a case study on psychoanalytic personality theory

Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

We couldn't talk about theories of personality or psychology without mentioning Freud. Sigmund Freud is one of the most famous (and controversial) minds of the 20th century. His psychoanalytic perspective of personality offers a unique way of looking at the body and mind's connection to personality.

What is the Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality?

To know Sigmund Freud's personality theory, you must know the following three terms: Id, Ego, and superego. These are the three parts of your personality driven by unconscious energy. All three are silently going through a struggle to influence our decisions and behavior.

The Id is the “bad boy” of our subconscious. It is an impulsive part of the psyche that seeks pleasure and avoids pain at all costs. The Id wants instant gratification - it is the part of you that grabs for food as a baby or acts to satisfy sexual desires without thinking.

The SuperEgo lies on the opposite side of the spectrum. This part of the psyche wants to control the Id. If humans acted only based on receiving instant gratification and immediate pleasure, we would all be in a whole lot of trouble. The SuperEgo unconsciously and consciously acts to follow the rules of society and keep the Id from causing serious damage.

The Ego lies in the middle of these two entities. It is a constant struggle to balance out these two forces and make pleasurable decisions without causing too much damage. It's like a well-minded adult standing between two children wanting to overthrow each other.

Freud and Personality

How do Freud’s ideas influence the way that we shape our personality? One of his theories was that as a child grows into an adult, they encounter five psychosexual stages of development . During each stage of development, the Id is focused on a specific erogenous zone.

The Ego must struggle to balance out the pleasure-seeking Id and the moral superego. During each phase, internal conflicts will result in many struggles. Freud said personality is formed by the process and results of these struggles.

• Oral (Stage 1)
• Anal (Stage 2)
• Phallic (Stage 3)
• Latency (Stage 4)
• Genital (Stage 5)

Freud believes that most of our personality has been formed by age five. At the age of five, a child has gone through the oral, anal, and most of the phallic stages. If the child struggles with balance during these stages, they will develop “fixations.”

Oral fixations include smoking or problems with eating.

If someone fails to master potty training or still struggles during the anal stage, they may be a sloppy or lazy person.

During the phallic stage, Freud believed that boys and girls start to notice the difference in each other and develop The Oedipus Complex and penis envy. The Oedipus Complex is the idea that unconsciously, young boys feel possessive of their mother and, as a result, feel aggressive toward their father. Freud also believed that young girls experienced penis envy and, due to their lack of penis, developed fixations that followed them until they were adults.

Other Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality

Sigmund Freud is the biggest name in psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic perspective, but he is far from the only person who used this approach. Think of psychoanalysis as an umbrella term. Underneath lies the work of Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Melanie Klein, and many others. Each of these names contributed their work to the psychoanalytic theory of personality. 

Carl Jung and Personality Theory

Carl Jung worked with a lot of the same theories as Freud. He believed the unconscious mind, including the Id, Ego, and Superego, significantly impacted personality. But did you know you can thank Carl Jung for one of the biggest personality tests in the world? That’s right. If you have ever taken the MBTI Personality test , you can thank Carl Jung. 

Carl Jung didn’t exactly come up with the ISFJ or ENTJ personality types as we know them today, but he did lay the groundwork for the Myers Briggs Type Indicator. We can trace the “introversion vs. extroversion” categorization back to Jung. He also identified four different “functions” that determine our personality: thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting. Sound familiar? That’s because Katherine Briggs and Isabel Myers Briggs were inspired by Jung’s work when they made the MBTI. 

Collective Unconscious 

In addition to his work that led to the MBTI test, Carl Jung’s most famous theory also addresses how we form our personality. He believed in the collective unconscious. Basically, the collective unconscious is the version of the unconscious that has always been shared throughout humankind. Jung believed that our fears of the dark, heights, or other common fears, for example, can be traced back to experiences that were remembered and shared through the collective unconscious. 

Does your personality come from the experiences only you have had as a child, or does it come from the entire history of humankind? These are the questions that the nature-nurture debate continues to ask today! 

Melanie Klein and Personality Theory 

Melanie Klein was another psychologist who wrote about the impact of the unconscious but did not agree with Freud on everything he wrote. Her most well-known theory, Objects Relations Theory , is a little more comfortable to discuss in a classroom than Freud’s stages of psychosexual development. 

Freud believed that personality development was largely influenced by the need to fulfill sexual desires as you age. Klein disagreed. Instead, she believed our personalities and behavior were largely influenced by the desire to form connections and relationships with the people around us. Objects Relations Theory is not about objects like a ball, a bat, or a toy. When Klein refers to “objects,” she refers to people or parts of people (like a mother’s breast.) 

Alfred Adler and Personality Theory 

The work of Alfred Adler is the work that appears to stray most from Freud while remaining under the psychotherapy umbrella. It’s also the work that seems relevant today, although it faces similar criticisms for not being backed up by science. 

Adler did not believe in the collective unconscious or a universal force secretly connecting and impacting personality in the same ways. He believed that the individual faced different journeys, and even his method of psychotherapy would affect each individual differently. However, Adler believed that every child faced similar challenges and motivations from the moment they were born.

Superiority Complex 

Freud often pointed to a child’s traumatic past or their need to fulfill sexual desires to assess personality. Adler believed the child’s goals could also determine personality and where they placed themselves on the journey to achieving them. 

All children start out feeling inferior, Adler believed. But it’s up to the parent and child to navigate that journey and find security and confidence. A parent who gives the child the love and support they need will likely raise a confident kid who doesn’t mind being inferior as long as they works toward superiority. Children who feel inferior at everything and have no control are more likely to overcompensate. 

Alfred Adler was the first to coin the term “inferiority complex.” Although he used examples rather than science to explain this theory, many psychologists now believe he had the right idea. 

Child Birth Order 

Alfred Adler also believed other factors like childbirth order played into inferiority and personality formation. The youngest child, for example, is always looking at older children and feeling a sense of inferiority. This makes them more likely to overcompensate in life. Only children faced their own set of challenges. Adler theorized that the amount of attention an only child could get from their parents could impact their personality and make them dependent.

Anna Freud, Erik Erikson, and Personality Theory 

Sigmund Freud’s daughter Anna Freud was also a psychoanalyst. She pioneered child psychology and believed that children could be psychoanalyzed. (Her father did not.) Through her work, Anna Freud was one of the earliest psychologists to identify and speak about the different stages that children and adults went through. 

Anna Freud had a significant impact on Erik Erikson, a psychologist who went on to create the Stages of Psychosocial Development. Unlike the psychosexual stages of development or even Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, the psychosocial stages last until the golden years of a person’s life. A conflict, from trust vs. mistrust to integrity vs. despair, defines each stage. How a person handles that conflict can significantly shape their personality and behavior.

If Freud’s ideas make you uncomfortable, either for the fact that he focuses explicitly on sex or that he seems to frame women as the lesser sex, you’re not alone. Freud has never ceased to face criticism for his work. Unlike many psychologists, he did not use empirical research to support his theories. He worked solely with adults on a case-by-case basis. Since Freud introduced this theory, it has been largely replaced by humanistic and cognitive approaches .

Why Is Freud’s Theory of Personality Important?

The psychoanalytic perspective remains one of the top personality theories , alongside behaviorism and humanism. Unlike humanist theory, Freud’s focus remains on the unconscious. He explores the idea that to discover the root of our personality, we must dig deeper than what we experience on “the surface.”

Psychoanalytic therapy grew out of Freud’s theories. This approach involves a therapist questioning their patient about childhood memories or possible events that led to struggles between the Id and the superego. Freud believed that humans repress many of their emotions; his goal during therapy sessions was to bring unconscious feelings into the conscious mind.

Other Theories of Personality 

• Psychoanalytic theories are a fascinating study approach, but they are not widely accepted anymore. What is accepted in the world of psychology today? Other schools of thought may give you a different peek into what today’s psychologists believe forms our personality. 

Trait Theories 

One way that psychologists have tried to organize and understand personality is through personality traits. Traits are often identified on a spectrum, with two opposites on either side. (Carl Jung is not the only person to identify introversion vs. extroversion - Hans Eysenck made it one of three sets of traits that he focused on in his work.) This is one way to look at personality from three sets of traits to 4,000 total. 

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches 

Psychologists like B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov theorized that behavior and personality were entirely learned. We learned through rewards and punishments. Later replacements of these theories argued that we learn behavior by watching the behavior of others. 

Humanist Approaches 

More recent approaches to personality suggest that our personality and behavior come from the desire to fulfill a higher need. Like Erikson’s conflicts, humanist theories focus on the journey a person takes to fulfill their full potential. A person who is trying to achieve self-actualization is certainly going to behave differently than a person who is striving to have their basic needs met. 

Psychodynamic theories give us a lot to think about when it comes to developing our personality. How many events in your life can you point out as “defining” moments that shaped your personality? How many events could have changed your personality without your knowledge?

Related posts:

• Alfred Adler Biography - Contributions To Psychology
• Carl Jung Biography
• 40+ Famous Psychologists (Images + Biographies)
• Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development (Definition and Examples)
• Unconscious Mind (Definition + Purpose)

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Personality Psychology:

What is Personality?

Personality Theories

Trait Theory

Behavioral Theory

Humanistic Theory

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Psychoanalytic Theory

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Conscientiousness

Openness to Experience

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

The Dark Triad

Myers Briggs Type Indicator

Keirsey Temperament Sorter

Inkblot and TAT

House Person Tree Test

Defense Mechanisms

Manipulation Tactics

Type A and Type B Personalities

Personality Disorders

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Sigmund Freud’s Theories & Contribution to Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis , a method for treating mental illness and a theory explaining human behavior.

Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic experiences in a person’s past is hidden from consciousness and may cause problems during adulthood (neuroses).

Thus, when we explain our behavior to ourselves or others (conscious mental activity), we rarely give a true account of our motivation. This is not because we are deliberately lying. While human beings are great deceivers of others; they are even more adept at self-deception.

Freud’s life work was dominated by his attempts to penetrate this often subtle and elaborate camouflage that obscures the hidden structure and processes of personality.

His lexicon has become embedded within the vocabulary of Western society. Words he introduced through his theories are now used by everyday people, such as anal (personality), libido, denial, repression, cathartic, Freudian slip , and neurotic.

Who is Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud, born on May 6, 1856, in what is now Příbor, Czech Republic (then part of the Austrian Empire), is hailed as the father of psychoanalysis. He was the eldest of eight children in a Jewish family.

Freud initially wanted to become a law professional but later developed an interest in medicine. He entered the University of Vienna in 1873, graduating with an MD in 1881. His primary interests included neurology and neuropathology. He was particularly interested in the condition of hysteria and its psychological causes.

In 1885, Freud received a grant to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned neurologist who used hypnosis to treat women suffering from what was then called “hysteria.” This experience sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind, a theme that would recur throughout his career.

In 1886, Freud returned to Vienna, married Martha Bernays, and set up a private practice to treat nervous disorders. His work during this time led to his revolutionary concepts of the human mind and the development of the psychoanalytic method.

Freud introduced several influential concepts, including the Oedipus complex, dream analysis, and the structural model of the psyche divided into the id, ego, and superego. He published numerous works throughout his career, the most notable being “ The Interpretation of Dreams ” (1900), “ The Psychopathology of Everyday Life ” (1901), and “ Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality ” (1905).

Despite controversy and opposition, Freud continued to develop his theories and expand the field of psychoanalysis. He was deeply affected by the outbreak of World War I and later by the rise of the Nazis in Germany. In 1938, due to the Nazi threat, he emigrated to London with his wife and youngest daughter.

Freud died in London on September 23, 1939, but his influence on psychology, literature, and culture remains profound and pervasive.

He radically changed our understanding of the human mind, emphasizing the power of unconscious processes and pioneering therapeutic techniques that continue to be used today.

Sigmund Freud’s Theories & Contributions

Psychoanalytic Theory : Freud is best known for developing psychoanalysis , a therapeutic technique for treating mental health disorders by exploring unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Unconscious Mind : Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, describing the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.

The id, ego, and superego have most commonly been conceptualized as three essential parts of the human personality.

Psychosexual Development : Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual development suggests that early childhood experiences and stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) shape our adult personality and behavior.

His theory of psychosexual stages of development is predicated by the concept that childhood experiences create the adult personality and that problems in early life would come back to haunt the individual as a mental illness.

Dream Analysis : Freud believed dreams were a window into the unconscious mind and developed methods for analyzing dream content for repressed thoughts and desires.

Dreams represent unfulfilled wishes from the id, trying to break through to the conscious. But because these desires are often unacceptable, they are disguised or censored using such defenses as symbolism.

Freud believed that by undoing the dreamwork , the analyst could study the manifest content (what they dreamt) and interpret the latent content ( what it meant) by understanding the symbols.

Defense Mechanisms : Freud proposed several defense mechanisms , like repression and projection, which the ego employs to handle the tension and conflicts among the id, superego, and the demands of reality.

Sigmund Freud’s Patients

Sigmund Freud’s clinical work with several patients led to major breakthroughs in psychoanalysis and a deeper understanding of the human mind. Here are summaries of some of his most notable cases:

Anna O. (Bertha Pappenheim) : Known as the ‘birth of psychoanalysis,’ Anna O . was a patient of Freud’s colleague Josef Breuer. However, her case heavily influenced Freud’s thinking.

She suffered from various symptoms, including hallucinations and paralysis, which Freud interpreted as signs of hysteria caused by repressed traumatic memories. The “talking cure” method with Anna O. would later evolve into Freudian psychoanalysis.

Dora (Ida Bauer) : Dora, a pseudonym Freud used, was a teenager suffering from what he diagnosed as hysteria. Her symptoms included aphonia (loss of voice) and a cough.

Freud suggested her issues were due to suppressed sexual desires, particularly those resulting from a complex series of relationships in her family. The Dora case is famous for the subject’s abrupt termination of therapy, and for the criticisms Freud received regarding his handling of the case.

Little Hans (Herbert Graf) : Little Hans , a five-year-old boy, feared horses. Freud never met Hans but used information from the boy’s father to diagnose him.

He proposed that Little Hans’ horse phobia was symbolic of a deeper fear related to the Oedipus Complex – unconscious feelings of affection for his mother and rivalry with his father. The case of Little Hans is often used as an example of Freud’s theory of the Oedipal Complex in children.

Rat Man (Ernst Lanzer) : Rat Man came to Freud suffering from obsessive thoughts and fears related to rats, a condition known as obsessional neurosis.

Freud connected his symptoms to suppressed guilt and repressed sexual desires. The treatment of Rat Man further expanded Freud’s work on understanding the role of internal conflicts and unconscious processes in mental health disorders.

Wolf Man (Sergei Pankejeff) : Wolf Man was a wealthy Russian aristocrat who came to Freud with various symptoms, including a recurring dream about wolves.

Freud’s analysis, focusing on childhood memories and dreams, led him to identify the presence of repressed memories and the influence of the Oedipus Complex . Wolf Man’s treatment is often considered one of Freud’s most significant and controversial cases.

In the highly repressive “Victorian” society in which Freud lived and worked, women, in particular, were forced to repress their sexual needs. In many cases, the result was some form of neurotic illness.

Freud sought to understand the nature and variety of these illnesses by retracing the sexual history of his patients. This was not primarily an investigation of sexual experiences as such. Far more important were the patient’s wishes and desires, their experience of love, hate, shame, guilt, and fear – and how they handled these powerful emotions.

Freud’s Followers

Freud attracted many followers, who formed a famous group in 1902 called the “Psychological Wednesday Society.” The group met every Wednesday in Freud’s waiting room.

As the organization grew, Freud established an inner circle of devoted followers, the so-called “Committee” (including Sàndor Ferenczi, and Hanns Sachs (standing) Otto Rank, Karl Abraham, Max Eitingon, and Ernest Jones).

At the beginning of 1908, the committee had 22 members and was renamed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.

Neo-Freudians

The term “neo-Freudians” refers to psychologists who were initially followers of Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) but later developed their own theories, often modifying or challenging Freud’s ideas.

Here are summaries of some of the most notable neo-Freudians:

Carl Jung : Jung (1875 – 1961) was a close associate of Freud but split due to theoretical disagreements. He developed the concept of analytical psychology, emphasizing the collective unconscious, which houses universal symbols or archetypes shared by all human beings. He also introduced the idea of introversion and extraversion.

Alfred Adler : Adler (1870 – 1937) was another early follower of Freud who broke away due to differing views. He developed the school of individual psychology, highlighting the role of feelings of inferiority and the striving for superiority or success in shaping human behavior. He also emphasized the importance of social context and community.

• Otto Rank : Rank (1884 – 1939)  was an early collaborator with Freud and played a significant role in the development of psychoanalysis. He proposed the “trauma of birth” as a critical event influencing the psyche. Later, he shifted focus to the relationship between therapist and client, influencing the development of humanistic therapies.

Karen Horney : Horney (1885 – 1952) challenged Freud’s views on women, arguing against the concept of “penis envy.” She suggested that social and cultural factors significantly influence personality development and mental health. Her concept of ‘basic anxiety’ centered on feelings of helplessness and insecurity in childhood, shaping adult behavior.

• Harry Stack Sullivan : Sullivan (1892 – 1949) developed interpersonal psychoanalysis, emphasizing the role of interpersonal relationships and social experiences in personality development and mental disorders. He proposed the concept of the “self-system” formed through experiences of approval and disapproval during childhood.

Melanie Klein : Klein (1882 – 1960), a prominent psychoanalyst, is considered a neo-Freudian due to her development of object relations theory, which expanded on Freud’s ideas. She emphasized the significance of early childhood experiences and the role of the mother-child relationship in psychological development.

• Anna Freud : Freud’s youngest daughter significantly contributed to psychoanalysis, particularly in child psychology. Anna Freud (1895 – 1982) expanded on her father’s work, emphasizing the importance of ego defenses in managing conflict and preserving mental health.

Wilhelm Reich : Reich (1897 – 1957), once a student of Freud, diverged by focusing on bodily experiences and sexual repression, developing the theory of orgone energy. His emphasis on societal influence and body-oriented therapy made him a significant neo-Freudian figure.

