child development stages essay

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About Child Development Stages

Categories: Child Children

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Words: 691 |

Published: Jan 4, 2019

Words: 691 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Giving praise for achievement
Giving children guidance but respecting their choices
Giving them the chance to meet and spend time with other children and adults
Providing activities that involve sharing and taking turns
Giving support and encouragement and the right amount of supervision
Providing opportunities to share in decisions
Listening to children and taking them seriously
Providing opportunities where children take responsibility
12-19 years

Works Cited

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Learn the signs. Act early. Milestones. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/spanish/actearly/milestones/index.html
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). (n.d.). Child development: A closer look. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/our-work/families/child-development/closer-look
Raver, C. C., Blair, C., & Willoughby, M. (2013). Poverty as a predictor of 4-year-olds' executive function: New perspectives on models of differential susceptibility. Developmental Psychology, 49(2), 292-304. doi:10.1037/a0028343
Stein, A., Woolley, H., Senior, R., & Hertzman, C. (2008). Social inequalities in physical and mental health: Possible mechanisms and pathways. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(6), 661-672. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01934.x
Zero to Three. (n.d.). Developmental milestones. Retrieved from https://www.zerotothree.org/resources/developmental-milestones
Kostelnik, M. J., Soderman, A. K., & Whiren, A. P. (2019). Developmentally appropriate curriculum: Best practices in early childhood education (7th ed.). Pearson.
Berk, L. E. (2020). Child development (10th ed.). Pearson.
Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2019). Human development (13th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2014). Excessive stress disrupts the architecture of the developing brain. Working Paper No. 3. Retrieved from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/wp3/
Pianta, R. C., & Walsh, D. J. (1996). High-risk children in schools: Constructing sustaining relationships. Routledge.

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1 Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development

Chapter objectives.

After this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe the principles that underlie development.
Differentiate periods of human development.
Evaluate issues in development.
Distinguish the different methods of research.
Explain what a theory is.
Compare and contrast different theories of child development.

Introduction

Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn.

We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence. 1

Principles of Development

There are several underlying principles of development to keep in mind:

Development is lifelong and change is apparent across the lifespan (although this text ends with adolescence). And early experiences affect later development.
Development is multidirectional. We show gains in some areas of development, while showing loss in other areas.
Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and social and emotional.
The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, changes in gross and fine motor skills, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness.
The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language.
The social and emotional domain (also referred to as psychosocial) focuses on changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends.

All three domains influence each other. It is also important to note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains.

Development is characterized by plasticity, which is our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. Early experiences are important, but children are remarkably resilient (able to overcome adversity).
Development is multicontextual. 2 We are influenced by both nature (genetics) and nurture (the environment) – when and where we live and our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to circumstances surrounding us. The key here is to understand that behaviors, motivations, emotions, and choices are all part of a bigger picture. 3

Now let’s look at a framework for examining development.

Periods of Development

Think about what periods of development that you think a course on Child Development would address. How many stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three: infancy, childhood, and teenagers. Developmentalists (those that study development) break this part of the life span into these five stages as follows:

Prenatal Development (conception through birth)
Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth through two years)
Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
Middle Childhood (6 to 11 years)
Adolescence (12 years to adulthood)

This list reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and adolescence that will be explored in this book. So while both an 8 month old and an 8 year old are considered children, they have very different motor abilities, social relationships, and cognitive skills. Their nutritional needs are different and their primary psychological concerns are also distinctive.

Prenatal Development

Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns.

Figure 1.1 – A tiny embryo depicting some development of arms and legs, as well as facial features that are starting to show. 4

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.

Figure 1.2 – A swaddled newborn. 5

Early Childhood

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years and consists of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for action that brings the disapproval of others.

Figure 1.3 – Two young children playing in the Singapore Botanic Gardens 6

Middle Childhood

The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students.

Figure 1.4 – Two children running down the street in Carenage, Trinidad and Tobago 7

Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. 8

Figure 1.5 – Two smiling teenage women. 9

There are some aspects of development that have been hotly debated. Let’s explore these.

Issues in Development

Nature and nurture.

Why are people the way they are? Are features such as height, weight, personality, being diabetic, etc. the result of heredity or environmental factors-or both? For decades, scholars have carried on the “nature/nurture” debate. For any particular feature, those on the side of Nature would argue that heredity plays the most important role in bringing about that feature. Those on the side of Nurture would argue that one’s environment is most significant in shaping the way we are. This debate continues in all aspects of human development, and most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture.

Continuity versus Discontinuity

Is human development best characterized as a slow, gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of more abrupt change? The answer to that question often depends on which developmental theorist you ask and what topic is being studied. The theories of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are called stage theories. Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and adults have different qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume development is more discontinuous. Others, such as the behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information processing theorists, assume development is a more slow and gradual process known as continuous development. For instance, they would see the adult as not possessing new skills, but more advanced skills that were already present in some form in the child. Brain development and environmental experiences contribute to the acquisition of more developed skills.

Figure 1.6 – The graph to the left shows three stages in the continuous growth of a tree. The graph to the right shows four distinct stages of development in the life cycle of a ladybug. 10

Active versus Passive

How much do you play a role in your own developmental path? Are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you? Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own development. Piaget, for instance believed that children actively explore their world and construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In contrast, many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process. 11

How do we know so much about how we grow, develop, and learn? Let’s look at how that data is gathered through research

Research Methods

An important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information. The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon. Some people are hesitant to trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story. That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur. Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey. In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice. So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.

Take a moment to write down two things that you know about childhood. Now, how do you know? Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality) or based on what others have told you or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). There are several problems with personal inquiry. Read the following sentence aloud:

Paris in the

Are you sure that is what it said? Read it again:

If you read it differently the second time (adding the second “the”) you just experienced one of the problems with personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe. Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. This problem may just be a result of cognitive ‘blinders’ or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views. Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence. Popper suggests that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005). Theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific. And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.

Science offers a more systematic way to make comparisons guard against bias.

Scientific Methods

One method of scientific investigation involves the following steps:

Determining a research question
Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)
Determining a method of gathering information
Conducting the study
Interpreting results
Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research
Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have your work scrutinized by others)

Your findings can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest and through this process a literature or knowledge base is established. This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question. And it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied. Many academic journals publish reports on studies conducted in this manner.

Another model of research referred to as qualitative research may involve steps such as these:

Begin with a broad area of interest
Gain entrance into a group to be researched
Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest
Ask open ended, broad “grand tour” types of questions when interviewing subjects
Modify research questions as study continues
Note patterns or consistencies
Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed
Report findings

In this type of research, theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants. The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer & Strauss, 1967). Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.

Let’s look more closely at some techniques, or research methods, used to describe, explain, or evaluate. Each of these designs has strengths and weaknesses and is sometimes used in combination with other designs within a single study.

Observational Studies

Observational studies involve watching and recording the actions of participants. This may take place in the natural setting, such as observing children at play at a park, or behind a one-way glass while children are at play in a laboratory playroom. The researcher may follow a checklist and record the frequency and duration of events (perhaps how many conflicts occur among 2-year-olds) or may observe and record as much as possible about an event (such as observing children in a classroom and capturing the details about the room design and what the children and teachers are doing and saying). In general, observational studies have the strength of allowing the researcher to see how people behave rather than relying on self-report. What people do and what they say they do are often very different. A major weakness of observational studies is that they do not allow the researcher to explain causal relationships. Yet, observational studies are useful and widely used when studying children. Children tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched (known as the Hawthorne effect) and may not survey well.

Experiments

Experiments are designed to test hypotheses (or specific statements about the relationship between variables) in a controlled setting in efforts to explain how certain factors or events produce outcomes. A variable is anything that changes in value. Concepts are operationalized or transformed into variables in research, which means that the researcher must specify exactly what is going to be measured in the study.

Three conditions must be met in order to establish cause and effect. Experimental designs are useful in meeting these conditions.

The independent and dependent variables must be related. In other words, when one is altered, the other changes in response. (The independent variable is something altered or introduced by the researcher. The dependent variable is the outcome or the factor affected by the introduction of the independent variable. For example, if we are looking at the impact of exercise on stress levels, the independent variable would be exercise; the dependent variable would be stress.)

The cause must come before the effect. Experiments involve measuring subjects on the dependent variable before exposing them to the independent variable (establishing a baseline). So we would measure the subjects’ level of stress before introducing exercise and then again after the exercise to see if there has been a change in stress levels. (Observational and survey research does not always allow us to look at the timing of these events, which makes understanding causality problematic with these designs.)

The cause must be isolated. The researcher must ensure that no outside, perhaps unknown variables are actually causing the effect we see. The experimental design helps make this possible. In an experiment, we would make sure that our subjects’ diets were held constant throughout the exercise program. Otherwise, diet might really be creating the change in stress level rather than exercise.

A basic experimental design involves beginning with a sample (or subset of a population) and randomly assigning subjects to one of two groups: the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group is the group that is going to be exposed to an independent variable or condition the researcher is introducing as a potential cause of an event. The control group is going to be used for comparison and is going to have the same experience as the experimental group but will not be exposed to the independent variable. After exposing the experimental group to the independent variable, the two groups are measured again to see if a change has occurred. If so, we are in a better position to suggest that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable.

The major advantage of the experimental design is that of helping to establish cause and effect relationships. A disadvantage of this design is the difficulty of translating much of what happens in a laboratory setting into real life.

Case Studies

Case studies involve exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation. Case studies are helpful when investigating unusual situations such as brain trauma or children reared in isolation. And they are often used by clinicians who conduct case studies as part of their normal practice when gathering information about a client or patient coming in for treatment. Case studies can be used to explore areas about which little is known and can provide rich detail about situations or conditions. However, the findings from case studies cannot be generalized or applied to larger populations; this is because cases are not randomly selected and no control group is used for comparison.

Figure 1.7 – Illustrated poster from a classroom describing a case study. 12

Surveys are familiar to most people because they are so widely used. Surveys enhance accessibility to subjects because they can be conducted in person, over the phone, through the mail, or online. A survey involves asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects. In a highly structured survey, subjects are forced to choose from a response set such as “strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree”; or “0, 1-5, 6-10, etc.” This is known as Likert Scale . Surveys are commonly used by sociologists, marketing researchers, political scientists, therapists, and others to gather information on many independent and dependent variables in a relatively short period of time. Surveys typically yield surface information on a wide variety of factors, but may not allow for in-depth understanding of human behavior.

Of course, surveys can be designed in a number of ways. They may include forced choice questions and semi-structured questions in which the researcher allows the respondent to describe or give details about certain events. One of the most difficult aspects of designing a good survey is wording questions in an unbiased way and asking the right questions so that respondents can give a clear response rather than choosing “undecided” each time. Knowing that 30% of respondents are undecided is of little use! So a lot of time and effort should be placed on the construction of survey items. One of the benefits of having forced choice items is that each response is coded so that the results can be quickly entered and analyzed using statistical software. Analysis takes much longer when respondents give lengthy responses that must be analyzed in a different way. Surveys are useful in examining stated values, attitudes, opinions, and reporting on practices. However, they are based on self-report or what people say they do rather than on observation and this can limit accuracy.

Developmental Designs

Developmental designs are techniques used in developmental research (and other areas as well). These techniques try to examine how age, cohort, gender, and social class impact development.

Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal research involves beginning with a group of people who may be of the same age and background, and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time. One of the benefits of this type of research is that people can be followed through time and be compared with them when they were younger.

Figure 1.8 – A longitudinal research design. 13

A problem with this type of research is that it is very expensive and subjects may drop out over time. The Perry Preschool Project which began in 1962 is an example of a longitudinal study that continues to provide data on children’s development.

Cross-sectional Research

Cross-sectional research involves beginning with a sample that represents a cross-section of the population. Respondents who vary in age, gender, ethnicity, and social class might be asked to complete a survey about television program preferences or attitudes toward the use of the Internet. The attitudes of males and females could then be compared, as could attitudes based on age. In cross-sectional research, respondents are measured only once.

