assignment about learning disabilities

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2023 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

What Is a Learning Disability?

Sanjana is a health writer and editor. Her work spans various health-related topics, including mental health, fitness, nutrition, and wellness.

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

Simon2579 / Getty Images

Learning disabilities are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders that can significantly hamper a person’s ability to learn new things. As a result, the person may have trouble with tasks such as speaking, reading, writing, paying attention, understanding information, remembering things, performing mathematical calculations, or coordinating movements.

Learning disabilities typically develop at a young age and are often diagnosed during the person’s school years, since the primary focus at school is learning. It is estimated that 8% to 10% of children below the age of 18 in the United States have some type of learning disability.

However, some people are not diagnosed until they attend college or get a job, and others never receive an official diagnosis, so they go through life without knowing why they have so much trouble with academics, work, relationships, and basic day-to-day tasks.

It’s important to understand that people with learning disabilities generally have average to superior intelligence and are often gifted in fields such as science, math, fine arts, and other creative mediums. The person is often bright and intelligent, but there may be a gap between their potential and the skills expected from a person of their age .

Nevertheless, some of the most accomplished and influential people in history have had learning disabilities, including Albert Einstein, Leonardo da Vinci, Thomas Edison, and Winston Churchill.

This article explores the types, causes, symptoms, and treatment of learning disabilities.

Types of Learning Disabilities

“Learning disability” is an umbrella term that encompasses many types of specific learning disorders, including:

• Dyslexia: Dyslexia is the most common learning disability, accounting for 80% of all learning disability cases. It is a language processing disorder characterized by difficulty with speaking, reading, writing, or understanding words. This can cause the person's vocabulary to develop at a slower pace and lead to issues with grammar, reading comprehension, and other language skills.
• Dysgraphia: People with dysgraphia may have difficulty putting their thoughts into writing due to issues with vocabulary, spelling, grammar, memory, and critical thinking. This condition is characterized by poor handwriting, as the person may struggle with letter spacing, spatial awareness, and motor planning. Dysgraphia can make it hard for the person to think and write simultaneously.
• Dyscalculia: Sometimes known as “math dyslexia,” this condition includes learning disorders related to mathematics, such as difficulty with numbers, concepts, and reasoning. People with dyscalculia may struggle to count money, read clocks and tell time, perform mental math calculations, identify number patterns, and apply mathematical formulae.
• Auditory processing disorder (APD): People with APD may have difficulty processing sounds because their brain misinterprets auditory information received by the ear. As a result, they may confuse the order of sounds in certain words, or they may not be able to distinguish between sounds such as the teacher’s voice and the background noise in the classroom.
• Language processing disorder (LPD): This is a subset of APD, characterized by difficulties with processing spoken language . The person may have difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups representing words, sentences, and stories.
• Nonverbal learning disabilities (NVLD): NVLD is characterized by difficulty interpreting nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, and other nonverbal signals.
• Visual perceptual/visual motor deficit: People with this condition may have difficulty with hand-eye coordination and motor activities. They may frequently lose their spot while reading, demonstrate unusual eye movements while reading or writing, confuse similar-looking letters, have difficulty navigating their environment, and struggle to manage items like pens, pencils, crayons, glue, and scissors.

Symptoms of Learning Disabilities

These are some of the symptoms of learning disabilities:

• Poor memory
• Difficulty focusing
• Short attention span
• Difficulty with reading or writing
• Inability to distinguish between sounds, letters, or numbers
• Difficulty sounding out words
• Tendency to put numbers or letters in the wrong sequence
• Difficulty telling time
• Confusion between right and left
• Tendency to reverse letters
• Difficulty grasping certain words and concepts
• Disconnect between words and meaning (i.e.. saying one thing but meaning another)
• Difficulty expressing thoughts and emotions
• Poor hand-eye coordination
• Delayed speech development 
• Disorganization
• Trouble with listening and following instructions
• Inappropriate responses
• Restlessness and impulsiveness
• Tendency to act out
• Difficulty with discipline
• Resistance to change 
• Inconsistent performance on a daily or weekly basis

While all children struggle with some of these things from time to time during their school years, people with learning disabilities tend to have a cluster of these symptoms that persist even as they get older.