• Erich Fromm : Fromm (1900-1980) was a German-American psychoanalyst associated with the Frankfurt School, who emphasized culture’s role in developing personality. He advocated psychoanalysis as a tool for curing cultural problems and thus reducing mental illness.

Erik Erikson : Erikson (1902 – 1994)  extended Freud’s theory of psychosexual development by adding social and cultural aspects and proposing a lifespan development model. His theory of psychosocial development outlined eight stages, each marked by a specific crisis to resolve, that shape an individual’s identity and relationships.

Critical Evaluation

Does evidence support Freudian psychology? Freud’s theory is good at explaining but not predicting behavior (which is one of the goals of science ).

For this reason, Freud’s theory is unfalsifiable – it can neither be proved true or refuted. For example, the unconscious mind is difficult to test and measure objectively. Overall, Freud’s theory is highly unscientific.

Despite the skepticism of the unconscious mind, cognitive psychology has identified unconscious processes, such as procedural memory (Tulving, 1972), automatic processing (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Stroop, 1935), and social psychology has shown the importance of implicit processing (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Such empirical findings have demonstrated the role of unconscious processes in human behavior.

However, most evidence for Freud’s theories is from an unrepresentative sample. He mostly studied himself, his patients, and only one child (e.g., Little Hans ).

The main problem here is that the case studies are based on studying one person in detail, and regarding Freud, the individuals in question are most often middle-aged women from Vienna (i.e., his patients).

This makes generalizations to the wider population (e.g., the whole world) difficult. However, Freud thought this unimportant, believing in only a qualitative difference between people.

Freud may also have shown research bias in his interpretations – he may have only paid attention to information that supported his theories, and ignored information and other explanations that did not fit them.

However, Fisher & Greenberg (1996) argue that Freud’s theory should be evaluated in terms of specific hypotheses rather than a whole. They concluded that there is evidence to support Freud’s concepts of oral and anal personalities and some aspects of his ideas on depression and paranoia.

They found little evidence of the Oedipal conflict and no support for Freud’s views on women’s sexuality and how their development differs from men’.

Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American psychologist, 54 (7), 462.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895). Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Fisher, S., & Greenberg, R. P. (1996). Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing the theories and therapy . John Wiley & Sons.

Freud, S. (1894). The neuro-psychoses of defence . SE, 3: 41-61.

Freud, S. (1896). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence . SE, 3: 157-185.

Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams . S.E., 4-5.

Freud, S. (1901). The psychopathology of everyday life. SE, 6.  London: Hogarth .

Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality.  Se ,  7 , 125-243.

Freud, S. (1915). The unconscious . SE, 14: 159-204.

Freud, S. (1920) . Beyond the pleasure principle . SE, 18: 1-64.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id . SE, 19: 1-66.

Freud, S. (1925). Negation. Standard edition , 19, 235-239.

Freud, S. (1961). The resistances to psycho-analysis. In T he Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIX (1923-1925): The Ego and the Id and other works (pp. 211-224).

Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological review, 102 (1), 4.

Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of experimental psychology, 18 (6), 643.

Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of Memory , (pp. 381–403). New York: Academic Press.

What is Freud most famous for?

Why is freud so criticized, what did sigmund freud do.

His conceptualization of the mind’s structure (id, ego, superego), his theories of psychosexual development, and his exploration of defense mechanisms revolutionized our understanding of human psychology.

Despite controversies and criticisms, Freud’s theories have fundamentally shaped the field of psychology and the way we perceive the human mind.

What is the Freudian revolution’s impact on society?

Psychoanalysis: A History of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

However, psychoanalysis is much more than a quirky approach to understanding the human mind. It’s a specific form of talking therapy, grounded in a complex theory of human development and psychological functioning.

In this article, we’ll introduce the history of psychoanalytic theory, the basic tenets of the psychoanalytic model of the mind, and the clinical approach called psychoanalysis. We’ll explain the differences between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy and consider some criticisms of psychoanalysis.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will provide you with detailed insight into positive Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and the tools to apply it in your therapy or coaching.

This Article Contains

What is psychoanalysis a definition and history of psychoanalytic theory, the approach: psychoanalytic perspective, techniques of psychoanalytic therapy, psychodynamic vs. psychoanalytic theory, psychoanalysis vs. psychotherapy, psychoanalysis test: the freudian personality test, criticisms of psychoanalytic theory, a take-home message.

Psychoanalysis is a talking therapy that aims to treat a range of mental health issues by investigating the relationship between the unconscious and conscious elements of psychological experience using clinical techniques like free association and dream interpretation (Pick, 2015).

Contemporary psychoanalysis has evolved a great deal from its roots in the classical Freudian approach, which developed in Vienna during the late 19th century.

Today, there are several psychoanalytic schools that adhere to different models of the mind and clinical approaches. These include the object relations school associated with Klein and Winnicott, Jung’s analytic psychology, and Lacanian psychoanalysis (Gaztambide, 2021).

Many controversies abound between these different approaches today, although all can be classified as an approach to psychoanalysis.

A common thread between them is their focus on the transference and countertransference dynamics between the analyst and analysand as the vehicle of psychological transformation and healing (Pick, 2015). This is explained further below.

Freudian theory: Sigmund Freud & psychoanalysis

The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, was born in Austria and spent most of his childhood and adult life in Vienna (Gay, 2006). He entered medical school and trained as a neurologist, earning a medical degree in 1881.

Soon after his graduation, he set up in private practice and began treating patients with psychological disorders. His colleague Dr. Josef Breuer’s intriguing experience with a patient, “Anna O.,” who experienced a range of physical symptoms with no apparent physical cause (Breuer & Freud, 1895/2001) drew his attention.

Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms abated when he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed from conscious awareness. This case sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind and spurred the development of some of his most influential ideas.

You can read more about the clinical origins of psychoanalysis in the original text Studies on Hysteria (Breuer & Freud, 1895/2001).

Models of the mind: Ego, id, & superego

Perhaps Freud’s greatest impact on the world was his model of the human mind, which divides the mind into three layers, or regions.

• Conscious Housing our current thoughts, feelings, and perceptual focus
• Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious) The home of everything we can recall or retrieve from our memory
• Unconscious At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the processes that drive our behavior, including biologically determined instinctual desires (Pick, 2015).

Later, Freud proposed a more structured model of the mind that better depicted his original ideas about conscious and unconscious processes (Gaztambide, 2021).

In this model, there are three components to the mind:

• Id The id operates at an unconscious level as the motor of our two main instinctual drives: Eros, or the survival instinct that drives us to engage in life-sustaining activities, and Thanatos, or the death instinct that drives destructive, aggressive, and violent behavior.
• Ego The ego acts as a filter for the id that works as both a conduit for and check on our unconscious drives. The ego ensures our needs are met in a socially appropriate way. It is oriented to navigating reality and begins to develop in infancy.
• Superego The superego is the term Freud gives to “conscience” where morality and higher principles reside, encouraging us to act in socially and morally acceptable ways (Pick, 2015).

The image offers a context of this “iceberg” model of the mind, which depicts the greatest psychological influence as the realm of the unconscious.

Defense mechanisms

Freud believed these three components of the mind are in constant conflict because each has a different goal. Sometimes, when psychological conflict threatens psychological functioning, the ego mobilizes an array of defense mechanisms to prevent psychological disintegration (Burgo, 2012).

These defense mechanisms include:

• Repression The ego prevents disturbing memories or threatening thoughts from entering consciousness altogether, pushing them into our unconscious.
• Denial The ego blocks upsetting or overwhelming experiences from awareness, leading us to refuse to acknowledge or believe what is happening.
• Projection The ego attempts to resolve discomfort by attributing our unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and motives to another person.
• Displacement The ego satisfies an unconscious impulse by acting on a substitute object or person in a socially unacceptable way (e.g., expressing the anger you feel toward your boss at work with your spouse at home instead).
• Regression Ego functioning returns to a former stage of psychological development to cope with stress (e.g., an angry adult having a tantrum like a young child).
• Sublimation Similar to displacement, the ego overcomes conflict by channeling surplus energy into a socially acceptable activity (e.g., channeling anxiety into exercise, work, or other creative pursuits).

It is built on the foundational idea that biologically determined unconscious forces drive human behavior, often rooted in early experiences of attempting to get our basic needs met. However, these remain out of conscious awareness (Pick, 2015).

Psychoanalysis engages in a process of inquiry into adult defenses against unacceptable unconscious desires rooted in these early experiences and emphasizes their importance as the bedrock of adult psychological functioning (Frosh, 2016).

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A modern psychoanalyst may use a range of different interventions, depending on their school of psychoanalytic thought (e.g., object-relational, Lacanian, Jungian, etc.; Gaztambide, 2021).

However, there are four component techniques specific to psychoanalysis that we explain below.

What are the four ideas of psychoanalysis?

Interpretation

Interpretation refers to the analyst’s hypothesizing of their client’s unconscious conflicts. These hypotheses are communicated verbally to the client.

Generally, the analyst will attempt to make their client more aware of their defense mechanisms and their relational context, including their unconscious conflicts and the client’s motivation for mobilizing a particular defense mechanism (Kernberg, 2016).

There are three stages of interpretation (Kernberg, 2016):

• Clarification Where the analyst tries to clarify what is going on in the patient’s conscious mind
• Confrontation Gently aims to bring nonverbal aspects of the client’s behavior into their awareness
• Interpretation When the analyst proposes their hypothesis of the unconscious meaning that relates each aspect of the client’s communication with the other

Transference analysis

Transference refers to the repetition of unconscious conflicts rooted in the client’s relational past in the relationship with the analyst. Transference analysis involves tracking elements of the client’s verbal and nonverbal communications that aim to influence the analyst’s behavior toward the client (Racker, 1982).

For example, a client with a history of childhood trauma may begin to relate to the analyst as a threatening or predatory authority figure by expressing suspicion of the analyst’s motives, missing sessions, or becoming angry with the analyst.

The analysis of a client’s transference is an essential component of psychoanalysis and is the main driver of change during treatment. It provides the raw material that informs an analyst’s interpretations (Racker, 1982).

Technical neutrality

Technical neutrality refers to the analyst’s commitment to remain neutral and avoid taking sides in the client’s internal conflicts. The analyst strives to remain neutral and nonjudgmental by maintaining a clinical distance from the client’s external reality .

Additionally, technical neutrality demands that analysts refrain from imposing their value systems on the client (Kernberg, 2016).

Technical neutrality can sometimes seem like indifference or disinterest in the client, but that is not the goal; rather, analysts aim to serve as a mirror for their clients, reflecting clients’ own characteristics, assumptions, and behaviors back at them to develop a client’s self-awareness .

Countertransference analysis

Countertransference refers to the analyst’s responses and reactions to the client and the material they present during sessions, most especially the client’s transference.

Countertransference analysis involves tracking elements of the analyst’s own dispositional transference to the client that is co-determined by the client (Racker, 1982).

Countertransference analysis enables the analyst to maintain clinical boundaries and avoid acting out in the relationship with the client.

Following on from the example given above, an analyst working with a client with a history of childhood trauma may respond to the client’s transference by feeling dismissive or contemptuous of a client that misses sessions or expresses suspicion.

However, countertransference analysis enables the analyst to understand that such feelings are a response to the client’s transference rooted in their past relational conflicts. The analyst’s feelings are then observed as material for interpretation rather than expressed (Racker, 1982).

Psychodynamic theory agrees that clinical problems in adult life often originate in a client’s early relationships. It also considers a client’s current social context and their interactions with the immediate environment.

Both theoretical approaches agree on the following:

• The existence of unconscious drives/instincts and defense mechanisms
• The impact of the unconscious on human personality and behavior
• The importance of our earliest experiences in shaping later relational patterns
• The impact of internal factors on behavior, meaning behavior is never under a client’s complete control (Berzoff et al., 2008)

It may be helpful to further distinguish between the two by providing some examples of the differences and similarities in clinical approach.

First, both the psychoanalyst and the psychodynamic therapist work with transference and countertransference. In fact, any therapeutic approach that acknowledges and works with transference and/or countertransference may be termed psychodynamic, in part (Shedler, 2010).

Therefore, a psychodynamic therapist attends to their client’s communications to detect how deep-rooted unconscious conflicts may contribute to problematic behaviors, thoughts, and feelings in the present.

However, they also attend to the here-and-now social context of a client’s life to understand how real-world situations such as poverty, grief, abuse, violence, racism, sexism, and so on contribute to a client’s suffering (Berzoff et al., 2008).

A psychoanalyst will see their client (termed a patient, usually) every weekday over an indeterminate period of years. Meanwhile, a psychodynamic therapist will see a client less frequently, perhaps once or twice a week for several months or a few years, depending on the client’s needs. Psychodynamic therapy is more client centered in this respect (Berzoff et al., 2008).

A psychodynamic therapist may include techniques that are not psychoanalytic to work with transference and countertransference. These may include communication skills, such as active listening , empathy , and expressive arts interventions. Psychodynamic therapists are not limited in their approach by the traditional pillars of psychoanalytic technique mentioned above (Shedler, 2010).

A psychoanalyst works with their client on a couch to encourage regression and access unconscious material (Pick, 2015), while a psychodynamic therapist works face to face with a client sitting upright.

Now that we’ve clarified the differences between psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapy, let’s look at the difference between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy overall.

A psychoanalyst has a particular set of skills gained from their specific psychoanalytic training. Meanwhile, psychotherapists can train in a range of therapeutic modalities, including psychodynamic , cognitive-behavioral , humanistic , or integrative approaches (Wampold, 2018).

However, both professions focus on helping people via talk therapy. Both use their skills to help their clients gain insight into their inner worlds, address their psychological problems, and heal.

In fact, a psychoanalyst is a type of psychotherapist who specializes in psychoanalysis. Therefore, every psychoanalyst is also a psychotherapist, but not every psychotherapist is a psychoanalyst (Wampold, 2018).

Although you’ll need to consult a psychoanalyst for a more valid and reliable classification, this test can give you an idea of how psychoanalysts conceptualize personality .

The test is composed of 48 items rated on a five-point scale from Disagree to Agree. The results are in the form of scores ranging from 0% to 100% across eight personality types:

• Oral-receptive
• Oral-aggressive
• Anal-expulsive
• Anal-retentive
• Phallic-aggressive
• Phallic-compensative
• Classic hysteric
• Retentive hysteric

To understand more about Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and how it relates to personality, check out the video below.

Although psychoanalytic theory laid the foundations for much of modern psychology, it is not without flaws. Psychoanalysis is still practiced today, and psychoanalytic theory has since been updated because of our improved understanding of human behavior , neuroscience , and the brain (Frosh, 2016).

However, serious criticisms of the theory and its applications remain (Eagle, 2007).

The major criticisms include the following:

• Many of the hypotheses and assumptions of psychoanalytic theory cannot be tested empirically, making it almost impossible to falsify or validate.
• It emphasizes the deterministic roles of biology and the unconscious and neglects environmental influences on the conscious mind.
• Psychoanalytic theory was deeply rooted in Freud’s sexist ideas, and traces of this sexism still remain in the theory and practice today.
• It is deeply Eurocentric and unsupported cross-culturally and may only apply to clients from Western Judeo–Christian and secular cultures.
• Freud emphasized pathology and neglected to study optimal psychological functioning.
• The theory was not developed through the application of the scientific method, but from Freud’s subjective interpretations of a small group of patients from a specific cultural background and historical period (Eagle, 2007).

Given these valid criticisms of psychoanalytic theory, it is wise to approach Freud and his theories with skepticism.

Although his work formed the foundations of modern psychology, it did not develop from a scientifically validated evidence base and is not falsifiable. Therefore, Freud’s students and followers have borne the burden of attempting to provide evidence to support the scientific and clinical validity of psychoanalysis.

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While Freud’s classical psychoanalytic theory and traditional clinical technique have earned widespread criticism for their lack of a scientific evidence base or testability, the explanatory power of psychoanalytic theory has become part of popular culture in the West.

For example, we all know about the Freudian slip and generally accept that people often remain “unconscious” of certain aspects of themselves, their motives, behavior, and the impact they have on others.

Various defense mechanisms have become part of the everyday language of popular psychology, such as denial, repression, and projection.

There is also no denying that Freud’s interpretation of dreams has led to the widespread belief that our dreams actually mean something, rather than just being a series of random events that occur when we’re sleeping.

Meanwhile, the central therapeutic concepts of transference and countertransference have informed a widely accepted psychodynamic understanding of relationships, especially in health and social care settings. These ideas have also informed the development of safeguarding practices that uphold professional boundaries.

Some of Freud’s ideas may seem eccentric and of their time, but his legacy is far reaching and has influenced areas of thought far beyond the clinical practice of psychoanalysis.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. For more information, don’t forget to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free .

Ed: Updated April 2023

• Berzoff, J., Flanagan, L. M., & Hertz, P. (2008). Inside out and outside in: Psychodynamic clinical theory and psychopathology in contemporary multicultural contexts . Jason Aronson.
• Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (2001). Studies on hysteria. In J. Strachey (Trans., Ed.), Complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. II (1893–95) . Vintage. (Original work published 1895)
• Burgo, J. (2012). Why do I do that? Psychological defense mechanisms and the hidden ways they shape our lives . New Rise Press.
• Eagle, M. N. (2007). Psychoanalysis and its critics. Psychoanalytic Psycholog y, 24 (1), 10–24.
• Frosh, S. (2016). For and against psychoanalysis . Routledge.
• Gay, P. (2006). Freud: A life for our time . W. W. Norton.
• Gaztambide, D. J. (2021). A people’s history of psychoanalysis: From Freud to liberation psychology . Lexington Books.
• Kernberg, O. (2016). The four basic components of psychoanalytic technique and derived psychoanalytic psychotherapies. World Psychiatry , 15 (3), 287–288.
• Racker, H. (1982). Transference and countertransference . Routledge.
• Pick, D. (2015). Psychoanalysis: A very short introduction . Oxford University Press.
• Shedler, J. (2010). The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy. American Psychologis t, 65 (2), 98–109.
• Wampold, B. E. (2018). The basics of psychotherapy: An introduction to theory and practice . American Psychological Association.