Figure 1.9 – A cross-sectional research design. 14

This method is much less expensive than longitudinal research but does not allow the researcher to distinguish between the impact of age and the cohort effect. Different attitudes about the use of technology, for example, might not be altered by a person’s biological age as much as their life experiences as members of a cohort.

Sequential Research

Sequential research involves combining aspects of the previous two techniques; beginning with a cross-sectional sample and measuring them through time.

Figure 1.10 – A sequential research design. 15

This is the perfect model for looking at age, gender, social class, and ethnicity. But the drawbacks of high costs and attrition are here as well. 16

Table 1 .1 – Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Research Designs 17

Consent and Ethics in Research

Research should, as much as possible, be based on participants’ freely volunteered informed consent. For minors, this also requires consent from their legal guardians. This implies a responsibility to explain fully and meaningfully to both the child and their guardians what the research is about and how it will be disseminated. Participants and their legal guardians should be aware of the research purpose and procedures, their right to refuse to participate; the extent to which confidentiality will be maintained; the potential uses to which the data might be put; the foreseeable risks and expected benefits; and that participants have the right to discontinue at any time.

But consent alone does not absolve the responsibility of researchers to anticipate and guard against potential harmful consequences for participants. 18 It is critical that researchers protect all rights of the participants including confidentiality.

Child development is a fascinating field of study – but care must be taken to ensure that researchers use appropriate methods to examine infant and child behavior, use the correct experimental design to answer their questions, and be aware of the special challenges that are part-and-parcel of developmental research. Hopefully, this information helped you develop an understanding of these various issues and to be ready to think more critically about research questions that interest you. There are so many interesting questions that remain to be examined by future generations of developmental scientists – maybe you will make one of the next big discoveries! 19

Another really important framework to use when trying to understand children’s development are theories of development. Let’s explore what theories are and introduce you to some major theories in child development.

Developmental Theories

What is a theory.

Students sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, “Now we are going to look at some theories…” is met with blank stares and other indications that the audience is now lost. But theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; in fact they are proposed explanations for the “how” and “whys” of development. Have you ever wondered, “Why is my 3 year old so inquisitive?” or “Why are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?” Theories can help explain these and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we develop, why we change over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.

A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.

Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them. 20

Let’s take a look at some key theories in Child Development.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O’Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.

Figure 1.11 – Sigmund Freud. 21

Freud’s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.

The id is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.

The ego develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.

The superego represents society’s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.

The personality is thought to develop in response to the child’s ability to learn to manage biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the child may not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud’s stages.

Table 1. 2 – Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

Freud’s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud’s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices. Freud’s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud’s views. 22

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Now, let’s turn to a less controversial theorist, Erik Erikson. Erikson (1902-1994) suggested that our relationships and society’s expectations motivate much of our behavior in his theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was a student of Freud’s but emphasized the importance of the ego, or conscious thought, in determining our actions. In other words, he believed that we are not driven by unconscious urges. We know what motivates us and we consciously think about how to achieve our goals. He is considered the father of developmental psychology because his model gives us a guideline for the entire life span and suggests certain primary psychological and social concerns throughout life.

Figure 1.12 – Erik Erikson. 23

Erikson expanded on his Freud’s by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.

Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living. Here is a brief overview of the eight stages:

Table 1. 3 – Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices. 24

Behaviorism

While Freud and Erikson looked at what was going on in the mind, behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior. 25

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov (1880-1937) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. “This,” he thought, “is not natural!” One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when food hit their palate, but BEFORE the food comes? Of course, what had happened was . . . you tell me. That’s right! The dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The key word here is “learned”. A learned response is called a “conditioned” response.

Figure 1.13 – Ivan Pavlov. 26

Pavlov began to experiment with this concept of classical conditioning . He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus . The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov’s jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).

Let’s think about how classical conditioning is used on us. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.

John B. Watson

John B. Watson (1878-1958) believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He had gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public.

Figure 1.14 – John B. Watson. 27

He tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18 month old boy named “Little Albert”. Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced. Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order.

Operant conditioning, on the other hand, looks at the way the consequences of a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. So let’s look at this a bit more.

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who brought us the principles of operant conditioning, suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment. By focusing on strengthening desirable behavior, we have a greater impact than if we emphasize what is undesirable. Reinforcement is anything that an organism desires and is motivated to obtain.

Figure 1.15 – B. F. Skinner. 28

A reinforcer is something that encourages or promotes a behavior. Some things are natural rewards. They are considered intrinsic or primary because their value is easily understood. Think of what kinds of things babies or animals such as puppies find rewarding.

Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are things that have a value not immediately understood. Their value is indirect. They can be traded in for what is ultimately desired.

The use of positive reinforcement involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior. For example, if I give a child a cookie for cleaning a room, the addition of the cookie makes cleaning more likely in the future. Think of ways in which you positively reinforce others.

Negative reinforcement occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior. For example, I have an alarm clock that makes a very unpleasant, loud sound when it goes off in the morning. As a result, I get up and turn it off. By removing the noise, I am reinforced for getting up. How do you negatively reinforce others?

Punishment is an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful. Punishment is often less effective than reinforcement for several reasons. It doesn’t indicate the desired behavior, it may result in suppressing rather than stopping a behavior, (in other words, the person may not do what is being punished when you’re around, but may do it often when you leave), and a focus on punishment can result in not noticing when the person does well.

Not all behaviors are learned through association or reinforcement. Many of the things we do are learned by watching others. This is addressed in social learning theory.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura (1925-) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation

Figure 1.16 – Albert Bandura. 29

Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we’ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).

Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment. 30

Theories also explore cognitive development and how mental processes change over time.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired to explore children’s ability to think and reason by watching his own children’s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children’s thought differs from that of adults. His interest in this area began when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.

Figure 1.17 – Jean Piaget. 32

Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive equilibrium . This is an agreement or balance between what we sense in the outside world and what we know in our minds. If we experience something that we cannot understand, we try to restore the balance by either changing our thoughts or by altering the experience to fit into what we do understand. Perhaps you meet someone who is very different from anyone you know. How do you make sense of this person? You might use them to establish a new category of people in your mind or you might think about how they are similar to someone else.

A schema or schemes are categories of knowledge. They are like mental boxes of concepts. A child has to learn many concepts. They may have a scheme for “under” and “soft” or “running” and “sour”. All of these are schema. Our efforts to understand the world around us lead us to develop new schema and to modify old ones.

One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know. This is assimilation . So the person we meet who is very different may be understood as being “sort of like my brother” or “his voice sounds a lot like yours.” Or a new food may be assimilated when we determine that it tastes like chicken!

Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind. We can make a cognitive accommodation to this new experience by adding new schema. This food is unlike anything I’ve tasted before. I now have a new category of foods that are bitter-sweet in flavor, for instance. This is accommodation . Do you accommodate or assimilate more frequently? Children accommodate more frequently as they build new schema. Adults tend to look for similarity in their experience and assimilate. They may be less inclined to think “outside the box.”

Piaget suggested different ways of understanding that are associated with maturation. He divided this into four stages:

Table 1.4 – Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget has been criticized for overemphasizing the role that physical maturation plays in cognitive development and in underestimating the role that culture and interaction (or experience) plays in cognitive development. Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages. Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances. 33

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s but became more widely known in the 1980s. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development . 34 His belief was that development occurred first through children’s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning. 35

Figure 1.18- Lev Vygotsky. 36

Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food. Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you all through the process. You gave them assistance when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go. This is scaffolding and can be seen demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance. You can see how Vygotsky would be very popular with modern day educators. 37

Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky concentrated more on the child’s immediate social and cultural environment and his or her interactions with adults and peers. While Piaget saw the child as actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it, Vygotsky saw the child as more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child’s needs and abilities. 38

Like Vygotsky’s, Bronfenbrenner looked at the social influences on learning and development.

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) offers us one of the most comprehensive theories of human development. Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and learning theorists and believed that all of those theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context. What is being taught and how society interprets situations depends on who is involved in the life of a child and on when and where a child lives.

Figure 1.19 – Urie Bronfenbrenner. 39

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model explains the direct and indirect influences on an individual’s development.

Table 1.5 – Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

For example, in order to understand a student in math, we can’t simply look at that individual and what challenges they face directly with the subject. We have to look at the interactions that occur between teacher and child. Perhaps the teacher needs to make modifications as well. The teacher may be responding to regulations made by the school, such as new expectations for students in math or constraints on time that interfere with the teacher’s ability to instruct. These new demands may be a response to national efforts to promote math and science deemed important by political leaders in response to relations with other countries at a particular time in history.

Figure 1.20 – Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. 40

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model challenges us to go beyond the individual if we want to understand human development and promote improvements. 41

In this chapter we looked at:

underlying principles of development

the five periods of development

three issues in development

Various methods of research

important theories that help us understand development

Next, we are going to be examining where we all started with conception, heredity, and prenatal development.

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Understanding Developmental Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Change is inevitable. As humans, we constantly grow throughout our lifespans, from conception to death. The field of developmental psychology explores the behavioral, emotional, physical, and cognitive changes that happen as people age.

Psychologists strive to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. While many of these changes are normal and expected, they can still pose challenges that people sometimes need extra assistance to manage.

The principles of normative development help professionals spot potential problems and provide early intervention for better outcomes. Developmental psychologists can work with people of all ages to address roadblocks and support growth, although some choose to specialize in a specific age group such as childhood, adulthood, or old age.

What Is Developmental Psychology?

Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on how people grow and change over the course of a lifetime.

Those who specialize in this field are not just concerned with the physical changes that occur as people grow; they also look at the social, emotional, and cognitive development that occurs throughout life.

Some of the many issues developmental psychologists assist with include:

Cognitive development during childhood and throughout life
Developmental challenges and learning disabilities
Emotional development
Language acquisition
Moral reasoning
Motor skill development
Personality development
Self-awareness and self-concept
Social and cultural influences on child development

These professionals spend a great deal of time investigating and observing how these processes occur under normal circumstances, but they are also interested in learning about things that can disrupt developmental processes.

By better understanding how and why people change and grow, developmental psychologists help people live up to their full potential. Understanding the course of normal human development and recognizing potential problems early on can prevent difficulties with depression, low self-esteem, frustration, and low achievement in school.

Developmental Psychology Theories

Developmental psychologists often utilize a number of theories to think about different aspects of human development. For example, a psychologist assessing intellectual development in a child might consider Piaget's theory of cognitive development , which outlined the key stages that children go through as they learn.

A psychologist working with a child might also want to consider how the child's relationships with caregivers influences his or her behaviors, and so turn to Bowlby's theory of attachment .

Psychologists are also interested in looking at how social relationships influence the development of both children and adults. Erikson's theory of psychosocial development and Vygotsky's theory of sociocultural development are two popular theoretical frameworks that address the social influences on the developmental process.

Each approach tends to stress different aspects of development such as mental, social, or parental influences on how children grow and progress .

When to See a Developmental Psychologist

While development tends to follow a fairly predictable pattern, there are times when things might go off course. Parents often focus on what are known as developmental milestones, which represent abilities that most children tend to display by a certain point in development. These typically focus on one of four different areas:

Physical milestones
Cognitive milestones
Social/emotional milestones
Communication milestones

For example, walking is one physical milestone that most children achieve sometime between the ages of 9 and 15 months. If a child is not walking or attempting to walk by 16 to 18 months, parents might consider consulting with their family physician to determine if a developmental issue might be present.

While all children develop at different rates, when a child fails to meet certain milestones by a certain age, there may be cause for concern.

By being aware of these milestones, parents can seek assistance, and healthcare professionals can offer interventions that can help kids overcome developmental delays.

These professionals often evaluate children to determine if a developmental delay might be present, or they might work with elderly patients who are facing health concerns associated with old age such as cognitive declines, physical struggles, emotional difficulties, or degenerative brain disorders.

Developmental psychologists can provide support to individuals at all points of life who may be facing developmental issues or problems related to aging.

Developmental Psychology Stages

As you might imagine, developmental psychologists often break down development according to various phases of life. Each of these periods of development represents a time when different milestones are typically achieved.

People may face particular challenges at each point, and developmental psychologists can often help people who might be struggling with problems to get back on track.