According to the National Institute for Learning Development (NILD), frustration is a hallmark of this condition, since people with learning disabilities often excel at some things but do very poorly in other areas, and are often acutely aware of the gaps between what they can and cannot do.

The NILD notes that people with learning disabilities often find themselves failing in certain academic or professional areas due to reasons beyond their control, or having to put in tremendous amounts of effort in order to succeed. This experience can be difficult, confusing, and demotivating, often causing the person to feel sad and disappointed.

Causes of Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are caused by differences in the neurological functioning of the person’s brain. These differences can occur before the person is born, during their birth, or in early childhood, and may be caused by factors such as:

• Maternal illness during pregnancy
• Birth complications that block the flow of oxygen to the baby’s brain
• Certain genes that can make the person more genetically predisposed to developing a learning disability
• Injury or illness, such as meningitis, in early childhood 
• Health conditions such as cerebral palsy and Down’s syndrome often involve some extent of learning disability

However, it’s important to note that learning disabilities should not be mistaken for learning problems that arise due to other factors such as:

• Visual, hearing, verbal, or motor handicaps
• Intellectual disability
• Emotional disturbances
• Economic , cultural, or environmental disadvantages

Diagnosing Learning Disabilities

A healthcare professional can diagnose learning disabilities. The diagnostic process might involve:

• Academic testing: The healthcare provider may administer a standardized achievement test that checks the person’s reading, writing, and arithmetic skills, as well as an intelligence quotient (IQ) test . If the person performs well on the IQ test but has a lower score on the achievement test, it could indicate that they have a learning disability.
• Performance review: The healthcare provider may review and evaluate the person’s academic, professional, social, and developmental performance.
• Medical history: The healthcare provider will likely ask questions about the person’s personal and family medical history.
• Physical and neurological exam: The healthcare provider may conduct a physical and neurological exam to check for other health conditions such as brain diseases, mental health conditions, and developmental and intellectual disabilities .

Every learning disability has different symptoms and everyone’s experience of the condition is unique as they may experience differences in the frequency and intensity of their symptoms.

Some people may have a single, isolated learning difficulty that doesn’t have a severe impact on their day-to-day life; whereas others may have several learning disabilities that overlap with each other and make it difficult for them to function without support.

Treating Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are lifelong conditions that cannot be fixed or cured; however, with timely diagnosis, treatment, and support, people with learning disabilities can be successful at school, work, and among their community.

Treatment for learning disabilities may involve:

• Special education: Children with learning disabilities may benefit from education by specially trained teachers who perform a comprehensive evaluation of the child’s abilities and then help the child build on their strengths while compensating for their disabilities. 
• Medication: Some people may need to take medication to improve their ability to focus and concentrate.
• Therapy: Psychotherapy can help people with learning disabilities deal with emotional issues and develop coping skills.
• Other interventions: People with learning disabilities may also benefit from other interventions such as speech and language therapy.
• Support groups: People with learning disabilities as well as parents of children with learning disabilities may benefit from support group meetings that help them connect with others who have similar experiences. Learning difficulties can often lead to tension, misunderstandings, and conflicts among the family, particularly among families where the condition is hereditary.

A Word From Verywell

Every human being is equipped with a unique set of strengths and weaknesses. All of us are able to do some things effortlessly but struggle in other areas. 

It’s important to recognize that while people with learning disabilities have some challenges with learning, they are not in any way inferior to anyone else . Special education, treatment, support, kindness, and patience can help them achieve success.

Vidyadharan V, Tharayil HM. Learning disorder or learning disability: Time to rethink . Indian J Psychol Med . 2019;41(3):276-278. doi:10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_371_18

National Institute for Learning Development. What is a learning disability?

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Learning disabilities .

Learning Difficulties Association of America. Types of learning disabilities .

Walden University. 7 learning disabilities every psychology professional should study .

Kohli A, Sharma S, Padhy SK. Specific learning disabilities: Issues that remain unanswered . Indian J Psychol Med . 2018;40(5):399-405. doi:10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_86_18

Learning Difficulties Association of America. Symptoms of learning disabilities .