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I am a third-year university student, hoping to obtain my honors in Clinical Psychology. I must say that I am quite impressed with your writings and have now obtained a much clearer understanding of both the Freudian theory of Psychoanalysis and the process by which a relationship between the therapist and the client is conceptualized in Psychoanalytic theory. Thank you for this simplified version. From Namibia

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An Introduction and Brief Overview of Psychoanalysis

Martin tarzian.

1 Psychiatry, University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Basseterre, KNA

Mariana Ndrio

2 Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Basseterre, KNA

Adegbenro O Fakoya

3 Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, USA

The field of psychology has been shaped by the views and perspectives of Sigmund Freud and his former students: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. These psychologists and their respective schools of thought provide distinct views on psychology and influences on personality and psychosocial development. The foundation for psychoanalysis was laid by Freud, his work on the unconscious mind, and his emphasis on early childhood experiences. His students also made substantial contributions that expanded, sharpened, and challenged his theories. This review will begin by highlighting the work of Sigmund Freud; it will then compare his theories with the theories of his students. This review will introduce and bring attention to the most important figures of psychoanalysis and give a brief overview of their theories.

Introduction and background

Sigmund Freud (Born May 6th, 1856) was an Austrian neurologist widely known as the father of psychoanalysis. His revolutionary theories, thoughts, and challenges to the field of psychology have changed how theorists understand the mind and how psychologists treat their patients [ 1 ]. Throughout his life, he worked fervently and tirelessly to advance his theories, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing until he died in 1939. Today, most clinical psychologists and psychiatrists roll their eyes when Freud’s ideas are brought up. However, his impact on shaping the theoretical and practical approaches to the human mind and reasoning for behavior cannot be understated or forgotten [ 2 ].

Freud attended medical school at the University of Vienna and graduated as a neurologist [ 1 , 2 ]. He was interested in the brain’s anatomy and how the nervous system works in relation to the human body. Time and time again, his research led him to query and ponder the relationship between the human mind and the physical ailments his patients would experience [ 3 ]. He began to question whether the symptomology he witnessed in his patients came from the illness within the brain or the mind. As time passed, Freud developed a passion for understanding the complexities of the mind and psyche, eventually leading him to pursue his pioneering work of psychoanalysis [ 3 ].

As his passion and interest in the human mind increased, Sigmund Freud shifted from treating neurological diseases to treating individuals suffering from psychological issues such as depression and anxiety [ 3 ]. This switch gradually occurred in the late 1800s. By the 1900s, Freud was solely focused on using psychoanalysis to explain anomalies of human nature [ 3 , 4 ]. While working at the University of Vienna, his professor, Dr. Josef Breuer, introduced Sigmund Freud to a fascinating case. The patient, referred to as “Anna O,” experienced a range of physical symptoms such as visual disturbances, hallucinations, partial paralysis, and speech problems with no apparent physical cause [ 4 ]. Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms improved when he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed from conscious awareness, which he called the “Cathartic Method” [ 4 ]. Unsurprisingly, Sigmund Freud, who was already fascinated with anomalies of the human mind, feverishly began exploring the possible psychological phenomena that could explain Anna Os’s symptomology. Later, in 1895, Freud and Breuer published a book discussing Anna’s case and other similar clinical cases called “Studies in Hysteria.” This case is significant because it laid the foundation for developing Freud’s influential ideas about psychoanalysis [ 5 , 6 ].

Continuing his work with Breuer, Freud finally derived his groundbreaking theory about “The Unconscious,” proposing that repressed memories and desires influence behavioral and emotional states. A revolutionary concept at the time, this theory would permanently leave its imprint on psychological thinking for centuries to come [ 6 , 7 ]. This time can also be considered the period when Freud abandoned neurology as a field and focused solely on practicing psychoanalysis. While initially he used the method of hypnosis taught to him by Charcot, Freud recognized that he needed a better way of addressing his patients’ unconscious desires and memories. Thus, he developed the “Free Association,” in which patients were encouraged to speak freely about their thoughts and feelings without censorship or self-editing [ 7 , 8 ]. Through this technique, Freud believed that he uncovered the unconscious thoughts and memories that were the root cause of many psychological phenomena and anomalies [ 7 , 8 ].

In 1899, Sigmund Freud released his groundbreaking book “The Interpretation of Dreams.” He proposed a new theory on the meaning behind dreams and how they relate to the unconscious [ 9 - 11 ]. In his book, he argued that dreams portal into humankind’s hidden desires and emotions and provide insight into any underlying conflicts within the unconscious mind. At the start of the 1900s, Freud had established himself as the master of addressing the unconscious [ 1 - 3 ]. As time passed, his theories continued to grow more rambunctious and ambitious in their claims of explaining human behavior. His work revolutionized how we view the human psyche and opened many avenues for further exploration [ 9 ].

In the early 1900s, Sigmund Freud had established himself at the frontier of psychological thinking and began writing about the Oedipus complex [ 1 - 3 ]. This theory claims that young children have an unconscious sexual desire toward the parent of the opposite sex. The Oedipal complex has come to be known as Sigmund Freud’s most controversial theory and is often joked about when referenced in popular media [ 12 ]. He also formulated the tripartite theory involving the id, ego, and superego - a theory still taught today to explain different facets of the human psyche. Over the next decade, Freud dedicated himself to improving these theories [ 12 ]. In 1902, Sigmund Freud formed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, and it quickly became a popular hub for the exploration and development of his theories. He also began instructing other mental health professionals in psychoanalysis, leading to its increased spread across Europe and the United States in the following years [ 1 , 2 ]. His work at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, along with his time spent teaching, are regarded as the reasons that psychoanalysis quickly globalized at the turn of the 20th century.

Despite the initial success of psychoanalysis, Freud’s theories were controversial and faced criticism from many quarters. Some critics accused Freud of being overly focused on sex and of exaggerating the influence of the unconscious mind. Others argued that psychoanalysis lacked scientific validity and was based on anecdotal evidence rather than empirical data [ 13 ]. Ultimately, even his students challenged him and began their own schools of thought, which we will discuss later [ 13 ]. Nevertheless, Freud’s influence on psychology and culture cannot be overstated. His theories continue to be the subject of debate and research, and psychoanalysis remains a popular and influential field of study. Freud’s discovery of psychoanalysis paved the way for a new understanding of the human mind and continues to shape our understanding of psychology and society [ 1 - 3 ].

Freud’s legacy extends beyond his contributions. His circle of inspired and loyal pupils continued to push and advance the field. Together, they have expanded the principles of psychoanalysis. These students, united in their respect and admiration for Freud, carry his ideas forward, establishing psychoanalysis as a legitimate and influential approach to understanding the human mind. By continuing to explore and apply psychoanalytic principles, we can gain a deeper understanding of ourselves, our actions, and the intricate workings of the human mind. This review aims to emphasize the contributions of psychoanalysis, from Sigmund Freud to his students Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney.

Freud’s Free Association Technique

Free association is the fundamental technique of addressing the unconscious in psychoanalysis. The method allows patients to freely express their thoughts, feelings, and emotions without censoring themselves. Commonly, the patient lies on a couch in the physician’s office and is made to feel very comfortable. This lowers the patient’s guard and thus the ego’s guard, allowing the mind to truly express its reservations [ 14 ]. The goal is to elicit the unconscious thoughts and memories contributing to psychological distress [ 14 ]. The theory behind free association is that unconscious thoughts and emotions may be painful, embarrassing, or socially unacceptable and thus remain submerged in the unconscious [ 14 ]. The patient is lulled into a state of comfort through free association, allowing these subconscious notions to come to light [ 14 ].

By bringing these unconscious thoughts and feelings into conscious awareness, the patient is allowed to address them and understand why they may be experiencing distress from them. The therapist can encourage the patient to talk about dreams, childhood memories, or anything that may bring the patient’s underlying issues to conscious awareness [ 15 ]. The therapist must listen without interrupting or imposing their own ideas, thus creating a safe space to express themselves openly and speak honestly [ 15 ].

Free association is not without its limitations and criticism. One of the criticisms of free association is that it relies too much on the therapist’s ability to interpret the patient’s unconscious thoughts and feelings. This is subjective, and different therapists may interpret the exact words or phrases differently [ 16 ]. Take, for instance, a dream depicting a tiger pursuing a gazelle in the depths of the jungle. One therapist might interpret the tiger as a symbol of the patient’s personal strength and confidence, while another therapist could perceive the gazelle as a representation of the patient’s apprehension regarding vulnerability to external forces. Determining which interpretation is objectively accurate is inherently elusive if not impossible. Another challenge with free association is that it is time-consuming and arduous. Patients may struggle to access their unconscious thoughts, feelings, and/or emotions, and it may take several months or even years to express themselves honestly and freely [ 16 ]. Despite these limitations, free association remains a fascinating approach to both therapy and addressing the unconscious. While it has limitations, free association remains an interesting tool in treating psychological disorders. It is a pivotal technique used by Sigmund Freud and other followers of psychoanalysis [ 15 ].

The Oedipal complex

First proposed by Sigmund Freud, the Oedipal complex is an essential concept within psychoanalysis. According to Freud, the Oedipal complex is a psychological phenomenon occurring between three and six in otherwise healthy children [ 17 ]. This desire is theorized to originate from the child’s need to satisfy sexual instincts, which are repressed by social norms and familial expectations [ 18 - 20 ]. It represents a child’s unconscious desire to own the same-sex parent and eliminate the other, whom they view as competition. The child develops hostility, jealousy, and anger toward the same-sex parent while experiencing love and sexual attraction toward the parent of the opposite sex [ 18 - 20 ].

The Oedipal complex has been criticized and debated outside and within the psychoanalytic community. Some argue that the Oedipal complex is a culturally specific concept that does not apply to all societies, and it reinforces gender stereotypes and heteronormativity [ 21 ]. Despite the ongoing debate, the Oedipal complex remains a central concept in psychoanalytic theory and continues to shift and influence the understanding of human psychology, desire, and development [ 21 ].

The tripartite theory of the psyche

The id represents our primitive impulses and desires, including sexual and aggressive urges. According to Freud, the id is the source of our unconscious thoughts and wishes and operates on the principle of immediate gratification [ 22 ]. For instance, consider a situation where one child observes another child enjoying their favorite snack. In response, the first child impulsively snatches the snack and swiftly consumes it. This impulsive act reflects the id’s instincts and desires. On the other hand, the ego serves as the rational and conscious aspect of the psyche, acting as a mediator between the id’s demands and the realities of the external world [ 22 ]. Its role is to satisfy the id’s needs in a socially acceptable manner, avoiding negative consequences. In our previous example, the child witnessing another child devouring their favorite snack would refrain from forcibly taking it, as doing so would result in punishment from an authority figure. Instead, the child might negotiate, offering a piece of their own snack in exchange for a portion of the other child’s snack, thus achieving their goal in a socially acceptable manner. Lastly, the superego symbolizes the internalization of societal norms and values [ 23 ]. It functions as a moral compass, determining right from wrong based on cultural and ethical standards. The superego enforces moral principles and may elicit feelings of guilt or shame when one’s actions violate those standards [ 22 , 23 ]. In the hypothetical scenario, the child may be tempted to steal the snack but recalls the moral teachings of their favorite cartoon character, which emphasizes that stealing is morally wrong. As a result, the child refrains from stealing the snack, influenced by the cultural impact of their beloved cartoon character [ 23 ].

Some argue that Freud’s tripartite theory oversimplifies human thought and behavior [ 24 ]. According to his theory, only three components underlie all the behavior a person will ever exhibit in their lifetime. His theory does not allow change or growth as an individual would continuously operate on at least one of these three principles [ 24 ]. According to Freud’s theory, humans are inherently selfish creatures who are always trying to manipulate a situation to attain their desires that will not bring punishment or pain [ 23 - 25 ]. Despite these criticisms, the id, ego, and superego concept contributes significantly to psychoanalysis [ 24 ]. It emphasizes the dynamic relationship between our primitive desires, rational consciousness, and societal norms. While it has been criticized for its narrow focus and deterministic view of the human psyche, it remains a significant contribution to psychoanalysis.

The secret world of dreams: Sigmund Freud’s interpretation and analysis

“The Interpretation of Dreams” (published in 1899) is considered one of the most influential books. In “The Interpretation of Dreams,” Freud provides insights into his theories about the mechanisms that underlie the unconscious mind [ 25 ]. He argued that the content of dreams is symbolic and that it is necessary to decode the symbolism to understand what the dream truly represents [ 25 ].

For Freud, dreams are a way for people to address their unconscious wishes. These wishes are unacceptable to our conscious mind and thus remain trapped in the recesses of the subconscious [ 26 ]. During sleep, the boundary between consciousness and unconsciousness becomes blurred, and therefore, we are allowed to address our repressed emotions within our dreams [ 26 , 27 ]. Freud believed that the manifest content of the dream (what we remember upon waking) was a disguise for the latent content (the true meaning of the dream) [ 26 ]. For example, in a dream where a person is flying, flight represents the desire to escape from a difficult situation or a yearning to experience freedom. A dream about a mouse might represent repressed feelings of inadequacy or weakness compared to others. Freud argued that dreams are a means of processing unresolved psychological conflicts. Thus, for Freud, dreams are a form of therapy that allows people to work through their difficult emotions and subconscious issues in the comfort of their own beds [ 26 , 27 ].

Unlike his other theories, Freud’s dream interpretation theory was the center of controversy. Some argued that his ideas were too focused on sexual desires and his approach was too subjective to the interpreter [ 27 ]. How can one tell if a dream has some deep underlying meaning or is just a dream? Others questioned the validity of interpreting dreams as a means of uncovering unconscious thoughts and emotions [ 27 ]. Like the tiger stalking the gazelle example discussed earlier, two therapists may interpret the same dream differently. There is no objective way to determine whose interpretation is correct. Despite these criticisms, Freud’s theory of dream interpretation remains a significant contribution to psychoanalysis. It has been used to gain insights into the workings of the unconscious mind and to treat various psychological disorders, including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder [ 27 ].

Going rogue with the mind: the psychoanalytical mavericks who challenged Freud

In the 1950s, psychoanalysis was not only established as its own discipline but was now being taken to new frontiers. Freud’s original ideas were challenged and built upon by a new generation of psychoanalytical theorists, including Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. These theorists emphasized different aspects of the human unconscious. The unconscious was used to address the mental health concerns of patients worldwide. In addition, therapy and healing became a central aspect of psychoanalysis.

Jung vs. Freud: even the deepest relationships cannot escape the idiosyncrasies of the ego

Carl Jung (1875-1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and former student of Freud who developed his own Analytical Psychology theory. While he was initially a follower of Sigmund Freud, his ideas eventually diverged from Freud’s, and the two men had a falling out [ 28 ]. Jung viewed classical psychoanalysis as a perspective that does not foster individual growth, nor did it provide the framework for the commonality of all people. Analytical Psychology is a psychological theory and framework that explores the collective unconscious, archetypes, and the process of Individuation [ 28 , 29 ]. Carl Jung recognized the existence of a shared reservoir of universal human experiences and symbols, known as the collective unconscious, which influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors through archetypes [ 30 , 31 ]. Individuation, a central concept in Jungian psychology, involves integrating both conscious and unconscious aspects of one’s personality to achieve wholeness and self-realization [ 31 ]. Like Freud, Jung saw dreams as a gateway to the unconscious mind [ 28 ]. Overall, Jungian psychology offers a holistic approach to understanding the human mind. Jung’s approach fosters personal growth and embraces a journey toward self-discovery. The following section will highlight the similarities and differences between Analytical Psychology and Freud’s Classical Psychoanalysis.

Similarities Between Jung’s Analytical Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The importance of the unconscious: Both Jung and Freud agreed that the unconscious mind plays a vital role in shaping our behaviors and experiences. They also believed that unconscious conflicts lead to psychological distress. Finally, they agreed that exploring the unconscious through free association could lead to spiritual and psychological healing [ 28 ]. While sharing these foundational beliefs with Sigmund Freud, Jung expanded upon them and introduced his own distinctive concepts. Jung argued that the unconscious had various aspects and was not solely driven by sexual motivations, as proposed by Freud. Rather the existence of a collective unconscious, a reservoir of shared human experiences, emotions, and symbols that shape our thoughts and behaviors through archetypes (we will discuss archetypes shortly), explained much of our behavior, if not all [ 29 ]. He saw the unconscious as a rich source of wisdom, creativity, and spiritual insight. Freud’s focus on repressed memories and painful truths about ourselves vastly differed from Jung’s, who explored the deepest layers of the psyche to integrate and harmonize conscious and unconscious aspects of one’s self to achieve personal growth and wholeness [ 29 ]. Jung’s views on the unconscious were not limited to pathology. Still, they encompassed a broader approach to understanding the human mind and its relation to universal themes, the cosmos, and archetypal patterns [ 29 ].

The use of dream analysis: Both Jung and Freud agreed that dreams are a window into the unconscious mind. They also decided that analyzing the symbols and themes within someone’s dreams could uncover repressed thoughts and feelings causing pain and strife in that person’s life [ 28 ]. Carl Jung was profoundly interested in dream analysis. His exploration of the unconscious through dream analysis was driven by his desire to bridge a gap between religion and science [ 29 ]. In his book “Memories, Dreams, Reflections,” Jung discusses how religion, science, and the unconscious are intertwined. He compares the term “the unconscious” with Gods, religions, and numinosity that have been present throughout human history [ 29 ]. Jung acknowledges that certain experiences, such as dreams and inspirations, arise spontaneously and cannot be attributed solely to conscious effort. He suggested that these experiences emanate from the human psyche, a demon, a god, or the unconscious [ 29 ]. Jung believed that the unconscious contains an unknown realm, parallel to reality as we know it, a vast expanse beneath the surface of consciousness. He acknowledged the limitations of scientific knowledge about the unconscious and the futility of objectively studying the workings of the unconscious. Like Freud, Jung’s approach to dream analysis sought to uncover the deeper meanings and symbolic messages embedded in dreams, considering them valuable sources of insight into the unconscious aspects of the individual’s psyche [ 29 ]. He embraced the subjective nature of dream analysis and accepted that although not perfect, it offers much to the therapist in addressing the psychological issues of their patients [ 29 ].