Prenatal Development

The prenatal period is of interest to developmental psychologists who seek to understand how the earliest influences on development can impact later growth during childhood. Psychologists may look at how primary reflexes emerge before birth, how fetuses respond to stimuli in the womb, and the sensations and perceptions that fetuses are capable of detecting prior to birth.

Developmental psychologists may also look at potential problems such as Down syndrome, maternal drug use, and inherited diseases that might have an impact on the course of future development.

Early Childhood Development

The period from infancy through early childhood is a time of remarkable growth and change. Developmental psychologists look at things such as the physical, cognitive, and emotional growth that takes place during this critical period of development.

In addition to providing interventions for potential developmental problems at this point, psychologists are also focused on helping kids achieve their full potential . Parents and healthcare experts are often on the lookout to ensure that kids are growing properly, receiving adequate nutrition, and achieving cognitive milestones appropriate for their age.

Middle Childhood Development

This period of development is marked by both physical maturation and the increased importance of social influences as children make their way through elementary school.

Kids begin to make their mark on the world as they form friendships, gain competency through schoolwork, and continue to build their unique sense of self. Parents may seek the assistance of a developmental psychologist to help kids deal with potential problems that might arise at this age including social, emotional, and mental health issues.

Adolescent Development

The teenage years are often the subject of considerable interest as children experience the psychological turmoil and transition that often accompanies this period of development. Psychologists such as Erik Erikson were especially interested in looking at how navigating this period leads to identity formation .

At this age, kids often test limits and explore new identities as they explore the question of who they are and who they want to be. Developmental psychologists can help support teens as they deal with some of the challenging issues unique to the adolescent period including puberty, emotional turmoil, and social pressure.

Early Adult Development

This period of life is often marked by forming and maintaining relationships. Critical milestones during early adulthood may include forming bonds, intimacy, close friendships, and starting a family.

Those who can build and sustain such relationships tend to experience connectedness and social support while those who struggle with such relationships may be left feeling alienated and lonely .

People facing such issues might seek the assistance of a developmental psychologist in order to build healthier relationships and combat emotional difficulties.

Middle Adult Development

This stage of life tends to center on developing a sense of purpose and contributing to society. Erikson described this as the conflict between generativity and stagnation .

Those who engage in the world, contribute things that will outlast them, and leave a mark on the next generation emerge with a sense of purpose. Activities such as careers, families, group memberships, and community involvement are all things that can contribute to this feeling of generativity.

Older Adult Development

The senior years are often viewed as a period of poor health, yet many older adults are capable of remaining active and busy well into their 80s and 90s. Increased health concerns mark this period of development, and some individuals may experience mental declines related to dementia.

Theorist Erik Erikson also viewed the elder years as a time of reflection back on life . Those who are able to look back and see a life well-lived emerge with a sense of wisdom and readiness to face the end of their lives, while those who look back with regret may be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Developmental psychologists may work with elderly patients to help them cope with issues related to the aging process.

Diagnosing Developmental Issues

To determine if a developmental problem is present, a psychologist or other highly trained professional may administer either a developmental screening or evaluation.

For children, such an evaluation typically involves interviews with parents and other caregivers to learn about behaviors they may have observed, a review of a child's medical history, and standardized testing to measure functioning in terms of communication, social/emotional skills, physical/motor development, and cognitive skills.

If a problem is found to be present, the patient may then be referred to a specialist such as a speech-language pathologist, physical therapist, or occupational therapist.

A Word From Verywell

Receiving a diagnosis of a developmental issue can often feel both confusing and frightening, particularly when it is your child who is affected. Once you or your loved one has received a diagnosis of a developmental issue, spend some time learning as much as you can about the diagnosis and available treatments.

Prepare a list of questions and concerns you may have and discuss these issues with your doctor, developmental psychologist, and other healthcare professionals who may be part of the treatment team. By taking an active role in the process, you will feel better informed and equipped to tackle the next steps in the treatment process.

The three major developmental psychology issues are focused on physical development, cognitive development, and emotional development.

The seven major stages of development are:

Infant development
Toddler development
Preschool development
Middle childhood development
Adolescent development
Early adult development
Older adult development

The principles of developmental psychology outlined by Paul Baltes suggest that development is (1) lifelong, (2) multidimensional, (3) multidirectional, (4) involves gains and losses, (5) plastic, and that developmental psychology is (6) multidisciplinary.

Four developmental issues that psychologists explore are focused on the relative contributions of:

Nature vs. nurture : Is development primarily influenced by genetics or environmental factors?
Early vs. later experience : Do early childhood events matter more than events that happen later in life?
Continuity vs discontinuity : Is developmental change a gradual process or do changes happen suddenly and follow a specific course?
Abnormal behavior vs. individual differences : What represents abnormal development and what can be considered individual variations in development?

Keenan T, Evans S. An Introduction to Child Development . 2nd ed. SAGE; 2009.

Erikson EH. (1963).Childhood and Society. (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
Erikson EH. (1968).Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care

Published: 29 October 2021
Volume 51 , pages 15–30, ( 2023 )

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Olivia N. Saracho ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4108-7790 1

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Developmental theorists use their research to generate philosophies on children’s development. They organize and interpret data based on a scheme to develop their theory. A theory refers to a systematic statement of principles related to observed phenomena and their relationship to each other. A theory of child development looks at the children's growth and behavior and interprets it. It suggests elements in the child's genetic makeup and the environmental conditions that influence development and behavior and how these elements are related. Many developmental theories offer insights about how the performance of individuals is stimulated, sustained, directed, and encouraged. Psychologists have established several developmental theories. Many different competing theories exist, some dealing with only limited domains of development, and are continuously revised. This article describes the developmental theories and their founders who have had the greatest influence on the fields of child development, early childhood education, and care. The following sections discuss some influences on the individuals’ development, such as theories, theorists, theoretical conceptions, and specific principles. It focuses on five theories that have had the most impact: maturationist, constructivist, behavioral, psychoanalytic, and ecological. Each theory offers interpretations on the meaning of children's development and behavior. Although the theories are clustered collectively into schools of thought, they differ within each school.

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The author is grateful to Mary Jalongo for her expert editing and her keen eye for the smallest details.

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Saracho, O.N. Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care. Early Childhood Educ J 51 , 15–30 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01271-5

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Issue Date : January 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01271-5

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Child Growth and Development

(12 reviews)

Jennifer Paris

Antoinette Ricardo

Dawn Rymond

Alexa Johnson

Last Update: 2019

Publisher: College of the Canyons

Language: English

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Reviewed by Mistie Potts, Assistant Professor, Manchester University on 11/22/22

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This text covers some topics with more detail than necessary (e.g., detailing infant urination) yet it lacks comprehensiveness in a few areas that may need revision. For example, the text discusses issues with vaccines and offers a 2018 vaccine schedule for infants. The text brushes over “commonly circulated concerns” regarding vaccines and dispels these with statements about the small number of antigens a body receives through vaccines versus the numerous antigens the body normally encounters. With changes in vaccines currently offered, shifting CDC viewpoints on recommendations, and changing requirements for vaccine regulations among vaccine producers, the authors will need to revisit this information to comprehensively address all recommended vaccines, potential risks, and side effects among other topics in the current zeitgeist of our world.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

At face level, the content shared within this book appears accurate. It would be a great task to individually check each in-text citation and determine relevance, credibility and accuracy. It is notable that many of the citations, although this text was updated in 2019, remain outdated. Authors could update many of the in-text citations for current references. For example, multiple in-text citations refer to the March of Dimes and many are dated from 2012 or 2015. To increase content accuracy, authors should consider revisiting their content and current citations to determine if these continue to be the most relevant sources or if revisions are necessary. Finally, readers could benefit from a reference list in this textbook. With multiple in-text citations throughout the book, it is surprising no reference list is provided.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

This text would be ideal for an introduction to child development course and could possibly be used in a high school dual credit or beginning undergraduate course or certificate program such as a CDA. The outdated citations and formatting in APA 6th edition cry out for updating. Putting those aside, the content provides a solid base for learners interested in pursuing educational domains/careers relevant to child development. Certain issues (i.e., romantic relationships in adolescence, sexual orientation, and vaccination) may need to be revisited and updated, or instructors using this text will need to include supplemental information to provide students with current research findings and changes in these areas.

Clarity rating: 4

The text reads like an encyclopedia entry. It provides bold print headers and brief definitions with a few examples. Sprinkled throughout the text are helpful photographs with captions describing the images. The words chosen in the text are relatable to most high school or undergraduate level readers and do not burden the reader with expert level academic vocabulary. The layout of the text and images is simple and repetitive with photographs complementing the text entries. This allows the reader to focus their concentration on comprehension rather than deciphering a more confusing format. An index where readers could go back and search for certain terms within the textbook would be helpful. Additionally, a glossary of key terms would add clarity to this textbook.

Consistency rating: 5

Chapters appear in a similar layout throughout the textbook. The reader can anticipate the flow of the text and easily identify important terms. Authors utilized familiar headings in each chapter providing consistency to the reader.

Modularity rating: 4

Given the repetitive structure and the layout of the topics by developmental issues (physical, social emotional) the book could be divided into sections or modules. It would be easier if infancy and fetal development were more clearly distinct and stages of infant development more clearly defined, however the book could still be approached in sections or modules.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The text is organized in a logical way when we consider our own developmental trajectories. For this reason, readers learning about these topics can easily relate to the flow of topics as they are presented throughout the book. However, when attempting to find certain topics, the reader must consider what part of development that topic may inhabit and then turn to the portion of the book aligned with that developmental issue. To ease the organization and improve readability as a reference book, authors could implement an index in the back of the book. With an index by topic, readers could quickly turn to pages covering specific topics of interest. Additionally, the text structure could be improved by providing some guiding questions or reflection prompts for readers. This would provide signals for readers to stop and think about their comprehension of the material and would also benefit instructors using this textbook in classroom settings.

Interface rating: 4

The online interface for this textbook did not hinder readability or comprehension of the text. All information including photographs, charts, and diagrams appeared to be clearly depicted within this interface. To ease reading this text online authors should create a live table of contents with bookmarks to the beginning of chapters. This book does not offer such links and therefore the reader must scroll through the pdf to find each chapter or topic.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No grammatical errors were found in reviewing this textbook.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

Cultural diversity is represented throughout this text by way of the topics described and the images selected. The authors provide various perspectives that individuals or groups from multiple cultures may resonate with including parenting styles, developmental trajectories, sexuality, approaches to feeding infants, and the social emotional development of children. This text could expand in the realm of cultural diversity by addressing current issues regarding many of the hot topics in our society. Additionally, this textbook could include other types of cultural diversity aside from geographical location (e.g., religion-based or ability-based differences).

While this text lacks some of the features I would appreciate as an instructor (e.g., study guides, review questions, prompts for critical thinking/reflection) and it does not contain an index or glossary, it would be appropriate as an accessible resource for an introduction to child development. Students could easily access this text and find reliable and easily readable information to build basic content knowledge in this domain.

Reviewed by Caroline Taylor, Instructor, Virginia Tech on 12/30/21

Each chapter is comprehensively described and organized by the period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped together, they are logically organized and discussed within each chapter. One helpful addition that would largely... read more

From my reading, the content is accurate and unbiased. However, it is difficult to confidently respond due to a lack of references. It is sometimes clear where the information came from, but when I followed one link to a citation the link was to another textbook. There are many citations embedded within the text, but it would be beneficial (and helpful for further reading) to have a list of references at the end of each chapter. The references used within the text are also older, so implementing updated references would also enhance accuracy. If used for a course, instructors will need to supplement the textbook readings with other materials.

This text can be implemented for many semesters to come, though as previously discussed, further readings and updated materials can be used to supplement this text. It provides a good foundation for students to read prior to lectures.

Clarity rating: 5

This text is unique in its writing style for a textbook. It is written in a way that is easily accessible to students and is also engaging. The text doesn't overly use jargon or provide complex, long-winded examples. The examples used are clear and concise. Many key terms are in bold which is helpful to the reader.

