison of all technologies is offered in terms of their advantages, efficiency, and resource needs. The paper covers an exact literature study to assess the most recent relevant research and their conclusions in directive to solar energy technology for electricity generation built on the solar techniques employed, their operating principles, and their performance. A list of all operational solar-powered power plants has also been established. A comparison of technologies in terms of their advantages, productivity, and reserve needs is presented as well. The review of literature is divided into three parts, the first of which was to gather the most recent information on the four essential technologies used in thermal solar stations ( Zhang et al., 2013 ) as follows:

• Parabolic trough collector (PTC) ( Ouagued et al., 2018 ).

• Linear Fresnel Reflector (LRF) ( Ghodbane et al., 2016 ).

• Heliostat field collector (HFC) ( Eddhibi et al., 2017 ).

• Parabolic dish collector (PDC) ( Chen et al., 2018 ).

Second part splits research into two areas based on the major technology used in solar power plants:

• Fundamentally as Photovoltaic (PV) ( Lokar and Virtic, 2020 ).

• Concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) ( Aqachmar et al., 2020 ).

Third part, the technologies used in hybrid thermal photovoltaic systems are investigated. Including:

• Photovoltaic thermal (PVT) ( Aqachmar et al., 2020 ).

• Concentrated photovoltaic thermal (CPVT) ( Bamisile et al., 2020 ).

Next section shows a detailed literature review in order to shed light on different optimization methods in terms of solar photo- voltaic energy. Furthermore, an overview on utilization of photovoltaic energy is presented. In the last step the cons of optimization methods are discussed in terms of challenges and issues to get a better understanding of debilitated points of this whole phenomenon.

2.1 Technologies Overview for Generating Thermal Power

DNI (Direct Normal Irradiance) is used to turn sunlight into electricity, solar thermal power uses the second principle of thermodynamics. This transition necessitates the use of two heat sources: a cold and a hot source. The heat transfer fluid (HTF) is employed as the hot source and water as the cold source in CSP power plants. Entropy is increased as a result of the natural heat exchange between water and HTF. After that, the HTF is heated using one of four different technologies: parabolic trough collectors, Fresnel reflectors, parabolic dish collectors, or solar power tower ( Alsaffar, 2015 ).

2.1.1 Plants Using PTC Technology

A solar field, a power block, and thermal energy storage (TES) are all parts of the PTC power plant. In the solar field, solar collectors with parabolic troughs and tubes filled with a heat transfer fluid (HTF) are employed. By way of it passes through the tubes, a reflected beam of solar light heats the HTF. The power block must be efficient and trustworthy because it is the core of the PTC system. As a result, Rankine or Hirn cycles are the most often used power blocks ( Zhar et al., 2021 ; Aqachmar et al., 2019 ). PTC power plants are already operational in 98 countries, with 43% in Spain, 7% in India and 17% in the United States. The capacity of these PTC plants between 0.15 MW in France to 2,474.5 MW in Spain ( Solar paces, 2019 ; Boukelia et al., 2017 ). As indicated in Table 1 , the LCOE of PTC power plants ranges from 0.07 to 0.23 USD/KWh, and is heavily impacted by the plant’s position (DNI), size (Capacity in MegaWatts), and TES time. This table covers a number of LCOE optimization studies were carried out for a number of PTC plants in various countries ( Boukelia, et al., 2017 ; Dowling et al., 2017 ; Aly et al., 2019 ; Achkari and El Fadar, 2020 ).

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TABLE 1 . Current PTC power plant design optimization simulation research ( Zineb et al., 2021 ).

2.1.2 Heliostat Field Collector or Solar Power Tower

Large mirrors reflect the sun’s energy onto a receiver at the top of a tower in heliostat field collector power plants. Ceramics or any other physical substance that is stable at high temperatures is used to construct the receiver. The heat is subsequently transferred to the HTF, which, in turn, is used to generate electricity, when it reaches a particular temperature, activates the steam generating system. The focused solar radiation must reach the receiver at a rate of 200–1,000 kW/m 2 ( Simsek et al., 2018 ) to produce the required temperature for the procedure. In general, water, melted salt, sodium liquid or air, can be used as the HTF in SPT technology. Economic and technological research on SPT power plants have grown in popularity in recent years. This would include viability and optimization research, which necessitate an assessment of the power plant’s three components: the heliostat field (tower altitude, land-use factor, as well as the quantity, length, and width of separate mirrors (heliostats)), heat energy storing (area for storage, storage extent, storing capacity), and power generation, vessels, temperature levels), ( Chen et al., 2018 ; Simsek et al., 2018 ; Collado and Guallar, 2019 ; Zhuang et al., 2019 ; Awan et al., 2020a ; Agyekum and Velkin, 2020 ; Hakimi et al., 2020 ), and electricity cycle (thermal cycle, fluid transmit, effectiveness, boiler stress, etc.). Awan et al. (2020b) obtained a 35.6% gain when compared to the initial design, full load storage period (TES) required for multi-objective optimization, tower elevation, and SM resulted in a 35.6% increase in energy competence and a 16.9% drop in LCOE. Zhuang et al. (2019) showed a cost-benefit analysis of 100 MW SPT power stations in China utilizing various melted salts and anticipated that the LCOE in China will fall from 0.23 $/kWh in 2017 to 0.10 $/kWh by 2050. In a recent study from Chile looked at the impact of solar extinction on LCOE ( Marzo et al., 2021 ).

2.1.3 Solar Thermal Power Plant With a Linear Fresnel Solar

An absorber, a steam generation system (SGS), a tracking system, and an instrumentation system all employ a collection of Fresnel reflectors built of linear mirrors ( Ghodbane et al., 2019 ). LFR flat mirrors reflect the sun’s straight normal irradiance (or ray radiation) towards absorber surface ( Islam et al., 2018 ). As a result of the strong sun radiation, the water vaporizes. The steam turbine is spun by the evaporated water, which subsequently generator to produce electricity by rotating, thanks to the high pressure. As demonstrated in the study of a 120 MW LFR power plant in the El-Oued region ( Alotaibi et al., 2020 ) (LCOE 14 0, 0382$/kWh; avoided CO 2 14,420, 67 tCO 2 /year) and in India ( Bishoyi and Sudhakar, 2017 ) for countries with significant water stress, Fresnel reflector-based power production technology is a very promising and low-cost technology. However, when compared to other technologies, particularly PTC ( Bellos, 2019 ), in the solar industry, LFR power plants undergo from considerable optical losses. Sanda et al. (2019) gave a thorough review of thermal modeling and visual simulation tools for LFR power plant design. The prices of 50 MW LFR power plants are compared to PTC and SPC power plants in Table 2 with equivalent capacity in India’s diverse climatic zones ( Kumar et al., 2021 ). Several researches on various aspects of LFR power plants, the thermal energy storage system, for example, have been installed to improve the plant’s efficiency. By segregating the TES system from the rest of the system, into numerous modules ( Tascioni et al., 2020 ), established a fresh optimization strategy. This resulted in a 13% improvement in TES efficiency and a 30% reduction in solar field thermal loss. Lopez et al. (2020) were also able to improve the economic and energetic performance of an Iranian power plant by adopting phase change material (PCM) as the storage system.

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TABLE 2 . Cost-benefit analysis of CSP technology in Indian climatic regions ( Zineb et al., 2021 ).

2.1.4 Power Plants for Parabolic Dish Collectors

The parabolic dish collector (PDC) is a technique that directs solar energy beams gathered by a dish-shaped concentrator to a receiver at its focal point. Flat and cavity receivers are the two types of receivers. To track the direct normal irradiation, the concentrator uses a two-axis tracker. For optimal use of the obtained focused heat, at the focus point, an electrical generator with a Stirling-Brayton mechanism is placed ( Islam et al., 2019 ). When the ratio of concentrations surpasses 3000 ( Islam et al., 2018 ; Lopez et al., 2020 ), the pressure and temperature in the receiver might reach dangerous levels 200 bar and 700–750°C, respectively.

2.2 Photovoltaic Solar Energy Technologies Are Used to Generate Solar Power

2.2.1 pv technology.

PV technology is frequently used because to its simplicity in power generation. As seen in Figure 2 according to this, China (36%) leads the world in PV installed capacity, followed by the United States (13%), and Japan (11%) ( IEA, 2020 ). China is generating more than 175.01 GigaWatts of PV power, with the United States and Japan 62.2 GigaWatts, 55.5 GigaWatts coming in second and third, respectively.

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FIGURE 2 . Installed capacity of PV (MW) ( Zineb et al., 2021 ).

2.2.2 Concentrated PV Technology

Concentrated PV (CPV) cells were developed as a result of scientific advancements in the optical instruments field. The CPV focuses sunbeams onto PV cells with the help of utilizing an optical concentrator, such as a curved mirror or a lens. The solar cells’ efficiency improves as a result of the additional photons focused with the concentrator. Adding a concentrator to a cell, according to the literature, enhances the current generated by the cell and improves the efficiency of the cell operating voltage ( Gonzalez-Longatt, 2005 ; Luque and Hegedus, 2011 ). Appropriate concentration technology selection is critical because the performance of the CPV’s optics has a direct and significant impact on the CPV’s efficiency. As a result, Table 2 provides a detailed summary of various concentration schemes. Two (or more) concentration systems are sometimes combined to improve the efficiency of CPV systems. Figure 3 shows the total electricity generated by different countries utilizing CPV. CPV’s installed power ranges up till 2021 from 114 kW in Japan to 67.68 MW in China region. Concerned nations’ typical CPV output is around 22.43 MW. Moreover, China has half (50%) of the mounted CPV volume, tracked the United States having 21%. High concentrated PV (HCPV) accounts for 81% of installed CPV power plants, while low concentrated PV (LCPV) accounts for 19%. As a result, HCPV generates 93% of the produced electricity, whereas LCPV generates just 7%.

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FIGURE 3 . Total Installed CPV worldwide ( Zineb et al., 2021 ).

2.3 Hybrid Solar Thermal Power Generating Technology

Decoupled Photovoltaic and connected PV-CPV/CSP are the two types of hybrid solar power systems. These are systems that combine the two technologies on one worksite. Photovoltaic thermal collector (PVT) or concentrated photovoltaic thermal collector (CPVT) systems are dense or coupled hybrid solar systems that combine CPV/PV and CSP into a sole system are the second type of hybrid solar systems.

2.3.1 Hybrid PV-CSP Technology

PV-CSP hybrid expertise is relatively different topic which has piqued the curiosity of scientists all over the world. By expanding hybrid power plants on large scale, this is especially promising, according to the IEA’s solar thermal energy technology roadmap. The fascinating properties of such a combo, that can enhance system stability, enhance energy quality, cut LCOE, limit heat losses, and increase efficiency of power plant, driving this decision. The strategy for hybrid PV-CSP power plants on a large scale includes a battery energy storage system i-e (BESS) plants in recent research. The expected drop in battery costs may make this option more realistic in future. Several modeling researches dedicated to hybrid decoupled PV/CSP systems are included in Table 3 ( Gaga et al., 2017 ; Ju et al., 2017 ; Moukhtar et al., 2021 ). Conventional PV-thermal hybrid solar systems. A standard photovoltaic module is combined by a thermal accumulator in the PVT solar system to harvest sun energy. Several investigations have been conducted into this ( Hissouf et al., 2020 ).

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TABLE 3 . Hybrid PV-CSP technology ( Zineb et al., 2021 ).

PV-thermal hybrid solar systems with concentrated photovoltaic. CPV technology, despite its high conversion ratio, is not without flaws, has serious flaw: excessive PV cell heating. A cooling technique is essential to avoid this. In this case, incorporating a thermal procedure achieve dual goals of freezing the CPV cells while also producing valuable thermal heat. The development of hybrid CPV-thermal technology was sparked by this.

2.3.2 Discussion of Thermal Methods for Energy Generation

Thermal technology for energy generation may be split into four groups, according to the review: solar power tower, parabolic dish collector, parabolic trough collector, linear Fresnel reflector, and the parabolic dip is the most commonly used solar thermal technique, having 64 percent of all CSP installation units in operation. Following that is tower technology, which accounts for 31% of all CSP technology installed globally. On either side, because PDC and LFR are two separate entities, they are relatively new technologies with considerable obstacles to overcome, their contribution to the energy mix are fairly limited. Because the performance of each technology is influenced by a variety of elements such as geographic location and HTF used, selecting one technology over another for a given place should be based on these features. The conclusions of this study revealed the barriers to widespread CSP implementation. PDC, for example, is expensive; PTC has low conversion efficiency; and LFR devices have a restricted operating temperature. Furthermore, the significant both the SGS and the cooling process make use of water is a serious issue with CSP facilities. The focus on resolving these difficulties will improve CSP plant acceptability in the background of the global energy alteration.

2.3.3 Photovoltaic Technology Power Generation Discussion

Photovoltaic technologies for power generation are the focus of the present research. Depending on whether or not a concentrator is used, photovoltaic technology may be divided into two groups. Attempting to provide a simple summary of mounted CPV and PV systems across the world, regardless of the fact that CPV has a higher efficiency than PV, the accumulative capacity of CPV mounted globally is small, according to the statistics presented. The comparatively great prices of Concentrators and trackers for CPV explain this result ( Aqachmar et al., 2020 ) directed a viability evaluation of CPV large scale facilities and provided unique policy solutions for addressing the problem of high CPV device pricing. In addition ( Laarabi et al., 2021b ), looked at the soiling problem. In both Morocco and India, the authors reviewed a large amount of literature on PV soiling measurement methodologies, impacts, and cleaning approaches, further showed that soiling is a much localized process, with the position of the plants having a substantial influence on soiling.