The emphasis on the therapist-patient relationship: Both Jung and Freud believed that the relationship between therapist and patient was key to the success of psychotherapy. They agreed that the therapist is a guide to help navigate unconscious conflicts and promote healing [ 28 ]. Carl Jung heavily emphasized the therapeutic alliance. He saw the relationship between the therapist and the patient as a crucial determinant for facilitating healing and growth. According to Jung, the therapist’s ability to establish a strong connection and rapport with the patient is paramount for a successful therapeutic process. He believed that a trusting and collaborative alliance allows the patient to feel safe, understood, and supported, creating a conducive environment for exploration and self-discovery [ 29 ]. His stress on creating a safe haven for patients to express themselves freely goes hand in hand with Freud’s free association.

Emphasis on the therapeutic alliance as a partnership is central to analytical therapy. The therapist must provide guidance, support, and overall compassion. Encouraging active engagement is crucial to success, according to Jung [ 28 , 29 ]. He underscored the value of empathy, listening actively, and caring. By demonstrating respect, acceptance, and a non-judgmental attitude, the therapist creates an environment that allows the patient to freely express their thoughts, real feelings, and true emotions [ 29 ]. The similarities between Freud’s emphasis on creating a safe environment and Jung’s emphasis on empathy highlight that Jung’s theories, although unique from Freud’s, remain rooted in classical psychoanalysis. Jung also believed that the therapeutic alliance provides the foundation for exploring the unconscious aspects of the patient’s psyche. He recognized that the unconscious holds valuable insights and symbols that can shed light on the patient’s inner world. Through collaboration and trust, the therapist can guide the patient into navigating and understanding the facets of their psyche. Ultimately uncovering hidden patterns, unresolved conflicts, and potentiating self-growth were the goals of Carl Jung [ 29 ].

Differences Between Jung’s Analytical Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The structure of the psyche: While both Jung and Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, they disagreed about its structure. Freud saw the psyche as consisting of the id, ego, and superego (as discussed earlier). Jung, in contrast, saw the psyche as consisting of three different layers: the conscious, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. According to Jung, the conscious mind is just the tip of the iceberg and is limited in its ability to understand our true nature [ 29 ]. The conscious is what we are actively aware of and thinking about at the moment. The personal unconscious is the second layer of consciousness, which consists of all the experiences, memories, and feelings that are not within our immediate awareness. For example, a person may have an upsetting and recurring dream which initially appears to have no meaning. However, upon exploration in analytical therapy, the meaning behind this recurring dream may be discovered and addressed. This idea is very similar to Freud’s latent and manifest dreams. The personal unconscious also includes forgotten memories, repressed thoughts, and feelings we have not fully processed or are ready to acknowledge. Jung believed that the personal unconscious is a fundamental part of our psyche that could house the positive and negative components of the self [ 29 ]. The third and deepest layer of consciousness is the collective unconscious. Here we find the archetypes, symbols, and universal experiences that all humans share, regardless of dominion. Here, according to Jung, is the foundation of human thinking. It is the source of our deepest spiritual and creative impulses and what defines us as humans [ 29 ]. Jung believed that the collective unconscious was responsible for producing myths, fairy tales, and other universal symbols found in cultures and civilizations worldwide. Even day-to-day interactions can be explained with Jung’s theory. For example, a traffic light that uses green to symbolize go and red to symbolize stop may be defined by some deeply shared human positive emotion toward the color green and reservation to the color red. He believed that by tapping into this deeper layer of consciousness, individuals could better understand their psyche and the world around them [ 29 ].

What motivates people: Freud believed that repressed sexual desires universally lead to psychological distress and are the primary motivation source for human behavior [ 12 , 13 ]. Analytical psychologists argue that sexual desire is just one aspect of a broader human desire termed “Life Energy.” While acknowledging that sexual conflicts may be a source of distress, Jungian psychologists do not see sexual desire as the essential source of conflict for most people [ 28 , 29 ]. Instead, Life Energy is the primary psychic need that motivates us all to grow and pursue fulfilling lives [ 30 ]. Jung saw Life Energy as the fundamental aspect that drives individuals toward self-realization and wholeness [ 29 ]. Life Energy encompasses all forms of psychic energy, including creative needs, spiritual pursuits, and intelligence desires [ 28 , 29 ]. Jung saw the expression of life energy as being closely tied to a process he termed “Individuation,” which involves the integration of all aspects of self to reach a state of peace and tranquility [ 29 ]. He believed that Life Energy drives all humans toward pursuing Individuation. Life Energy manifests itself in various ways, such as creative pursuits, meaningful relationships, and spiritual practice. Jung saw the suppression of Life Energy as harmful to our well-being. People who suppress their Life Energy may experience physical or psychological symptoms [ 28 , 29 ]. Thus, unlike Freud, who viewed the unconscious as a place of shame and distress for his patients, Jung saw the unconscious as a gateway to reaching a state of Individuation or idealistic self.

Archetypes: According to Carl Jung, archetypes are recurring universal human experience themes rooted within the collective unconscious [ 29 ]. Archetypes represent fundamental aspects of human existence, such as characters, symbols, or situations, and they are shared across different cultures and periods [ 30 , 31 ]. For example, weddings have occurred in cultures worldwide despite no prior interaction between most cultures. It would seem then that getting married is a normal aspect of being human, which is shared among the collective unconscious of all people. Archetypes, therefore, arise from the innate psychological predispositions of humankind. They can manifest in arts, religion, literature, mythology, and poetry [ 32 ]. For example, the “Hero Archetype” has existed in numerous cultures throughout history. This is the story of a protagonist who must accomplish a quest to attain a goal, from Babylon’s Gilgamesh to today’s Hollywood movies. No culture has ever existed without a story that involves the “Hero Archetype.” Archetypes provide organizing patterns of thinking that shape our thoughts. Archetypes reflect shared human nature, providing a framework for interpreting the world [ 32 ]. By recognizing and working with archetypes, psychologists can gain insight into integrating shared unconscious elements into conscious awareness to provide effective therapy [ 30 - 32 ].

Individuation: Individuation is a central theme in analytical psychology. It refers to the psychological process of integrating all the aspects of oneself and thus realizing one’s true potential [ 31 ]. It requires putting together the conscious and unconscious elements of the mind. For Individuation to occur, one must strive to develop a unique identity and establish a harmony between conscious thoughts and unconscious desires and instincts [ 31 , 32 ]. It is a lifelong process that involves self-reflection, self-discovery, and self-acceptance, in that order [ 31 ]. Individuation goes beyond conforming to societal expectations. Jung highlights the need to explore inner depths and integrate the repressed aspects of the self no matter how shameful [ 31 ]. Through Individuation, individuals become more self-aware and authentic. The ultimate goal is to become in tune with oneself and one’s purpose. It is a journey of transformation that leads to personal fulfillment and a more meaningful life [ 30 - 33 ]. Although Sigmund Freud did acknowledge the importance of personal growth, he differed from Jung’s concept of Individuation. Freud’s goal was to alleviate psychological distress through the process of psychoanalysis. He never emphasized achieving a sense of wholeness or integration of the self [ 29 , 29 , 33 ].

While Carl Jung was initially a follower of Sigmund Freud, he eventually developed his theory of analytical psychology and quickly diverged from Freud’s classical psychoanalysis. While there are a few similarities between the two, such as the emphasis on the unconscious and the use of dream analysis, there were also poignant differences, such as their views on what drives humans, the structure of the psyche, the concept of self, and the ultimate goal of humans. Freud emphasized the significance of sexual desire for driving human nature, but Carl Jung disagreed. He believed sexual needs were a small part of a vast human desire called Life Energy. Life Energy is the desire to attain Individuation, a state of self-realization. Individuation occurs when the collective unconscious, personal unconscious, and conscious work harmoniously to acknowledge all aspects of oneself.

The battle of Vienna: Adler vs. Freud - feelings of inferiority

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was an Austrian psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and former student of Sigmund Freud. Like Jung, he developed his theory rooted in psychoanalysis, known as Individual Psychology. Adler began as a follower of Sigmund Freud. Similarly to Jung, he eventually developed his approach to psychoanalysis. Individual Psychology emphasizes the holistic nature of people and considers the interplay between the psychological, biological, and cultural factors for shaping feelings, thoughts, and cognition. Adler emphasizes the importance of understanding an individual’s perspective to explain why they are the way they are [ 34 , 35 ]. The Adlerian theory emphasizes personal growth and self-improvement, similar to Jungian psychology. Individual psychology, however, highlights the concept of inferiority and superiority in an individual’s development [ 34 ]. Adler heavily emphasized negative feelings from childhood stemming into the strife individuals experience in adulthood. Individual psychology offers a unique framework for understanding individuals as striving beings influenced by their social environments [ 34 , 35 ]. In this response, we will summarize Adler’s research concerning psychoanalysis, highlighting both the similarities and differences between the two approaches.

Similarities Between Adler’s Individual Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The importance of childhood experiences: Both Adler and Freud agreed that early childhood experiences shape personality, self-image, and behavior in adulthood. They agreed that the therapist should help the patient explore and understand early life experiences to gain insight into their current strife [ 34 ]. Adler, just like Freud, saw childhood as pivotal. He recognized that early interactions with caregivers and the social environment impact a person’s sense of self-worth and ability to navigate life’s obstacles [ 34 ]. Adler, unlike Freud, highlighted the importance of empowering children to develop a sense of competence, confidence, and mastery of tasks. He encouraged children to overcome feelings of inferiority and contribute positively to society. Adler’s holistic approach to childhood and development emphasized the interplay between social dynamics, individual aspirations, and the cultivation of social interest as crucial factors in promoting healthy psychological growth [ 34 ].

The use of free association: Both Adler and Freud used free association to access the unconscious thoughts of their patients. They both agreed that exploring the unconscious aspects of the mind could lead to greater self-awareness and, ultimately, healing [ 34 ]. Through Adler’s observations of children affected by “organic deficiencies” (physical handicaps), he established his theories on Superiority and Inferiority. He found that children who experienced physical limitations needed to compensate and achieve a feeling of superiority over other children [ 35 ]. This striving for superiority propelled them to take on more significant challenges in life and perceive the world as enemy territory [ 35 ]. For example, someone with no arms walking behind you may be offended that you opened the door for them despite being willing to open it for anyone. Perceiving that you opened that door for them because of their organic deficiency, they would be more inclined to take on the challenge of opening the door themselves than someone with arms to prove they can. Many of the actions these children performed became part of their adaptive response to their deficiency [ 35 ]. According to Adler, these children quickly and firmly established defensive and offensive attitudes, developing antagonistic behaviors such as fighting, hesitating, stopping, and pushing [ 35 ]. Adler argued that through intense focus on themselves and their flaws, they tend to be egocentric, lacking social empathy, courage, and self-confidence, as they fear defeat more than they desire success [ 35 ]. These children actively sought out favorable situations while creating barriers to avoid confronting challenges that they may not be able to surpass [ 35 ]. These children, burdened by the inferiority of their organs, became strongly influenced by the darker aspects of life [ 35 ]. In his therapeutic work, Adler utilized free association to explore and unravel these unconscious dynamics, helping these children gain insight into their thought patterns and strategies for compensating for their deficiencies, ultimately supporting them in developing a healthier and more socially connected life [ 34 - 36 ].

The therapeutic relationship: Adler, Jung, and Freud agreed that therapeutic alliance is critical to success and change in at-risk children. They also all agreed that the therapist must establish trust and nurture a relationship based on openness and willingness to communicate. He underscored facilitating a safe space for exploration and growth [ 34 , 35 ]. According to Adler, the importance of a therapeutic alliance extends beyond the boundaries of the therapist and patient. Adler believed that therapists, social workers, and teachers all play roles in addressing the psychological issues of children and thus must work together as a team [ 35 ]. Therapists can guide children toward a more hopeful future by establishing a strong partnership with parents and collaborating with teachers. This future fosters the growth of individuals who have become accountable, aware, and willing to give back to society [ 35 ]. Adler’s emphasis on the therapeutic alliance highlights the need for a community effort to shape the development of children [ 35 ].

Differences Between Adler’s Individual Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The drive of human nature: Freud saw sexual desire as the primary motivation of human behavior. Jung saw Life Energy as the ultimate drive, but Adler believed that striving for superiority was humankind’s primary motivation. Individual psychology sees people as inherently needing to overcome feelings of inferiority. Just like Jung, Adler acknowledged that sexual problems could be a source of psychological distress at times. He did not emphasize them [ 35 , 36 ]. He believed that people are motivated by a need to overcome their feelings of inferiority and thus strive for superiority. He termed this ambition the “will to power.” According to Adler, everyone experiences a sense of inferiority stemming from childhood experiences of inadequacy compared to others [ 36 ]. For example, a child who failed a math test would experience feelings of inferiority and would work extra hard to do well on the next math test to achieve a feeling of superiority. If the child continues to do poorly in math, they will carry on through life, avoiding math problems, thus preventing that feeling of being inferior. Therefore, feeling of inferiority provides all people with two choices, strive to become superior or avoid that obstacle that once made them feel inferior [ 36 ].

The concept of the unconscious: While both Adler and Freud believed in the importance of the unconscious mind, they disagreed about its structure. Freud saw the unconscious as a repository for repressed thoughts and feelings that were too painful to be brought into consciousness. Adler believed the unconscious is a source of creativity and problem-solving, unlike Jung [ 37 ]. Adler did not see the need to distinguish between the conscious and unconscious realms clearly [ 37 ]. He recognized the fluidity between levels of awareness, whereby what may initially seem unconscious can be raised to consciousness through effective therapy or when it becomes relevant and necessary. Many things remain unconscious because they are not immediately appropriate or needed in conscious awareness. However, these unconscious elements can be brought into consciousness when required. Adler understood that individuals tend to focus on and consider only those aspects supporting their self-enhancement goals. Elements disturbing or challenging their viewpoint are often left aside in the unconscious [ 37 ]. For Adler, the conscious mind becomes a source of encouragement, while the unconscious holds what might disrupt or hinder the individual’s perspective. The individual’s lifestyle, to some extent, reflects the degree of narrow or broad focus in their awareness. A narrow focus may disregard or suppress aspects not aligning with their goals.

In contrast, a more general perspective allows for a more comprehensive understanding and integration of conscious and unconscious elements [ 35 ]. Adler’s views on the unconscious align with his holistic assessment of the individual. He believed the mind could not be divided into separate and antagonistic halves of the conscious and unconscious. Instead, consciousness and unconsciousness are directed by the individual’s fictional final goal, representing their ultimate purpose and self-enhancement [ 38 ]. Self-enhancement in this accord is not unlike his contemporary Carl Jung’s “Individuation,” both goals being continued self-improvement [ 31 , 32 ].

While there are similarities between self-enhancement and Individuation regarding personal growth, there are also nuances. Self-enhancement focuses on overcoming feelings of inferiority [ 37 ], emphasizing building a sense of superiority [ 37 ]. In contrast, Individuation is all about self-discovery and the journey to self-realization. Wholeness is established through incorporating all aspects of oneself [ 31 , 32 ]. Adler and Jung recognized the importance of self-actualization and fulfilling one’s potential. Ultimately, self-enhancement and Individuation represent two different approaches to growth. Self-enhancement focused on personal achievement and superiority, and Individuation focused on self-discovery, integration, and wholeness.

The concept of the self: Adler did not use the term “self” as Jung did. However, he agreed that people have a fundamental sense of self shaped by interactions with others and experiences. Thus, Adler saw the goal of therapy as helping others develop a more positive sense of self and enabling them to overcome feelings of inferiority [ 34 - 36 ]. Adler’s concept of self emphasizes the indivisibility of the mind rejecting a notion of a boundary between the conscious and unconscious. Instead, both are guided by the individual’s final goal, which drives their decision-making [ 37 ]. According to Adler, the opposition between conscious and unconscious impulses is merely a difference in means, with both aspects ultimately working toward enhancing the self. He argued that there is fluidity between levels of awareness. Thus, at one time, the unconscious may be raised to consciousness when necessary [ 37 ]. Adler recognizes that not everything must be consciously attended to at all times. Certain thoughts and feelings may remain unconscious until they become relevant or required to undergo a course of action [ 37 ]. The conscious mind focuses on thoughts, feelings, and experiences that support and reinforce the patient. The unconscious mind possesses ideas and feelings that disrupt or challenge their perspective of themselves [ 37 ]. Overall, Adler’s self-concept highlights the interconnectedness of conscious and unconscious processes. The fluidity between these levels of awareness suggests that unconscious elements can be made conscious, and a comprehensive understanding of the self can be achieved through effective therapy and self-reflection.

Alfred Adler and Sigmund Freud were two of the most influential figures in the development of modern psychology, yet their theories differed significantly. While Freud focused on the unconscious mind and the role of instinctual drives, Adler saw the importance of needing to feel superior. While working with children with organic deficiency, Adler noticed that these children strived to put themselves in situations where they could feel superior and avoid problems that made them feel inferior [ 35 ]. His observations led Adler to believe that all people have feelings of inferiority that stem from childhood. Adler also emphasized the self more than Freud did. Adler believed that by combining the positive ideas of one’s self from the conscious mind and negative aspects from the unconscious mind, one could reach enlightenment and self-awareness.

Emphasizing stages: Erikson and Freud’s views on personality development

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was a psychologist who built on Freud’s theories and developed his approach to psychosocial development. Erikson states that we all must overcome eight stages of development. These stages encompass a range of challenges, such as establishing trust with caregivers, overwhelming feelings of guilt, forming an identity, and accomplishing autonomy. The Eriksonian theory emphasizes achieving a healthy balance between societal demands and our own needs. Thus, he focuses on the societal and cultural factors that influence us at every point of our lives [ 38 ]. Each stage is characterized by a specific crisis that individuals must resolve to mature and become successful and content with life [ 39 , 40 ]. By addressing the psychosocial challenges of each stage, individuals have an opportunity to establish a fulfilling life. We will summarize Erikson’s theory, highlighting the similarities and differences between him and Freud [ 38 ].