American Academy of Pediatricians. Diagnosing a learning disability .

National Health Service. Learning disabilities .

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. How are learning disabilities diagnosed?

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. What are some signs of learning disabilities?

By Sanjana Gupta Sanjana is a health writer and editor. Her work spans various health-related topics, including mental health, fitness, nutrition, and wellness.

Internet Explorer is no longer supported

Please upgrade to Microsoft Edge , Google Chrome , or Firefox .

Lo sentimos, la página que usted busca no se ha podido encontrar. Puede intentar su búsqueda de nuevo o visitar la lista de temas populares.

Get this as a PDF

Enter email to download and get news and resources in your inbox.

Share this on social

Tips for recognizing learning disorders in the classroom.

Characteristics of learning disabilities that can hide in plain sight

Writer: Rae Jacobson

What You'll Learn

• Why is it hard to spot some learning disorders?
• How do learning disorders affect kids in school?
• What signs should teachers look for?

Teachers are often the first to notice that a child has a learning disorder. Sometimes the signs are easy to spot, like a student who’s way behind in reading. Or a child who’s working hard but just keeps failing tests. But sometimes the signs are harder to see. And that can mean kids who need help don’t get it.

Kids with LDs often have a big gap between what it seems like they should be able to do and what they’re actually able do. For example, a student who writes awesome essays but can barely do basic math assignments. Or a kid who gives great answers class but can’t get their ideas down on paper. These gaps often cause kids with learning disorders to be labeled as lazy or told to just try harder, which can take a toll on their self-esteem. Knowing what to look for can help teachers and parents get kids the help they need.

Students who need constant reminders of what to do next might be struggling with a skill called working memory. That’s the task of remembering and processing new information, a common issue for kids with LDs. They also may struggle with time management. They may have trouble with transitions or seem disorganized.

Other common signs of learning differences include difficulty following directions, trouble concentrating, and not getting homework done on time — or at all. Failing tests, especially ones you know they’ve studied for, is also a sign.

If a student seems shy — not talking in class or sitting in the back row — they may be trying to hide a learning issue. Other kids might do the opposite, acting out to draw attention away from difficulties or pretending not to care about school. Kids may even cut class, skip school, or be “sick” more often than is usual.

Helping students with learning disabilities get the help they need can make a big difference both in school and out — and for years to come.

Teachers are often the first to notice that a child might have a learning disorder. Sometimes the signs are easy to spot — a student who just isn’t making headway in reading , for example. Or a child who, despite obvious effort, can’t seem to master the times tables. But the signs are not always as clear, and many children, embarrassed that they are struggling to do things that seem easy for other kids, go to pains to hide their difficulties.

Here are some less-obvious signs of learning disorders in children to watch for in the classroom.

Not living up to his potential

If you notice that a student who seems as if he should be succeeding, but he isn’t —either in one specific subject or in his overall school performance — it could be a sign that he has learning disorder.

This is often described as a discrepancy between ability and aptitude i.e. a gap between what it seems a student should be able to do and what he’s actually able do.

Some examples of how this gap might appear in the classroom include:

• A student who writes fantastic essays but has serious difficulty getting through basic math assignments, or vice versa.
• A kid who’s great at answering questions in class but can’t get her point down on paper.
• A student whose intelligence is obvious in person, but isn’t reflected on his report card.

Not trying hard enough

Kids who aren’t doing as well in school as expected may appear to be lazy or just not applying themselves , when in fact they may be struggling with a learning disorder. Adults with learning issues recall being told repeatedly, before they were diagnosed, that they weren’t trying hard enough. Kids who look like they’re not trying may actually be trying very hard, but failing, or trying to hide an embarrassing deficiency.

  If a student constantly has to be reminded what to do next, you might think he’s not paying attention , but it could be a sign that he’s having difficulty with what’s called “ working memory ” — holding, processing and building on new information. This is a common issue for kids with learning disorders.