For the terms that are in bold, it would be helpful to have a definition of the term listed separately on the page within the side margins, as well as include the definition in a glossary at the end.

Each period of development is consistently described by first addressing physical development, cognitive development, and then social-emotional development.

Modularity rating: 5

This text is easily divisible to assign to students. There were few (if any) large blocks of texts without subheadings, graphs, or images. This feature not only improves modularity but also promotes engagement with the reading.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The organization of the text flows logically. I appreciate the order of the topics, which are clearly described in the first chapter by each period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped into one period of development, development is appropriately described for both infants and toddlers. Key theories are discussed for infants and toddlers and clearly presented for the appropriate age.

Interface rating: 5

There were no significant interface issues. No images or charts were distorted.

It would be helpful to the reader if the table of contents included a navigation option, but this doesn't detract from the overall interface.

I did not see any grammatical errors.

This text includes some cultural examples across each area of development, such as differences in first words, parenting styles, personalities, and attachments styles (to list a few). The photos included throughout the text are inclusive of various family styles, races, and ethnicities. This text could implement more cultural components, but does include some cultural examples. Again, instructors can supplement more cultural examples to bolster the reading.

This text is a great introductory text for students. The text is written in a fun, approachable way for students. Though the text is not as interactive (e.g., further reading suggestions, list of references, discussion points at the end of each chapter, etc.), this is a great resource to cover development that is open access.

Reviewed by Charlotte Wilinsky, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Holyoke Community College on 6/29/21

This text is very thorough in its coverage of child and adolescent development. Important theories and frameworks in developmental psychology are discussed in appropriate depth. There is no glossary of terms at the end of the text, but I do not... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The citations throughout the textbook help to ensure its accuracy. However, the text could benefit from additional references to recent empirical studies in the developmental field.

It seems as if updates to this textbook will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement given how well organized the text is and its numerous sections and subsections. For example, a recent narrative review was published on the effects of corporal punishment (Heilmann et al., 2021). The addition of a reference to this review, and other more recent work on spanking and other forms of corporal punishment, could serve to update the text's section on spanking (pp. 223-224; p. 418).

The text is very clear and easily understandable.

Consistency rating: 4

There do not appear to be any inconsistencies in the text. The lack of a glossary at the end of the text may be a limitation in this area, however, since glossaries can help with consistent use of language or clarify when different terms are used.

This textbook does an excellent job of dividing up and organizing its chapters. For example, chapters start with bulleted objectives and end with a bulleted conclusion section. Within each chapter, there are many headings and subheadings, making it easy for the reader to methodically read through the chapter or quickly identify a section of interest. This would also assist in assigning reading on specific topics. Additionally, the text is broken up by relevant photos, charts, graphs, and diagrams, depending on the topic being discussed.

This textbook takes a chronological approach. The broad developmental stages covered include, in order, birth and the newborn, infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Starting with the infancy and toddlerhood stage, physical, cognitive, and social emotional development are covered.

There are no interface issues with this textbook. It is easily accessible as a PDF file. Images are clear and there is no distortion apparent.

I did not notice any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

This text does a good job of including content relevant to different cultures and backgrounds. One example of this is in the "Cultural Influences on Parenting Styles" subsection (p. 222). Here the authors discuss how socioeconomic status and cultural background can affect parenting styles. Including references to specific studies could further strengthen this section, and, more broadly, additional specific examples grounded in research could help to fortify similar sections focused on cultural differences.

Overall, I think this is a terrific resource for a child and adolescent development course. It is user-friendly and comprehensive.

Reviewed by Lois Pribble, Lecturer, University of Oregon on 6/14/21

This book provides a really thorough overview of the different stages of development, key theories of child development and in-depth information about developmental domains. read more

This book provides a really thorough overview of the different stages of development, key theories of child development and in-depth information about developmental domains.

The book provides accurate information, emphasizes using data based on scientific research, and is stated in a non-biased fashion.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The book is relevant and provides up-to-date information. There are areas where updates will need to be made as research and practices change (e.g., autism information), but it is written in a way where updates should be easy to make as needed.

The book is clear and easy to read. It is well organized.

Good consistency in format and language.

It would be very easy to assign students certain chapters to read based on content such as theory, developmental stages, or developmental domains.

Very well organized.

Clear and easy to follow.

I did not find any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

General content related to culture was infused throughout the book. The pictures used were of children and families from a variety of cultures.

This book provides a very thorough introduction to child development, emphasizing child development theories, stages of development, and developmental domains.

Reviewed by Nancy Pynchon, Adjunct Faculty, Middlesex Community College on 4/14/21

Overall this textbook is comprehensive of all aspects of children's development. It provided a brief introduction to the different relevant theorists of childhood development . read more

Overall this textbook is comprehensive of all aspects of children's development. It provided a brief introduction to the different relevant theorists of childhood development .

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Most of the information is accurately written, there is some outdated references, for example: Many adults can remember being spanked as a child. This method of discipline continues to be endorsed by the majority of parents (Smith, 2012). It seems as though there may be more current research on parent's methods of discipline as this information is 10 years old. (page 223).

The content was current with the terminology used.

Easy to follow the references made in the chapters.

Each chapter covers the different stages of development and includes the theories of each stage with guided information for each age group.

The formatting of the book makes it reader friendly and easy to follow the content.

Very consistent from chapter to chapter.

Provided a lot of charts and references within each chapter.

Formatted and written concisely.

Included several different references to diversity in the chapters.

There was no glossary at the end of the book and there were no vignettes or reflective thinking scenarios in the chapters. Overall it was a well written book on child development which covered infancy through adolescents.

Reviewed by Deborah Murphy, Full Time Instructor, Rogue Community College on 1/11/21

The text is excellent for its content and presentation. The only criticism is that neither an index nor a glossary are provided. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The text is excellent for its content and presentation. The only criticism is that neither an index nor a glossary are provided.

The material seems very accurate and current. It is well written. It is very professionally done and is accessible to students.

This text addresses topics that will serve this field in positive ways that should be able to address the needs of students and instructors for the next several years.

Complex concepts are delivered accurately and are still accessible for students . Figures and tables complement the text . Terms are explained and are embedded in the text, not in a glossary. I do think indices and glossaries are helpful tools. Terminology is highlighted with bold fonts to accentuate definitions.

Yes the text is consistent in its format. As this is a text on Child Development it consistently addresses each developmental domain and then repeats the sequence for each age group in childhood. It is very logically presented.

Yes this text is definitely divisible. This text addresses development from conception to adolescents. For the community college course that my department wants to use it is very adaptable. Our course ends at middle school age development; our courses are offered on a quarter system. This text is adaptable for the content and our term time schedule.

This text book flows very clearly from Basic principles to Conception. It then divides each stage of development into Physical, Cognitive and Social Emotional development. Those concepts and information are then repeated for each stage of development. e.g. Infants and Toddler-hood, Early Childhood, and Middle Childhood. It is very clearly presented.

It is very professionally presented. It is quite attractive in its presentation .

I saw no errors

The text appears to be aware of being diverse and inclusive both in its content and its graphics. It discusses culture and represents a variety of family structures representing contemporary society.

It is wonderfully researched. It will serve our students well. It is comprehensive and constructed very well. I have enjoyed getting familiar with this text and am looking forward to using it with my students in this upcoming term. The authors have presented a valuable, well written book that will be an addition to our field. Their scholarly efforts are very apparent. All of this text earns high grades in my evaluation. My only criticism is, as mentioned above, is that there is not a glossary or index provided. All citations are embedded in the text.

Reviewed by Ida Weldon, Adjunct Professor, Bunker Hill Community College on 6/30/20

The overall comprehensiveness was strong. However, I do think some sections should have been discussed with more depth read more

The overall comprehensiveness was strong. However, I do think some sections should have been discussed with more depth

Most of the information was accurate. However, I think more references should have been provided to support some claims made in the text.

The material appeared to be relevant. However, it did not provide guidance for teachers in addressing topics of social justice, equality that most children will ask as they try to make sense of their environment.

The information was presented (use of language) that added to its understand-ability. However, I think more discussions and examples would be helpful.

The text appeared to be consistent. The purpose and intent of the text was understandable throughout.

The text can easily be divided into smaller reading sections or restructured to meet the needs of the professor.

The organization of the text adds to its consistency. However, some sections can be included in others decreasing the length of the text.

Interface issues were not visible.

The text appears to be free of grammatical errors.

While cultural differences are mentioned, more time can be given to helping teachers understand and create a culturally and ethnically focused curriculum.

The textbook provides a comprehensive summary of curriculum planing for preschool age children. However, very few chapters address infant/toddlers.

Reviewed by Veronica Harris, Adjunct Faculty, Northern Essex Community College on 6/28/20

This text explores child development from genetics, prenatal development and birth through adolescence. The text does not contain a glossary. However, the Index is clear. The topics are sequential. The text addresses the domains of physical, cognitive and social emotional development. It is thorough and easy to read. The theories of development are inclusive to give the reader a broader understanding on how the domains of development are intertwined. The content is comprehensive, well - researched and sequential. Each chapter begins with the learning outcomes for the upcoming material and closes with an outline of the topics covered. Furthermore, a look into the next chapter is discussed.

The content is accurate, well - researched and unbiased. An historical context is provided putting content into perspective for the student. It appears to be unbiased.

Updated and accurate research is evidenced in the text. The text is written and organized in such a way that updates can be easily implemented. The author provides theoretical approaches in the psychological domains with examples along with real - life scenarios providing meaningful references invoking understanding by the student.

The text is written with clarity and is easily understood. The topics are sequential, comprehensive and and inclusive to all students. This content is presented in a cohesive, engaging, scholarly manner. The terminology used is appropriate to students studying Developmental Psychology spanning from birth through adolescents.

The book's approach to the content is consistent and well organized. . Theoretical contexts are presented throughout the text.

The text contains subheadings chunking the reading sections which can be assigned at various points throughout the course. The content flows seamlessly from one idea to the next. Written chronologically and subdividing each age span into the domains of psychology provides clarity without overwhelming the reader.

The book begins with an overview of child development. Next, the text is divided logically into chapters which focus on each developmental age span. The domains of each age span are addressed separately in subsequent chapters. Each chapter outlines the chapter objectives and ends with an outline of the topics covered and share an idea of what is to follow.

Pages load clearly and consistently without distortion of text, charts and tables. Navigating through the pages is met with ease.

The text is written with no grammatical or spelling errors.

The text did not present with biases or insensitivity to cultural differences. Photos are inclusive of various cultures.

The thoroughness, clarity and comprehensiveness promote an approach to Developmental Psychology that stands alongside the best of texts in this area. I am confident that this text encompasses all the required elements in this area.

Reviewed by Kathryn Frazier, Assistant Professor, Worcester State University on 6/23/20

This is a highly comprehensive, chronological text that covers genetics and conception through adolescence. All major topics and developmental milestones in each age range are given adequate space and consideration. The authors take care to summarize debates and controversies, when relevant and include a large amount of applied / practical material. For example, beyond infant growth patterns and motor milestone, the infancy/toddler chapters spend several pages on the mechanics of car seat safety, best practices for introducing solid foods (and the rationale), and common concerns like diaper rash. In addition to being generally useful information for students who are parents, or who may go on to be parents, this text takes care to contextualize the psychological research in the lived experiences of children and their parents. This is an approach that I find highly valuable. While the text does not contain an index, the search & find capacity of OER to make an index a deal-breaker for me.

The text includes accurate information that is well-sourced. Relevant debates, controversies and historical context is also provided throughout which results in a rich, balanced text.

This text provides an excellent summary of classic and updated developmental work. While the majority of the text is skewed toward dated, classic work, some updated research is included. Instructors may wish to supplement this text with more recent work, particularly that which includes diverse samples and specifically addresses topics of class, race, gender and sexual orientation (see comment below regarding cultural aspects).

The text is written in highly accessible language, free of jargon. Of particular value are the many author-generated tables which clearly organize and display critical information. The authors have also included many excellent figures, which reinforce and visually organize the information presented.

This text is consistent in its use of terminology. Balanced discussion of multiple theoretical frameworks are included throughout, with adequate space provided to address controversies and debates.