Similarities Between Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Psychoanalysis

The importance of early childhood experiences: Like Freud, Erikson agreed that early childhood experiences have a lasting impact on personality development. Like Freud, he emphasized the importance of the first few years of life in shaping a person’s sense of self [ 38 - 40 ]. Classical psychoanalytic theory heavily emphasizes childhood experience, particularly the psychosexual stages [ 14 ]. Freud argued that the experiences of the first few years of life, especially interactions with parents or caregivers, ultimately shape an individual’s personality [ 14 ]. Erikson expanded on Freud’s emphasis on psychosexual development to encompass a lifelong journey with stages marked by developmental tasks. Erikson did agree with Freud in regards to childhood experiences being pivotal. However, he extended the focus to include the entire lifespan [ 38 ]. They both agreed and recognized that early childhood experiences impact an individual’s psychological development and personality. They believed unresolved conflicts or challenges during these formative years could lead to long-term consequences [ 38 , 39 ]. Freud focused on the sexual drives that occurred during infancy and early childhood, but Erikson believed every stage of life has its own drive, and these drives extend passed just early childhood [ 14 ].

The influence of the unconscious mind: While Erikson acknowledged the existence of the unconscious and believed it does play some role in processing information, he did not focus on it or speak about it much [ 40 ]. Unlike Freud, Jung, and Adler, Erikson was indifferent to the unconscious processes. He did not acknowledge them much in his developmental theory. For Erikson, the conscious mind plays a prominent role, and unconscious processes are irrelevant at best [ 40 ]. Erikson believed that individuals actively engage in self-discovery and identity formation, which involves conscious reflection [ 40 ]. While Erikson did not dismiss the existence of unconscious influence, he placed heavier emphasis on conscious awareness and how this conscious awareness allowed for integrating social and cultural factors [ 40 ].

Differences Between Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Psychoanalysis

The drive of human nature: According to Freud, humans are driven by sexual urges, particularly in childhood. Erikson disagreed. For Erikson, every part of life presents its own unique challenge that causes people to purpose [ 40 ]. Erikson’s theory focused more on social and emotional development than the sexual aspects emphasized by Freud [ 41 ]. However, a stage in Erikson’s view is often associated with Freud’s emphasis on sexuality, and that is Erikson’s “Identity vs. Role Confusion” stage, which occurs during adolescence (12 to 18 years old). During Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion stage, adolescents explore their identities, trying to establish a sense of self and figure out their place in society [ 42 ]. This stage is characterized by the search for a cohesive identity, including exploring one’s sexual and gender identity. Thus, while Erikson did not emphasize sexual development as Freud did, this stage does involve exploring sexual and romantic relationships, which, in a way, can be seen as parallel to Freud’s focus on sexual development [ 42 ].

The focus on social and cultural influences: Erikson emphasized the role of social and cultural factors in shaping personality development. Freud rarely acknowledged or spoke about the role of society or culture in his theoretical approach. Erikson believed that a person’s social context played a significant role in shaping identity [ 40 ]. The fourth stage, “Industry vs. Inferiority,” exemplifies the cultural focus in development. This stage occurs between the ages of six and 12 [ 42 ]. In the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, children develop a sense of competence in various social and academic settings. The child must strive to acquire new skills, accomplish tasks, and receive recognition and praise from others. A parallel between Adler’s Will to Power can be seen in this stage, as the child must strive to feel superior at this point in their life.

Interestingly, many of the children that Adler worked with were between the ages of six and 12 when he initially formulated his theory [ 35 ]. According to Erkison [ 42 ], this stage is crucial for developing self-esteem. Culture significantly influences the activities and expectations during this stage. Educational systems, societal norms, and cultural practices shape the tasks and activities children are encouraged to pursue. Cultural factors also influence the standards against which children measure their competence. Cultural values, beliefs, and social comparisons shape children’s perceptions of success or failure. By acknowledging the role of culture in the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, Erikson’s theory recognizes that cultural contexts influence children’s socialization and self-evaluation [ 42 ].

The emphasis on stages of development: Erikson’s theory proposes eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a particular crisis or challenge that must be resolved for them to progress to the next stage [ 42 ]. These stages are influenced by social factors such as family, peers, cultural norms, and the individual’s personality and temperament. For example, in the first stage of psychosocial development, trust vs. mistrust, infants must learn to trust their caregivers to develop a sense of security and basic trust in the world around them [ 42 ]. If caregivers are consistently responsive and meet the infant’s needs, the child will develop a sense of trust, influencing their future relationships and sense of self. However, if caregivers are unresponsive or inconsistent, the child may develop a sense of mistrust, which could lead to future difficulties in forming trusting relationships.

Similarly, in the fifth stage of psychosocial development, identity vs. role confusion, adolescents must navigate the challenges of identity formation and establish a sense of self-consistent with their cultural and social context [ 42 ]. If adolescents can successfully integrate their personal values and goals with the expectations of their social environment, they will develop a sense of identity and purpose. However, they may experience confusion and a lack of direction if they cannot do so. According to Erikson, each of the eight stages of development has its own unique set of challenges [ 42 ].

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development proposed eight stages of development, each characterized by a particular crisis or challenge that must be resolved to progress to the next stage. Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that development continues throughout the lifespan and that successful resolution of these stages leads to a more integrated sense of self. Additionally, Erikson’s theory emphasized the potential for personal growth and change throughout the lifespan rather than the fixed nature of personality proposed by Freud. While Freud stresses the role of the unconscious mind and the importance of sexual and aggressive drives in shaping personality, Erikson believed that social and cultural factors played a more significant role.

Beyond the Oedipus complex: Horney’s feminist challenge to Freudian psychoanalysis

Karen Horney (1885-1952) was a psychoanalyst who developed her own theories about the unconscious influences and mechanisms that shape and ultimately determine behavior [ 43 ]. Horneyian psychology offers an alternative perspective from traditional psychoanalysis. Like Erikson and Jung, she emphasized the influence of cultural elements that lead to internal conflict [ 43 ]. Horney introduced the “interpersonal theory.” She highlights the importance of early relationships in shaping someone's personality [ 44 ]. In this regard, social and cultural context is crucial in understanding human behavior and the emergence of what she termed “neurotic patterns.” At the core of Horney’s theory is “basic anxiety.” Individuals develop a fundamental sense of insecurity and anxiety during their early years due to feelings of helplessness and vulnerability, similar to Adler’s inferiority complex [ 44 , 45 ]. According to Horney, we are all imprinted with certain gender roles, which leads to feelings of internal strife. This anxiety influences the individual’s subsequent psychological development and contributes to the formation of neurotic behaviors to cope with the stressors of day-to-day living.

Similarities Between Karen Horney’s Theory and Psychoanalysis

The importance of early childhood experiences: Like all the other psychoanalysts we discussed, Horney agreed that early childhood experiences play a significant role in shaping a person [ 43 ]. Unlike Freud, who emphasized the influence of unconscious drives, conflicts, and sexual development [ 1 - 3 ], Horney focused on the impact of gender roles and sexuality in forming an individual’s sense of self and their relationship to society [ 43 , 44 ].

Karen Horney and Sigmund Freud share similarities in their views on the unconscious [ 1 - 3 , 43 , 44 ]. Both psychologists acknowledged the existence of the unconscious mind, recognizing that individuals are not always aware of the motivations, desires, and conflicts that drive their thoughts and behaviors. They agreed that the unconscious significantly influences human behavior, shaping aspects of personality, emotional experiences, and the formation of psychological symptoms [ 43 , 44 ]. While their theories diverged in specific mechanisms and influences on the unconscious, such as cultural and social factors in Horney’s approach versus innate drives in Freud’s theory, they recognized the importance of exploring and understanding the unconscious to gain insight into human psychology [ 43 , 44 ].

Differences Between Karen Horney’s Theory and Psychoanalysis

The role of culture and society: Horney believed that cultural and societal factors played a significant role in shaping personality, whereas Freud’s psychoanalytic theory focused primarily on the individual psyche. She emphasized the importance of social influences such as gender roles, cultural norms, and societal expectations in shaping a person's sense of self [ 43 , 44 ]. Horney believed that women, in particular, are socialized to adopt submissive and nurturing roles, which can lead to feelings of inferiority and helplessness down the line [ 43 ]. Women are often taught to prioritize the needs of others over their own, which can lead to a lack of self-esteem and a sense of being powerless or dependent on others. Horney believed that this cultural conditioning could lead to the development of what she called “feminine psychology,” which is characterized by a preoccupation with love, relationships, and the desire for approval from others [ 44 ]. Women who internalize these cultural messages may struggle with insecurity and self-doubt, affecting their sense of self and ability to achieve their goals [ 43 , 44 ]. Horney also believed that men are subject to cultural expectations and that traditional male gender roles can lead to emotional detachment and a need to prove oneself through competition and achievement. Men may struggle with feelings of isolation and a sense of disconnection from their emotions, which can affect their ability to form intimate relationships and achieve a sense of fulfillment in their lives [ 43 , 44 ]. Karen Horney and Alfred Adler had contrasting views on the concept of inferiority while sharing some similarities. Horney believed that feelings of inferiority stem from societal pressures and parental attitudes, leading to inadequacy and insecurity [ 44 , 45 ]. She emphasized the role of external validation and success as compensatory strategies to overcome these feelings.

In contrast, Adler viewed inferiority as an inherent part of the human condition, driving individuals to strive for superiority and personal growth. He emphasized the importance of overcoming inferiority through developing a sense of community and contributing to society [ 35 , 36 ]. Both theorists recognized the impact of childhood experiences on the development of inferiority. Still, Horney focused more on cultural and social influences, while Adler emphasized individual psychology and the pursuit of social interest.

The role of anxiety: Horney placed a greater emphasis on the role of anxiety in shaping behavior and personality than Freud did. She believed anxiety was a normal and necessary part of life and could be harnessed to promote growth and change [ 45 ]. Horney developed the concept of “basic anxiety,” which refers to a deep-seated feeling of insecurity and helplessness that arises from early childhood experiences. Basic anxiety can lead to neurosis and other psychological problems if not addressed. Horney believed that basic anxiety was a pervasive sense of vulnerability and insecurity from early childhood experiences, such as neglect, rejection, or criticism from caregivers [ 45 ]. This basic anxiety can become a central aspect of an individual’s personality and affect their relationships, sense of self, and ability to cope with stress. According to Horney, there are several ways in which individuals may respond to basic anxiety. One response is to seek security and protection from others, which can lead to a preoccupation with relationships and a fear of rejection or abandonment. Another response is to develop a strong sense of independence and self-sufficiency, which can lead to a fear of being controlled or dominated by others. A third response is to become aggressive or domineering, which can be a defense against feelings of helplessness and vulnerability [ 45 ].

The concept of neurotic needs: Horney identified the “neurotic needs” common to everyone and could lead to neurosis if not addressed. These included the need for affection and approval, the need for power and control, and the need for perfection as well as others [ 45 ]. According to Horney, neurotic needs are compulsive desires or behaviors that individuals adopt to feel more secure and alleviate anxiety. These needs are not based on genuine personal interests or values but rather on a perceived need to conform to the expectations of others or to achieve a sense of control over their environment [ 45 ]. These needs can become so ingrained in an individual’s personality that they interfere with their ability to form healthy relationships, pursue personal interests, and achieve a sense of fulfillment in life. Horney believed that the development of neurotic needs was influenced by early childhood experiences, particularly those that involved feelings of neglect, rejection, or criticism from caregivers. These experiences can make individuals feel insecure and vulnerable and adopt behaviors or attitudes that they believe will protect them from further harm [ 45 ].

The role of psychotherapy: Horney’s approach to psychotherapy differed significantly from traditional psychoanalysis. She believed the therapist’s role was to create a supportive and empathic environment where the client could explore and understand their emotions and experiences rather than interpret and analyze the client’s unconscious motivations and conflicts [ 43 , 44 ].

Karen Horney and Sigmund Freud had significant differences in their personality and psychological development theories. Freud emphasized the importance of innate drives and instincts in shaping an individual’s psychological development. At the same time, Horney believed that an individual’s personality was largely shaped by their social and cultural experiences, particularly their early relationships with caregivers. Horney also differed from Freud’s views on gender and sexuality, emphasizing that gender roles were socially constructed and influenced by cultural norms and expectations. Overall, while Freud’s theories continue to be influential in modern psychology, Horney’s emphasis on the role of social and cultural experiences in shaping an individual’s personality has had a lasting impact on psychology.

Strengths, limitations, and contributions of this study

One of the major strengths of this review paper is the comprehensive coverage of the major contributors to the field of psychoanalysis and how their views contrast with the founder, Sigmund Freud. By exploring the findings of these contributors, the reader is offered many unique perspectives and, thus, a broader understanding of the field. However, a limitation of this review is its lack of detailed exploration of the theories and concepts put forth by these major contributors. Due to the nature of the paper, which aims to provide an overview of the history of psychoanalysis, it does not have the space to delve deeply into each theorist’s work. Consequently, readers seeking an in-depth analysis of specific theories may use this review as a starting place for their research and learning. We hope that this paper could put forth a framework for what psychoanalysis is and where it came from. In addition, we hope to have sparked the reader’s interest to further read and learn more about this fascinating psychology paradigm.

Conclusions

The theories of Sigmund Freud have laid a foundation for psychoanalytical psychology. Although the thoughts and attitudes of his students differed from him, they remained grounded in psychoanalysis. All four psychoanalysts we have discussed agree that childhood plays a significant role in development. Freud, as we discussed earlier, emphasized the sexual nature of people and believed this was the most significant factor in determining a person’s behavior and personality. Jung spoke about the collective unconscious and the need for self-realization, a drive he termed “individuation.” In his theory, we all share a collective unconscious and must use the archetypes of this collective unconscious with our consciousness to attain self-realization. Adler had his version of self-realization, called “Will to Power.” Adler saw all people needing to overcome feelings of inferiority from childhood to attain feelings of superiority in adulthood. Erikson believed every life stage has unique challenges and drives to overcome negative feelings. Horney emphasized the feelings of anxiety influencing our behavior and drives.

While Freud spoke of the id, ego, and superego in his theory of the unconscious, this was not a central theme for his students. Jung highlighted the collective unconscious, a universal shared architecture of understanding the world around us. Adler saw the unconscious and consciousness as more fluid than Freud did. He believed people could more easily access the unconscious than Freud had originally postulated. Erikson acknowledged the unconscious but was indifferent about it in his theoretical framework. Horney’s view of the unconscious was very similar to Freud’s; however, she heavily emphasized how gender roles influence our unconsciousness. In conclusion, the diverse perspectives of Freud and his students, such as Jung, Adler, Erikson, and Horney, have contributed to the rich tapestry of psychoanalytical psychology, each offering unique insights into the role of childhood, the unconscious mind, and the factors shaping human behavior and personality.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Learn More Psychology

• Freudian Psychology

Case Studies of Sigmund Freud

Introduction to sigmund freud's case histories, including little hans, anna o and wolf man..

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Accounts of Freud ’s treatment of individual clients were key to his work, including the development of psychodynamic theory and stages of psychosexual development . Whilst the psychoanalyst’s use of case studies to support his ideas makes it difficult for us to prove or disprove Freud’s theories, they do provide fascinating insights into his day-to-day consultations with clients and offer clues as to the origins of his influential insights into how the human mind functions:

Little Hans

Perhaps the best known case study published by Freud was of Little Hans. Little Hans was the son of a friend and follower of Freud, music critic Max Graf. Graf’s son, Herbert, witnessed a tragic accident in which a horse carrying a heavily loaded cart collapsed in the street. Five year old Little Hans developed a fear of horses which led him to resist leaving the house for fear of seeing the animals. His father detailed his behavior in a series of letters to Freud and it was through these letters that the psychoanalyst directed the boy’s treatment. Indeed, the therapist and patient only met for a session on one occasion, but Freud published his case as a paper, Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy (1909), in support of his theory of the Oedipus complex and his proposed stages of psychosexual development.

Freud Cases

• Rat Man: A Case of 'Obsessional Neurosis'
• Dora Case Study
• Inside the Mind of Daniel Schreber
• The Case of Little Hans

Little Hans’ father relayed to Freud his development and noted that he had begun to show an intense interest in the male genitals, which the therapist attributed to him experiencing the phallic stage of psychosexual development. During this stage, the erogenous zone (the area of the body that one focuses on to derive pleasure) switches to the genitals. At this stage, signs of an Oedipus complex may also be observed, whereby a child competes with their father to retain their position as the central focus of their mother’s affection. Freud believed that this was supported by a fantasy which Little Hans had described, in which a giraffe and another, crumpled, giraffe entered the room. When the boy took the latter from the first giraffe, it objected. Freud believed that the giraffes symbolised his parents - the crumpled giraffe represented his mother, whom he would share a bed with when his father was absent, and the first giraffe was symbolic of his father. Children may also develop castration anxiety resulting from a fear that the father will castrate them in order to remove the threat that they pose to the parents’ relationship.

The boy’s fear of horses, according to Freud, was caused by a displacement of fear for his father onto the animals, whose blinkers made them resemble the man wearing his glasses.

Freud believed that Little Hans’ fear of horses disappeared as his described fantasies that indicated the resolution of his castration anxiety and an acceptance of his love for his mother.

Read more about Little Hans here

Dr. Sergeï Pankejeff (1886-1979) was a client of Sigmund Freud , who referred to him as “Wolf Man” owing to a symbolic dream which he described to him. Freud detailed his sessions with Wolf Man, which commenced in February of 1910, in a 1918 paper entitled From the History of an Infantile Neurosis .

Wolf Man first saw Freud having suffered from deteriorating health since experiencing gonorrhea at the age of eighteen. He described how he was unable to pass bowel movements without the help of an enema, and felt as though he was separated from the rest of the world by a veil.

Freud persuaded Wolf Man to undergo treatment until a set date, after which their sessions should cease, in the belief that his patient would lower his resistance to the therapist’s investigation. Wolf Man agreed, and described to Freud the events of his childhood.