Other signs to watch for include:

• Difficulty following directions – especially if the student is hearing the information for the first time or there are several steps to remember
• Daydreaming
• Difficulty copying from the board
• Trouble remembering assignments and doing them correctly

Students with learning disorders often try conceal their struggles from teachers and peers. Even if they’re managing to keep up with school work, with extra effort, it may be taking a big toll on their self esteem. If a student comes across as excessively shy during class — hanging back during group projects, sitting in the back row, or doing everything in his power to avoid being called on during class — he may be trying to hide a learning issue.

It’s also important to remember that hiding doesn’t always look like what it is. In fact, for some kids it may look just the opposite . Where some students shrink down, hoping to go unnoticed, others act out, drawing attention away from deficits by becoming the class clown, being defiant, or pretending to be “too cool” to care how they’re doing in school.

Missing homework

Students with learning disorders often struggle to get homework in on time – or at all. Homework troubles happen for a number of reasons.

• A child may feel embarrassed to hand in work that is incorrect or unfinished.
• Total wipe-out. Kids who struggle with memory and organization may have simply forgotten there was an assignment due at all.
• Lost! Even when homework does get done, it still has to make it from home to school .

Every kid is bound to miss an assignment once in a while, but if a student routinely fails to turn in her homework it’s time to take a closer look at what’s going on.

Timing troubles

Kids with learning disabilities often struggle with time management, transitions and organization . These timing troubles can cause problems both in school and at home. Tell-tale signs to watch for include:

• A child who always seems to take ‘too long’ to complete tasks – from assignments to putting on his shoes after gym.
• A student’s who’s parents report that it takes him hours to get through his homework at night.
• A kid who’s chronically late to school (I missed the bus – again!) or always seems to be rushing from one class to another.

Test Stress

Most kids will have test anxiety now and then, but if a student seems to have more trouble than expected it can be a clue that he has a learning disorder. Some things to watch for:

• A student who always ends up scrambling to finish the test on time — or routinely exceeds the time limit — regardless of reminders.
• A child who’s always the last one still working on a timed assignment.
• Very messy handwriting
• Serious pre-test anxiety
• A student who fails numerous tests despite having studied

Emotionality

School can be an emotional minefield for students with learning disorders. From struggling to keep up with peers to falling behind on schoolwork, the opportunities to feel bad about themselves can be overwhelming.

• Kids with learning disorders often struggle with feelings of shame, embarrassment, and low- self esteem . If a child often seems to be down on himself, depressed, or frustrated at school, an undiagnosed learning disorder could be a cause.
• Kids with learning disorders may develop serious school-related anxiety . Especially before they are diagnosed, when they don’t understand why they keep up with their peers.
• Additionally, kids with learning disorders often struggle with “self-regulation,” meaning they lack the tools to manage and process emotions and are easily overwhelmed — which can lead to outbursts. For example, a student who flies off the handle when he’s asked to stay in his seat, or is reduced to tears when asked to try a challenging assignment.

Students with learning disorders often go to great lengths to avoid school situations that trigger anxiety or stress. Some signs of avoidance to watch for include:

• Excessive absences
• Staying home “sick” on days when there are tests or other important assignments
• Refusal to participate in challenging activities
• Making frequent trips to the bathroom or asking to go to the nurse when faced with stressful assignments or tests
• Cutting class, or skipping school entirely

Helping students with learning disabilities get the attention and support they need to do better and feel better will benefit that child– both in school and out – for years to come.

Was this article helpful?

Explore popular topics, subscribe to our newsletters.

" * " indicates required fields

Parents Guide to Dyslexia

Enter your email to download this free guide and sign up for email resources.

Don’t Miss Out

Sign up for more articles and parenting tips direct to your inbox.

Teaching Strategies for Students with Learning Disabilities

There are things that you as a writing teacher can do, so that you do not end up on these frustrated and misunderstood students' long lists of impatient instructors. There are ways you can help students compensate for learning differences and there are strategies you can teach them that will help them become more effective readers and writers.

Introduction

Guide focus.

• What are Learning Disabilities?
• Role of Formal Assessment

LD Students in Your Composition Classroom

Ld students in a writing center tutorial.