2.4 Discussion of Hybrid Technologies to Produce Electricity

According to the findings of this study, hybrid photovoltaic thermal technology may be classed as either traditional PVT or concentrated PVT. The hybrid PV or CPV achieves a dual goal of cooling the PV cells, so increasing electrical output, and providing usable thermal heat for thermoelectric generators. It is worth noting that hybrid solar technologies, whether coupled or decoupled, are still in their infancy and will require more development before being utilized in large-scale power facilities. This covers, among other things, optimizing optical concentrators, water usage, and investment costs. Next section will cover solar photovoltaic energy system types and solar energy optimization method, issues and challenges ( Laarabi et al., 2021b ).

2.5 Types of Solar Photovoltaic Energy System

Figure 4 shows types of the solar photovoltaic systems which includes the most common configuration - a grid-connected PV system, which is used when customers want can reduce their energy costs, and the grid is accessible for using when the array PV is not generating electricity. A “Utility-Interactive PV System or Grid Tied PV System” is a PV-array without the need of a storage system; it is directly connected to the grid. Solar panels that generate part, if not all, of their power demands during the day while staying linked to the local electrical grid at night are included in these Connected Grid PV Systems. In most connected grid PV schemes, extra or surplus electricity is stored in batteries or sent back into the electrical grid. Solar energy can be utilized to meet some or all energy needs for those with a connected grid PV arrangement in their houses and buildings. Moreover, since this type of PV system is indefinitely linked to the grid, there is no need to calculate solar energy consumption or solar panel sizing, enabling for a variety of options, including a system as limited as 1.0 kiloWh on the tower to dramatically lessen your electricity bills, and a much bigger ground assembled array large enough just to totally eliminate your electricity costs completely. Hybrid PV systems are similar to stand-alone ones. The goal of a hybrid power system is to generate as much energy as possible from renewable sources while meeting load demand. An? AC or DC distribution system, a storing system, filters, converters, and a load management or supervisory system are all possible components of a hybrid system, in addition to energy sources. All of these elements related in a different ways. Depending on the system size, renewable energy sources can be linked to the DC bus. HPS systems can generate power ranging from just few watts for personal usage to very few megawatts for modest community electrification systems. As a result, DC loads are frequently supplied by hybrid systems used for extremely low-power applications. Commonly linked with more than 100 kW of power as well as an AC bus are intended to be a component of the system of massive interconnected networks. Furthermost hybrid systems like a UPS system, can serve as a backup power supply during a blackout due to their ability to store energy ( Georgescu-Roegen, 1979 ; Furkan and Mehmet Emin, 2010 ; Raturi, 2019 ). The word “hybrid” in the solar field refers to a system that employs a combination of solar and batteries and may interact with the power grid. The most cost-effective hybrid system employs a basic hybrid inverter, which includes a solar inverter and a battery inverter/charger, as well as smart controls that determine the most efficient practice of your available energy. PV system, stand-alone are suitable for sequestered rural areas and uses in which other sources of power are troublesome/nonexistent for powering lighting, applications, as well as additional equipment. This is frequently additional cost efficient for installing a solo stand-alone PV system to having local energy provider spread the power cables and lines directly towards the house as part of a grid-connected PV arrangement. A simple PV system is a self-contained solar expertise which produces electricity throughout the day to charge batteries for usage whenever the sun energy is absent at night. Rechargeable batteries are used to storing the electrical energy generated by panels (PV) or an arrangement in a stand-alone small-scale PV system ( Farh et al., 2018 ). The battery allows an independent photovoltaic system to run when the solar panel itself does not generate enough energy, because the size of the battery is proportional to the power previously consumed. The two main types of batteries used to store solar energy are deep cycle batteries and shallow cycle batteries. Batteries are necessary component on which every standalone self sufficient solar power system relies. It also transforms electric energy into chemical energy which then is stored for usage anytime the solar array is not generating electricity. The PV system provides direct electricity to the load during daylight hours, with any extra energy being stored in batteries for later use.

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FIGURE 4 . Types of solar photovoltaic systems ( Assadeg et al., 2019 ).

3 Overview of Solar Energy Optimization Method

Solar energy systems emit no noise and produce no pollutants during operation and maintenance. Photovoltaic cell technologies have less environmental dangers than other forms of electric energy sources ( Otero et al., 1998 ). Chemicals used in the manufacture of PV cells, on the other hand, might be discharged into the air, surface water, and groundwater in the production plant, installation site, and disposal or recycling facility. The solar collector storage system may provide energy at temperatures greater than the ambient outside air. A significant quantity of CO 2 is emitted by a PV power plant based on single crystalline silicon technology. There was no pressing necessity for optimizing the energy balance of the production process in the so far very modest PV sector. The analysis of the affecting solar energy system optimization, as well as operational characteristics, is critical aspects in improving power conversion efficiency. The climate has a considerable influence on the solar energy’s reliability systems. As a consequence, optimization tactics are crucial in boosting the solar system’s reliability and efficacy. To accomplish so, strategies for tackling challenging PV system optimization difficulties must be developed.

3.1 Optimization Method for PV Base Hybrid System

3.1.1 hybrid renewable energy system.

Wind turbines, photovoltaic, mini hydro, and/or anything else fossil-fuel-powered producers are all examples of hybrid power systems. Small systems that can power a single home to big systems that can power a colony or an island, these systems come in a variety of sizes. Many isolated locations, especially those in developing countries in which the grid operator is economically and technically non-viable, will benefit from hybrid power systems. In 1978, the first rural hybrid energy system systems, which included solar panels and diesel generators, were built in the United States. Until an electric grid was connected to the hamlet, the power generated by the system was used to power the communal laundry machine, refrigerator, stitching machine, lighting and water drives. Photovoltaic (PV), Micro hydropower (MHP) and tiny wind power bases are routinely used to provide electricity to clients in remote locations, with or without energy storage systems. Varied energy sources have different properties in terms of production, like as seasonal river flows, strong sunlight during the day rather than at night, and high wind speeds in the summer. Commercial PV or wind systems that operate they do not create power 24 h a day, 365 days a year. When PV and wind are combined, the battery bank capacity and fuel requirements (if a conventional generator is utilized as a backup) are reduced, among other benefits. However, in order for a hybrid PV-Wind system to work, the area must have a high potential for both solar and wind energy. Environmental conditions, PV capacity, wind generator capacity, storage device capacity, generating location, and other factors all have a significant impact on the hybrid PV/wind-diesel system’s operation, maintenance, and cost ( Prakash and Khatod, 2016 ).

Extra energy is stored in battery banks, which are then used to power the devices, load when the hybrid system is underpowered. The inverter (DC/AC) must convert to fulfill consumer load demand, the voltage is converted from DC to AC. The battery charger’s output terminal, the storage battery, and the input terminal of the (DC/AC) converter are all linked in equivalent. Because fluctuations in solar radiation and wind velocity have a significant impact on energy generation, hybrid systems must be carefully designed to ensure a consistent power supply to clients in changing climatic conditions. Similarly, to keep system costs low, a detailed design should be conducted.

3.1.2 Photovoltaic System

Solar photovoltaic is the world’s third-largest renewable energy source by installed capacity, after hydro and wind power. Solar panels transform the sun’s solar radiation directly into useful electrical energy ( Figure 5 ). California and the Agua Caliente Solar Project are the world’s largest standalone PV generating installations. The aggregate capacity of both power plants is more than 250 MWP. However, due to the high cost of solar panels, its use is limited to less than 1% of total global energy production. PV energy arrangements are supposed to be unique of the most economical alternatives to encounter rural needs of energy.

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FIGURE 5 . Residential grid-tied solar Photovoltaic system diagram ( Wikimedia Commons, 2018 ).

For small communities of up to 100 homes, the economic feasibility has been built a hybrid PV system for decentralized power generation. The ideal mix can be determined using the hybrid PV system optimization approach based on the charge of energy produced, that is justified further by distance angle, tilt, and azimuth angle from the nearest power line. A PV hybrid system’s performance is measured in terms of electricity generation dependability across a wide range of load circumstances. The load and insolation were calculated using statistical methods. The output power of a PV panel is calculated using the equation below.

Where E stands for energy that is in (kWh). r shows solar panel yield which is in (percent). A stands for total covered panel area (m 2 ).

PR stands for performance ratio, a constant for losses (ranges lies between 0.5 and 0.9, showing default value = 0.75). H stands for solar radiation yearly average on slanted panels, and r is the solar panel return, which is computed by dividing one solar panel’s electrical power which is in kWp by its area.

3.1.3 Hydro System

Over the last four decades, global hydroelectric power output has gradually increased by an average of 3% every year. In 2011, hydropower from over 160 nations generated around 16% of global electricity. Water wheels are the forerunners of current turbines, which are used to transform hydraulic power into mechanical power, which is then converted into electrical power using a generator ( Li, 2021 ). Hydroelectric power, unlike solar and wind power that is fluctuating and constantly changing, is subject to a protracted seasonal cycle. The flow of water in rivers and streams fluctuates slowly as the seasons change.

3.1.4 Wind System

The area must have a high potential for wind energy throughout the year in order to operate a hybrid wind energy system successfully and affordably. Wind energy is currently captured utilizing a variety of small and large wind turbines of varying sizes and designs. It is one of the most rapidly increasing sources of alternative energy. It has a longer operational life than solar power and can generate electricity even on gloomy days and at night.

As a result, both wind and solar power systems require energy storage systems to store extra energy and use it when demand exceeds supply ( Zhang and Toudert, 2018 ; Zheng et al., 2018 ; Motahhir et al., 2020 ). The reassuring option, on the other hand, is that people can produce enough energy to satisfy their regular needs by setting up small solar or wind farms. Figure 6 shows the height to wind speed relation.

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FIGURE 6 . Relation between Wind system and height ( Liu and Janajreh, 2012 ).

The generating capacity of a wind turbine is one of the most important factors to consider decisive criteria in selecting a certain kind of wind turbine for the chosen location is as an important component of a hybrid wind generators. Whenever feasible, turbine with best regular generating capacity recommended. A simplified technique for predicting yearly wind percentage was provided grounded based on the findings of an 8-year simulation using Wind statistics from five different places, hour by hour. Weibull wind speed distribution on a monthly basis data as input, other model factors such as the energy-to-load ratio, battery-to-load ratio, and others are used. Weibull devised the following equation to compute wind speed:

β = shape factor v = wind speed .

3.2 Optimization method for PV Based Grid System

The efficacy of grid-connected solar power is heavily dependent on the site’s solar irradiation, ambient temperature, load demand, and other factors in geographic area of installation. Identifying the best location and size for solar PV installation is a critical answer for improving radial distribution system performance. The design of the PV system to interface artificial intelligence techniques are used in the radial distribution network necessitates power system network analysis and mathematical modeling. The load flow analysis is performed in MATLAB simulation as shown in Figure 7 in conjunction with the SPSO to identify the placement and capacity of solar PV that will link to the Bahir Dar distribution network. By allowing for fluctuations in power demand over time, PV on-grid system integration is crucial for enhancing network capacity and system dependability. The utility grid is connected to an on-grid solar power system. The primary advantage of such a system is that electricity may be obtained from the utility grid, and when that power is unavailable, the PV system can step in. These on-grid systems might include or exclude battery storage. Batteries, a charge controller, solar modules, and inverters are used in these systems to improve the on-grid electrical system’s stability and offer long-term utilities service for a wide range of loads Electronic converters with high power play an important role in connecting a solar system to the grid by converting DC to AC and power conditioning ( Zakaria et al., 2020 ). A proposal is made for the current status of solar optimization study in a power system. This research looks on modeling approaches, restriction criteria, and optimization techniques. Because it is clean, ecologically friendly, and provides reliable power, the PV module system is full of potential. The effects of stand-alone and grid-installed solar generating on power system link, as well as their link to mandate answer, were researched. For calculating the location and size of solar generators, optimization approaches like as the genomic algorithm and swarm optimization were both introduced around the same time ( Getie et al., 2020 ) used the evolutionary algorithm and a geographical information system to integrate solar power with radial feeders. The genetic algorithm which was used to approximate the magnitude and point of penetration, and geographical information is utilized as data to decide where to install solar panels. As the multi objective function for photovoltaic integration, this study solely analyses real power loss and voltage profile.

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FIGURE 7 . PV based hybrid system MATLAB schematics ( Gonzalez-Longatt, 2005 ).