Initially, Wolf Man had been an agreeable child but became combative when his parents returned from their travels. He had been cared for by a new nanny whilst they had been absent and his parents blamed their relationship for his misbehavior. He also recalled developing a fear of wolves, and his sister would taunt him with an illustration in a picture book. However, Wolf Man’s fears extended towards other creatures, including beetles, caterpillars and butterflies. On one occasion, whilst he was pursuing a butterfly, fear overcame him and he was forced to end his pursuit. The man’s conflicting account suggested an early alternation between a phobia of, and taunting of, insects and animals such as horses.

Wolf Man’s unusual behavior was not limited to a fear of animals, and he developed a zealous religious worship routine, kissing every icon in the house before bed time, whilst experiencing blasphemous thoughts.

Wolf Man recalled a dream which had caused him some distress when he had awoken. In the dream, he was laid in bed when he looked out of the window and noticed six or seven white wolves sat in a tree outside. The wolves, which had tails that did not match their bodies, were watching him in his room.

Freud linked this nightmare to a story which Wolf Man’s grandfather had told him, in which a wolf named Reynard lost his tail whilst using it as bait for fishing. He believed that Wolf Man suffered from castration anxiety, which explained the fox-like tails of the wolves in the dream, and his fear of caterpillars, which he used to dissect. The man had also witnessed his father chopping a snake into pieces, which Freud believed had contributed to this anxiety.

Read more about Wolf Man here

The obsessive thoughts of Rat Man were discussed in 1909 paper Notes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis . Rat Man’s true identity is unclear, but many believe him to have been Ernst Lanzer (1978-1914), a law graduate of the University of Vienna.

Rat Man suffered from obsessive thoughts for years and underwent hydrotherapy before consulting Freud in 1907, having been impressed by the understanding that the psychoanalyst had professed in his published works. The subject of his thoughts would often involve a sense of anxiety that misfortune would affect a close friend or relative and he felt that he needed to carry out irrational behavior in order to prevent such a mishap from occurring. The irrationality of such thoughts was demonstrated by his fears for the death of his father, which continued even after his father had passed away.

Freud used techniques such as free association in order to uncover repressed memories . Rat Man’s recollection of past events also proved useful to Freud. He described one occasion during his military service, when a colleague revealed to him the morbid details of a torture method that he had learnt of. This form of torture involved placing a container of live rats onto a person and allowing the animals to escape the only way that they could - by burrowing through the victim.

This description stayed with Rat Man and he began to fear that this torture would be imposed upon a relative or friend. He convinced himself that the only way to prevent it would be to pay an officer whom he believed had collected a parcel for him from the post office. When he was prevented from satisfying this need, Rat Man began to feel increasingly anxious until his colleagues agreed to travel to the post office with him in order for the officer to be paid in the order that Rat Man felt was necessary.

Freud attributed Rat Man’s anxieties to a sense of guilt resulting from a repressed desire that he had experienced whilst younger to see women he knew unclothed. As our ego develops, our moral conscience leads us to repress the unreasonable or unacceptable desires of the id , and in the case of Rat Man, these repressed thoughts left behind “ ideational content ” in the conscious. As a result, the subject of anxiety and guilt that he felt whilst younger was replaced with fear of misfortune occurring when he was older.

Read more about Rat Man here

Other Influential Accounts

Whilst Freud saw many clients at his practise in Vienna, and cases such as Wolf Man, Rat Man and Dora are well documented, the psychoanalyst also applied psychodynamic theory to his interpretation of other patients, such Anna O, a client of his friend, Josef Breuer. The autobiographical account of Dr. Daniel Schreber also formed the basis of a 1911 paper by Freud detailing his interpretation of the man’s fantasies.

Anna O (a pseudonym for Austrian feminist Bertha Pappenheim) was a patient of Freud’s close friend, physician Josef Breuer. Although Freud never personally treated her (Anna’s story was relayed to him by Breuer), the woman’s case proved to be influential in the development of his psychodynamic theories. Freud and Breuer published a joint work on hysteria, Studies on Hysteria , in 1895, in which Anna O’s case was discussed.

Seeking treatment from Breur for hysteria in 1880, Anna O experienced paralysis in her right arm and leg, hydrophobia (an aversion to water) which left her unable to drink for long periods, along with involuntary eye movements, including a squint. She also found herself mixing languages whilst speaking to carers and would see hallucinations such as those of black snakes and skeletons, and would wake anxiously from her daytime sleep with cries of “tormenting, tormenting”.

During her talks with Breuer, Anna enjoyed telling fairytale-like stories, which would often involve sitting next to the bedside of a sick person. A dream that she recalled was also of a similar nature: she was sat next to the bed of an ill person in bed when a black snake approached the invalid. Anna wanted to protect the person from the snake but felt paralysed and was unable to warn off the snake.

Freud and Breuer considered the subject of this dream to be linked to an earlier experience. Prior to her own illness, Anna’s father had contracted tuberculosis and she had spent considerable lengths of time caring for him by his bedside. During this period, Anna had fallen ill, preventing her from accompanying her father in his final days and he passed away on April 1881. The trauma of caring for her father may have affected Anna, and Breuer believed that the paralysis she experienced in reality was a result of that which she had experienced in the dream. Furthermore, he linked her hydrophobia to another traumatic event some time previously, when she had witnessed a dog drinking from a glass of water that she was supposed to use. The revulsion she felt had stayed with her and manifested in a later aversion to water.

The conscious realisation of the causes behind her suffering, according to Breuer, helped Anna to make a recovery in 1882. She valued the “talking therapy” that he had provided, describing their sessions as “chimney sweeping”.

Read more about Anna O here

Dr. Daniel Schreber

Freud’s interpretation of client’s past experiences and dreams was not limited to the patients he saw at his Vienna clinic. German judge Dr. Daniel Schreber (1842-1911) wrote a book, Memoirs of My Nervous Illness (1903) - in which he detailed the fantasies that he experienced during the second of three periods of illness - whilst confined in the asylum of Sonnenstein Castle.

Upon reading the book, Freud offered his own thoughts on the causes of Schreber’s fantasies, which were published in his 1911 paper Notes upon an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides) .

Initially suffering whilst standing as a candidate in the 1884 Reichstag elections, Schreber had begun to experience hypochondria, for which he sought the help of Professor Paul Flechsig. After six months, treatment ended, but he returned to Flechsig in 1893, bothered again by hypochondria and now sleeplessness also. Schreber recalled thoughts during a half-asleep state in which he noted that “it really must be very nice to be a woman submitting to the act of copulation” (Freud, 1911). He would eventually turn against Professor Flechsig, accusing him of being a “soul murderer”, and thoughts of emasculation also developed into extended fantasies - Schreber convinced himself that he had been assigned a role of savior of the world, and that he must be turned in a woman in order for God to impregnate with him, creating a new generation which would repopulate the planet.

In his response to Schreber’s account, Freud focussed on the religious nature of the fantasies. Whilst Schreber was agnostic, his thoughts suggested religious doubts and what Freud described as “redeemer delusion” - a sense of being elevated to the role of redeemer of the world. The process of emasculation that Schreber felt was necessary was attributed by Freud to “homosexual impulses”, which the psychoanalyst suggests were directed towards the man’s father and brother. However, feelings of guilt for experiencing such desires led to them being repressed.

Freud also understood Schreber’s sense of resentment towards Flechsig in terms of transference - his feelings towards his brother had been subconsciously transferred to the professor, whilst those towards his father had been transferred to a godly figure.

Read more about Daniel Schreber here

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Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud's Elements of Personality

How do the three work together to form personality?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

The Interaction of the Id, Ego, and Superego

What happens if there is an imbalance.

According to  Sigmund Freud , human personality is complex and has more than a single component. In his famous psychoanalytic theory, Freud states that personality is composed of three elements known as the id, the ego, and the superego. These elements work together to create complex human behaviors.

"The id is considered the basis of sexual and aggressive energy and is largely held in the unconscious, emerging as illogical or wishful thinking," explains Shannon Sauer-Zavala, PhD , associate professor of psychology at the University of Kentucky. "The superego is one’s conscience and is established via identification with parental figures or social groups at large. The ego is tasked with balancing reality with the demands of desire (id) and morality (superego)." 

Each component adds its own unique contribution to personality, and the three interact in ways that have a powerful influence on an individual. Each element of personality emerges at different points in life.

According to Freud's theory, certain aspects of your personality are more primal and might pressure you to act upon your most basic urges. Other parts of your personality work to counteract these urges and strive to make you conform to the demands of reality. 

Here's a closer look at each of these key parts of the personality, how they work individually, and how they interact.

• According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of personality.
• The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
• This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive behaviors.

The id is driven by the  pleasure principle , which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state of anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink.

The id is very important early in life because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, they will cry until the demands of the id are satisfied. Young infants are ruled entirely by the id; there is no reasoning with them when these needs demand satisfaction.

Examples of the Id

Imagine trying to convince a baby to wait until lunchtime to eat their meal. The id requires immediate satisfaction, and because the other components of personality are not yet present, the infant will cry until these needs are fulfilled.

However, immediately fulfilling these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing the things that we want out of other people's hands to satisfy our cravings.

This behavior would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the use of  primary process thinking , which involves forming a mental image of the desired object to satisfy the need.

Although people eventually learn to control the id, this part of personality remains the same infantile, primal force throughout life. It is the development of the ego and the superego that allows people to control the id's basic instincts and act in ways that are both realistic and socially acceptable.

• According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.
• The ego functions in the  conscious , preconscious, and  unconscious  mind.
• The ego is the personality component responsible for dealing with reality.

Everyone has an ego. The term ego is sometimes used to describe your cohesive awareness of your personality, but personality and ego are not the same. The ego represents just one component of your full personality.

The ego operates based on the  reality principle , which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses.

In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of  delayed gratification —the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place.

The term ego is often used informally to suggest that someone has an inflated sense of self. However, the ego in personality has a positive effect. It is the part of your personality that keeps you grounded in reality and prevents the id and superego from pulling you too far toward your most basic urges or moralistic virtues. Having a strong ego means having a strong sense of self-awareness.

Freud compared the id to a horse and the ego to the horse's rider. The horse provides power and motion, while the rider provides direction and guidance. Without its rider, the horse would wander wherever it wished and do whatever it pleased. The rider gives the horse directions and commands to get it where it wants it to go.

The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through secondary process thinking, in which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created by the id's primary process.

Examples of the Ego

Imagine that you are stuck in a long meeting at work. You find yourself growing increasingly hungry as the meeting drags on. While the id might compel you to jump up from your seat and rush to the break room for a snack, the ego guides you to sit quietly and wait for the meeting to end.

Instead of acting upon the primal urges of the id, you spend the rest of the meeting imagining yourself eating a cheeseburger. Once the meeting is finally over, you can seek out the object you were imagining and satisfy the demands of the id realistically and appropriately.

The Superego

The last component of personality to develop is the superego .

• According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age 5.
• The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents and society (our sense of right and wrong).
• The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.

The superego has two parts:

• The conscience  includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments, or feelings of guilt and remorse.
• The ego ideal  includes the rules and standards for behaviors that the ego aspires to.

The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behavior. It suppresses all the id's unacceptable urges and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather than on realistic principles. The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

Examples of the Superego

For example, if you give in to the urges of the id, the superego is what will cause you to feel a sense of guilt or even shame about your actions. The superego may help you feel good about your behavior when you suppress your most primal urges.

Other examples of the superego include:

• A woman feels an urge to steal office supplies from work. However, her superego counteracts this urge by focusing on the fact that such behaviors are wrong. 
• A man realizes that the cashier at the store forgot to charge him for one of the items he had in his cart. He returns to the store to pay for the item because his internalized sense of right and wrong urges him to do so.
• A student forgets to study for a history test and feels an urge to cheat off of a student sitting nearby. Even though he feels like his chances of getting caught are low, he knows that cheating is wrong, so he suppresses the urge.

When talking about the id, the ego, and the superego, it is important to remember that these are not three separate entities with clearly defined boundaries. These aspects are dynamic and always interacting to influence an individual's overall personality and behavior.

With many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the id, ego, and superego. "A central theme of Freud’s work is that id, ego, and superego are always in conflict and the specific nature of these discrepancies determines one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (or personality)," says Sauer-Zavala.

Freud further assumed that it takes a lot of mental energy to keep the id’s desires in the unconscious; however, unconscious thoughts must go somewhere and are likely to be expressed in another form that may not be under one’s control (e.g., as symptom, dream, joke, slip of the tongue, or behavior).

Freud used the term  ego strength  to refer to the ego's ability to function despite these dueling forces. A person who has good ego strength can effectively manage these pressures, while a person with too much or too little ego strength can be unyielding or disruptive.

According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the superego. If the ego is able to adequately moderate between the demands of reality, the id, and the superego, a healthy and well-adjusted personality emerges. Freud believed that an imbalance between these elements would lead to a maladaptive personality.

"Freud believed that mental health difficulties (anxiety, depression) arise when 'the ego has lost the capacity to allocate the [id] in some way' (Freud, 1920), adds Sauer-Zavala. "Freud noted that, in many cases, the symptoms experienced are as bad or worse than the conflict they were designed to replace. Though the symptom is a substitute for the instinctual impulse, it has been so reduced, displaced, and distorted that it looks more like a compulsion or even an illness than a gratification of the id’s desire."

For example, an individual with an overly dominant id might become impulsive, uncontrollable, or even criminal. Such an individual acts upon their most basic urges with no concern for whether their behavior is appropriate, acceptable, or legal.

On the other hand, an overly dominant superego might lead to a personality that is extremely moralistic and judgmental. A person ruled by the superego might not be able to accept anything or anyone that they perceive to be "bad" or "immoral."

Final Thoughts

Freud's theory provides one conceptualization of how personality is structured and how the elements of personality function. In Freud's view, a balance in the dynamic interaction of the id, ego, and superego is necessary for a healthy personality.

"Freud’s accounts of the nature of one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors have largely fallen out of favor," admits Sauer-Zavala. "People began to question whether differences in people’s personalities could accurately be reduced to sexual and aggressive impulses. In fact, there is limited research support for Freud’s theories."

While the ego has a tough job to do, it does not have to act alone. Anxiety also plays a role in helping the ego mediate between the demands of the basic urges, moral values, and the real world. When you experience different types of anxiety , defense mechanisms may kick in to help defend the ego and reduce the anxiety you are feeling.

Boag S. Ego, drives, and the dynamics of internal objects. Front Psychol. 2014;5:666. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00666

Pulcu E. An evolutionary perspective on gradual formation of superego in the primal horde. Front Psychol. 2014;5:8. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00008

Bargh JA, Morsella E. The Unconscious Mind. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2008;3(1):73-9. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00064.x

Carhart-harris RL, Friston KJ. The default-mode, ego-functions and free-energy: a neurobiological account of Freudian ideas. Brain . 2010;133(Pt 4):1265-83. doi:10.1093/brain/awq010

Schalkwijk F. A New Conceptualization of the Conscience. Front Psychol. 2018;9:1863. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01863

Kovačić petrović Z, Peraica T, Kozarić-kovačić D. Comparison of ego strength between aggressive and non-aggressive alcoholics: a cross-sectional study. Croat Med J . 2018;59(4):156-164. doi:10.3325/cmj.2018.59.156

Churchill R, Moore TH, Davies P, et al. Psychodynamic therapies versus other psychological therapies for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(9):CD008706. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008706

• Carducci, B. The psychology of personality: Viewpoints, research, and applications . John Wiley & Sons; 2009.
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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Why do chinese women experience gamophobia psychoanalytic theory assisted discourses analysis.

• Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

Social media is currently abuzz with discussions about the topic of women’s gamophobia in China. Nevertheless, there is few research investigating gamophobia from a psychological perspective. This study utilizes content analysis and sentiment analysis to examine and analyze 879 individuals’ texts about gamophobia on Little Red Book and uses psychoanalytic theory, which is centered on comprehending and interpreting the psychological processes of the human mind, to investigate the elements that contribute to women’s gamophobia, aiming to address this knowledge gap. This investigation revealed that gamophobia might exert physical, psychological, and several other effects on individuals. This study employs a psychoanalytic framework and concludes that the rise of independent consciousness, many unhappy marriages in their environment, anxiety about dealing with unfamiliar family relationships, pursuit of personal and professional development, original family issues, changing perceptions of aging care, the media effect, the concept of parenthood, and criteria for choosing a life partner are the nine primary factors contributing to women’s gamophobia. To address the societal issues and outcomes resulting from a fear of marriage, it is advisable for those who experience this phobia to examine their negative defensive mechanisms and prioritize rational thinking in their mindset. Moreover, the Government should establish a social atmosphere that ensures women are neither influenced nor constrained by the media. Furthermore, promote holistic family education to bolster the self-awareness and prospective family comprehension of young individuals. Finally, government departments should also offer promotion and supporting measures to help assuage women’s concerns about marriages.

1 Introduction

Gamophobia refers to the fear or worry that arises while considering marriage, establishing a long-term relationship, or making a commitment to another person ( Obeid et al., 2020 ). The marriage rate is a significant metric for evaluating society’s progress since it exhibits a substantial correlation with factors such as population growth and crime reduction ( Rader, 2010 ; Liu et al., 2023 ). China is currently undergoing a persistent decline in its marriage rate. In 2022, China experienced a significant decline in its marriage rate, hitting its lowest level in 37 years. According to the Ministry of Civil Affairs of the PRC, all together, there were only 6.833 million couples who were officially married in 2022. Regarding geographical disparities, economically affluent regions exhibit a comparatively reduced marriage rate. Beijing contributed 1.34% to the overall national marriage rate in 2022, while Shanghai accounted for 1.05% and Tianjin represented a mere 1%. As a reaction to the persistent decline in marriage rates, the Chinese government has implemented a range of policies in an effort to alleviate this tendency. Currently, there are 32 provinces and cities, including Sichuan, Hebei, and Shanghai, that have been explicitly designated as “experimental zones for reforming marriage customs.” The intention of these zones is to tackle outdated marriage practices, such as lavish wedding banquets and exorbitant dowries, in order to assist young individuals in developing a more appropriate perspective on marriage. On special events like “520” (homophonic I love you in Chinese), “Tanabata” (Chinese Valentine’s Day), and “Valentine’s Day” that occur on weekends, civil affairs agencies in numerous locations extend their operating hours to facilitate the registration of marriages for newlywed couples. On May 18, 2023, the State Council authorized the expansion of the “cross-province marriage registration” pilot project to meet the increasing needs of mainland citizens who had moved. “Cross-province marriage registration” was put into effect in 21 provinces.