• Teacher Resources

Annotated Bibliography

Relevant web sites.

• Citation Information

Think about the first time you drove a car. Imagine yourself staring at all of the unfamiliar levers and knobs and pedals, at the panel covered with gages and numbers. Try to recall sitting frozen in the unfamiliar driver's seat, frantically going through all the steps you had to remember just to get the car out of the parking spot. It is hard for most of us to remember how overwhelming it was to process and recall all of those steps: to pay attention to the road, to remember the rules, drive the car, and to follow directions. There was also probably a very nervous and impatient instructor who couldn't seem to cover up her frustration at your clumsiness and your inability to remember all of the steps: for her, driving had become second nature.

Like driving a car, reading and writing are complicated processes; each requires numerous instantaneous and simultaneous steps, steps most of us complete without a second (or even a first) thought. Most of us probably cannot recall what it was once like to learn how to read and write, and certainly a great number of us never had to deal with another level of challenge, a learning disability that made these steps even harder to complete.

For many people with learning differences, the challenge of reading and writing are like having to learn to drive again every single day. The steps it takes to write that sentence or read that paragraph are not internalized, but rather feel like huge barriers between the student and the completion of an assignment. And you, the writing teacher, are like that frustrated instructor who cannot understand why this student cannot simply "drive" (or write, or read, or remember, or apply knowledge . . . ).

Because there is so much information out there on every kind of disability, every kind of assessment, and every kind of resource, I have chosen to focus this packet specifically on things that you can (with your limited time) do in your CO150/250 classroom or in your regular writing center tutorial. I will not talk about how to teach a class that is specifically for teaching writing to LD students, nor will I cover other types of classes (math, etc.). My focus is specifically on writing, and reading that leads to writing (see Lipson for a useful explanation of the connection between reading and writing for students with LD). There are also other excellent resources for using technology with LD students, which I will also not attempt to cover here. This packet will provide some background on the research done on learning disabilities, on the types of "common" learning differences, how you might be able to spot signs that a student has a disability, and finally, will provide some specific activities and strategies you may employ as a teacher or tutor. Everything that I have provided in this packet is an accumulation of extensive research. Rather than relying on one single source, I have chosen to offer a broad and collaborative overview of the research. The appendix activities have all been adapted from several different texts, as well as suggestions from experienced LD writing teachers. For more information on specific LDs, refer to the texts I have listed in my Bibliography and to the related Web links listed after the appendices.

What Are Learning Disabilities?

You have probably heard of learning disabilities. You probably have also heard of 'learning differences," "specific learning styles,' and "different learning abilities." Do all of these describe the same thing? The answer to this question is a difficult one to address. There are many numbers of perspectives on learning, different epistemological perspectives that shape these descriptions, and many different interpretations of these perspectives. The purpose of this paper is not to try to decide which is accurate, nor even to negotiate between them. I will offer a very brief summary of the different perspectives, but will then propose that despite the perspective on cause, effect, and "treatment," certain students are having trouble with reading and writing, and there are strategies out there that can make these activities, well, less "trouble." Neurological, developmental, hereditary, social. Do not think of this as anything to do with intelligence (in fact, opposite -- see yourself as helping a brilliant student be able to tap that brilliance)

The easiest way to think of learning differences is: something "which affects the manner in which individuals with normal or above average intelligence take in, retain, and express information."

Working Definition

One problem with the label "learning disabilities" encompasses a huge number of related and unrelated learning patterns, social and psychological problems, and in some of the research I found, also physical problems like visual and hearing loss. The easiest "types" of learning differences to describe are: dysgraphia "difficulty writing," and dyslexia, "difficulty reading." Dyslexia, generally, is a disorder that affects the student's ability to make sense of printed material (note that this includes the notes you write on the overhead and chalkboard!). Most of us think of backward letters when we think of dyslexia, but that one of the manifestations of more serious problems than switching "d" and "b." These reversals also work at the sentence level: "to go the store" for "go to the store," and at the conceptual level: the student might start with the "middle" part of what she wanted to say, then end a sentence with an unfinished sentence, the "start" of the concept she intended.