The text is clearly organized and structured. Each chapter is self-contained. In places where the authors do refer to prior or future chapters (something that I find helps students contextualize their reading), a complete discussion of the topic is included. While this may result in repetition for students reading the text from cover to cover, the repetition of some content is not so egregious that it outweighs the benefit of a flexible, modular textbook.

Excellent, clear organization. This text closely follows the organization of published textbooks that I have used in the past for both lifespan and child development. As this text follows a chronological format, a discussion of theory and methods, and genetics and prenatal growth is followed by sections devoted to a specific age range: infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood (preschool), middle childhood and adolescence. Each age range is further split into three chapters that address each developmental domain: physical, cognitive and social emotional development.

All text appears clearly and all images, tables and figures are positioned correctly and free of distortion.

The text contains no spelling or grammatical errors.

While this text provides adequate discussion of gender and cross-cultural influences on development, it is not sufficient. This is not a problem unique to this text, and is indeed a critique I have of all developmental textbooks. In particular, in my view this text does not adequately address the role of race, class or sexual orientation on development.

All in all, this is a comprehensive and well-written textbook that very closely follows the format of standard chronologically-organized child development textbooks. This is a fantastic alternative for those standard texts, with the added benefit of language that is more accessible, and content that is skewed toward practical applications.

Reviewed by Tony Philcox, Professor, Valencia College on 6/4/20

The subject of this book is Child Growth and Development and as such covers all areas and ideas appropriate for this subject. This book has an appropriate index. The author starts out with a comprehensive overview of Child Development in the Introduction. The principles of development were delineated and were thoroughly presented in a very understandable way. Nine theories were presented which gave the reader an understanding of the many authors who have contributed to Child Development. A good backdrop to start a conversation. This book discusses the early beginnings starting with Conception, Hereditary and Prenatal stages which provides a foundation for the future developmental stages such as infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence. The three domains of developmental psychology – physical, cognitive and social emotional are entertained with each stage of development. This book is thoroughly researched and is written in a way to not overwhelm. Language is concise and easily understood.

This book is a very comprehensive and detailed account of Child Growth and Development. The author leaves no stone unturned. It has the essential elements addressed in each of the developmental stages. Thoroughly researched and well thought out. The content covered was accurate, error-free and unbiased.

The content is very relevant to the subject of Child Growth and Development. It is comprehensive and thoroughly researched. The author has included a number of relevant subjects that highlight the three domains of developmental psychology, physical, cognitive and social emotional. Topics are included that help the student see the relevancy of the theories being discussed. Any necessary updates along the way will be very easy and straightforward to insert.

The text is easily understood. From the very beginning of this book, the author has given the reader a very clear message that does not overwhelm but pulls the reader in for more information. The very first chapter sets a tone for what is to come and entices the reader to learn more. Well organized and jargon appropriate for students in a Developmental Psychology class.

This book has all the ingredients necessary to address Child Growth and Development. Even at the very beginning of the book the backdrop is set for future discussions on the stages of development. Theorists are mentioned and embellished throughout the book. A very consistent and organized approach.

This book has all the features you would want. There are textbooks that try to cover too much in one chapter. In this book the sections are clearly identified and divided into smaller and digestible parts so the reader can easily comprehend the topic under discussion. This book easily flows from one subject to the next. Blocks of information are being built, one brick on top of another as you move through the domains of development and the stages of development.

This book starts out with a comprehensive overview in the introduction to child development. From that point forward it is organized into the various stages of development and flows well. As mentioned previously the information is organized into building blocks as you move from one stage to the next.

The text does not contain any significant interface issued. There are no navigation problems. There is nothing that was detected that would distract or confuse the reader.

There are no grammatical errors that were identified.

This book was not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

This book is clearly a very comprehensive approach to Child Growth and Development. It contains all the essential ingredients that you would expect in a discussion on this subject. At the very outset this book went into detail on the principles of development and included all relevant theories. I was never left with wondering why certain topics were left out. This is undoubtedly a well written, organized and systematic approach to the subject.

Reviewed by Eleni Makris, Associate Professor, Northeastern Illinois University on 5/6/20

This book is organized by developmental stages (infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence). The book begins with an overview of conception and prenatal human development. An entire chapter is devoted to birth and expectations of newborns. In addition, there is a consistency to each developmental stage. For infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence, the textbook covers physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development for each stage. While some textbooks devote entire chapters to themes such as physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development and write about how children change developmentally in each stage this book focuses on human stages of development. The book is written in clear language and is easy to understand.

There is so much information in this book that it is a very good overview of child development. The content is error-free and unbiased. In some spots it briefly introduces multicultural traditions, beliefs, and attitudes. It is accurate for the citations that have been provided. However, it could benefit from updating to research that has been done recently. I believe that if the instructor supplements this text with current peer-reviewed research and organizations that are implementing what the book explains, this book will serve as a strong source of information.

While the book covers a very broad range of topics, many times the citations have not been updated and are often times dated. The content and information that is provided is correct and accurate, but this text can certainly benefit from having the latest research added. It does, however, include a great many topics that serve to inform students well.

The text is very easy to understand. It is written in a way that first and second year college students will find easy to understand. It also introduces students to current child and adolescent behavior that is important to be understood on an academic level. It does this in a comprehensive and clear manner.

This book is very consistent. The chapters are arranged by developmental stage. Even within each chapter there is a consistency of theorists. For example, each chapter begins with Piaget, then moves to Vygotsky, etc. This allows for great consistency among chapters. If I as the instructor decide to have students write about Piaget and his development theories throughout the life span, students will easily know that they can find this information in the first few pages of each chapter.

Certainly instructors will find the modularity of this book easy. Within each chapter the topics are self-contained and extensive. As I read the textbook, I envisioned myself perhaps not assigning entire chapters but assigning specific topics/modules and pages that students can read. I believe the modules can be used as a strong foundational reading to introduce students to concepts and then have students read supplemental information from primary sources or journals to reinforce what they have read in the chapter.

The organization of the book is clear and flows nicely. From the table of context students understand how the book is organized. The textbook would be even stronger if there was a more detailed table of context which highlights what topics are covered within each of the chapter. There is so much information contained within each chapter that it would be very beneficial to both students and instructor to quickly see what content and topics are covered in each chapter.

The interface is fine and works well.

The text is free from grammatical errors.

While the textbook does introduce some multicultural differences and similarities, it does not delve deeply into multiracial and multiethnic issues within America. It also offers very little comment on differences that occur among urban, rural, and suburban experiences. In addition, while it does talk about maturation and sexuality, LGBTQ issues could be more prominent.

Overall I enjoyed this text and will strongly consider using it in my course. The focus is clearly on human development and has very little emphasis on education. However, I intend to supplement this text with additional readings and videos that will show concrete examples of the concepts which are introduced in the text. It is a strong and worthy alternative to high-priced textbooks.

Reviewed by Mohsin Ahmed Shaikh, Assistant Professor, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania on 9/5/19

The content extensively discusses various aspects of emotional, cognitive, physical and social development. Examples and case studies are really informative. Some of the areas that can be elaborated more are speech-language and hearing development. Because these components contribute significantly in development of communication abilities and self-image.

Content covered is pretty accurate. I think the details impressive.

The content is relevant and is based on the established knowledge of the field.

Easy to read and follow.

The terminology used is consistent and appropriate.

I think of using various sections of this book in some of undergraduate and graduate classes.

The flow of the book is logical and easy to follow.

There are no interface issues. Images, charts and diagram are clear and easy to understand.

Well written

The text appropriate and do not use any culturally insensitive language.

I really like that this is a book with really good information which is available in open text book library.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development
Chapter 2: Conception, Heredity, & Prenatal Development
Chapter 3: Birth and the Newborn
Chapter 4: Physical Development in Infancy & Toddlerhood
Chapter 5: Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Chapter 6: Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Chapter 7: Physical Development in Early Childhood
Chapter 8: Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
Chapter 9: Social Emotional Development in Early Childhood
Chapter 10: Middle Childhood - Physical Development
Chapter 11: Middle Childhood – Cognitive Development
Chapter 12: Middle Childhood - Social Emotional Development
Chapter 13: Adolescence – Physical Development
Chapter 14: Adolescence – Cognitive Development
Chapter 15: Adolescence – Social Emotional Development

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn. We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence.

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CDC’s Developmental Milestones

CDC’s milestones and parent tips have been updated and new checklist ages have been added (15 and 30 months). For more information about the updates to CDC’s developmental milestones, please review the Pediatrics journal article and these important key points .

Skills such as taking a first step, smiling for the first time, and waving “bye bye” are called developmental milestones. Children reach milestones in how they play, learn, speak, act, and move.

Click on the age of your child to see the milestones:

Milestone checklists translated into other languages
Print the milestone checklists (PDF) [4 MB, 24 Pages, 508] or click on your child’s age above to complete the checklist online.
Developmental Milestone Checklists for WIC
Download the Milestone Tracker mobile app
Complete a checklist using the Digital Online Checklist

“Learn the Signs. Act Early.” materials are not a substitute for standardized, validated developmental screening tools .

Special acknowledgments to the subject matter experts and others who contributed to the review of data and selection of developmental milestones, especially Paul H. Lipkin, MD, Michelle M. Macias, MD, Julie F. Pajek, PhD, Judith S. Shaw, EdD, MPH, RN, Karnesha Slaughter, MPH, Jane K. Squires, PhD, Toni M. Whitaker, MD, Lisa D. Wiggins, PhD, and Jennifer M. Zubler, MD. Sincere gratitude to Natalia Benza, MD and José O. Rodríguez, MD, MBA for their thoughtful review of the Spanish-language translation of these milestones.

Developmental Milestones Videos

In this video, parents of young children share their personal experiences of using CDC’s “Learn the Signs. Act Early.” tools and resources to learn about child development, recognize the milestones their child should be reaching, and guide them about what to do if they ever become concerned.

Watch this video »

Milestones Matter for Families! (Spanish Video)

In this Spanish-language video, two families share personal stories of how using CDC’s “Learn the Signs. Act Early.” resources helps them learn about their child’s developmental milestones and support their children’s development.

Watch this Spanish language video »

Developmental Monitoring for Families
Child Development
Positive Parenting Tips
Concerned About Your Child’s Development?

Parents and caregivers: need information on ways you can help your child cope with changes during COVID-19? Check out these resources for tips that can help.