Although the government is actively working to update and modernize the legislation pertaining to the marriage law, concerns around marriage have become a contentious subject of public perception. The topic of “gamophobia” has garnered significant attention on social media, amassing a combined total of over 100 million views. An example of such platform is Little Red Book, a Chinese social media platform that bears similarities to Instagram and Pinterest. Users of Little Red Book can share their own experiences and interact with other users by posting short videos and images. However, unlike Instagram and Pinterest, Little Red Book allows its users to opt for complete anonymity by using their account. During registration, Little Red Book system assigns each user a number, such as 123,456, by default. If desired, users have the option to change this number to a username of their choice. Indeed, several users also choose to preserve their anonymity and evade identification from those who have firsthand acquaintance with on Little Red Book. This implies that users will have a greater sense of independence while sharing material on the social media, as they will not have to be concerned about being evaluated by others, such as coworkers and family members. Anonymity promotes individuals to authentically showcase their true lives instead of participating in a fabricated act. Therefore, after a span of just 10 years, beginning in 2013, Little Red Book has risen to become the second most popular social media application in China. The latest data shows that the Monthly Active Users (MAU) of Little Red Book has exceeded 260 million. The core user demographic comprises mostly young girls, accounting for around 80 percent of the total user base, generally falling between the age range of 18 to 35. The prevalent motif of a “gamophobia” on Little Red Book partially mirrors the psychological condition, perplexity, or distress experienced by many young women while facing the reality of marriage.

In a study conducted by iResearch in 2020, it was found that just 14% of people indicated a positive inclination toward marriage and a sense of eagerness for getting married. Conversely, 36% of respondents reported apprehension toward marriage, specifically due to certain unfavorable societal perceptions linked with it. Based on the 2022–2023 Report on Chinese Men and Women’s Attitudes toward Marriage, more than 36% of unmarried adults encounter marriage-related anxiety ( iResearch, 2023 ). The highest proportion of marriage anxiety is observed among persons born after 1990 in this category. In addition, a study by Youth Culture Observe IP on the opinions of Chinese youth regarding marriage revealed that 77% of them believe they are unfit for marriage, while 54.2% are indifferent to the institution of marriage and neither actively oppose nor support it. Furthermore, gamophobia is not limited to China. Based on the U.S. Census Bureau (2020) , the marriage rate in the United States has reached its lowest level in 150 years, which was 9.8 per 1,000 individuals in 1990. Nevertheless, the rate has declined to 6 by 2021 ( Statista Research Department, 2023 ). South Korea exhibits a notable degree of unease toward marriage, as seen in the fact that the total count of newlywed couples in 2022 amounts to slightly over one million. There was a decrease of over 30 percent in comparison to the year 2015. In addition, 46% of couples who entered into their first marriage did not have any offspring ( Yonhap News Agency of Korea, 2022 ). These findings indicate that the general societal issue of fear toward marriage has become prevalent on a global level.

The increasing prevalence of fear of marriage poses a huge challenge to China’s social norms and social development. Nationally, China’s marriage rate drops to 4.8 percent in 2022, below the world average of 5.4 percent. In terms of the age structure of the population, China’s age at first marriage has been significantly delayed. In 1990, it was 22.87 years old, of which 23.59 years were for men and 22.15 years for women. The average age of first marriage was 28.67 years old in 2020, of which 29.83 years old for men and 27.95 years old for women. There has been a 6-year increase in the average age at which people get married over a period of 30 years ( Marriage Industry Insights, 2023 ). In Chinese traditional society, those who remain unmarried after reaching the age of 30 often encounter verbal censure from their older family members. Now it is normal. Notably, the average age at which individuals experience their first romantic love has consistently decreased throughout time. Specifically, the average age decreased from 21.2 years old in the post-1970s generation to 17.4 years old in the post-2000s generation ( Century Jiayuan, 2023 ). There appears to be a divergence in the comprehension of affection across different generations. The present-day Chinese youth’s perception of marriage has diverged from the goals and anticipations of traditional Chinese families and society. Which variables have influenced this deviation? What are the consequences of people and society experiencing dread or aversion toward marriage? In order to alleviate the anxiety experienced by young individuals when it comes to marriage, it is essential to perform a thorough scientific investigation of both the phenomenon of gamophobia and the specific demographic group affected. This evaluation will hold considerable academic importance and practical value in improving comprehension and reducing the anxiety surrounding marriage among young individuals.

Curis and Susman (1994) categorized the reasons for this fear into ten distinct groups: fear of loss sense of self, identity, and emotional engulfment; fear of loss of control or being controlled; fear of reenactment or duplication of the aversive parental marriage; fear of financial losses and complications related to inheritance; worry about underperforming in the marriage and the potential consequences of divorce; unease about aging and physical decline in the presence of their partners; fear of their own dependence and vulnerability; apprehension about betrayal, rejection, and abandonment; reluctance to take on the responsibilities of family and marriage; and a lack of self-assurance and belief in one’s ability to achieve a happy marriage independently. According to Kefalas et al. (2011) , women with higher education place a greater emphasis on their careers than on getting married and starting a family. Cohabitation has emerged as a viable option for many young individuals as an alternative to marriage ( Willoughby and Carroll, 2012 ). Due to the absence of official acknowledgment of living together, both individuals do not need to worry about domestic chores. This enables them to dedicate more time and focus to their personal interests and enjoy the freedom of being single. The 2012 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) data showed a notable rise in the percentage of cohabitation, increasing from 3% in 1982 to 11% from 2006 to 2010 ( Copen et al., 2012 ). Furthermore, cohabitation does not act as a precursor to marriage. Many young people hold the view that marriage is not a mandatory component of life and that choosing not to marry can be a conscious decision ( Dai and Chilson, 2022 ). Empirical data suggests that less than 25% of young individuals of both genders who cohabit ultimately enter into matrimony ( Schoen et al., 2007 ). In addition, as society progresses, the pace of work and daily life continues to escalate. Modern everyday life is characterized by work pressure, information overload, emotional strain, financial pressure, and other comparable concerns. The notable upsurge in daily life stress has led to a considerable rise in the mental health burden that many people are currently bearing. According to Lancet, in 2021, the global prevalence of clinical depression will surpass 246 million individuals. Moreover, the prevalence of female individuals affected is approximately twice that of males ( COVID-19 Mental Disorders Collaborators, 2021 ). Psychopathology suggests that clinical depression leads to reduced motivation and lower commitment to personal relationships, resulting in a feeling of separation from marital partnerships ( Obeid et al., 2020 ).

In China, the attitude toward marriage is closely connected to the practical aspects of one’s life. The high occurrence of pragmatic difficulties, such as extravagant housing expenses, employment barriers, educational impediments for children, pension obligations, healthcare worries, and restricted social interaction, has resulted in an increased feeling of anxiety among young adults. Intense societal pressure discourages young adults from getting married ( Lin, 2019 ). Moreover, the correlation between technology and capital in the media sector has led to the commercialization of women’s concerns, transforming them into a show driven by financial gain ( Cao and Dai, 2022 ). In order to garner greater attention in the media, many content creators willingly perpetuate binary gender boundaries. It reinforces the division between genders in reality and undermines women’s desires for authentic marriage ( Wu, 2020 ). The study on marriage among Generation Z adolescents demonstrates a significant negative correlation between their amount of online involvement and their desire to get married. Furthermore, it was observed that women belonging to Generation Z exhibit a greater degree of apprehension toward marriage when compared to men ( Lan et al., 2023 ).

In the Chinese cultural setting, marriage entails a woman’s obligation to join the man’s family, which unavoidably involves navigating the dynamics of his familial relationships. Additionally, the woman assumes the responsibility and potential challenges associated with parenting. Hence, comprehending women’s gamophobia is an essential requirement for resolving the issue. Nevertheless, there is a scarcity of research on women’s discourse regarding fear of marriage, with the majority of studies examining conversations between males and females collectively. Furthermore, the fear of marriage is a social and psychological issue. However, upon reviewing the existing literature, it is evident that there is a dearth of research on the micro-psychological aspects of this fear. Most studies primarily concentrate on analyzing the effects at the macro-social level. Hence, in contrast to prior research, this paper’s potential addition is evident in two aspects: (1) This study aims to examine the factors contributing to women’s apprehension about marriage, offering a female viewpoint and empirical evidence to analyze the issue of gamophobia and address the declining marriage rate. (2) Elucidating and scrutinizing the issue of women’s fear toward marriage through the lens of a social psychology study, thus enhancing the investigation into this matter.

2 Materials and methods

The widespread adoption of communication technology has deeply infiltrated the daily lives of the general population through various forms of media. Media has evolved beyond being a neutral entity and now has the power to influence society ( Yu and Geng, 2021 ). Social media is essential in the media ecosystem as it removes geographical constraints, allowing people from various social groups to access information and express their emotions. This phenomenon alters the nature of public space, makes it more intimate, and erases the clear boundary between the individual and society. Meyrowitz’s investigation in No sense of place reveals that the electronic realm has blurred the boundaries between the physical world and the virtual world. There has been a discernible rise in the prevalence of emotional problems that were formerly regarded as personal in recent years. This encompasses the proactive dissemination of insignificant, day-to-day, personal adverse sentiments and anecdotes on social media platforms. An instance of this can be seen in the discussion surrounding the concept of “gamophobia.” Yin and Meng (2018) found that social media users are more likely to pay closer attention to fearful and unpleasant emotions. The presence of anxious and negative public attitudes is not limited just to the domain of social media public opinion but also affects the perception of marriage among young individuals in reality. Moreover, individuals communicate their opinions on the Internet, bypassing the influence of interviewers and having more freedom in articulating their emotions. Thus, this work employs a research methodology that integrates both quantitative and qualitative approaches to investigate the discourse of people who have gamophobia. This study seeks to clarify the primary factors and outcomes of Chinese women’s reluctance toward marriage from a social psychology standpoint. In addition, it proposes strategies to alleviate women’s concerns about marriage, promoting personal welfare and social unity.

2.1 Data collecting

This study utilizes Little Red Book as the research platform and employs Python to extract the textual content related to four prevalent topics of gamophobia: “gamophobia” (110 million views), “do not want to get married” (54.244 million views), “everyday gamophobia” (17.304 million views), and “fear of marriage in the post-90s generation” (13.735 million views). The aim is to examine the variables that impact the apprehension toward marriage among females. The choice of Little Red Book as the data source platform is predicated on two factors: (1) The user base of Little Red Book is significant and actively involved. The site has a total of 260 million users who are active on a monthly basis, with 69 million individuals who regularly share material. (2) The user demographics of Little Red Book are remarkable, since the majority (80.06%) consists of women, and a significant percentage (70%) comprises those born in the 1990s. This is in line with the research focus of this paper, which centers on single women.

Additionally, this study did not utilize a traditional search engine. Conversely, the study sample consisted of statements that were popular and garnered over 10 likes. The selection of the screening sample was based on the number of likes, since a higher number of likes signifies a higher level of recognition for the content of the text ( Yao et al., 2021 ). The Python extraction process retrieves many data elements, such as keywords, title, tweet details, likes, favorites, comments, shares, hashtags, posting address, posting time, genre, author, author’s profile, gender, and author’s address. By implementing Python de-weighting, excluding likes, conducting gender screening, and manually eliminating tweets unrelated to the issue, we have acquired a grand total of 879 texts that are both highly liked and of exceptional quality. These texts have received a total of 782,800 likes, 167,000 favorites, 140,200 comments, and 71,800 shares. The data covers the time period from November 27, 2020, to August 27, 2023.

2.2 Methodology

2.2.1 psychoanalytic theory.

Psychoanalytic theory, a prominent field of psychology established by Jewish Austrian neurologist Freud Sigmund in the early 20th century, Psychoanalytic theory forms the basis of modern social psychology, focusing primarily on the examination of human psychological activities. Therefore, this study utilizes psychoanalytic theory to investigate the phenomenon of gamophobia among contemporary Chinese women.

2.2.2 Content analysis

This study primarily employs the content analysis approach to encode and analyze 879 texts. Subsequently, it utilizes a combination of psychoanalysis theory to develop research conclusions, ultimately pinpointing the crucial components of Chinese young women’s gamophobia. The process is separated into three distinct steps: firstly, a classification system is established; secondly, statistical analysis is conducted on the features of the content; and finally, suggestions are made based on the conclusions drawn from the study.

2.2.3 Sentiment analysis

Sentiment analysis has become an essential technique for understanding the emotional components of data. Sentiment analysis is based on analyzing the frequency of words. In order to improve the understanding of text, the first step is to use the ROSTCM6 software to carry out word segmentation. This involves applying a specific vocabulary filter to exclude unimportant phrases such as “of” and “and.” Manually incorporate synonyms for self-love, such as love yourself, love of self, and self-love. Gooseeker, uses the given material to identify positive and negative emotions. Gooseeker as a tool of analysis, employs its established syntactic conventions and computational algorithms to calculate emotional values for words, as well as evaluate emotional inclinations. Upon identifying negative emotional words, the texts were manually classified according to their semantic meaning. Data is provided to understand the impact of gamophobia in young females.

3 Factors and repercussions of women’s gamophobia

After analyzing the content of the 879 text materials and considering the purpose of the study, it has been ascertained that Chinese women’s gamophobia can be attributed to the following nine factors:

3.1 Rise of independent consciousness

ID 17: My parents still think it’s abnormal not to get married, but now I enjoy the life. Despite the occasional despondency over a broken light bulb high above, a new piece of furniture I cannot put together, or a large bucket of water I bought that I struggled to lift, But it is free. Have time to think, have enough energy to study, and cook a big meal to treat myself. It is a life experience; try to make money, do good exercise, maintain a good state of mind, have a healthy body, and really feel happy already. (emphasizes the value of personal autonomy) ID 100: I really do not like the idea of getting married and having kids because it’s a very heavy thing to do. It means that you have to integrate into another family and share your private space, and especially after having children, it seems that you will definitely sacrifice yourself. Although the above concessions and sacrifices may also be accompanied by joy and happiness, often they are actually big gambles. Because marriage is really a neutral word that can elevate your life like never before, but it also has the potential to plunge your life into unimaginable predicaments. (fear of losing self-boundaries) ID 127: 26 years old. My life has no mother-in-law and daughter-in-law relationship, no endless cooking, I can work without burden, I can see music festivals, go to the sea, go crazy, and enjoy without worry. Such a life, I do not want to get married. I hate to get married; I love to be free and easy on myself. (enjoying freedom) ID 197: I have spent my life first becoming myself and then playing the important role of a full-time daughter! I do not want to get married! (loves myself)

3.2 Many unhappy marriages in their environment

ID 104: My friend and her husband fight every day over money to get a divorce, and I am very resistant to getting married. (financial problems) ID 208: At home, I heard a child crying loudly in the hallway, just to go out to see several neighbors in the coaxing of the child. The child seems to be two or three years old, not wearing shoes. Then, when the child’s mother went out to pick up a delivery, the child’s father also left after mom went out, leaving the child at home by himself. The child opened the door to come out (see too many accidents; really glad that the child did not go out the window). Neighbors said the child cried for almost an hour; his parents’ phones could not be reached; after a while, the child’s mother rushed back; she was completely unaware of the situation, but also by the neighbors a scolding. (men’s lack of parental responsibility) ID 526: a couple. Woman: This dress is still wet, right? It was washed last night. The man did not say anything. Woman: Today will be cold, so you should wear a jacket. The man still did not say. Inside me, it is the man of thirty or forty years old, not a three- or four-year-old baby. Really just suffocating, more fear of marriage day. (family trivia) ID 527: A sister said that she has to take her children to school in the morning, then come to work. When off work, she needs to buy food, cook, do the dishes, mop the floor, and then do the laundry. Then her husband came home to eat dinner and play with the phone and computer. I am afraid of marriage. (Men lack family responsibilities).

3.3 Anxiety about dealing with unfamiliar family dynamics

ID 423: The possibility of experiencing conflicts and strains with my mother-in-law and daughter-in-law after being married strongly discourages me from getting married. (concern about the interactions and relationship with a mother-in-law) ID 524: Love and marriage are separate. When it comes to marriage and one’s family, it is necessary to make a conscious effort to actively participate in their matters, which can be rather tiring. (Prefer maintaining a specific amount of separation).