3.3 Optimization method for PV Based Stand Alone System

A stand-alone PV system should always be able to provide power to the load or energy consumption. The suggested technique, based on using hourly energy analysis, a curl (statistics) for battery bank (power, Wh), PV- array (space, m 2 ) proportions that satisfy the demand at all periods may be created. Since the solar power supply capacity varies, the battery store should be huge enough to provide enough power regardless of the number of cycles (discharge/charge) that the battery has to go concluded. This means that the solar grid will be backed up at sunset to meet the charging until more solar energy is available to start another charging cycle. Solar radiation, array size of PV, and storage volume are used to determine the efficiency of a PV system that is not connected to the grid. As a consequence, the scale of freestanding PV systems is essential to their dependability. Instinctive, analytical sizing methods and numerical are three types of sizing methods. Because it works with intuitive knowledge (without the use of cognitive processes), the first category of algorithms is highly imprecise and unreliable, and the risk of the end result being inaccurate is fairly high. The second is more precise, but accurate modeling requires series of solar radiation for a long term. There are ways in the third category that utilizes equations to describe the size of PV arrangement displaying as a result of dependability that is the focus of this study: boosting the output power of PV modules while lowering the system life cycle cost. Since most of the solar energy arrives in a straight line, solar panels or solar installations that point directly at the sun accumulate more energy by being perpendicular to the straight line between the panel and the sun. During the day, solar panels should face the earth’s equator (southern northern hemisphere or northern southern hemisphere) to capture as much solar energy as possible. The challenges and limitations of autonomous solutions to optimize the size of photovoltaic installations are highlighted to solve the problems of inaccurate parameter assumptions and poor demand performance evaluation of photovoltaic systems, which often lead to high material and installation costs. Along the same route, a new adaptation method was also proposed to improve the ability of photovoltaic generators to provide power to remote areas with pumping storage. Their research results show that zero power outages can be achieved at low energy costs, but the system does not use all the solar energy available in the area. Photovoltaic systems analysis refers to the concept of daily battery status to improve reliability while minimizing the possibility of power outages, excess energy, and cost constraints. However, priority must be given to strict compliance with the load profile. Another optimization strategy involves three steps. The first step is to calculate the photovoltaic power generation capacity connected to the grid with the help of 1-year solar energy data. It is believed that peak sunlight, ambient temperature, and cable and dust losses will affect the output energy of photovoltaic networks.

The quantity of stored energy, PV array output energy, load energy demand, battery efficiency, and inverter efficiency are used to compute the daily status of the battery storage in the second stage. In the third step, the chance of load loss is assessed, and the system cost is approximated using the costs of the PV array, batteries, and other components ( Lund and Mathiesen, 2009 ). On the other hand, the system cost equation is only partially derived and needs to be solved intuitively. The system simulation can be adapted to reduce the battery when the size of the solar photovoltaic device is not limited (very large). Since the solar photovoltaic device is huge, the system simulation can be repeated after determining the minimum battery size, but this time it is the smallest solar photovoltaic device. The size of the battery makes the battery sensitive to deep discharge when using this method and the size of the photovoltaic installation makes the system too large to be economically feasible. Therefore, the capacity of the battery pack can be increased, and each size can be simulated to find the smallest array. You can repeat this process to create a curve of the battery and PV array size pair, as shown in the results and discussion section. The accuracy of this method is determined by the simulation data, which includes both environmental parameters (such as sunlight exposure and ambient temperature) and loads. Therefore, hourly data obtained from reliable models such as those used in this study can guarantee availability and synchronization of exposure to solar radiation. To develop energy balances over time while taking into account real energy requirements for an energy efficient house as well as real radiation and ambient temperature data, a PV single system with dependencies on ambient temperature and other important factors was used in conjunction with inverter converter performance data. To ensure continuous functioning, the simulations first established a direct relationship between the area of the PV array and the capacity of the battery bank. One extreme of the connection is a high area of PV panels paired with a small battery capacity, resulting in low PV array effectiveness and a low battery consumption index. A small PV array, on the other hand, is the polar opposite. The tilt angle optimization approach was developed as a new optimization tool. Because of climatic and environmental conditions that fluctuate throughout the year, such as seasonal fluctuations, this optimization approach is focused at calculating effective tilt angles at various periods of the year. When compared to tracking systems, this strategy enhances collection efficiency while incurring no additional costs. Averaging the values of the solar geometry parameters for each mean solar day was used to do the calculations. The incident solar irradiances on a tilted surface, which include direct, diffuse, and reflected solar irradiances, may be expressed as a function of the global irradiance I on a horizontal surface by

The notion of the optimal periodical inclination angle was used to carry out this optimization, which allows for maximum incidence on the panels while simultaneously maximizing the use of the household’s actual energy usage. The inclination angle should be changed seven times per year, according to the computation of solar radiation for sloping surfaces using different solar geometry factors and incoming solar radiation, although total apparent power overestimates the load demand by 18%. On the other hand, these adjustments result in higher panel output and PV station reliability. The analysis of random load fluctuation demonstrates that the load profile must be followed notwithstanding the constraints. A power shortfall in the plant might occur from even slight increases in load demand.

3.3.1 Utilization of Solar Photovoltaic Energy

Photovoltaic systems power entire towns in distant places of the world. In the United States and Europe, a few utility companies operate “solar farms” to generate power ( Majidi et al., 2017 ). Photovoltaic cells have other industrial applications as well. These are often low-power applications in regions where regular electricity sources are cumbersome. Some emergency roadside phones use solar cells to charge their batteries. Some of the common applications are listed below.

3.3.2 Duffel Bags

The thin-film solar panels mounted on the outside of the backpack generate up to 4 W of power, which is enough to charge mobile phones, cameras and other electrical appliances while walking. External solar cells can also be added to briefcases and handbags. Students, hikers, and campers who need to keep their electronics charged while travelling or when they arrive at their destination would appreciate these backpacks.

3.3.3 Paint

Rather of utilizing standard silicon solar cells, polymers soaked in a solvent form “paint” or coat that may be put to any surface, include buildings, workplaces, and vehicles. It is low-cost and versatile. Instead of bulky solar photovoltaic panels, a solar paint employs thin-film nanoparticles as solar conductors rather than silicon. When small solar cells are placed to the surfaces of structure which confront the sun, they silently create pure, green power.

3.3.4 Solar Transportation

Photovoltaic (PV)-powered transportation is a novel technique to make the most of the sun’s energy. Solar energy can be used to power trains, subways, buses, airplanes, vehicles and even roads, and solar transportation is rapidly becoming a leading choice for renewable energy. A solar-powered aircraft has just completed a round-the-world voyage over the Pacific Ocean, capturing huge waves in unforgettable images. On the other hand, solar buses are helping China reduce its carbon footprint while ensuring efficient public transportation in densely populated areas such as Beijing. In the end, solar cars began to appear in racing competitions around the world, especially in Australia, where the solar spirit model aroused great interest. With these and other improvements, there is no doubt that solar energy is transforming the global transportation sector.

3.3.5 Refrigerators for Vaccines

As the entire world is experiencing the effects of the Corona Virus. Vaccine refrigerators are now required in all hospitals and clinics. There is no guarantee of 24-h electricity in developing countries, there is often no electrical infrastructure. Solar-powered vaccination coolers have been developed by private companies for use by healthcare workers in rural areas may provide crucial medication to individuals in need, according to Charlie Gay, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Solar Energy Technologies Office. This technical solution has been saving lives for more than four decades.

3.3.6 Cell Phone Charger

After a few hours of ultraviolet radiation, the mobile phone USB charger can fully charge the mobile phone. These tablet-sized solar panels can power GPS trackers, tablets and even computers. They can be attached to backpacks and used to extract solar energy while walking, making them ideal for leisure activities ( Ming et al., 2017 ).

3.3.7 Solar Textile

Solar garments are a sort of solar textile that can be used for a variety of purposes. To generate useable solar power, solar cells are weaved into textile strands. According to Hicks, one variation, developed with faster than light (FTL) Solar, might remain erected like a camp to supply both electricity and shelter. Considering military service, safety missions, respite efforts, leisure activities, medical centers, and even makeshift housing as options. Solar fabric is the ideal answer for everywhere that need flexible and convenient solar power. According to Gay, roofs are one of hundreds of places somewhere solar panels create energy. We expect to see many more sites where solar technology is used to offer unconstrained, low-cost electricity as costs decrease and energy output rises.

3.3.8 Solar Water Pumps

Solar water pumps are used to promote water for irrigation, gardening, household use, drinking and other related purposes. These devices are suitable for areas where there is no electricity or limited power supply. The precisely crafted modules of the system are impact resistant and can withstand harsh weather conditions such as storms, rain, and dust.

3.3.9 Solar Tents

The solar tent is just a larger solar backpack. The built-in photovoltaic cells in the tent store solar energy throughout the day and are then used to illuminate the tent at night, as well as small electrical appliances such as charging or power electronics and radiators. The United States military uses a variant that can generate up to 2 kW of electricity during day.

3.3.10 Solar Buildings Technologies

Passive cooling and heating systems rely on the building’s design to satisfy specified thermal demand objectives with little or no mechanical support. Active heating systems use mechanical aid to provide hot water for space heating, while passive heating and cooling systems rely on the building’s architecture to satisfy set thermal demand objectives. Solar building technique is widely used in Pakistan ( Li and Zheng, 2019 ). However, there are no construction laws in place in the country that allow solar building systems installation.

3.3.11 Street Lights

Solar energy is increasingly being used to power streetlights around the world. The sun charges the batteries throughout the day, which power the light-emitting diodes (LEDs) that illuminate the streets at night. Smart sensors are being installed in streetlights in San Diego, which might direct motorists to open parking spots and assist first responders in an emergency. The combination of internet-connected sensors and solar-powered lamps saves both time and money ( Indra Gandhi et al., 2018 ).

3.3.12 Solar Ovens

Solar ovens, sometimes called solar cookers, use the sun’s energy to prepare food. Solar cookers either are parabolic or square shapes covered with a reflecting substance that focuses the amount of solar radiation into the box, warming the food equally. To assist focus the sun’s beams, the top lid is commonly made of glass. They are healthy to live with and are commonly employed in developing countries to reduce air pollution produced by fuel burning.

3.4 Optimization Issues

Solar energy confronts significant obstacles that might stymie its rapid expansion. These impediments can be characterized in terms of technology, politics, economics, and dependability. The adjustment of these issues, on the other hand, reduces the drawbacks and improves the solar energy system’s reliability. As a result, greater solar energy optimization can help to alleviate production uncertainty. PV power technology is being heavily invested in to improve efficiency and economic feasibility.

3.4.1 Extra Investment

Inverters and storage batteries must be purchased separately from PV cells. For use on the power grid, inverters convert direct current to alternating current. Storage batteries are important in on-grid connections for giving continuous power of electric power. On the other side, this higher spending could provide a solution to the PV cells’ intermittent problems ( Dong et al., 2019 ).

3.4.2 Issues With Intermittency

Solar energy and photovoltaic cells, like all other renewable energy sources, are prone to outages. It implies that it is not always available for power conversion, such as at night or when the weather is gloomy or damp. As a result, PV cells are unlikely to meet all of an electric power system’s demands.

3.4.3 Easily Broken

Solar PV has no upkeep or operating costs, it is vulnerable to damage due to its fragility. To protect your investment, there is a solution in the form of additional insurance.

3.4.4 Expensive

PV system market costs remain exorbitant and beyond of reach for many households. The higher production costs of non-conventional energy sources, combined with the availability of cheaper fossil fuel alternatives, entice customers and generate market rivalry for non-renewable technology ( Lagouir et al., 2019 ). The lack of economic models to support renewable energy technology prohibits small-scale PV systems from being scaled up to large-scale or commercial facilities. Subsidies are distributed more effectively to traditional fuel sources, giving them an unfair advantage over nonconventional sources. Governments must stimulate the market for PV technologies in order to reap the most advantage from renewable applications in the government market, government-driven market, and loan and cash market. PV plant input requirements, like as land and water, impede the installation of PV capacity.

3.4.5 Low Productivity Level in Future

In the near future, the technology will face another severe threat when the panels put during the early stages of the energy boom reach the end of their anticipated lifetime and are finally thrown in landfills. When the life duration of these panels reaches roughly 25 years, as indicated by the manufacturer, their productivity begins to decline. Recycling solar panels is a logical alternative for addressing the predicted worldwide PV waste, since retired PV panels may be reconditioned and redeployed. Recycling not only provides an effective method of recovering valuable elements from solar waste, but it also contributes to a better environment by using less energy to recover raw materials. The research and development work concerning solar PV recycling has already begun in countries such as Japan, the United States, India, Australia, and Europe.

3.4.6 Lack of Trained Professionals

The scarcity of trained personnel to teach, operate, and maintain non-conventional energy infrastructure, particularly in rural regions, has a detrimental impact on people’s desire to adopt these technologies. Geographic location is also important, because PV systems are only practical in certain places, and they face competition from alternative technologies that are better suited to the specific topography. Adopters are often concerned about systems failing during the rainy season and avoid purchasing PV systems owing to a lack of understanding. The absence of information between the supply and adopter sides further impedes the technology’s uptake. Because the generation and consuming sites are far apart, poor grid connection raises transportation costs and transmission losses. As a result, the majority of investors are hesitant to invest in technology.

3.4.7 Environmental Disadvantages

Due to various preliminary case studies, there is little understanding of the environmental and economic advantages of PV recycling technology. Although element recovery is advantageous, the energy required to collect valuable metals from discarded PV panels is greater than that required to gather, dismantle, and retrieve the modules. Although recycling operations are not viable, the cost of recycling PV panels is minimal ( Maulik and Das, 2018 ) According to research, the profit earned from selling the recycled material of copper indium gallium selenite solar panels (CIGS) is greater than the recovery price. However, the earned amount for c-Si and p-Si solar modules is less than the cost of solar panels. Despite the financial benefits of reselling recovered items and the environmental benefits of recycling, businesses prefer landfill disposal to recycling due to the lower initial cost of dumping.