COVID-19: Caring for Children
COVID-19: Stress & Coping Information for Parents

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315 Child Development Research Topics & Essay Examples

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African American Girl Development Psychology essay sample: Understanding the developmental processes and psychology associated with child development is crucial in elaborating the needs of children at different stages of life.
Cognitive Abilities Development of Children Psychology essay sample: The role of parents during the young stages of children has significant implications on the development of cognitive abilities and social structures.
Child Development and Learning - Developmental Psychology Psychology essay sample: This is a summary of 3 articles that go on the topics of human intellectual development, early childhood programs and developmentally appropriate academics.
Infancy and Early Childhood Development - Psychology Psychology essay sample: Infancy refers to the period when a human being is aged between 1 and 12 months. Infancy is marked by rapid physical growth, which aids an infant’s new abilities.
Children' Playing Concept - Psychology Psychology essay sample: Playing makes children active. It makes children engage their whole bodies and explore their surroundings with all senses.
Children Behavior Changes Psychology essay sample: This paper improves the understanding on family dynamics that help in understanding the model of transition and child adjustment.
The Effects of Nurseries on the Children Development Psychology essay sample: This study explores the effects of nurseries on the development of children between two and three years old. The quantitative research design was used to answer the research questions.
Personality: Attachment Theory Psychology essay sample: This paper is a comprehensive research on the developmental theory of personality specifically the attachment theory. Attachment theory is the common theory about infant and mother relationship.
How Television Can Affect Children in a Positive Way? Psychology essay sample: Many suppose that rather than watching television, children ought to focus on essential issues like studying, sports, and other activities that help in physical and intellectual growth.
Middle Childhood Cognitive Development and Learning Psychology essay sample: Explanations of the normal growth have been postulated by many theorists. Growth and development in early life is usually described in three main stages.
Infant Cognitive Development Stages Psychology essay sample: Each of four stages introduced by Piaget is characterized by the changes in the development of intellect and the mechanisms of cognition.
Educative Toys' Role in Child Development Psychology essay sample: The purpose of the study is to affirm the hypothesis that educative toys enhance child development and education. The toys should be given to children according to their age and grade.
Psychology: Middle Childhood Development Psychology essay sample: This paper focuses on highlighting some of the hereditary and environmental factors that affect physical, cognitive, and social development in the middle childhood stage.
Peers' and Parents' Role in Child's Development Psychology essay sample: This paper provides detailed information on the influence of parents, peers, and other people in the development of a child process.
Young Children’s Play and Environment Psychology essay sample: The essay proves that whereas children’s play in early childhood is free and innocent, it`s influenced by some factors that not only define and shape it but also make it complex.
Children and Adolescent Development Process Psychology essay sample: The case studies presented are for children or adolescents in school, who develop problems and need intervention. This analysis will integrate case studies and use scholarly research.
Child Observation with Piaget's and Freud's Development Theories Psychology essay sample: Jean Piaget developed his cognitive-developmental theory based on the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the world around them.
Child's Behavior and Developmental Stage Psychology essay sample: The behavior of children at any developmental stage is similar across cultures. The paper analyzes the behavior and the developmental stage of a 9-years child.
Pets for Children: Developmental Psychology Study Psychology essay sample: The study of the characteristics of child development is the area of psychology that provides for assessing various aspects, including cognitive, socio-emotional factors.
Child Development: Ages One Through Three Psychology essay sample: Babies need high amounts of glucose in order for their brains to properly develop as well as fat in order to help stimulate proper growth and development.
Childhood Stages and Development Psychology essay sample: The dynamic systems theory of motor development states that a child’s maturation is tied to the development of gross and fine motor skills.
Why Play Is Essential in Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: The paper is aimed to prove that playing is not an inconsequential activity for children cause it has a pivotal role in their cognitive development.
Growth and Development as a Journey Children Go Through Psychology essay sample: Developmental researchers have unearthed a wealth of information on how human beings go through the life span in terms of various developmental aspects
How Does Autism Affect the Emotional Development of Children? Psychology essay sample: Discussion of emotional characteristics of autistic children, range of autistic emotional development, supporting emotional development autistic children, treatments.
Autism and Emotional Development of Children Psychology essay sample: Parents are considered as the prime carers and educators of their children as well as the major providers of special, love, care, and attention that is normally given to autistic people.
Human Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Human cognitive development was described in a number of theories, and one of the major contemporary issues in developmental psychology is sociocultural influences on the progress of human mind through the life span.
Child Development: The Attachment Theory Psychology essay sample: The process of child development starts with infant-mother interrelation being the background of human inner world formation.
Theory of Attachment In Adult Psychology essay sample: Attachment development is a behavioral control system that is formed over time when affective, cognitive, and learning abilities are affected by the attachment to a caregiver.
Importance of Outdoor Play on Development of Children Psychology essay sample: The research study examines the importance of outdoor play on process of learning, physical improvement, cooperative ability and many other aspects of the child’s development.
Cognitive Development Theories in Personal Example Psychology essay sample: Cognitive theories analyze the qualitative and quantitative mental capabilities that occur during cognitive development that are divided into four stages.
Play for Young Children Types and Values Psychology essay sample: This research paper will discuss the various types and values of play for young children and how they help in impacting positive values in the children.
Development of the Cognitive Process Psychology essay sample: The process of cognitive development involves various changes in the thinking process, which begin at infancy and improve progressively as an individual develops.
Human Growth and Development Psychology essay sample: This paper seeks to determine the number of principles that briefly characterize human Growth and development.
Psychology. Ecological System Theory Psychology essay sample: Literature in early childhood is on the increasing end due to the early experiences and recognition of theories supporting human development.
How Childhood Trauma Affects Health Across a Lifetime Psychology essay sample: Being a teacher requires a specific set of communication skills, and improving these skills could positively affect parent-teacher relationships.
Impact of Early Childhood Experience on the Development of the Personality Psychology essay sample: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the level of impact of early childhood on the life of a human and compare it to other youthful stages.
Professional Preparation: Promoting Child Development Psychology essay sample: The purpose of the present paper is to identify and explore one of the NAEYC early childhood professional preparation standards to enhance one’s knowledge in the field.
Childhood to Adulthood Developmental Analysis : Personal Experiences Psychology essay sample: In today's technology world, it takes longer for youths to gain adequate training, get employment, and become financially independent.
On the Formation of Prosocial Behavior in Children Psychology essay sample: This article discusses the importance of the environment in shaping prosocial behavior and the impact of the environment on interactions between children.
Physical Education Impact on Child Development Psychology essay sample: Inadequate physical activity hampers psychosocial health in children and elevates the risk of cardiometabolic disorders.
Preschool Program for Children from Birth to Eighteen Months Psychology essay sample: The main thing that infants demand during the period from birth to eighteen months is the adult's attention for emotional, social, and cognitive development.
Usage-Based Approach to Determine the Theory of Mind in Infants Psychology essay sample: Theory of mind (ToM) is the psychological explanation of the intellectual abilities that facilitate the understanding that other people have desires, plans, beliefs, and hopes.
Behavior Problems of Middle Childhood by Peterson Psychology essay sample: This document is intended to provide a critical review of a journal article, Behavior problems of middle childhood, authored by Donald Peterson of the University of Illinois.
Day Care and Child Mental Health/Cognitive Functioning Psychology essay sample: The study partially supported the hypothesis that early parental employment has a positive effect on children's development by increasing family income.
The Child Growth and Development Psychology essay sample: Children play an active role in such areas as self-understanding and self-efficacy. Childhood experiences have a significant impact on mental and social development.
Children Are Not Born With Prejudices - They Learn Them Psychology essay sample: Children tend to mimic the behavior, habits, and communication models from their caregivers, which consequently shape the child’s personal beliefs and character.
Middle and Late Childhood Developmental Needs Psychology essay sample: A child's mental, behavioral, and social developmental outcomes, as well as physical health, are determined by socioeconomic circumstances.
Early Childhood Sleep: Its Types and Consistent Routine Psychology essay sample: Sleep in early childhood begins the process of remodeling learned memories, which may be sufficient to provide short-term benefits in regulating mood and emotions.
Resilience After Trauma: From Surviving to Thriving Psychology essay sample: Resilience may be seen as minimized anguish from a stressful situation and the ability to manage a stressful ordeal with a lowered impact on a person's daily life and development.
How Culture Influences a Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: The goal of this paper is to analyze the role of culture as one of the main sources of influence on a child’s early development.
Classical Music in Children’s Development and Behavior Psychology essay sample: Western classical music, often referred to as simply classical music, is often considered highly beneficial to children’s education and associated with a variety of advantages.
The Impact of Dyslexia on Child Development Psychology essay sample: A society that views a person who has dyslexia as ordinary will also encourage the person to see themselves the same way.
Personal and Social Development of Children Psychology essay sample: Bringing up children and fostering their personal and social development is a complicated process requiring significant efforts from their parents and caregivers.
How Stress Affects Child Brain Development Psychology essay sample: Stress is an unavoidable and important part of any child’s life. Depending on how significant it is it can have a positive or negative effect on the child’s development.
Developmental Psychology: Early Childhood and Infancy Stages Psychology essay sample: The essay concerns the two stages of child and adolescent psychological development, considering the value of play, attachment, and bonding during these years.
Physical and Cognitive Development of Early Childhood Psychology essay sample: Before the age of six, the brain's growth continues, the development of the frontal lobes, which allows children to acquire the ability to control attention by school age.
Developmental Assessment of School-Aged Children Psychology essay sample: This essay discusses the physical assessment of school-aged children and typical developmental stages for children of this age.
Human Development: Preschool Children Psychology essay sample: The rate of development during the preschool years is contingent on both hereditary and environmental factors.
Analysis of Go-Go Caterpillar and Its Influence on Development Psychology essay sample: Go Caterpillar is a toy designed for toddlers aged from 9 months to approximately three years. The toy is not gender-specific, so it is equally suitable for girls and boys.
Child Birth and Development in Infancy Psychology essay sample: Physical and cognitive development in such an essential period of human life as infancy is critical to the quality of people’s lives.
Child Language Development Discussion Psychology essay sample: Language development is a course during which a child learns to communicate and understand speech during childhood.
The Analysis of the School-Aged Children’ Needs Psychology essay sample: School-aged children lack the knowledge about bodies and have limited capacity to evaluate the serious consequences of a particular illness or injury.
Developmental Psychology: The Developement of Logical Thinking at the Age of Six and Fourteen Psychology essay sample: In the paper, the author outlines the experience of trying to learn a complex physics concept at the age of six and fourteen that illustrates the development of logical thinking.
Developmental Theories for Children Psychology essay sample: Stages of development are useful in monitoring and measuring the growth of a child. This discussion aims at evaluating the best technique useful for children aged seven years.
Adolescent Risk Behaviors. Child Development Influences Psychology essay sample: Adolescence is one of the most challenging periods in the life of every individual because they go though in an understanding of life, establishing a personality.
Child Development Theories Psychology essay sample: The paper has discussed a case of a 4-year old Melissa, who is at risk due to her developmental stage, using Erikson’s and Piaget’s theories.
Development in Early Childhood and Early Adulthood Psychology essay sample: This paper aims to highlight social, emotional, physical and cognitive development in early childhood and early adulthood, as well as trends and theories of development.
Infancy to Late Childhood Development Psychology essay sample: This paper aims at reviewing information regarding the growth and development of children between birth and 11 years of age, from infancy to late childhood.
Developmental Assessment and the School-Aged Child Psychology essay sample: When conducting a medical assessment of a school-aged child, a medical professional must evaluate their cognitive, physical, social, language, and learning development.
Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Psychology essay sample: The cognitive development of infants and toddlers is associated with the acquisition of basic knowledge and skills that enables the child to become comparatively independent.
Play in the Lives of Young Children Psychology essay sample: Childhood games are fundamental activities that support young ones' cognitive, emotional, physical, and social development.
Infant Physical and Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: The cognitive and physical development of infants has been an object of research since the XX century. Its conventions were set by Jean Piaget.
Teaching a Child Table Manners Through Operant Conditioning Psychology essay sample: When teaching table manners, parents should give praise to children right away instead of waiting for them to exhibit the behaviors that are expected from them.
The 10-Month-Old Child: Developmental Information Psychology essay sample: This paper discusses the observations made from the video by reviewing existing literature on developmental skills among 10 months old infants.
The Formation and Development of Empathy in Children Psychology essay sample: The paper is relevant for the research as it contains resources that will help to explain the formation and factors that influence the development of a child’s empathy.
Biopsychosocial Analysis: Behavior and Social Environment Psychology essay sample: The development of a child through various milestones is dependent on various biological, psychological, and social factors.
The Early Childhood Stage Psychology essay sample: The early childhood stage is important because it determines the effectiveness in cognitive, social, and emotional development in a child.
Naturalistic Observation of Children's Behavior Psychology essay sample: To receive more evidences related to the behavior of children, it is important to observe the definite age groups in the situation and surroundings which are typical and familiar for them.
Managing Behaviour in Young Children Psychology essay sample: The paper discusses what tools and techniques are likely or unlikely to work in a particular case study. The strategy focuses on the family and interventions.
The Factors of the Child’s Healthy Development Psychology essay sample: Social and emotional development cannot exist within the framework of the healthy functioning of an individual from a young age.
Mental Health: Case Study of S. Psychology essay sample: This paper is devoted to the case of a woman I know personally. S. is a 31-year-old single mother with a family history of anxiety disorders.
Infant Temperament: A Longitudinal Study Psychology essay sample: The New York Longitudinal Study data reveals an impressive level of stability in temperament both within and between periods of childhood.
Connection Between Screen Time and Child Development Psychology essay sample: Toddlers who spend a considerable amount of time in front of screens demonstrate “poorer performance on developmental screening tests later in childhood”.
Child Development Psychology: Pregnancy Trimesters Psychology essay sample: During prenatal development, all three trimesters are very important and any kind of psychological or medical condition the mother undergoes, the child is equally affected.
Child Development Overview Psychology essay sample: This paper details the varied factors that impact child development, including the environment, cultural differences, attachment styles, and development stages.
Developmental Milestones in Infants and Toddlers Psychology essay sample: Concerning physical activity, a child should be able to keep his head at the age of two months and move across the bed at the age of six months.
Stages of Cognitive Development in Children Psychology essay sample: This paper explains the five stages of cognitive development which begin in infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, early adolescence, and ends with late adolescence.
Growth and Development of the School-Age Child Psychology essay sample: The school-age children are aware of the human body, and they begin acceptation their own through the changes it experiences.