College Students with LD

Research has shown that more and more students with learning disabilities are entering college these days, so it is likely that as a CO150 instructor or a consultant in the Writing Center you will come one of these students; sometimes that student has just gone through formal assessment and are just starting to learn compensatory strategies; sometimes students have known about their learning differences since kindergarten and feels comfortable with using university resources; sometimes, in fact, you may never be able to tell (and they may choose not to tell you) that they have learning disabilities because they are able to compensate ("Tutor Training"). Often, however, students might not know that they have learning disabilities. They are likely to think that they are just stupid or slow, and have long since accepted that writing and reading are things that they just "can't do."

Informal Assessment

Rather than define learning disabilities by their causes, I will rather describe them by their manifestations: how can we recognize them? Assessment can be as simple as looking at spelling errors, and as hard as trying to assess whether your student is a sequential or spatial learner. However, you do not need to know complicated terminology in order to do an informal assessment, to realize that your student might indeed have a different learning style than others you have encountered. For the most part, informal assessment is about patience and trial and error.

Many students who have mild LDs will have found ways of compensating without ever realizing that they have made these changes. You will generally never know about these students' learning differences because they do not exhibit the same "evidence" in their writing. On the other hand, students with moderate to severe learning problems will probably not have been able to compensate themselves and their problems will manifest themselves in their writing samples. The following is a general description of external "signs" of LDs. For a more detailed list of "textual" symptoms, see attachments 3 - 5.

External Signs

Most of the time, CO150 students are freshmen or sophomores. However, students who have serious reading and writing troubles will often go against the advice of their advisors and will come to your class at the "last minute," i.e. as a second semester senior. Often, this student will have gone through a writing center tutorial, but will wait to sign up for composition several semesters after that tutorial is over. Writing Center consultants have the advantage of a copy of the student's CO150 placement exam (often the graders will mark the exam with "LD" if they suspect that the student might have one). Tutors, then, have the advantage of suggesting that students with possible LDs take the "LD section of CO150.

Obviously, writing center tutors will also have an advantage over classroom teachers in observing a student's process. In one-on-one tutorials, we can look very closely at the ways a student handles a reading or writing project. However, here are some basic "symptoms" to watch for in your writing classroom:

A student who already knows about his LD might have become comfortable with various resources and strategies, and might even have developed a positive perspective on his learning style. However, a student who has never been assessed and encouraged might be used to being called "lazy," and may act just that way in your class. This student might even act incompetent, immature, hostile, demanding or withdrawn. This may be the biggest challenge in front of you, because years of these socially enforced labels will work against you despite your attempt to draw this student out and convince him that he can be good students.

Often, this student will turn in late, incomplete, and/or poorly done work, but in response to a different sort of assignment suddenly excel. The cause of this might be that you have suddenly tapped into the strengths of this student's particular learning style. Take this as a sign, and perhaps give this student the opportunity to "explore" this strength more. For instance, if you give them a very different sort of assignment and they excel suddenly, you may have just tapped into one of their "strength" areas. However, and this is perhaps the most frustrating problem in trying to assess a student's needs, LDs tend to manifest themselves inconsistently. In any case, if you suspect that a student might have an LD, and you can find an opportunity to look at both the student's Process and Purpose, teaching strategies will be easier to apply. For instance, looking at how a student reads:

• Process: taking a look at the way a student goes through the process of reading. You can have the student read aloud (but be sure that you emphasize that you will not be evaluating or judging her), or have her read quietly as you pay attention to how long it takes her to read the text.
• Purpose: after the student has read the text, you can ask questions that will assess comprehension, questions that deal both with retention of content, and the student's ability to interpret, analyze, or personalize the content. (see attachments 3-5 for a list of potential questions, and for a list of possible symptoms to watch for).

The Role of Formal Assessment

This guide does not suggest that a writing teacher or tutor is in any way qualified to do a formal assessment of learning disabilities; we can spot potential problems and adapt our teaching activities to accommodate these, but we should not try to "decide" whether a student has a disability, and we are never to tell a student that they have one. Can you imagine the distress a student might experience if she is suddenly told that she has a "disability?" Can you imagine what might happen if you have misdiagnosed a student in your haste to help him?