4 Optimization Challenges

Table 4 shows the summary of different approaches which are used for optimization techniques and method. Non-conventional energy sources have been an important aspect of study and development among scholars since the early 20th century. Despite the remarkable technologies that have evolved in recent decades, the majority of developing countries have delayed the shift to renewable energy sources. Fossil fuels have boosted CO 2 emissions and contributed to global warming. Because of numerous types of hurdles, the majority of nations have exhibited reluctance to adopt renewable technologies. Based on the existing market, policy implementation is critical, which includes energy auctions, integration of PV technologies with non-conventional energy sources, and timely completion of PV projects. By allowing users to purchase or lease a portion of the shared PV system, community-shared solar projects aid in the creation of financial arrangements and the alleviation of financial constraints. These business models, in turn, contribute to the development of a PV system in the residential market, the stabilization of power prices, and the reduction of power bills. To reap the full benefits of an energy transition, policies must be strengthened through mobilizing financial investment, economic diversification, and information exchange. PV system market costs remain exorbitant and beyond of reach for many households. The lack of economic models to support renewable energy technology prohibits small-scale PV systems from being scaled up to large-scale or commercial facilities.

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TABLE 4 . Summary of approach optimization technique and methods ( Li et al., 2016 ).

4.1 RES Optimization Challenges

To enhance efficiency, there is a significant investment in renewable energy technologies. The cost of producing renewable energy continues to plummet in 2017, according to an IRENA (2018) . The development and deployment of renewable energy technologies necessitate policies and expenditures that have not been thoroughly assessed. As a result, power quality is a metric that assesses a system’s capacity to offer users with continuous access to their electronic devices. Any irregularity or breakdown in the power grid that obstructs or interrupts electrical equipment’s operation indicates a lack of power quality or reliability. Renewable energy sources will save costs in both transmission and production. The most prevalent disadvantage of employing RESs is that they represent a constant challenge because to their fluctuating existence, which is entirely dependent on climate fluctuation and may result in load refusal in some places ( Maulik and Das, 2018 ). The power production of RESs has substantially grown as a consequence of the deployment of various optimization technologies in response to growing energy demand and improved performance. The entire power producing capacity has increased by about 9% since 2016 ( Zakaria et al., 2020 ). According to the reference, renewable energy accounted for 70% of net additions to global power capacity in 2017 ( Raturi, 2019 ). The key causes for this were the improved cost competitiveness of solar PV panels and wind turbine technology, as well as the availability of performance optimization technologies. Furthermore, the increased usage of renewable energy raises awareness of the need of energy efficiency and quality in power generation and distribution. The biggest disadvantage of adopting renewable resources is that they are intermittent nonetheless, one of the key advantages is the system reliability demonstrated by the operational parameters. Power generated from renewable sources will soon be less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuels. General, the development of RESs has resolved various difficulties-optimization-in reducing energy costs, reducing costs, net and other optimizations related to costs, such as reducing life cycle costs (LCC). The optimal size and capacity of the trees is determined by providing the required reliability in terms of power supply, operating costs, and grid power and greenhouse gas emissions.

4.2 Energy Optimization Challenges

The uncertainty of how much of the sun’s rays it will get is an issue for solar PV because the weather might change at any time. As a result, determining how much energy to store for future use would be challenging. While power is still required, sunlight is rare during the night. Solar energy has significant obstacles that might limit its fast expansion. Technology, politics, economics, and reliability are the four areas that these hurdles fall into. On the other side, addressing these problems decreases the disadvantages and improves the solar energy system’s dependability. The researchers are also given information on the most recent developments in intelligent optimization in solar energy applications, as well as important research topics. Since the goal of optimization is to maximize benefits while reducing costs, it is critical to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the systems under consideration. In this setting, academics have begun to explore and propose strategies and models to maximize advantages while minimizing drawbacks. To overcome difficulties related to the design, operation, and process of renewable systems, several researches combine traditional optimization techniques with newer heuristic approaches ( Zhao T. et al., 2017 ; Zhao Zy. et al., 2017 ; Allam et al., 2018 ; Eajal et al., 2017 ). PV systems require precise and reliable performance data in order to precisely assess power output and capacity in current operating circumstances. The formulation of effective operational and control choices is aided by this dependable data. On the other hand, by examining the numerous aspects that impact performance and exploring potential ways to increase the power plant’s performance, the optimization and efficiency of a solar system may be improved. PV cells have a number of problems, including a halt in power output when the panel is not exposed to sunlight and a poor efficiency. This might result in the system’s original investment criteria not being met. As a result, solar energy storage devices have been proposed as a means of compensating for the lack of light and smoothing out power output. This technology is dependent on batteries, which are frequently bulky, huge, and heavy, take up a lot of space, and require maintenance or even replacement on a regular basis ( Li et al., 2016 ).

5 Conclusion

For policymakers all throughout the world, this document presented an in-depth review and relative analysis of solar technology for clean power generation.

According to the research results, there are two types of technologies: complex technologies, such as PTC, PV and STP, with a total installed capacity of 7,828.5 MW and an efficiency of 10–16%, LCEO is $0.1–0.24/kwh, which has broad prospects in terms of environmental impact and technical efficiency. There are also technologies that, although having a 390 MW installed capacity, look to be promising in terms of environmental implications and technological efficiency. Furthermore, CPVT and CPV, they have yet to be utilized in large-scale power facilities since they are still in the early stages of development. Nonetheless, Scientists from several nations are leading the charge in CPV and CPVT research. The use of solar energy to improve energy efficiency has been a concern due to the dynamic nature of solar energy, solar PV material, design, and challenging computation of optimization difficulties. As a result, this review looks into solar energy optimization in depth. The optimization techniques have shown excellent results in solar PV applications in terms of size, power production and capacity demand. Additionally, the enhancements to reduce operational expenses and power damages while also increasing peak power integration and controllability. The paper also looked at the primary roadblocks to solar PV optimization, emphasizing the importance of modern computers and objective function ( Qiu et al., 2019 ).

Author Contributions

AS, and AH, suggested the idea of this work, wrote the manuscript and made final improvement, whereas SC and PM provided help with alignment of the paper, proof reading, editing, improvement of the article. AI and MM provided the financial assistance.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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FPC Flat plate collector

CPV Concentrated photovoltaic

GaAs Gallium Arsenide

CPC Compound parabolic collector

GIS Geographic information system

HCPV High Concentrated photovoltaic

MWh Megawatt hour

LCPV Low Concentrated photovoltaic

CIGS Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells

LFR Linear Fresnel reflector

IEA International Energy Agency

HTF Heat transfer fluid

HFC Heliostat Field Collector

CdTe Cadmium telluride

BESS Battery Energy Storage System

MHP Micro hydropower

CSP Concentrated solar power

PTSTPP Parabolic Trough Solar Thermal Power Plant

PV Photovoltaic

ANN Artificial neural network

PVT Photovoltaic thermal collectors

CPVT Concentrated photovoltaic thermal collectors

SAM Solar advisor model

SBS Spectral beam splitting

SCR Solar Central Receiver

SGS Steam Generation System

TES Thermal energy storage

LCOE Levelized cost of electricity ($/kWh)

NREL National renewable energy laboratory

STP Standard temperature and pressure

PDC Parabolic dish collector

Keywords: photovoltaic, hybrid system, stand-alone system, grid system, energy, solar energy, renewable, clean energy optimization methods

Citation: Soomar AM, Hakeem A, Messaoudi M, Musznicki P, Iqbal A and Czapp S (2022) Solar Photovoltaic Energy Optimization and Challenges. Front. Energy Res. 10:879985. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2022.879985

Received: 20 February 2022; Accepted: 24 March 2022; Published: 30 May 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Soomar, Hakeem, Messaoudi, Musznicki, Iqbal and Czapp. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Arsalan Muhammad Soomar, [email protected] , [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Solar Photovoltaic System to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals

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Issue Cover

Article Contents

Introduction, 1 installed capacity and application of solar energy worldwide, 2 the role of solar energy in sustainable development, 3 the perspective of solar energy, 4 conclusions, conflict of interest statement.

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Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development

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Ali O M Maka, Jamal M Alabid, Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development, Clean Energy , Volume 6, Issue 3, June 2022, Pages 476–483, https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkac023

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Solar energy is environmentally friendly technology, a great energy supply and one of the most significant renewable and green energy sources. It plays a substantial role in achieving sustainable development energy solutions. Therefore, the massive amount of solar energy attainable daily makes it a very attractive resource for generating electricity. Both technologies, applications of concentrated solar power or solar photovoltaics, are always under continuous development to fulfil our energy needs. Hence, a large installed capacity of solar energy applications worldwide, in the same context, supports the energy sector and meets the employment market to gain sufficient development. This paper highlights solar energy applications and their role in sustainable development and considers renewable energy’s overall employment potential. Thus, it provides insights and analysis on solar energy sustainability, including environmental and economic development. Furthermore, it has identified the contributions of solar energy applications in sustainable development by providing energy needs, creating jobs opportunities and enhancing environmental protection. Finally, the perspective of solar energy technology is drawn up in the application of the energy sector and affords a vision of future development in this domain.

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With reference to the recommendations of the UN, the Climate Change Conference, COP26, was held in Glasgow , UK, in 2021. They reached an agreement through the representatives of the 197 countries, where they concurred to move towards reducing dependency on coal and fossil-fuel sources. Furthermore, the conference stated ‘the various opportunities for governments to prioritize health and equity in the international climate movement and sustainable development agenda’. Also, one of the testaments is the necessity to ‘create energy systems that protect and improve climate and health’ [ 1 , 2 ].

The Paris Climate Accords is a worldwide agreement on climate change signed in 2015, which addressed the mitigation of climate change, adaptation and finance. Consequently, the representatives of 196 countries concurred to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions [ 3 ]. The Paris Agreement is essential for present and future generations to attain a more secure and stable environment. In essence, the Paris Agreement has been about safeguarding people from such an uncertain and progressively dangerous environment and ensuring everyone can have the right to live in a healthy, pollutant-free environment without the negative impacts of climate change [ 3 , 4 ].

In recent decades, there has been an increase in demand for cleaner energy resources. Based on that, decision-makers of all countries have drawn up plans that depend on renewable sources through a long-term strategy. Thus, such plans reduce the reliance of dependence on traditional energy sources and substitute traditional energy sources with alternative energy technology. As a result, the global community is starting to shift towards utilizing sustainable energy sources and reducing dependence on traditional fossil fuels as a source of energy [ 5 , 6 ].

In 2015, the UN adopted the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and recognized them as international legislation, which demands a global effort to end poverty, safeguard the environment and guarantee that by 2030, humanity lives in prosperity and peace. Consequently, progress needs to be balanced among economic, social and environmental sustainability models [ 7 ].

Many national and international regulations have been established to control the gas emissions and pollutants that impact the environment [ 8 ]. However, the negative effects of increased carbon in the atmosphere have grown in the last 10 years. Production and use of fossil fuels emit methane (CH 4 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO), which are the most significant contributors to environmental emissions on our planet. Additionally, coal and oil, including gasoline, coal, oil and methane, are commonly used in energy for transport or for generating electricity. Therefore, burning these fossil fuel s is deemed the largest emitter when used for electricity generation, transport, etc. However, these energy resources are considered depleted energy sources being consumed to an unsustainable degree [ 9–11 ].

Energy is an essential need for the existence and growth of human communities. Consequently, the need for energy has increased gradually as human civilization has progressed. Additionally, in the past few decades, the rapid rise of the world’s population and its reliance on technological developments have increased energy demands. Furthermore, green technology sources play an important role in sustainably providing energy supplies, especially in mitigating climate change [ 5 , 6 , 8 ].

Currently, fossil fuels remain dominant and will continue to be the primary source of large-scale energy for the foreseeable future; however, renewable energy should play a vital role in the future of global energy. The global energy system is undergoing a movement towards more sustainable sources of energy [ 12 , 13 ].

Power generation by fossil-fuel resources has peaked, whilst solar energy is predicted to be at the vanguard of energy generation in the near future. Moreover, it is predicted that by 2050, the generation of solar energy will have increased to 48% due to economic and industrial growth [ 13 , 14 ].

In recent years, it has become increasingly obvious that the globe must decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, ideally towards net zero, if we are to fulfil the Paris Agreement’s goal to reduce global temperature increases [ 3 , 4 ]. The net-zero emissions complement the scenario of sustainable development assessment by 2050. According to the agreed scenario of sustainable development, many industrialized economies must achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. However, the net-zero emissions 2050 brought the first detailed International Energy Agency (IEA) modelling of what strategy will be required over the next 10 years to achieve net-zero carbon emissions worldwide by 2050 [ 15–17 ].

The global statistics of greenhouse gas emissions have been identified; in 2019, there was a 1% decrease in CO 2 emissions from the power industry; that figure dropped by 7% in 2020 due to the COVID-19 crisis, thus indicating a drop in coal-fired energy generation that is being squeezed by decreasing energy needs, growth of renewables and the shift away from fossil fuels. As a result, in 2020, the energy industry was expected to generate ~13 Gt CO 2 , representing ~40% of total world energy sector emissions related to CO 2 . The annual electricity generation stepped back to pre-crisis levels by 2021, although due to a changing ‘fuel mix’, the CO 2 emissions in the power sector will grow just a little before remaining roughly steady until 2030 [ 15 ].