Child Care and Behavior Concerns Psychology essay sample: Early child care interaction is also associated with increased exposure to peers at a young age and potential effects on early peer qualifications.
Child Growth and Development: Attachment Theories Psychology essay sample: Since growth and development are a broad and rich subject, several theorists have come together to help understand why and how people learn, grow, and act.
Socioemotional Development in Infancy Psychology essay sample: The psychological formation of infants is based on interaction with others, relationships, awareness of their feelings. This paper discusses socioemotional development in infancy.
Development of the Brain at Early Childhood Psychology essay sample: In conclusion, brain development starts after conception and continues after birth. Both biological and environmental factors influence the development of the brain.
Fundamental of Psychology: Attachment Theory Psychology essay sample: The concept behind attachment theory is that a child needs to develop a strong bond with at least one primary caregiver.
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory and Its Impact on Human Life Psychology essay sample: This paper aims at analyzing Bowlby’s attachment theory and its application in childhood, adulthood, romantic life, and the choice of parenting styles.
Interview and Observation: A Case Study on Child Development Psychology essay sample: Teddy is the patient that this case targets to study. Teddy is eight years old, he has been developing physically at a regular rate, and he does not have known physical health issues
John Watson and Child Behaviorism Psychology essay sample: To prove this point, Watson turned to studying the behavior of infants and came to the conclusion that children are capable of producing a small number of simple reactions.
Child’s Living Conditions and Attachment Development Psychology essay sample: The paper states that the experience of raising a child in an orphanage can cause atypical behavior in situations of social interaction.
Aspects of Child Development Psychology essay sample: The development of the child is influenced by external factors including the neighbors and their actions, and the personality characteristics of the child.
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory Points Psychology essay sample: John Bowlby, a psychoanalyst born in 1907 believed that behavioral and mental health problems were a result of a person's early childhood.
Child Observation Assessment: Development Psychology essay sample: The interview was with the caregiver, who said that Laura is an extremely playful and jovial girl, who cries only when she is wet or hungry.
Cognitive Development During Childhood Psychology essay sample: The cognitive development of children is a key aspect of their growth, especially in their formative years. Children are born with cognitive abilities.
Children’s Oral Language Development (Preschool) Psychology essay sample: The infant’s speech develops faster and better when adults talk to them a lot, not just talk, but specifically communicate.
Cognitive Development in Early and Middle Childhood Psychology essay sample: The Early Childhood stage of development lasts from 3 to 5 years. During this period, children are already ready to master complex skills, such as riding a two-wheeled bicycle
How Childhood Development Stages Affect Adult Life Psychology essay sample: While upbringing ordeals one undergoes when growing up characterize the childhood memories, they play an important role in the later lives.
Overcoming Separation Anxiety in Children Psychology essay sample: Most children quickly stop experiencing separation stress, but if this is not the case, the caregiver can support the parent by explaining how to behave with the child.
Child Psychology: Children's Behavior and Communication Style Psychology essay sample: The methods allow for identifying a child's communication style. This helps in finding a specific approach for each kid and indicating their weak spots.
Child Development and Environmental Influences Psychology essay sample: This paper is an annotated bibliography that aims to conduct an analysis of the child development theme from several sources.
Family Survey for Development of Children Psychology essay sample: This paper contains a letter with the family survey that was created with a request for family support in the understanding and development of children.
Personal Development From Childhood Through Present Age Psychology essay sample: The personal development of an individual occurs throughout life. Personality is one of those phenomena that is rarely interpreted in the same way by two different authors.
Children’s Books in Various Therapies Psychology essay sample: The paper discusses children's books in therapy. It includes Adlerian Play Therapy, Jungian Analytical Play Therapy, Psychodynamic Play Therapy, etc.
Observed Behaviors of 10-Year Old Children and Supporting Theories Psychology essay sample: This paper explains Erikson’s psychosocial, Freud’s psychosexual, Piaget’s cognitive developmental theories, Bandura’s social learning, Kohlberg’s moral development perspectives.
Developmental Psychology in Parenting Psychology essay sample: The paper describes attachment parenting, supportive education items, and governmental and non-governmental transformative intervention in parenting.
Effects of Socioeconomic Inequalities on Child Health and Wellness Psychology essay sample: Socioeconomic inequalities have a significant impact on the children’s cognitive and social-emotional behavior, as well as health outcomes.
The Relationship Between Income and Childhood Brain Development Psychology essay sample: Dr. Noble's talk on the connection between income and cognitive development is scientifically accurate and proven.
Child Development Assessment Tools Psychology essay sample: To clarify the ideas about the development of children, I also included a conversation as a more effective method that revealed the individual characteristics of each kid.
Development. “Baby Milestones: 24–36 Months” Psychology essay sample: The investigation of behavior in this essay will provide an analysis of the development and behavior of a two to a three-year-old child based on the video “Baby Milestones”.
Piaget’s Work and Legacy in Child Development Psychology essay sample: Piaget has been very influential and effective on the topic of understanding childhood development. His researched the differences that occur in child development.
Pretend Play Importance for the Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: Pretend play is immeasurably significant for a child's development; it has a positive impact on learners' literacy, mathematical thinking, and language and scientific skills.
Colour Psychology and its Effects on the Early Years’ Learning Environment Psychology essay sample: Colour can affect a child’s perception of the environment, and this process can alter the development of personality, which includes mental development.
Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories in Childhood Quantitative Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget largely contributed to developmental psychology and education, notably exploring children's learning styles and mental abilities.
Developmental Analysis: Personal Introduction of Childhood – Adolescence Psychology essay sample: This paper presents a personal introduction of childhood – adolescence, and theoretical perspectives of development (Freud’s, Erikson’s, Piaget’s theories).
Jean Piaget’s Infant Development Theory Psychology essay sample: The author of the paper agrees with Jean Piaget's theory of intellectual development since it focuses on cognitive processes throughout a particular period.
Importance of Play in Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: During the game process, a child’s will, emotions, cognitive processes, and interests interact and cooperate, as a result, positive changes in the personality of the child emerge.
Stages of Child Development Psychology essay sample: Egocentrism - the inability or unwillingness of a person to look at what is happening from the point of view of other people, to put himself in the place of another person.
Children’s Development Process Psychology essay sample: Parents, guardians, and professionals should incorporate children's observation programs for facilitating and enhancing children's development.
Initiative and Guilt Stage of Child’s Psychological Development Psychology essay sample: Initiative and guilt are the third stage of psychological development which happens between the ages of three to five in the child's life.
A Child's Development and Its Basic Elements Psychology essay sample: The issue of the development of a child is relevant and vital nowadays. There is a necessity to figure out all the basic elements of the process.
Jean Piaget’s Approach and Theory of Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Jean Piaget, is mostly famous for his multiple innovative theories and ideas on the development of cognitive functions of children in the process of growing.
How a Person Develops and the Factors That Influence the Growth Psychology essay sample: Child development is the individual progress from dependency to independence between birth and adolescence, which entails emotional and psychological changes.
Child Temperament and Life-Span Development Psychology essay sample: Temperament is a psychological term that refers to the combination of behaviors and attitudes an individual demonstrates.
Freud’s and Vygotsky's Theories of Child Development Psychology essay sample: The subject of psychoanalytic theory is human emotions and interpersonal relationships. This paper analyzes Sigmund Freud’s theory and Vygotsky's cultural-historical theory.
Temperament and Behavior in Young Children Psychology essay sample: Various factors regarding temperament and behavior in young children can affect their academic performance at an early age.
Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development of Children Psychology essay sample: As outlined by Jean Piaget, the formal operational stage of cognitive development considers children from the age of 12 years and above.
Analysis of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Psychology essay sample: Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality and development states that body parts are sensitive to sexual or erotic stimulation during the childhood development phases.
Parental Stresses and Child’s Emotional Development Psychology essay sample: Raising a child as a head of a single-parent family is associated with various challenges. Firstly, a single-parent family may be struggling to afford even the basic needs.
Personal Development Due to Erikson’s Scale Psychology essay sample: Erikson’s theory of people’s psychosocial development is helpful for psychology. It helps doctors cope with their patient’s mental health issues.
Benefits of Educational Sensory Toys for Children Psychology essay sample: Educational toys assist children in attaining problem-solving skills even at a young age, which is suitable for their development.
Why Parents Matter More Than Peers in Children’s Development Psychology essay sample: This paper argues that parents' impact on their children's life surpasses peers' influence and cannot be overlooked when education issues are concerned.
Lack of Physical Development in Preschool Children Psychology essay sample: Physical development is an important aspect of growth in children and has been determined to enhance their social and language development.
The Influence of Parents on the Psychoemotional Development of Children Psychology essay sample: In the context of the influence of parents on the psychoemotional development of children, such aspects as parenting style, emotion regulation, and parental distress.
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment Style in Childhood Psychology essay sample: Childhood plays a critical role in developing personality. This paper aims to present the case of a child with an insecure-avoidant attachment style.
Child’s Development Analysis and Potential Interventions Psychology essay sample: In the case of the child described in the paper, there was a normal transition – she started studying in kindergarten and a non-normal one – she experienced her parents' divorce.
Mother’s Influence on Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: Undoubtedly, each individual has their own sources that contribute to a certain degree of intensity to the formation of a person as an individual, man or woman.
Child Maltreatment Factor of Personality Formation Psychology essay sample: This research aims to analyze the external factors involved in developing personality formation, particularly race and ethnicity.
Childhood: The Social and Cultural Concept Psychology essay sample: Childhood is neither timeless nor universal: it is not determined only by age or biological and psychological factors.
Child's Language and Literacy: The Role of Parents Psychology essay sample: Parents are children’s first teachers because they are primarily responsible for developing children’s basic literacy and language skills.
Speech Delay in a 32 Months-Old Child Psychology essay sample: Speech delay among 32 months-old children is a phenomenon that can sometimes occur in the early phases of development due to many reasons.
How Can Attachment Styles Influence Children's Development Psychology essay sample: From a psychological standpoint, it is thought that the child's attachment style has a substantial impact on his or her development.
Nature and Nurture Theories of Child Development Psychology essay sample: The paper discusses the nature and nurture theories debate. They relate to two different perceptions or approaches to child development.
Stages of Intellectual and Social Development Psychology essay sample: This work reviews the many stages of the intellectual and social development of people. It is important to understand the stages of development.
Development Through the Lifespan Psychology essay sample: Influences are felt already in early childhood, in the narrow family circle, and then among other children in kindergartens and schools.
Development of Emotions and Temperament During Infancy Psychology essay sample: The paper states that the development of emotions and temperament is a gradual process and depends on the level of development of children.
Researching of Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Each stage is age-specific and marked by major hallmarks that indicate the development of specific thought-processing abilities.
Parental and Psychotherapeutic Role in Development of Children With Autism Psychology essay sample: Parents have a significant role in developing and preparing an autistic child for future life, and in such cases, the work of a psychotherapist with the whole family is important.
Child Development Issue and Its Management Psychology essay sample: This paper is a case study of the development issues of a four-year-old Chinese child; essentially, the child acted more like a 2-year-old.
Cognitive Development During the First Three Years of Life Psychology essay sample: With the help of external orientation actions, the child correlates and compares the external properties of objects, highlighting permanent ones by the end of 3 years of life.
Cognitive and Psychosocial Development of a Child Psychology essay sample: In the case reviewed in the paper, the child has not formed the concept of ownership and politeness, which is not the norm for this age.
Children's Toys and Their Influence on Development Psychology essay sample: Educational toys tend to help children to develop problem-solving skills, understand the causes and impacts, and resolve conflicts.
The Real Impact Separated Siblings Have on Individual Child Development Psychology essay sample: Sibling relationships within families have received increased attention over the past few years, pointing to the potential protective role that these relationships can play.
Early Childhood Development: The Nurturing Care Psychology essay sample: The child’s changing cognitive and socio-emotional needs encourage regular nurturing-related adjustments initiated by both parents and child development professionals.
Aspects of Lifespan Development
Developmental Theories: Social Competence as a Young Child
Babies’ Early Language Development
Maria Montessori's View on Children's Education
“Exploring Lifespan Development”: Theories in the Textbook and Infant Development
Piaget’s Theory and Preoccupation Children
Effects of Kindergarten Activities on Cognitive Development
Divisive Politics and Child Development
Self-Regulation Abilities in Children
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Ways in Which Childhood Is Represented Within the U.K.
The Way Experience Affects the Development of the Baby’s Brain
A Unique Process of a Child’s Very Early Years
The Early Growth and Development Study
Infant's Lifespan Development: The Case Analysis
Skinner and Chomsky on Nature vs. Nurture
Cognitive Development in Children
Vygotsky's and Piaget's Views on Cognitive Development
Socioeconomic Status and Child’s Sharing Tendency
Aspects of Comprehensive Child Report
Toddler Observation and Piaget's Theory Application
The Process of Toddler Development
Piaget’s Development Stages Theory in Child Assessment
Erik Erikson’s and Sigmund Freud’s Psychological Theories Comparison
Problem-Solving Skill in Child Development
Arts and Play in Early Childhood Development
Child Development During COVID-19 Pandemic
Direct Assessment of Cognitive Development in Children
Toddler Observation and Assessment
Philosophy as a Driver of Proper Social Development
Human Development from Infancy to Death
Child’s Social and Emotional Development
Children’s Internet Use and Developmental Effects
Freud's Child Development Theory
Child Psychology: Peer and Parents Influence
Impact of Children’s Toys on Development
Parent Education and Family Life Education Fields
The Cognitive Development of a Children
My Virtual Child Examination of Child Development
Developmental Stages: The Early Childhood Developmental Stage
Developmental Stages from Piaget's Perspective
Language and Cognitive Developments in Infants
Products Promoting Infant Development
Middle Childhood Moral Dilemma Assignment
The Influence of the External Environment on Child Development
Children's Cognitive Development in Jean Piaget's Theory
Analyzing the Role of Developmental Factors in Two Families
Childhood Developmental Theories
Factors Affecting Child Development
Influences on Early Development
Children's Development Affected by Environment
Childhood Fame and Adulthood: Developmental Science
Attachment Theory and Developmental Psychology in Early Childhood
The Brain Development in Children
The Development of Siyasanda Discussion
The Infant and Toddler Development
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Play, Social-Emotional Development and Theory of Mind: Three Important Aspects in Child Development
Child Development and Learning Gender Differences In-Play
Child Development and the Ecological Theory
Child Development and Education: Physical Exercise Human development refers to the process of growing to maturity. A child needs to have good physical activities, in order to develop to a healthy adult
The Psychological and Biological Changes of Child Development
Developmental Psychology and Child Development
Child Development and Learning Theories
Psychology and Self Esteem in Child Development.
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Same-Sex Parenting and Child Development
Child Development and Maturation: Language and Cognitive
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Infancy and Early Childhood Development This essay assesses different parenting styles and their impact on children in infancy and early childhood, and their impact on cognitive development.
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PsychologyWriting. (2023, October 8). 315 Child Development Research Topics & Essay Examples. https://psychologywriting.com/topics/child-development-research-topics/