On the other hand, if you find through your informal assessment that your student seems to have some of the problems I will list in this packet, it could be a tragic lost opportunity not to help that student get the compensatory strategies that might improve his or her academic and professional success. It can be such a relief for students who have struggled their whole lives to find that there are things that they can do to excel as students; they might be very appreciative that someone finally didn't simply think they were slow, or ignore the problem hoping that someone else would deal with it.

As you know already, teaching writing is a difficult, sometimes frustrating and sometimes rewarding, experience. We often have to wonder whether we are "getting through" to our students at all, and whether what we do is really making them more effective critical thinkers, readers, and writers.

Teaching writing to a student with a learning difference, who may not have easy "access" to the strategies and skills we are teaching, can turn moments of speculation into moments of absolute frustration.

Potential Frustrations

• Sometimes we will suspect that a student is struggling in our class as a result of a learning disability, but we don't feel like we have the extra time and energy to accommodate this student.
• Maybe we are scared to approach the student with something like this and hope instead that our regular teaching strategies will be enough.
• Or, we will try to help a student and find that he or she simply has no interest in being "accommodated."
• Finally, and perhaps the most frustrating experience for both teacher and student, a student might have come to grips with his or her LD and has the enthusiasm and dedication needed to learn and apply new strategies, but somehow nothing we do seems to work to make this student a better writer.

Coping Strategies

In his essay "Apprenticed to Failure: Learning from the Students We Can't Help," Steve Sherwood (an experienced writing teacher and tutor) describes an unsuccessful experience he had with an acknowledged student with LD: "Such failure leave bitter memories. They threaten our self-concept as benevolent and capable helpers" (50). He argues, however, that we can use these experiences to help us understand what we need to learn more about. Rather than remaining irritated by our own lack of time, energy, experience, and knowledge, we might find ways that we can learn from these students.

• We can listen to them and keep trying again, rather than despair that a certain strategy hasn't worked.
• We can try something else, and something else again, and something else again.
• We can try to have patience with ourselves and with our students.

Potential Difficulties

But how about those students who want nothing to do with your "special" help? First of all, you need to keep in mind that you are dealing with students who are going to have (or have had) a very difficult time in college (Hutto). If they are unaware that they might process information differently than their classmates, they will probably come to your class quite used to being (and expecting to be) misunderstood and ignored. Although you can do your best to make the accommodations possible within the time (and energy!) you have, you need to remember that:

• You will not ever be able to "fix" these students
• You cannot take responsibility for the student's success. Your motivation will not be enough for both of you. You can offer her a certain amount of accommodation, resources and strategies, but you cannot motivate a student who won't be motivated, and you cannot force a student to find help.

Student's Role

The reality of having to take a required writing class or even a one-on-one writing tutorial can instill fear in even the most successful of students. Writing is for so many a very intimidating activity; it is no wonder that students who have more difficulty reading and writing than their peers are simply resistant to the idea that they will ever become "good" writers.

Although students with LDs have been listening to and speaking English for almost as long as you have, their different learning styles have prevented them from being able to apply the "templates" these experiences provide for more standard learners. Often, they are not aware of the mistakes they are making, and cannot understand why they are being misunderstood.

They have been called lazy, dumb, and unmotivated, and they are probably frustrated, anxious, and insecure. They often rely on the things they are good at and repel those activities they are not (which tend to be just the sort of things we assign in composition classes). Often these students did all right in high school, but are suddenly having difficulty in college.

What does all of this point to? The reality is that these students will have to work harder than students with traditional learning styles; they have to be more mature college students, more organized, more focused, more self-motivated, more ambitious, and more consistent. If they fall prey to the temptations other students are allowed, they are much more likely to fall behind and drop out of college. It will also take them more time to complete assignments, and they will have to make that time during schedules equally as busy as their classmates.' Again, you can try to inspire this kind of enthusiasm, but you cannot provide it.

If you have pointed out the available resources on our campus, have done your best to accommodate the student in your class or tutorial, and have provided the strategies you think might help, it is up to the student to get formal assessment and to make use of the other resources available.