Therefore, based on the information mentioned above, the advantages of solar energy technology are a renewable and clean energy source that is plentiful, cheaper costs, less maintenance and environmentally friendly, to name but a few. The significance of this paper is to highlight solar energy applications to ensure sustainable development; thus, it is vital to researchers, engineers and customers alike. The article’s primary aim is to raise public awareness and disseminate the culture of solar energy usage in daily life, since moving forward, it is the best. The scope of this paper is as follows. Section 1 represents a summary of the introduction. Section 2 represents a summary of installed capacity and the application of solar energy worldwide. Section 3 presents the role of solar energy in the sustainable development and employment of renewable energy. Section 4 represents the perspective of solar energy. Finally, Section 5 outlines the conclusions and recommendations for future work.

1.1 Installed capacity of solar energy

The history of solar energy can be traced back to the seventh century when mirrors with solar power were used. In 1893, the photovoltaic (PV) effect was discovered; after many decades, scientists developed this technology for electricity generation [ 18 ]. Based on that, after many years of research and development from scientists worldwide, solar energy technology is classified into two key applications: solar thermal and solar PV.

PV systems convert the Sun’s energy into electricity by utilizing solar panels. These PV devices have quickly become the cheapest option for new electricity generation in numerous world locations due to their ubiquitous deployment. For example, during the period from 2010 to 2018, the cost of generating electricity by solar PV plants decreased by 77%. However, solar PV installed capacity progress expanded 100-fold between 2005 and 2018. Consequently, solar PV has emerged as a key component in the low-carbon sustainable energy system required to provide access to affordable and dependable electricity, assisting in fulfilling the Paris climate agreement and in achieving the 2030 SDG targets [ 19 ].

The installed capacity of solar energy worldwide has been rapidly increased to meet energy demands. The installed capacity of PV technology from 2010 to 2020 increased from 40 334 to 709 674 MW, whereas the installed capacity of concentrated solar power (CSP) applications, which was 1266 MW in 2010, after 10 years had increased to 6479 MW. Therefore, solar PV technology has more deployed installations than CSP applications. So, the stand-alone solar PV and large-scale grid-connected PV plants are widely used worldwide and used in space applications. Fig. 1 represents the installation of solar energy worldwide.

Installation capacity of solar energy worldwide [20].

Installation capacity of solar energy worldwide [ 20 ].

1.2 Application of solar energy

Energy can be obtained directly from the Sun—so-called solar energy. Globally, there has been growth in solar energy applications, as it can be used to generate electricity, desalinate water and generate heat, etc. The taxonomy of applications of solar energy is as follows: (i) PVs and (ii) CSP. Fig. 2 details the taxonomy of solar energy applications.

The taxonomy of solar energy applications.

The taxonomy of solar energy applications.

Solar cells are devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity; typical semiconductor materials are utilized to form a PV solar cell device. These materials’ characteristics are based on atoms with four electrons in their outer orbit or shell. Semiconductor materials are from the periodic table’s group ‘IV’ or a mixture of groups ‘IV’ and ‘II’, the latter known as ‘II–VI’ semiconductors [ 21 ]. Additionally, a periodic table mixture of elements from groups ‘III’ and ‘V’ can create ‘III–V’ materials [ 22 ].

PV devices, sometimes called solar cells, are electronic devices that convert sunlight into electrical power. PVs are also one of the rapidly growing renewable-energy technologies of today. It is therefore anticipated to play a significant role in the long-term world electricity-generating mixture moving forward.

Solar PV systems can be incorporated to supply electricity on a commercial level or installed in smaller clusters for mini-grids or individual usage. Utilizing PV modules to power mini-grids is a great way to offer electricity to those who do not live close to power-transmission lines, especially in developing countries with abundant solar energy resources. In the most recent decade, the cost of producing PV modules has dropped drastically, giving them not only accessibility but sometimes making them the least expensive energy form. PV arrays have a 30-year lifetime and come in various shades based on the type of material utilized in their production.

The most typical method for solar PV desalination technology that is used for desalinating sea or salty water is electrodialysis (ED). Therefore, solar PV modules are directly connected to the desalination process. This technique employs the direct-current electricity to remove salt from the sea or salty water.

The technology of PV–thermal (PV–T) comprises conventional solar PV modules coupled with a thermal collector mounted on the rear side of the PV module to pre-heat domestic hot water. Accordingly, this enables a larger portion of the incident solar energy on the collector to be converted into beneficial electrical and thermal energy.

A zero-energy building is a building that is designed for zero net energy emissions and emits no carbon dioxide. Building-integrated PV (BIPV) technology is coupled with solar energy sources and devices in buildings that are utilized to supply energy needs. Thus, building-integrated PVs utilizing thermal energy (BIPV/T) incorporate creative technologies such as solar cooling [ 23 ].

A PV water-pumping system is typically used to pump water in rural, isolated and desert areas. The system consists of PV modules to power a water pump to the location of water need. The water-pumping rate depends on many factors such as pumping head, solar intensity, etc.

A PV-powered cathodic protection (CP) system is designed to supply a CP system to control the corrosion of a metal surface. This technique is based on the impressive current acquired from PV solar energy systems and is utilized for burying pipelines, tanks, concrete structures, etc.

Concentrated PV (CPV) technology uses either the refractive or the reflective concentrators to increase sunlight to PV cells [ 24 , 25 ]. High-efficiency solar cells are usually used, consisting of many layers of semiconductor materials that stack on top of each other. This technology has an efficiency of >47%. In addition, the devices produce electricity and the heat can be used for other purposes [ 26 , 27 ].

For CSP systems, the solar rays are concentrated using mirrors in this application. These rays will heat a fluid, resulting in steam used to power a turbine and generate electricity. Large-scale power stations employ CSP to generate electricity. A field of mirrors typically redirect rays to a tall thin tower in a CSP power station. Thus, numerous large flat heliostats (mirrors) are used to track the Sun and concentrate its light onto a receiver in power tower systems, sometimes known as central receivers. The hot fluid could be utilized right away to produce steam or stored for later usage. Another of the great benefits of a CSP power station is that it may be built with molten salts to store heat and generate electricity outside of daylight hours.

Mirrored dishes are used in dish engine systems to focus and concentrate sunlight onto a receiver. The dish assembly tracks the Sun’s movement to capture as much solar energy as possible. The engine includes thin tubes that work outside the four-piston cylinders and it opens into the cylinders containing hydrogen or helium gas. The pistons are driven by the expanding gas. Finally, the pistons drive an electric generator by turning a crankshaft.

A further water-treatment technique, using reverse osmosis, depends on the solar-thermal and using solar concentrated power through the parabolic trough technique. The desalination employs CSP technology that utilizes hybrid integration and thermal storage allows continuous operation and is a cost-effective solution. Solar thermal can be used for domestic purposes such as a dryer. In some countries or societies, the so-called food dehydration is traditionally used to preserve some food materials such as meats, fruits and vegetables.

Sustainable energy development is defined as the development of the energy sector in terms of energy generating, distributing and utilizing that are based on sustainability rules [ 28 ]. Energy systems will significantly impact the environment in both developed and developing countries. Consequently, the global sustainable energy system must optimize efficiency and reduce emissions [ 29 ].

The sustainable development scenario is built based on the economic perspective. It also examines what activities will be required to meet shared long-term climate benefits, clean air and energy access targets. The short-term details are based on the IEA’s sustainable recovery strategy, which aims to promote economies and employment through developing a cleaner and more reliable energy infrastructure [ 15 ]. In addition, sustainable development includes utilizing renewable-energy applications, smart-grid technologies, energy security, and energy pricing, and having a sound energy policy [ 29 ].

The demand-side response can help meet the flexibility requirements in electricity systems by moving demand over time. As a result, the integration of renewable technologies for helping facilitate the peak demand is reduced, system stability is maintained, and total costs and CO 2 emissions are reduced. The demand-side response is currently used mostly in Europe and North America, where it is primarily aimed at huge commercial and industrial electricity customers [ 15 ].

International standards are an essential component of high-quality infrastructure. Establishing legislative convergence, increasing competition and supporting innovation will allow participants to take part in a global world PV market [ 30 ]. Numerous additional countries might benefit from more actively engaging in developing global solar PV standards. The leading countries in solar PV manufacturing and deployment have embraced global standards for PV systems and highly contributed to clean-energy development. Additional assistance and capacity-building to enhance quality infrastructure in developing economies might also help support wider implementation and compliance with international solar PV standards. Thus, support can bring legal requirements and frameworks into consistency and give additional impetus for the trade of secure and high-quality solar PV products [ 19 ].

Continuous trade-led dissemination of solar PV and other renewable technologies will strengthen the national infrastructure. For instance, off-grid solar energy alternatives, such as stand-alone systems and mini-grids, could be easily deployed to assist healthcare facilities in improving their degree of services and powering portable testing sites and vaccination coolers. In addition to helping in the immediate medical crisis, trade-led solar PV adoption could aid in the improving economy from the COVID-19 outbreak, not least by providing jobs in the renewable-energy sector, which are estimated to reach >40 million by 2050 [ 19 ].

The framework for energy sustainability development, by the application of solar energy, is one way to achieve that goal. With the large availability of solar energy resources for PV and CSP energy applications, we can move towards energy sustainability. Fig. 3 illustrates plans for solar energy sustainability.

Framework for solar energy applications in energy sustainability.

Framework for solar energy applications in energy sustainability.

The environmental consideration of such applications, including an aspect of the environmental conditions, operating conditions, etc., have been assessed. It is clean, friendly to the environment and also energy-saving. Moreover, this technology has no removable parts, low maintenance procedures and longevity.

Economic and social development are considered by offering job opportunities to the community and providing cheaper energy options. It can also improve people’s income; in turn, living standards will be enhanced. Therefore, energy is paramount, considered to be the most vital element of human life, society’s progress and economic development.

As efforts are made to increase the energy transition towards sustainable energy systems, it is anticipated that the next decade will see a continued booming of solar energy and all clean-energy technology. Scholars worldwide consider research and innovation to be substantial drivers to enhance the potency of such solar application technology.

2.1 Employment from renewable energy

The employment market has also boomed with the deployment of renewable-energy technology. Renewable-energy technology applications have created >12 million jobs worldwide. The solar PV application came as the pioneer, which created >3 million jobs. At the same time, while the solar thermal applications (solar heating and cooling) created >819 000 jobs, the CSP attained >31 000 jobs [ 20 ].

According to the reports, although top markets such as the USA, the EU and China had the highest investment in renewables jobs, other Asian countries have emerged as players in the solar PV panel manufacturers’ industry [ 31 ].

Solar energy employment has offered more employment than other renewable sources. For example, in the developing countries, there was a growth in employment chances in solar applications that powered ‘micro-enterprises’. Hence, it has been significant in eliminating poverty, which is considered the key goal of sustainable energy development. Therefore, solar energy plays a critical part in fulfilling the sustainability targets for a better plant and environment [ 31 , 32 ]. Fig. 4 illustrates distributions of world renewable-energy employment.

World renewable-energy employment [20].

World renewable-energy employment [ 20 ].

The world distribution of PV jobs is disseminated across the continents as follows. There was 70% employment in PV applications available in Asia, while 10% is available in North America, 10% available in South America and 10% availability in Europe. Table 1 details the top 10 countries that have relevant jobs in Asia, North America, South America and Europe.

List of the top 10 countries that created jobs in solar PV applications [ 19 , 33 ]

Solar energy investments can meet energy targets and environmental protection by reducing carbon emissions while having no detrimental influence on the country’s development [ 32 , 34 ]. In countries located in the ‘Sunbelt’, there is huge potential for solar energy, where there is a year-round abundance of solar global horizontal irradiation. Consequently, these countries, including the Middle East, Australia, North Africa, China, the USA and Southern Africa, to name a few, have a lot of potential for solar energy technology. The average yearly solar intensity is >2800 kWh/m 2 and the average daily solar intensity is >7.5 kWh/m 2 . Fig. 5 illustrates the optimum areas for global solar irradiation.

World global solar irradiation map [35].

World global solar irradiation map [ 35 ].

The distribution of solar radiation and its intensity are two important factors that influence the efficiency of solar PV technology and these two parameters vary among different countries. Therefore, it is essential to realize that some solar energy is wasted since it is not utilized. On the other hand, solar radiation is abundant in several countries, especially in developing ones, which makes it invaluable [ 36 , 37 ].

Worldwide, the PV industry has benefited recently from globalization, which has allowed huge improvements in economies of scale, while vertical integration has created strong value chains: as manufacturers source materials from an increasing number of suppliers, prices have dropped while quality has been maintained. Furthermore, the worldwide incorporated PV solar device market is growing fast, creating opportunities enabling solar energy firms to benefit from significant government help with underwriting, subsides, beneficial trading licences and training of a competent workforce, while the increased rivalry has reinforced the motivation to continue investing in research and development, both public and private [ 19 , 33 ].

The global outbreak of COVID-19 has impacted ‘cross-border supply chains’ and those investors working in the renewable-energy sector. As a result, more diversity of solar PV supply-chain processes may be required in the future to enhance long-term flexibility versus exogenous shocks [ 19 , 33 ].

It is vital to establish a well-functioning quality infrastructure to expand the distribution of solar PV technologies beyond borders and make it easier for new enterprises to enter solar PV value chains. In addition, a strong quality infrastructure system is a significant instrument for assisting local firms in meeting the demands of trade markets. Furthermore, high-quality infrastructure can help reduce associated risks with the worldwide PV project value chain, such as underperforming, inefficient and failing goods, limiting the development, improvement and export of these technologies. Governments worldwide are, at various levels, creating quality infrastructure, including the usage of metrology i.e. the science of measurement and its application, regulations, testing procedures, accreditation, certification and market monitoring [ 33 , 38 ].