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PsychologyWriting . "315 Child Development Research Topics & Essay Examples." October 8, 2023. https://psychologywriting.com/topics/child-development-research-topics/.

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Child Development Stages, Essay Example

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Childhood development is important to study, as it reveals the main steps of personality formation and socialization. Early childhood experiences and gender socialization patterns influence the personal values and preferences of the individual. According to my observation and experience, traumatic events during childhood and the quality of child care will impact career choices, as well as future socialization.

In adolescence, individuals usually need to face choices and will develop their own path. In early adolescence (10-14 years), individuals will expand their social circle outside of their family and choose peers based on their preferences. Friendships are becoming extremely important, as they help define one’s personality. The trust of authority figures disappears as later teenagers become more independent in thinking and initiating change. By late adolescence, a well defined image of self-identity will develop, and people become able to compromise and decide based on an independent analysis of facts.

In adulthood, people usually choose a path. They select an attractive profession, enter the world of work and family life. Many choose partners based on past experiences and well defined ideas of what they imagine the future to be like. Responsibilities take over individuals’ lives, and instead of searching for ways, they start pursuing their personal goals. This is the time when many will identify their mission in life, and surround themselves with people who are like them.

Reaching old age is a challenging period for many. It is full of reflection on the past, and the assessment of achievements. One would feel left out, and when children grow up and move away, older people often feel the need to find a hobby or interest after retiring. Many will catch up with things they did not have time for while they were working and taking care of their family.

Briefly describe how Freud, Erickson, and Piaget developed their theories

Freud’s theory was closely related to biological maturity stages. According to the theorist, the five stages of child development are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Freud also stated that three parts of personality impact development: id, ego, and superego.

Erickson, just like Freud, considered development to be an individual journey, however, stated that there is no conflict among the different layers of ego. Further, the author states that each stage of development has a conflict that the individual has to resolve.

Piaget, unlike the above two authors, viewed development from the cognitive perspective. The older the child gets, the more complex cognitive functions it is able to develop. The stages are based on different cognitive development phases.

Explain why there is much criticism about race, ethnicity, gender, and social and economic status when it comes to human growth and development theories.

According to Vygotsky, a child’s development cannot be viewed as a standalone process, and is always influenced by the environment. Bronfenbrenner, however, went further than that, and stated that the system of social and family relationships impacts children’s cognitive and emotional development. Therefore, it is important to examine the impact of race, gender, and socialization in general.

Choose two theories, each from a different area (e.g., psychoanalytic, cognitive, and behavioral or social cognitive theories). Briefly describe their main features, explain their major similarities and differences.

The cognitive development theory developed by Piaget is based on the assumption that children go through various cognitive phases, and educators need to develop programs to provide a stimulating environment. The stages of cognitive development are sensory-motor, pre-operational, concrete operations, and formal operation.

As a contrast, Vygotsky’s social development theory emphasized not only the importance of development stages, but also the influence of peer and family relationships on social, cognitive, and emotional development.

Santrock, J. (11/2012). Life-Span Development, 14th Edition. [VitalSource Bookshelf Online]. Retrieved from https://digitalbookshelf.southuniversity.edu/#/books/0077733908/

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The Process of a Prenatal Child’s Development Essay

Introduction, summary of chapter 2, summary of chapter 3, summary of chapter 4.

This essay summarizes three chapters 2, chapter 3, and chapter 4. These chapters illustrate various stages of child development.

Chapter 2 broadly focuses on the biological and environmental factors that influence the development of a child.

The process of a child’s development starts right from the stage when it is cocooned in its mother’s womb. In other words, it begins from the formation of a zygote. A zygote is developed as a result of the fusion of two sex cells – the sperm and ovum. As a result of meiosis occurring in the sex cells the normal chromosome number reduced to half. After fusion, however, it regains the normal chromosome count, which is 23 pairs.

A human chromosome contains 23 pairs. One is inherited from the father and the other from the mother. The basic element of a chromosome is DNA and gene is the major component of the DNA. Chromosomes are multiplying as a result of mitosis. So each cell in an infant body contains an equal number of chromosomes and the same genetic information. Genes give instructions for the development of proteins, which help the character development of a child.

After the formation of a zygote, chromosomes begin to pair up and multiply. Then the chromosomes next to one another exchange the segment through a process called crossing over. As a result of this process, new genetic combinations are formed. This is the reason why offspring of the same parents display both similarities and dissimilarities.

The 23 chromosome pairs contain 22 similar pairs called autosomes, and the remaining pair determines the sex of the child. Two forms of the gene inherited from mother and father placed at the same place on the autosome are known as alleles, whose relationship determines the traits of a baby. Among these two forms, one is dominant and one is recessive. Dominant determines the character of a baby while recessive has no effect.

Sometimes, the structure of the DNA may change due to mutation which results in genetic disorder in the baby. This chapter also dwells on parental diagnosis methods and health issues of a newborn baby.

Apart from hereditary, the environment has a great role in the development of a child. The most important environmental factor is family. Basic character building starts with the family. Some things from the family atmosphere directly influence the child while some others have an indirect influence. Society and culture are other two factors that affect a child’s development. The lifestyle of the society, financial status of the parents and the circumstances in which the child is developing, education level of the society, etc will also influence the development of a child. Neighborhood and school are two other important factors affecting the child’s development.

In short, both biological factors and environmental factors have equal importance in the development of a child

Chapter three deals with the prenatal development of a child. In this modern world, parents have full freedom to decide whether they want to have children or not. It has many advantages and disadvantages. In the recent period, there has been a huge reduction in the birth rate. The number of nucleus families has increased. Children get more benefits in a small family than in a big family. In a small family, parents get more time to spend with their child and they do have more financial stability. This facilitates better care for the child and this way they get a favorable atmosphere for their development. However, sometimes, children from small families become selfish and spoiled.

This chapter also mentions how the fusion of male sex cells and female sex cell happens and how the union of sperm and ovum takes place besides discussing its further development stages. It also deals with the growth of the brain at these stages.

This chapter further dwells on various environmental influences during the prenatal period and explains what are the effects of harmful factors like drugs and pollution in the development of a child during the prenatal period. It also discusses the significance of prenatal healthcare and prenatal parenthood life.

Chapter 3 mentioned the birth and the infant. A child’s birth has three stages. The first and second stage has two parts. In the first stage dilation and enhancement of the cervix occurs and in the second part comes the transition. In the second stage, pushing is the first part and the birth of the baby is the second part. The third stage is the delivery of the placenta.

This chapter also mentions the appearance of an infant and different types of approaches to childbirth. Different kinds of medical intervention for different purposes like fetal monitoring, for delivery medication, and different techniques used for delivery like instrument delivery, induced labor method, and cesarean methods are discussed here. Various types of birth complications like oxygen deprivation and low birth weight are also dealt with in this chapter. It also focuses on the various biological process taking place in an infant’s life.

From these three chapters, it is clear that a child’s development starts from its mother’s womb. Child’s physical and mental characteristic depends on both the hereditary and environmental factors.

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Briefly describe how Freud, Erickson, and Piaget developed their theories. Freud's theory was closely related to biological maturity stages. According to the theorist, the five stages of child development are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Freud also stated that three parts of personality impact development: id, ego, and superego.
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1 Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development

Introduction

Principles of Development

Periods of Development

Prenatal Development

Infancy and Toddlerhood

Early Childhood

Middle Childhood

Adolescence

Issues in Development

Continuity versus Discontinuity

Active versus Passive

Research Methods

Scientific Methods

Observational Studies

Experiments

Case Studies

Developmental Designs

Longitudinal Research

Cross-sectional Research

Sequential Research

Consent and Ethics in Research

Developmental Theories

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Behaviorism

Ivan Pavlov

John B. Watson

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

Social Learning Theory

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

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Understanding Developmental Psychology

Frequently Asked Questions

What Is Developmental Psychology?

Developmental Psychology Theories

When to See a Developmental Psychologist

Developmental Psychology Stages

Prenatal Development

Early Childhood Development

Middle Childhood Development

Adolescent Development

Early Adult Development

Middle Adult Development

Older Adult Development

Diagnosing Developmental Issues

A Word From Verywell

Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care

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Child Growth and Development

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315 Child Development Research Topics & Essay Examples

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Child Development Stages, Essay Example