3.4 Original family issues

ID 471: I went to my grandparents’ house for dinner, and as soon as I walked in the door, I saw my dad playing cards with my grandpa, my younger uncle playing his phone on the couch, and my grandma working in the kitchen all by herself. My mom and I sat down for 2 min and then went to help my grandma. (paternal machismo) ID 493: I’m 29 years old, and I finally bought my own house, which is not very big, but I’m glad I’m on my own. I grew up with an incomplete family, and my mom’s unfortunate marriage has made me fearful of marriage. Sometimes I envy my friends who are happily married. But I have no confidence. (parental failed marriage) ID 556: As a result of my parents’ pressure, I am currently adamantly opposed to matchmaking and apprehensive about marriage. (parents pushing for marriage)

3.5 Pursuit of personal and professional development

ID 112: loss of job and possible job advancement opportunities, or competitiveness in choosing a new job. (loss of competitiveness in the workplace) ID 539: If I give birth, I will lose my job, and I will become a disgruntled woman at home, and I do not have much hope for marriage when I think about it. (fear of losing job)

3.6 Changing perceptions of aging care

ID 134: Simply configure an insurance policy for myself to increase protection, but also let mom and dad have medical insurance. I can use the “insurance” to cover my own old age. (commercial insurance for protection) ID 301: I’ll be 24 in a few months. From now on, I will take care of my body and make money to live in a good nursing agency so that I can maintain a good quality of life when I grow old. (earn money for own retirement)

3.7 Media effect

ID 520: I just read that a man yelled at his wife, who just had a cesarean. The next article says that the man yelled at his wife, who was seven weeks pregnant. It is possible to get married just to find a free nanny who can do the childcare, laundry, and cooking, plus earn money. No, modern women should seek equality in inequality and realize their value in all aspects. (negative marriage messages on social media)

3.8 Concepts of parenthood

ID 499: Whenever I see children on bicycles or playing with a ball in the park, I cannot help staying away from them. I really do not like children at all. Do not try to persuade me (I do not like children). ID 536: I cannot be a good parent myself. (parenting worries) ID 824: I was born in 1994. I think DINK is really good. But most guys cannot accept not having kids. I’m afraid to get married because I do not want to have kids. (I do not want to have kids). ID 919: I’m afraid of pregnancy. Especially the belly cannot be retracted; a belly full of stretch marks, horrible contractions, and bloated milk. (fertility worries)

3.9 Criteria for choosing a life partner

ID 77: I want sincerity and favoritism, but this is full of hypocritical boys. (insincere) ID 125: He only comforts me: “do not think too much.” Daily communication is about eating. No emotional intelligence, and it does not provide any emotional value. But, my family always tells me that marriage is realistic. (unable to provide emotional value)

This article analyzes and assesses 879 case texts and concludes that the reasons behind Chinese women’s uneasiness toward marriage can be categorized into nine distinct groups (see Figure 1 ): the rise of independence consciousness, many unhappy marriages in their environment, the anxiety about dealing with unfamiliar family relationships, original family issues, the pursuit of personal and professional development, the changing perception of aging care, media effect, the concept of parenthood, and the criteria for choosing a life partner. Gamophobia has detrimental effects on many women, resulting in individual psychological distress and pressures. Even women who have planned for marriage also have concerns, leading to a significant amount of psychological stress.

Figure 1 . Factors of women’s gamophobia.

ID 10: I was looking forward to going home for New Year’s Eve, but when I think of the blind date, it’s still good to think that I might not be able to go back for New Year’s Eve this year. A little afraid. ID 37: My family introduced me to a blind date. I do not want to go out to see people. ID 328: The closer I get to marriage, the more I do not want to get married. Am I the only one like this? ID 337: My mom told me to see a psychiatrist. There are no more unmarried people like my age, and my parents are ashamed of me. They say now I’m a leftover woman. Do I really need to find someone to marry now? I do not even dare to breathe at home. ID 430: I think it’s good to be alone! Now I do not even want to talk to boys.

These detrimental effects do not occur in isolation. Among the 879 replies that were analyzed, psychological stress, worries, numbness, insecurity, panic, rebelliousness, and terror, was reported a total of 575 times. The occurrence of social distress, characterized by aversion toward social outings and blind dates, as well as a diminished level of social interests, was explicitly referenced a total of 66 times. Furthermore, there were 109 instances where individuals indicated subsequent consequences such as aversion to marriage, apprehension toward marriage, the dissolution of relationships, and episodes of crying. Clearly, the fear or anxiety over getting married may have a big negative impact on a person’s mental health. A noteworthy aspect is that Chinese society recognizes gamophobia as a moral infraction, and the sense of fearing marriage is regarded as a negative emotion ( Zhu, 2008 ).

However, the discourse around apprehensions about marriage encompasses more than just unfavorable implications. It also includes feminist concepts like self-assurance, autonomy, and self-love among Chinese young women.

ID 28: I’m really happy to be 28! Although my pockets are empty and my money is spent on renting a house and drinking and eating, A lot of people my age choose to get married and have babies; they have their happiness. I have my own happiness. ID 73: Just respect yourself in the moment, even if you cannot prepare for it for the rest of your life. ID 109: I have worked for the college entrance exams, felt the joy of going to college, experienced the dilemma of entering the workplace, and gloated over the small achievements of my career. I have left my hometown and had the honor of enjoying the beautiful scenery of my country, and I have also set foot on overseas land to struggle in a new environment. I know that there are all kinds of people in the world, colorful lives, and countless possibilities. Standing on the shoulders of my parents, I have worked hard and struggled a little bit to become the person I am today. I know how hard it was for my parents, and I know how hard it was for me. I know more clearly what I will lose than what I may gain from marriage. ID 144: 27 years old is really much better than 18 years old; feel the freedom like never before; go wherever you want; only need to consider your own happiness or not happiness to make decisions; live freedom! I do not want to get married!

Although the positive emotions did not surpass the bad repercussions, certain factors such as self-assurance, self-esteem, autonomy, self-congruence, authenticity, and joy were mentioned a total of 343 times. Nevertheless, it is apparent that many women view their hesitation toward marriage not as a negative emotion but rather as a purposeful choice to control their own lives. Figure 2 presents a statistical chart that depicts the impact of the fear of marriage.

Figure 2 . Repercussions of women’s gamophobia.

4 Psychoanalytic analysis of the factors and repercussions of women’s gamophobia

Psychoanalysis, developed by Freud, is a complete framework that elucidates the formation of personality and provides a psychotherapy approach. It includes ideas such as the theory of the unconscious mind, personality, sexual desires, the theory of dream interpretation, and the defense mechanism of repression. According to Freud, the formation of personality is rooted in libido and defensive instincts. The psychologist’s objective is to understand this inherent urge. Irrespective of whether an individual’s innate abilities are operating at an unconscious, preconscious, or conscious level, they generate energy and guide behavior. As Freud pointed out, personality can be divided into three separate components: id, ego, and superego. Id is the main source of all cognitive energy and represents a portion of the unconscious mind. Id’s functions in terms of the pleasure principle and strives for instant enjoyment. As a result, id might be described as basic, inherent, or essential. The role of the id is more prominent during one’s childhood. The ego, a constituent of consciousness, acts as a suppressor and controller of “id” and protects from potential harm. As humans grow older, they gain the wisdom to avoid acting on impulse. The superego is the pinnacle of the personality, embodying the ultimate standard and upholding ethical principles. It offers direction to the ego and enforces limitations on the id. As individuals develop, they gradually adhere to moral, educational, and legal standards. Freud proposed that defensive mechanisms consist of many techniques such as repression, negation, projection, regression, isolation, displacement, rationalization, compensation, sublimation, humor, and reaction formation. The defensive mechanism primarily serves as a safeguarding function of the ego. Individuals often face a dilemma as they navigate between tangible reality and their ambitions, leading to internal struggles and inconsistencies. The ego resolves these conflicts and contradictions to accommodate the superego while also satisfying the id’s wishes. The objective of this approach is to diminish anxiety, mitigate distress, and surmount psychological obstacles. This study utilizes Freud’s psychoanalytic theory to elucidate the factors that contribute to Chinese women’s gamophobia, as well as the resulting outcomes, as illustrated in Table 1 .

Table 1 . Psychoanalytic theory examines Chinese women’s gamophobia.

According to Freud, human beings have two primary instincts: “Eros” (libe instinct) and “Thanators” (defense instinct). “Eros” pertains to the innate propensity of human beings to partake in actions that yield gratification and evade those that induce distress. “Thanators” relates to the inherent need for self-preservation and safeguarding. In the era of new media, diverse sorts of multimedia, including images, video, animations, and others, are employed to convey negative news items concerning marriage. This enables users to engage in a more immersive encounter with “symbolic reality.” These symbolic realities have a cultivation effect on female users, reinforcing a gloomy picture of marriage. Multiple researchers have confirmed the cultivation effect of media in their studies, demonstrating that the accumulation of negative news broadcasts about marriage in the media leads women to disenchant marriages ( Zhang and Xiao, 2008 ; Dai and Lv, 2021 ). When women are unable to find a suitable partner, this, along with their failure to find a compatible marriage, activates their inherent need to safeguard themselves from harm. A joke that circulated online, “Abstaining from marriage and not having children will result in eternal youth” and “Abstaining from marriage and not having children will protect one from harm,” may seem humorous, but they also function as a way for women to instinctively set a fear-driven limit on marriage.

4.2 Ego and reaction formation: resistance to patriarchy

Autotheory is rooted in feminist and queer theory ( Fournier, 2021 ). The process stems from personal direct experiences, disregards prejudiced assumptions, and its examination cannot be separated from specific texts or activities ( Sweet, 2021 ). Therefore, in the field of autotheory, many scholars use the conflicting effects of tools such as mirrors and selfies as evidence for the existence of the self ( Gu, 2022 ). The competing influence emerges due to the discrepancy between the self-expressed through the tools and the genuine self, in accordance with the concept of ego in psychoanalytic theory. This concept aims to regulate the conflict between the id and the superego. This research is an analysis of how individuals who have concerns about marriage utilize autotheory on the social media platform Little Red Book (performative writing and social media interactions), and it reveals a keen awareness of the existence of patriarchy.

According to data from China’s seventh population census, the male population in China comprises 51.24%, while the female population comprises 48.76%. Although the overall female population is smaller than the male population, Since 2009, the number of women enrolling in master’s degree programs in China has surpassed that of men. The total enrollment of master’s degree programs in 2019 was 447,000, with female students comprising 55.1% of this figure ( China Education Online, 2021 ). the progress of women’s education, challenging the traditional Chinese concept of male supremacy and female subjugation in marital unions as well. Upon inspection of the case text, it becomes evident that conventional factors such as family background and financial stability are no longer the primary determinants for women when selecting a partner in the present era. Women in the contemporary era prioritize emotional value, sincerity, commitment to agreements, self-worth, autonomy, and self-focus. The frequent use of phrases like “freedom” and “self” in the texts implies that women aspire to achieve emotional and marital satisfaction by cultivating their individual spirits. However, a sizable portion of men in China continue to adhere to traditional heterosexual norms and the machismo mentality, which makes them uncomfortable with the idea of marriage as feminism advocates. The divergence in viewpoints between males and females regarding marriage is a notable element that contributes to women’s unease toward marriage.

4.3 Rationalizations to explain dissatisfaction within a marriage

By creating justifications that appear logical, people use rationalization as a defense mechanism to protect themselves from setbacks. Additionally, they minimize behaviors and reasons that deviate from societal norms in order to free themselves. Marriage and family have always held significant value in traditional Chinese households and society, reflecting their goals and expectations. Expressing fear of marriage deviates from the traditional Chinese cultural emphasis on this institution, which prioritizes adherence to these principles. Therefore, the fear or unease regarding marriage is considered a violation of society and moral norms ( Zhu, 2008 ). In order to alleviate their anxiety about not being married, many women try to hide their fear by emphasizing the rational reasoning that “even if those in their social circle do get married, most of them are unlikely to experience true happiness.” Therefore, some women may not have an innate fear of marriage but instead have concerns about not finding a compatible mate or being overwhelmed by the significant financial obligations that come with marriage. As a result, individuals link their problems to a fear of marriage and take defensive actions to protect themselves. According to a well-known saying, people often embrace a Confucian philosophy when they are happy and a Taoist philosophy when they are unhappy. Rationalization, on the other hand, is a philosophical methodology that entails adjusting to the trials and conditions of existence.

4.4 “Regression” and “isolation” as coping mechanisms for anxiety

Regression refers to the phenomenon when an individual, faced with irritation, stress, or fear, returns to a former stage of conduct that they had previously acquired during their earlier life. Regression, in contemporary psychoanalytic theory, refers to the reemergence of actions and experiences that occurred during the early childhood period, specifically between the ages of 0 and 6. Marriage apprehension frequently emerges as individuals reach the age at which they are anticipated to enter into matrimony. Parents’ demands that their children find a compatible partner and their refusal to accept anyone who does not live up to their expectations are the main causes of anxiety. Consequently, individuals may revert to a state like that of a kid, displaying heightened sensitivity, a tendency to cry, and a desire to seek emotional relief from their intense fear. Certain individuals choose to retreat, much like an ostrich burying its head in the sand, in order to evade the confrontation of conflict and rage. They isolate themselves as a means to mitigate the anguish they experience. As the wedding date approaches, those individuals who possess a phobia of marriage feel a sense of fear, like facing a powerful opponent. Nevertheless, they are unsure about how to tackle this matter and consequently resort to becoming emotionally unstable with their partners or possibly ending the relationship entirely.

4.5 A repression-upbringing environment

Freud defines repression as the unconscious process of suppressing conflicting or unsuitable emotions and upsetting occurrences from the conscious mind into the preconscious realm. Although the conscious mind may not be cognizant of it, repression endures as an emotion in the preconscious. Based on the case texts, it is evident that certain individuals with a fear of marriage were raised in households where the father displayed male chauvinistic behavior and the mother exhibited traits of patience, quarrelsomeness, and indifference. A dysfunctional family may instill in a child the conviction that marriage is an unpleasant and terrible struggle. Furthermore, this negative perspective on marriage continues to exist even as one ages, simply shifting to the preconscious level of the mind. As children develop, the unsuccessful marriages of their parents unintentionally influence their viewpoints on love and marriage. As a result, when these young individuals enter into relationships with their own partners, they may naturally experience feelings of uncertainty, doubt, and even a reduced sense of their own value and unease toward the interactions between genders. Their choice to refrain from marriage or evade long-term marital obligations is motivated by their “repression.”

4.6 Anxiety impedes a vocation and self-care

Displacement, also known as alleviation, is the use of a symbolic object or behavior to counteract something unpleasant and maintain a positive mental state. The case text reveals that individuals who fear marriage often redirect and project their anxiety and discomfort onto work-related difficulties. Furthermore, the notion of “rear sons for help in old age” has transitioned to embracing one’s own aging process. The concerns about getting married are balanced by the potential risk of not having a support system in old age, which can be reduced by using commercial pension insurance and other preventive measures. The “China Women’s Pension and Risk Management White Paper” [ Fudan Development Institute (Manulife-Sinochem), 2020 ] reveals a consistent upward trend in the proportion of women’s yearly earnings allocated toward commercial pension insurance. The current rate stands at 5.89% and is expected to increase to 8.87% in the future.

4.7 Imbalance in the relationship between id, ego, and superego

Based on the case text, the study identifies an imbalance between “Id,” “Ego,” and “Superego,” notably a dominance of the “Id” over the “Superego.” This perspective on marital fear argues that marriage is a type of disadvantage and bondage. When individuals engage in the legal agreement of marriage, they must accept the possibility of becoming parents, dealing with new family relationships, handling household duties, and taking on the responsibility of raising children. The laws and responsibilities linked to these marriages generate apprehension, self-questioning, and a feeling of incongruity with one’s own aspirations in individuals who are afraid of making a commitment. Hence, they hold the belief that remaining single or cohabiting is more conducive to comfort than entering into marriage. This discrepancy becomes evident when they choose to renounce marriage.

5 Conclusion and suggestions

In recent times, feminism has begun to gain momentum and evolve in China. The expansion can be linked to factors such as the enhancement of women’s economic status, expanded availability of ideological education, and the impact of media communication. Consequently, the standing of women’s voices has experienced an unprecedented enhancement. Little Red Book, a prominent social media platform in China, consistently showcases the authentic viewpoints of young women to the public. Hence, this study holds practical and theoretical importance as it investigates the current perspectives on marriage among young women through the observation and analysis of their apprehension toward marriage expressed on Little Red Book. It also aims to provide tailored interventions and services based on the findings.

Firstly, it is crucial to first understand their defense mechanisms and then provide suitable solutions. Individuals should refrain from explicitly attributing the defects in other people’s lives to their life partner, despite the unpleasant sentiments expressed by their parents and friends. Individuals can openly express their concerns and fears to their partner and work together to cultivate a deep emotional connection rooted in trust. By embracing this strategy, you can shield yourself from trivial hardships in your environment and the media and effectively strengthen yourself against the harmful effects originating from your family heritage.

Moreover, according to the feminist viewpoint presented by Japanese sociologist Chizuko Ueno, feminism essentially involves unconstrained independence and the pursuit of personal satisfaction, regardless of one’s wishes or constraints ( Ueno and Reiko, 2023 ). Women have the option to choose marriage willingly, and their choice to abstain from it should not lead to prejudice or ill-treatment toward individuals who have misgivings about getting married. Hence, it is imperative for the government to take proactive and deliberate steps to guide the general population in progressively overcoming the limitations imposed by outdated gender norms through media. This includes dispelling the notion that women’s higher education levels are primarily responsible for changes in marriage patterns. It is vital to give women the proper respect and allow them the independence to marry and have children. According to the research samples, Chinese women who experience apprehension toward marriage have realized that marriage phobia is not intrinsically detrimental. Furthermore, they have acknowledged that an individual’s marital status has no bearing on their overall optimistic perspective on life. By actively striving to improve their own growth and development while implementing appropriate risk management and protective measures, individuals can also achieve happiness.

Additionally, education is the process of equipping oneself with the necessary knowledge and skills to effectively navigate and succeed in the future. Consequently, it is crucial for universities to offer compulsory family education programs to their students, specifically focusing on assisting young males in gaining a deeper comprehension of their familial duties and goals. As college students transition into the marriage phase and become parents, their skills in family education will be beneficial for their future married life. By cultivating a positive mental foundation for the future, it significantly enhances the propensity of young women getting married.

Ultimately, government should prolong parental leave to mitigate the strain on women throughout the production period. Simultaneously, broaden the scope of community childcare services and enhance the caliber of vital public services, such as the accessibility of newborn and childcare facilities. The relevant government ministries should supervise firms in establishing an equitable promotion structure to prevent the marginalization of married women. Subsequently, the availability of social support may relieve women’s concerns about marriage.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

JC: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.

The author (s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: gamophobia, Chinese young women, social media, psychoanalytic theory, discourses analysis

Citation: Chang JN (2024) Why do Chinese women experience gamophobia? Psychoanalytic theory assisted discourses analysis. Front. Psychol . 15:1357795. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1357795

Received: 18 December 2023; Accepted: 19 March 2024; Published: 03 April 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Chang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Joanna Nian Chang, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.