The perspective is based on a continuous process of technological advancement and learning. Its speed is determined by its deployment, which varies depending on the scenario [ 39 , 40 ]. The expense trends support policy preferences for low-carbon energy sources, particularly in increased energy-alteration scenarios. Emerging technologies are introduced and implemented as quickly as they ever have been before in energy history [ 15 , 33 ].

The CSP stations have been in use since the early 1980s and are currently found all over the world. The CSP power stations in the USA currently produce >800 MW of electricity yearly, which is sufficient to power ~500 000 houses. New CSP heat-transfer fluids being developed can function at ~1288 o C, which is greater than existing fluids, to improve the efficiency of CSP systems and, as a result, to lower the cost of energy generated using this technology. Thus, as a result, CSP is considered to have a bright future, with the ability to offer large-scale renewable energy that can supplement and soon replace traditional electricity-production technologies [ 41 ]. The DESERTEC project has drawn out the possibility of CSP in the Sahara Desert regions. When completed, this investment project will have the world’s biggest energy-generation capacity through the CSP plant, which aims to transport energy from North Africa to Europe [ 42 , 43 ].

The costs of manufacturing materials for PV devices have recently decreased, which is predicted to compensate for the requirements and increase the globe’s electricity demand [ 44 ]. Solar energy is a renewable, clean and environmentally friendly source of energy. Therefore, solar PV application techniques should be widely utilized. Although PV technology has always been under development for a variety of purposes, the fact that PV solar cells convert the radiant energy from the Sun directly into electrical power means it can be applied in space and in terrestrial applications [ 38 , 45 ].

In one way or another, the whole renewable-energy sector has a benefit over other energy industries. A long-term energy development plan needs an energy source that is inexhaustible, virtually accessible and simple to gather. The Sun rises over the horizon every day around the globe and leaves behind ~108–1018 kWh of energy; consequently, it is more than humanity will ever require to fulfil its desire for electricity [ 46 ].

The technology that converts solar radiation into electricity is well known and utilizes PV cells, which are already in use worldwide. In addition, various solar PV technologies are available today, including hybrid solar cells, inorganic solar cells and organic solar cells. So far, solar PV devices made from silicon have led the solar market; however, these PVs have certain drawbacks, such as expenditure of material, time-consuming production, etc. It is important to mention here the operational challenges of solar energy in that it does not work at night, has less output in cloudy weather and does not work in sandstorm conditions. PV battery storage is widely used to reduce the challenges to gain high reliability. Therefore, attempts have been made to find alternative materials to address these constraints. Currently, this domination is challenged by the evolution of the emerging generation of solar PV devices based on perovskite, organic and organic/inorganic hybrid materials.

This paper highlights the significance of sustainable energy development. Solar energy would help steady energy prices and give numerous social, environmental and economic benefits. This has been indicated by solar energy’s contribution to achieving sustainable development through meeting energy demands, creating jobs and protecting the environment. Hence, a paramount critical component of long-term sustainability should be investigated. Based on the current condition of fossil-fuel resources, which are deemed to be depleting energy sources, finding an innovative technique to deploy clean-energy technology is both essential and expected. Notwithstanding, solar energy has yet to reach maturity in development, especially CSP technology. Also, with growing developments in PV systems, there has been a huge rise in demand for PV technology applications all over the globe. Further work needs to be undertaken to develop energy sustainably and consider other clean energy resources. Moreover, a comprehensive experimental and validation process for such applications is required to develop cleaner energy sources to decarbonize our planet.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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International Conference on Computer Science, Electronics and Industrial Engineering (CSEI)

CSEI 2022: CSEI: International Conference on Computer Science, Electronics and Industrial Engineering (CSEI) pp 296–317 Cite as

Solar Panels for Low Power Energy Harvesting

  • Maritza Nuñez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4972-0573 11 ,
  • Carlos Gordón   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8031-2658 11 ,
  • Clara Sánchez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0499-4789 11 &
  • Myriam Cumbajín   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9993-7095 12  
  • Conference paper
  • First Online: 01 May 2023

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Part of the Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems book series (LNNS,volume 678)

Solar panels are widely used nowadays to capture solar radiation and generate voltage, so they are being used for Energy Harvesting applications. The present work carries out the study of low power solar panels for energy storage applications, together with the DC-DC conversion and storage stage. The methodology carried out has been the design, simulation, fabrication and characterization of the elements that form the system. The elements that make up the system are 4 solar panels of 2.4 V and 80 mA, a voltage regulator element and rechargeable batteries. As a result, both in simulation and measurement, the mixed configuration (series-parallel) is the one that provides the best characteristics for its use, with a voltage of 4.57 V and a current of 127.3 mA, obtaining at the converter output a voltage of 19.44 V, concluding that the system meets the design expectations with which it was made, collecting energy, raising it and storing it, providing promising results for future applications.

  • Solar Panel
  • Energy Harvesting

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Acknowledgment

The authors thank the invaluable contribution of the Technological University Indoamerica, for his support in conducting the research project “ESTUDIO DE ALGORITMOS HIBRIDOS DE APRENDIZAJE AUTOMATICO PARA LA PREDICCIÓN DE GENERACIÓN DE ENERGÍAS RENOVABLES”, Project Code: 281.230.2022. Also, the authors thank the Technical University of Ambato and the “Dirección de Investigación y Desarrollo” (DIDE) for their support in conducting this research, in the execution of the project “Captación de Energía Limpia de Baja Potencia para Alimentación de Dispositivos de Quinta Generación (5G)”, approved by resolution “Nro. UTA-CONIN-2022-0015-R”. Project code: SFFISEI 07.

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Nuñez, M., Gordón, C., Sánchez, C., Cumbajín, M. (2023). Solar Panels for Low Power Energy Harvesting. In: Garcia, M.V., Gordón-Gallegos, C. (eds) CSEI: International Conference on Computer Science, Electronics and Industrial Engineering (CSEI). CSEI 2022. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol 678. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30592-4_21

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Harvesting the Sun: On-Farm Opportunities and Challenges for Solar Development

At a glance, key challenge, policy insight, introduction.

By 2040, the amount of land needed to meet the United States’ growing energy requirements will increase by 27%, directly affecting an estimated 200,000 square kilometers (sq. km.) of land with new energy development (Trainor et al. 2016, 1-16). This is the projected result of both a changing energy portfolio and increasing demand.

Over the last decade, for example, advances in drilling technology have unlocked considerable energy potential from 1.3 million sq. km. of land—roughly twice the size of Alaska—that had previously been ill-suited for conventional oil and gas development. Fossil fuel production demands constant land expansion as available resources are depleted. Production will continue to encroach on new land for as long as demand for these fuels persists.

If the U.S. sets ambitious targets for renewable energy development, with the ultimate goal of reaching net-zero carbon emissions from energy by 2050, the share of land directly affected by new renewable energy infrastructure would increase dramatically (Larson et al. 2020, 1-345). Just meeting existing electricity demand with photovoltaics would require approximately 290,000 sq. km. of land, assuming 150 MW/ sq. km. of electricity generation, a capacity factor of 25%, as well as perfect load balancing (U.S. Energy Information Administration, n.d.). (( Author’s calculation: sq. km. = 1

In the lower 48 states, 63% of land is used for agricultural purposes (Economic Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture). As demand for energy infrastructure increases, land competition between energy and agricultural production will inevitably grow—as will the potential advantages of co-locating these land uses where possible.

We have already seen the shale boom drive mineral developers to many agricultural regions, and the result has been a surge in domestic fuel production and a significant secondary source of income for many farm operators (Hitaj and Suttles 2016, 1-47). In some states, like Oklahoma and Pennsylvania, oil and gas development leases provide up to 6% of gross cash farm income, and an even greater share of net income.

In 2014, more than 10% of farms in 9 American states received energy production-related payments. Average payments can be sizable, exceeding $150,000 in Pennsylvania and North Dakota. These leases can be immensely valuable to farm owners, since most American farms are small and depend on off-farm sources of income to remain operational (Economic Research Service, n.d; U. S. Department of Agriculture, n.d.).

Although the co-location of energy infrastructure on farmland has historically been mostly limited to oil and gas development, on-farm solar development is increasingly becoming a financially viable and environmentally friendly alternative on American farmland. On-farm solar development can help meet the country’s swelling demand for carbon-free energy, offer farmers and rural communities a consistent and long-term stream of income, and even boost agricultural productivity under the right circumstances.

However, realizing these co-benefits at scale will require a long-term commitment and innovative solutions from local, state, and federal policymakers. In this policy digest, we lay out why farmers choose to lease their mineral rights, the unpredictable costs of on-farm oil and gas development, and why solar could be a better alternative.

How Mineral Leasing Works

In the United States, most subsurface rights—the rights to minerals beneath the ground—are privately owned by individuals (Fitzgerald 2014, 1-7). Typically, energy companies interested in extracting minerals will lease land from owners rather than purchase the land outright. This is an effective way for the development companies to reduce capital expenses – reflecting their singular and short-term interest in the land.

The compensation structure for these land leases typically includes an upfront payment as well as a royalty, which reflects a share of the gross revenue of any oil or gas that is ultimately extracted (typically between 13 to 21%) (Brown et al. 2016, 23-38). Crucially, energy development companies can deduct expenses associated with transportation and processing from landowners’ royalty payments (Fitzgerald 2014, 1-7).

As one might expect, there is a substantial amount of information asymmetry between the lessee and the lessor in these arrangements. Company representatives have extensive experience negotiating agreements, while farm owners may only negotiate a mineral lease once in a lifetime. In addition, because oil and gas resources at a given site require expert analysis to approximate, the energy company generally has a more complete understanding of expected production than the mineral rights owner.

Fuel prices are also a considerable source of revenue variability. In 2020, for example, the U.S. government saw its royalties from mineral rights fall from $2 billion between March and June, compared to $4 billion in the same period last year, because of the precipitous drop in fuel prices and production induced by the COVID-19 pandemic (Knight 2020).

Landowners have little recourse in response to disruptions in expected revenue since contracts can last for many years. And when prices fall, the post-production costs deducted by developers can eat into farmers’ royalty checks, especially if their lease agreements do not address allowable deductions (Cusick and Sisk 2018).

Not only are oil and gas leases often uncertain value propositions, they also come with a number of serious economic and environmental risks for farmers (U.S. Geological Survey, n.d.). At best, development leads to increased traffic and noise pollution, and places increased demands on local water resources. At worst, oil and gas development leads to water and soil contamination and reduced land productivity (Environmental Protection Agency 2015, 1-25).

A typical shale gas well can use 2 to 4 million gallons of water during fracturing, the process by which gas resources are extricated from subterranean rock formations (U.S. Department of Energy 2009, 1-98). Wells can drive-up local water prices or compel farmers to modify their operations (Dutzik et al. 2012, 1-43).

Accidental water contamination or improper gas flaring can sicken or even kill livestock. Furthermore, according to a 2019 Energy Research & Social Science study that surveyed farmers in four midwestern states, many respondents reported relying on themselves or family to complete land reclamation efforts following oil or gas development (Haggerty et al. 2019, 84-92).

For farmers who own their mineral rights and are approached by a developer, the security of a secondary source of income—even one that comes with the uncertainties of energy land leases—can be attractive. The promise of additional revenue often outweighs the environmental risks, an indication of the substantial economic pressures many farmers face.

Yet for many rural communities, mineral leases may fail to provide much long-term benefit. The precise economic effect of natural gas development remains an area of active research. A 2016 study found that employment and wages can grow in the first four years of gas development, but decline to pre-boom levels over time (Komarek 2016, 1-17).

A 2014 study of the oil and gas boom in the American West in the 1970s and 1980s actually found that per capita incomes, following the bust, were 6% lower than pre-boom levels and that unemployment compensation remained elevated throughout the post-bust period (Jacobsen and Parker 2016, 1092-1128). The authors suggest that overspecialization in infrastructure and skills specific to the boom limited market participants’ ability to find new business and employment opportunities once the demand for extraction services receded and economic fundamentals changed.

Perhaps most importantly, a closer look at payment statistics reveals that the financial rewards of oil and gas development are not equally available to all American farmers, and instead largely accrue to a small subset (Hitaj et al. 2018, 1-31). In 2014, the top 10% of farmers receiving oil and gas payments received 18 times more money than the bottom 50% of farmers receiving payments. The mean payment to all farmers receiving oil and gas royalties was $43,736, dwarfing the median payment of just $6,600.

Is Solar a Better Option?

For all of their economic risks and environmental harms, mineral leases demonstrate an opportunity for the co-location of energy and agricultural production. On-farm solar (or agrivoltaics) can offer farmers and rural landowners a smaller environmental footprint and fewer economic risks than oil and gas development, while still providing a reliable secondary source of income. As the country’s energy demand affects more and more land, agrivoltaics can also play a crucial role in accelerating the transition to renewables.

First and foremost, solar panels present almost no risk of soil or water contamination when installed and maintained properly. In terms of water consumption, photovoltaic maintenance only requires enough water to occasionally wash dust and grime from panel surfaces (Clarke 2014). Compared to an oil or gas well, this water use is negligible.

Further, solar panels produce no additional toxic waste, and aside from soil disturbance during installation or removal, they have little long-term impact on the productivity of the land on which they are sited. While larger solar installations can have negative effects on soil and vegetation, there are a number of measures—like careful siting, prudent landscaping, and re-vegetation—that can mitigate these concerns (Dhar et al. 2020, 134602). In general, solar panels have a dramatically more favorable environmental profile than traditional sources of power generation (Turney and Fthenakis 2011, 3261-3270).

Solar power is also a flexible, reliable, and scalable source of energy, especially on agricultural land. Whereas oil and gas wells require a minimum of 5-10 acres of land, solar can be deployed to whatever scale a farm owner desires or is able to accommodate (MineralWise, n.d.). This means that solar can be developed on land that is already unused or unirrigated by farmers, minimizing disruptions to existing farm production.

In 2011, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory estimated that Colorado had over 1,200 sq. km. of non-irrigated corners of center-pivot irrigation fields (Roberts 2011, 1-11). This land could, in theory, support 890 sq. km. of solar fields without compromising agricultural productivity.

While a farmer’s opportunity to capitalize on mineral rights is entirely dependent on whether or not there is an accessible oil or gas basin, photovoltaics are an economically viable investment for landowners across the country, and solar power is at its most productive (Adeh et al. 2019, 11442) when installed on croplands (McDonnell 2020). While temperature and average cloud cover determine the capacity factor of cells, solar is already being successfully deployed from Arizona to Maine.

Figure 1 shows a hyperbolic decline curve beginning at approximately 850 barrels per day at the start of production and rapidly dropping off to approximately 100 barrels per day at 204 months and close to zero barrels per day by 72 months. This curve represents the expected characteristics of production from shale oil and gas wells.

Solar power is also immune to hyperbolic declines in production, as is possible with oil and gas drilling (see Figure 1) (U.S. Energy Information Administration 2020). Instead, solar leases are long-term (Moore 2017), typically lasting around 20 years, with fixed rental contracts instead of royalties (White). This reduces the economic risk borne by landowners, and while there is certainly risk associated with long-term agreements, the fixed payment structure—as well as fairly predictable life-cycle costs—can help farmers avoid imbalanced negotiations with developers and plan for the future (Xiarchos and Vick 2011, 1-86).

In some cases, revenue from solar development can eclipse the revenue generated by harvest yields (Bookwalter 2019), though other studies have suggested that payback periods for on-farm solar projects are still too long (Colorado State University Extension, n.d., 45-48).

Figure 2 presents a table of ten states (NC, OR, KT, AZ, SC, TX, HI, FL, MS, MN) that have received the greatest amount of USDA solar aid. Investment amounts range from just under 1 billion USD in North Carolina to just under 100 million USD in Minnesota. Number of investments made per state range from 325 in North Carolina to 41 in Mississippi.

Still, the benefits of solar panels on farmland could extend far beyond simply providing a supplementary income source; they can, in the best case, actively enhance farm operations and improve agricultural yield. Agrivoltaics—the siting of elevated solar panels above crops, which continue to be cultivated—can confer a number of synergistic benefits, which oil and gas development cannot emulate (Barron-Gafford et al. 2019, 848-855).

Agrivoltaics are capable of reducing transpiration of water from plants and the evaporation of water from soil, thereby reducing farmers’ water use. Solar panels can also mitigate some of the light and heat stress that can have an adverse effect on crop photosynthesis.

Finally, transpired water has a cooling effect on solar panels, improving their efficiency by at least 1% (Tricoles 2017). While the effects of agrivoltaics on crop yield varies by species, some study results have shown a doubling in total fruit production and water efficiency in shade-tolerant and temperature-sensitive crops (Barron-Gafford et al. 2019, 848-855).

Figure 3 is a photograph taken on a farm that has deployed agrivoltaics. The photo shows a row of kale and pepper plants growing in the shade of intermittent and evenly spaced solar panels that have been installed on a central mount that runs the full length of the plot.

In the context of the wider economy, agrivoltaics can serve as a mitigant (Agostini et al. 2021, 116102) against market shocks or crop shortages and can help meet the energy demands of several farm operations such as pumping water, refrigeration, lighting, and sprinkler systems (Xiarchos and Vick 2011, 1-86). The benefits of agrivoltaics extend to livestock farming as well. The co-siting of photovoltaics on a rabbit farm, for example, was recently shown to reduce operating costs by up to 8%, increase revenue by 17%, and cut fencing-related costs (Lytle et al. 2021, 124476).

Remaining Challenges and Opportunities

The opportunities offered by on-farm solar development are considerable, especially when compared to mineral leases. However, there are some remaining economic and policy challenges that demand policy solutions before the full potential of co-locating agriculture and solar generation can be fully realized. These solutions would promote the (a) provision of public funds for rural energy development and incentive programs, (b) the circulation of tools and information that can help farmers make financially sound decisions, and (c) the implementation of streamlined land use policies to facilitate solar development and protect crop yields.

Fund Solar Projects

Continued public funding is necessary to encourage the adoption of solar resources and ensure that such projects make financial sense for farm operators . There are already a number of (Tennessee Department of Energy and Conservation 2020; Massachusetts Farm Energy Program, n.d.) state and federal funding opportunities for farmers interested in investing in on-farm renewable energy projects, including a 30% federal business energy investment tax credit and a 25% Rural Energy for America Program grant from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (neither of which are available to oil and gas developers) (Hay 2016, 1-27).

However, for agricultural land to host meaningful solar generation capacity and support a rapid transition to renewables, these funding opportunities ought to be accessible to a much wider community of farmers. Specifically, federal agencies, like the USDA, should direct greater public funding toward on-farm solar deployment. The availability of external funding is a significant determinant of the ultimate profitability and size of renewable energy systems adopted by farmers (Bazen and Brown 2009, 748-754; Beckman and Xiarchos 2013, 322-330).

In recent years, the federal government has aggressively stepped up its support of solar projects in rural America. Between 2002 and 2019, the USDA distributed over $7.7 billion in grant aid to support renewable energy development in rural communities (USDA, n.d.). Along with anaerobic digesters, solar projects have been the largest recipients of this USDA support in the past five years.

These targeted grants and loan guarantees have helped small businesses cut their energy costs and energy consumption (USDA 2019). In 2015 alone, solar projects financed by the USDA’s Rural Energy for America Program generated 530,000 MWhs of electricity (Hitaj and Suttles 2016, 1-47). Still, federal support for investment in agricultural infrastructure remains relatively modest and should be significantly expanded in order to meet changing energy demands.

Figure 4 charts the breakdown of USDA funding for on farm energy development between 2002 and 2019. Total investment has increased considerably from close to zero in 2002 to approximately 900 million USD in 2019. Although a decade ago this funding went towards a diverse array of energy projects including wind, solar, renewable biomass, hydroelectric, hydrogen, energy efficiency, and anaerobic digesters, investments in 2019 were dominated by solar and renewable biomass investments.

Federal loan and grant programs still play a critical role in making solar development a profitable proposition for farm operators and in sustaining investor interest (Petrovich et al. 2021, 106856). In 2015 and 2016, Colorado State University conducted 30 solar assessments for farmers interested in renewable systems deployment in pivots—land left unused owing to center-pivot irrigation (Colorado State University Extension, n.d. 45-48). Those researchers found that the average solar array would have generated lifetime energy savings of $156,000, in addition to $23,000 in payments for excess electricity sold back to the grid. The up-front cost of the average solar array was $137,000, before incorporating any federal grants and tax credits. Accounting for such credits, the total cost would fall to $71,000, significantly reducing the payback period and resulting in a return on investment of 4.7%.

Inform Farmers

Farm operators and rural communities need to be empowered with the information to make financially and environmentally sound decisions regarding on-farm energy development. One of the central goals of policymakers interested in facilitating on-farm solar development should be to help clarify the full financial picture of a proposed project. Absent such support, it would be easy to discount on-farm renewable energy based on revenue figures alone: According to a USDA. analysis, in 2014, the average payment to farm operators for leasing wind rights was $8,287, substantially less than the average payment of $43,736 from oil and gas (Hitaj et al. 2018, 1-31). While the USDA did not consider revenues associated with on-farm solar projects in that study, modern solar and wind installations have similar costs/kW and capacity factors in the same ballpark, so landowners can expect lease revenue from solar projects to be similarly modest (Mey 2020; SolarLandLease, n.d.). It is worth noting, however, that wind power is significantly less energy dense than photovoltaic power in terms of kW/acre. This means that while costs/kW and capacity factors may be similar across both technologies, photovoltaics may offer farmers and developers the flexibility to generate more electricity from the same acreage.

Sound information and technical guidance, however, could allow on-farm solar projects to be financially viable investments that circumvent many of the risks associated with traditional oil and gas development. A key advantage of solar development, over oil or gas, is that solar radiation is much easier to estimate than subsurface mineral availability.

Whereas oil and gas are found in relatively dense pockets of geological formations and require extensive site exploration to uncover and approximate, solar radiation is easily mappable based on geographic location, local topography, and surrounding vegetation. In fact, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory offers a solar calculator tool online that allows users to estimate the performance of solar facilities, based on their location and other variables (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, n.d.).

But solar radiation is just one of several inputs. For farmers considering leasing their land for solar development, the value of their land and the range of possible per-acre rental fees they could collect is essential information needed for negotiations with developers. According to Strategic Solar Group, annual per-acre rents for larger tracts of solar land can range from $300 to $800 depending on a state’s average capacity factor and land availability (White).

To help farmers navigate these financial considerations—for land leases and personal projects alike—federally-supported, no-cost energy audits should be made available to all farm owners (New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, n.d.). These audits would help operators identify possible applications of solar power and understand the costs, savings, and payback periods of possible solar development (among other energy-saving and emissions-reducing measures).

Between 2016 and 2019, CSU Rural Energy Center administered its Farm Assessments for Solar Energy program, which provided 60 free evaluations to farmers about the feasibility of solar installations on their properties (Colorado State University Extension, n.d.). Colorado’s Energy Office also administers an Agricultural Energy Efficiency program, which provides free audits for eligible farms seeking to reduce energy expenses and implement cost-saving measures (Colorado Energy Office, n.d.).

Further expanding the reach of such programs—and leveraging emerging technologies such as LiDAR to improve and streamline auditing—could protect rural landowners in negotiations in a way that has never really been possible with oil and gas leases. These audits could give landowners confidence in moving forward with rental agreements or personal development projects—lending assurance that their investments are sound and ultimate revenues are fair, even if those revenues are relatively modest.

Clarify Policies

Land use, planning, and energy policies need to be clarified and made more consistent. On-farm solar development has the potential to directly compete with existing cropland if not planned and developed with sustained or improved agricultural productivity in mind. Finding this balance remains a major focus for state and local officials and policymakers (Bergan and Braun 2019).

The Grow Solar Initiative, a USDA-funded effort to boost the solar production potential of three Midwestern states, observes that regulatory and statutory inconsistencies for siting projects can be major obstacles to the growth of the solar industry (Grow Solar 2015). As the opportunities for shared land use become better understood, local and state governments need to outline clear and detailed guidelines for what constitutes appropriate and allowable shared use of agricultural land.

In 2019, for example, North Dakota’s Public Service Commission approved the construction of a 200 MW utility-scale project on 1,600 acres of prime farmland (Lee 2019). Under existing North Dakota laws, this land would have been excluded from development if the overall effect on agricultural yields was perceived to be too large. Existing laws, however, did not specifically prescribe what constituted a large effect on agricultural yields, so the commission had to deliberate (unearthing microform documents from the 1970s in the process) before reaching a decision.

Like North Dakota, Michigan has had to wrestle with decades-old laws blocking more rapid solar development. The state’s Farmland and Open Space Preservation Program, passed in 1975, requires participating farmers to maintain their farmland for agricultural uses in exchange for tax incentives and exemptions (Michigan Department of Agriculture and Rural Development). But the state decided in 2017 that commercial solar development was not a permissible activity on land preserved by the program, excluding one-third of the state’s farmland from solar electricity generation (the program covered 3 million acres in 2020) (Malewitz 2019; Michigan Department of Agriculture & Rural Development 2020, 1-20).

Farmers interested in solar development could have exited the program, but they would have had to pay back the previous seven years of tax credits along with 6% interest—a prohibitive barrier (Malewitz 2019). It took another two years before the state revised its policy, allowing solar development for commercial and personal purposes on preserved farmland (Michigan Department of Agriculture & Rural Development 2019).

Final Thoughts

The use of agricultural land for solar electricity generation can support the U.S. farm sector, strengthen rural economies, and facilitate the country’s energy transition. The shale gas revolution of the last decade has offered valuable lessons for farmers and energy developers about how energy lease agreements should be structured in order to both promote energy development and protect farmers, local resources, and surrounding ecosystems. On-farm solar power eliminates many of the most serious environmental risks of oil and gas development and can, if deployed correctly, increase the productivity of crops and livestock.

However, inconsistent regional land use policies, insufficient federal funding for development and research, and the inadequate availability of information mean that the full potential of solar development on American farmland has yet to be realized. The abundance of agricultural land in the United States could be a competitive advantage in national efforts to decarbonize, but until the necessary policy tools are leveraged, it is more likely to create unnecessary land competition.

solar energy harvesting research papers

Anuj Krishnamurthy

solar energy harvesting research papers

Oscar Serpell

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  • (annual electricity demand in MWh/365 days)/24hours)*4)/150 MW [ ↩ ]

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  • 19 February 2024

How science is helping farmers to find a balance between agriculture and solar farms

  • Magali Reinert 0

Magali Reinert is a science and environment journalist in Montpellier, France.

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

A combine harvester in a field, under hanging solar panels.

A farmer drives a combine harvester under hanging solar panels on an agrivoltaic site in Amance, France. Credit: PATRICK HERTZOG/AFP via Getty

In March 2023, the French government passed a law requiring all solar projects on farmlands to provide some sort of service to agriculture: from improving yields to protecting crops from frost or heatwaves. The decree, entitled ‘On Accelerating the Production of Renewable Energies’, hopes to address a rising call to protect agriculture from an increase in the amount of land being used to harvest solar energy rather than crops.

This trend has become common, thanks to the shrinking costs and growing profitability of the photovoltaic technology behind solar panels. In France, a landowner could make between 10 and 100 times more money per hectare renting out their land to an energy company than they’d make from conventional farming. This puts the future of agricultural land at risk.

The bill hopes to build a compromise — aiming to meet the demands from energy companies to install solar panels, without damaging the yield of land used for food production. More laws on the issue are being drafted, including one that specifies the penalty that landowners might face for not meeting productivity targets.

The government’s target to generate 100 gigawatts of solar power by 2050 looms large in discussions, but in a country where the agricultural lobby holds immense political power, any debate is fraught with political tensions. Furthermore, the changing balance between market forces in France might signal economic shifts elsewhere. As solar projects get cheaper to build, and as many of the world’s economies cry out for more renewable energy, how will conventional farmlands cope?

And ongoing protests by farmers across Europe, particularly in France, might affect the coming debates around the use of solar technologies on farmland. Distrust of the new rules, as well as calls for better prices and access to affordable farmland, have fuelled the strikers’ outcry.

solar energy harvesting research papers

Changing old viticulture for all the right rieslings

According to the French Agency for Ecological Transition, solar projects contributed 16 gigawatts to the French grid in 2022. So far, only 1.3 gigawatts is expected to come from photovoltaics built on agricultural enterprises, some of which are still under construction. Around 61.4 gigawatts(45% of the country’s electricity) comes from nuclear power. Today, renewable energies account for only 20% of the total energy consumed in France, and the government has pledged to reach 33% by 2030. It also plans to comply with the more ambitious European Union’s target of 42.5% of energy from renewables by 2030.

French researchers have been investigating how solar panels can be installed without damaging the growth of crops for decades. Farms make up half of France’s land, by far the easiest host for solar-power projects compared with the urban regions, forests or protected natural areas that blanket the rest of the country.

Christian Dupraz and his team of agronomists at the French National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (INRAE) in Montpellier research the benefits of temporary shade for plants, and how solar-based systems can help. In Occitania, in the south of France, the team has been experimenting with various ways of mitigating harsher temperatures caused by global warming. Shade structures equipped with solar panels are part of one such technique. With this system, nicknamed agrivoltaic by Dupraz, panels rise over crops to protect them from sunlight when required, rather than simply replacing farmland acreage.

“Crops don’t use all the Sun’s rays. Their needs depend on life cycle, and some stages — such as grain filling and end of the production cycle — need less light than others,” Dupraz says. The panels also provide protection against weather hazards that come and go, such as night frosts, hail and heatwaves. The technical challenge is therefore to create structures that can harness the Sun’s energy as well as being smart enough to adapt to the needs of the crops growing beneath them.

Agronomical tracking model

Several companies are working on these models, including Sun’Agri, based in Lyon, France, which has operated a joint research programme with Dupraz’s team for more than ten years. Damien Fumey, an agronomist at Sun’Agri, says that fields in southern France equipped with mobile solar panels saw increased yields in perennial crops such as vines or fruit trees.

INRAE also created a national cluster of 56 partners, including energy companies, for agriphotovoltaic research in February 2023. The director, agronomist Abraham Escobar-Gutiérrez, points to a 2023 Applied Energy publication 1 , which concluded that lucerne crops ( Medicago sativa ) — beansprout-like plants — alongside mobile panels showed slightly higher yields than those elsewhere, thanks to reduced evapotranspiration and the plant’s adaptation to shaded conditions.

solar energy harvesting research papers

Why France’s nuclear industry faces uncertainty

Although the agriphotovoltaic model seems to be an attractive compromise on the surface, it’s less appealing to the energy industry, because it produces lower electricity yields than do panel systems, which simply prioritize their placement to the Sun. Critics also point to the costs of such systems. Escobar-Gutiérrez estimates that a sophisticated agronomical tracking system is ten times more expensive than a standard solar farm.

Another battle rages around the proportion of land that can be covered by solar panels. Energy companies are lobbying the French government to legalize covering up to 40% of farm plots in solar panels, in the name of the profitability. Agronomists counter that anything more than 25% will jeopardize agricultural production. Dupraz says that “by accepting a high coverage of panels while forbidding agronomic losses, the law could be unenforceable”.

Japan — another country attempting to find a balance between sustainable agriculture and a green electricity transition — has chosen to regulate yield losses rather than land coverage. Since 2013, Japanese regulations have required farmers with solar panels in their field to comply with a yield reduction of less than 20% compared with the average yield of the surrounding farmland. Christian Doedt, a researcher at the Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies (ISEP) in Tokyo, says that Japanese farmers have concerns regarding this rule, especially about the threat to those who don’t comply. “The yield requirement of 80% and the legal possibility of dismantling agrivoltaics projects that don’t fulfil it are still a huge barrier to the expansion of agrivoltaics in Japan,” Doedt says.

Fighting for the light

And although legislation is being drafted, for some farming areas it is already too late. As solar panels started to become commercially affordable around 2000, many of the vast greenhouses that grew fruit and vegetables in France’s farmlands got kitted out with them by enterprising farmers. In 2018, the local authorities of the French department of Pyrénées-Orientales estimated that two-thirds of the greenhouses equipped with photovoltaic panels had been completely emptied of crops.

solar energy harvesting research papers

Therapy dog spreads paws-itivity at cancer hospital

Last year’s law aims to redress the balance and prevent this from occurring in the future. “Before the law of 2023, photovoltaic projects in agriculture were highly disparate across the country, with some local authorities allowing all projects to go ahead, and others systematically blocking them in the name of agriculture. The law is trying to find a bridge between the two,” explains Benoit Grimonprez, rural-law researcher at the University of Poitiers, France. Escobar-Gutiérrez says that he ‘is optimistic’.

Whereas France and Japan’s regulatory approaches are motivated by protecting the quality and supply of food, a different market-driven trend is emerging in the United States and Germany, supported by the energy lobbies that want to have access to land at the lowest cost, says Dupraz. Germany accepts a one-third loss of yield in farms with solar-panel systems. But further legal and economic battles might arise in the coming years in countries with similar conflicts about land use.

In some countries, there’s space for everyone. “The situation is different in countries with large uncultivable and unproductive areas, such as Spain and the USA,” Dupraz adds.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00518-6

This article is part of Nature Spotlight: France , an editorially independent supplement. Advertisers have no influence over the content.

Edouard, S., Combes, D., Van Iseghem, M., Ng Wing Tin, M. & Escobar-Gutiérrez, A. J. Appl. Energy 329 , 120207 (2023).

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Breakthrough Discovery in Perovskite Solar Cell Stability Unveils Path to More Durable, Efficient Energy Harvesting

P erovskite solar cells, a relatively recent innovation in the field of photovoltaics, have shown great promise due to their high efficiency and potential for low-cost production. Despite these advantages, their widespread adoption has been hindered by a crucial flaw: their crystalline structure shifts when exposed to water and oxygen. However, the Georgia Tech team has come up with a plan, offering a path to more durable and cost-effective solar energy solutions.

The discovery, published in a paper titled “Synergistic Role of Water and Oxygen Leads to Degradation in Formamidinium-Based Halide Perovskites,” presents a detailed analysis of the chemical interactions that cause perovskites to shift states. Previously,people thought if you expose them to just water, these materials degrade. If you expose them to just oxygen, these materials degrade. However, the new findings reveal a critical synergy between water (H2O) and oxygen (O2) that accelerates the undesired phase transformations in perovskites.

Assistant Professor Juan-Pablo Correa-Baena, the senior author of the paper, explains that blocking either water or oxygen from interacting with perovskite materials largely prevents their degradation. This insight is crucial as it opens up new strategies for enhancing the stability of perovskite solar cells.

The Georgia Tech team has explored one such strategy by applying a thin film of phenethylammonium iodide (PEIA) to their perovskite solar cells. PEIA is known for its water-repellent properties, but the researchers discovered that it loses this capability when heated by the solar cell. This challenge has led the team to pursue the development of a heat-resistant version of PEIA, with recruitment efforts underway to bring a top materials scientist into the fold to achieve this goal.

In parallel, other research initiatives have continued to focus on the use of PEIA and similar compounds to enhance the stability of perovskite solar cells. Studies published by the Royal Chemistry Society and in the journal Organic Electronics have evaluated the role of such compounds in improving the performance and longevity of these cells.

Moreover, scientists at North Carolina State University have made strides by channeling ions through defined pathways in perovskite materials, increasing their stability and operational performance. This approach, which involves steering ions along the grain boundaries of perovskite crystals, helps to protect the material’s structural integrity.

The collective efforts of these research teams are not only solving the stability riddle but are also advancing the field toward more efficient and cost-effective solar technologies. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), collaborating with Northern Illinois Universitycame up with an alternative described as a ” nickel-doped graphite layer coupled with a bismuth-indium alloy layer”, to improve perovskite solar cell efficiency without incurring high costs.

The implications of these findings are significant as they pave the way for the production of solar cells that can be painted, sprayed, deposited, or printed onto surfaces. This flexibility facilitates high-volume, low-cost manufacturing, potentially transforming solar power into a more accessible and sustainable energy source for a wider range of applications.

As the scientific community continues to unravel the complexities of perovskite solar cells, these advancements bring us closer to realizing their full potential in the global transition to renewable energy. With greater stability and cost-effectiveness on the horizon, the future of solar technology looks brighter than ever.

Relevant articles:

– Perovskite Solar Cell Mystery Solved, Now Comes The Hard Part

– Enhanced Stability and Performance of Perovskite Solar Cells

– MHIET confirms stable combustion of hydrogen admixture through testing of single cylinder engine

Perovskite solar cells, a relatively recent innovation […]

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February 21, 2024

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Dual-energy harvesting device could power future wireless medical implants

by Matthew Carroll, Pennsylvania State University

Dual-energy harvesting device could power future wireless medical implants

Implantable biomedical devices—like pacemakers, insulin pumps and neurostimulators—are becoming smaller and utilizing wireless technology, but hurdles remain for powering the next-generation implants. A new wireless charging device developed by Penn State scientists could dramatically improve powering capability for implants while still being safe for our bodies, the researchers said.

The new device can harvest energy from magnetic field and ultrasound sources simultaneously, converting this energy to electricity to power implants, the scientists reported in the journal Energy & Environmental Science . It is the first device to harvest these dual- energy sources simultaneously with high efficiency and operate within the safety limits for human tissue, the team said.

"Our device may unlock next-generation biomedical applications because it can generate 300% higher power than the current state-of-the-art devices," said Bed Poudel, research professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Penn State and co-author of the study.

"By combining two energy sources in a single generator, power generated from a given volume of the device can be significantly improved which can unlock many applications that were not possible before."

Using this technology, battery-free bioelectronic devices could be miniaturized to millimeter-sized dimensions, making them easily implantable and allowing distributed networks of sensors and actuators to measure and manipulate physiological activity throughout the body. This would enable precise and adaptive bioelectronic therapies with minimal risks or interference with daily activities, according to the scientists.

More traditional implants like pacemakers are typically powered by batteries and charged using cables. But the lifespan of batteries is limited and surgery may be necessary to replace them, posing a risk of infection or other medical complications.

Charging or directly powering implants wirelessly could extend their lifespan, the scientists said. But conventional wireless charging technology used for cell phones and electric vehicles may not be ideal as implants continue to shrink.

"The problem is that as you make these implants less invasive by making them smaller and smaller, the efficiency of wireless charging becomes much lower," said Mehdi Kiani, associate professor of electrical engineering at Penn State and co-author of the study. "To address this, you need to increase the power. But the problem is that high frequency electromagnetic waves could be harmful to the body."

Magnetic field and ultrasound energy operating at lower frequencies are attractive options for wirelessly powering or charging implants, according to the researchers. Previous work by other scientists has focused on creating devices that can harvest one of these sources of energy, but not at the same time, the scientists said. However, this single source approach may not provide enough power to charge smaller future medical implants.

"Now we can combine two modalities in a single receiver," said Sumanta Kumar Karan, a postdoctoral scholar in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Penn State and the lead author of the paper. "This can exceed any of the individual modalities because we now have two sources of energy. We can increase the power by a factor of four, which is really significant."

The devices use a two-step process for converting magnetic field energy to electricity. One layer is magnetostrictive, which converts a magnetic field into stress, and the other is piezoelectric, which converts stress, or vibrations, into an electric field. The combination allows the device to turn a magnetic field into an electric current.

And the piezoelectric layer also can simultaneously convert ultrasound energy into an electric current, the researchers said.

"We have combined these sources of energy in the same footprint, and we can generate sufficient power that can be used to do the things that next generation implants will be asked to do," Poudel said. "And we can do this without damaging tissue."

Technology also has implications for powering things like wireless sensor networks in smart buildings. These networks do things like monitor energy and operational patterns and use that information for remotely adjusting control systems, the scientists said.

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