Teacher's Role

As I noted before, as teachers of composition we are in the perfect situation to help students with LDs. One of the reasons for this is that most of the problems these students have are in the process of reading and writing. Because much of our teaching revolves around these kinds of processes, much of what you do already in your composition class will be of use to students with LDs; you probably already emphasize the importance of drafting and revising, vital steps for students who cannot produce a "quick and clean" final draft in one sitting. You might also consider giving your class various "process" due dates, which will help motivate a student who has trouble getting writing done on time.

Peer workshop and response are also probably important parts of your pedagogy. However, students with LD can become very uncomfortable with peer responding. Sometimes they have a difficult time with proofreading and revising their own drafts, much less their peers' drafts. In addition, they might feel bashful about sharing their own rough drafts, which might have many proofreading and coherence problems. You can encourage students with LD to go to a Writing Center consultant for help working through a peer draft, or to do a pre-workshop tutorial on their own drafts. Or, you might have these students bring the draft into a conference with you. One experienced LD teacher suggested that, if these strategies do not help curb the student's fear of peer workshops, you might allow this student to be absent on the day of the workshop, with no penalty, or set them up with a regular writing center tutorial.

It is very difficult for a writing teacher/GTA, who already has very limited time, to give one LD student a lot of extra time. It is important for you to realize that you are NOT watering down the content of your class -- you are simply accommodating different learning styles that are generally ignored in traditional classrooms. In fact, most of the accommodations you can make in your classroom will be beneficial to all types of learners. On the other hand, it is going to be such a benefit to students with LDs if you give them extra office-hour time to work on strategies. You might also make them aware of the Writing Center where they can get more one-on-one attention. Most of the suggestions for accommodation that I will include here and in Attachment 1 are ideas that any teacher can employ without making huge adjustments -- good practices for any effective teacher. Attachment 2, then, offers you ideas that you can pass on to your students and strategies that they can employ on their own.

Students who have not been formally diagnosed and more acquainted with their learning process probably won't think to ask themselves why they are having trouble remembering what they have read, or writing an organized paper. Generally, a student will probably give up on an activity before "assessing" exactly what the "trouble" is. It is your difficult job, then, to "dig around" in that student's process and access the areas that are causing problems.

You are also in the unique position of having the student practice strategies over and over again. Remember, in one semester you are not going to be able to "solve" all of this student's problems. You may need to focus on one or two strategies that the student can practice and employ for the rest of his or her life. Note that you will probably need to discuss your plans with the director of the Writing Center if there are requirements for how many drafts the student writes in the tutorial.

• First, it is important to develop trust and rapport from the start - wait until you and your tutee are comfortable with each other before you try to informally assess his difficulties and find compensatory strategies.
• Learning disabilities are not constant or consistent. Therefore, you will need to be able to constantly watch, adapt, revise, assess, and ask questions. What might work one day is not guaranteed to be the best approach the next.
• Give your tutee constant feedback and opportunities to employ the strategies you taught in your tutorials.
• You have an advantage that classroom teachers don't have; you can get the student used to reading aloud to you. Something that might be humiliating to a student in a classroom might be easier if you have set up your tutorials as a "safe" place. The student can then practice reading outloud.
• acquire an understanding of various strategies available
• decide which might be the best for this student and this activity
• break down learning process into bite sized chunks
• decide which are the most important steps
• decide which order they should be in
• be able to explain the relation of each step
• be able to explain the purpose of the strategy

Appendix 1: Classroom Accommodations

Some of these strategies are things that you probably already do in your classroom--they benefit all kinds of learners. Some also require fairly simple additional accommodations for students who do not do well in standard classroom environments. I have geared these suggestions toward CO150/250; I have not included information about testing students, since we generally do not test students in our composition classes. However, Attachment 14 offers some advice for students facing a testing situation.

At the start of the semester:

• Let the class know that you will allow them to use tape recorder to record the class
• Encourage (or require) the use of a wordprocesser, spellcheck
• Let your students know about the Writing Center (give it a good ‘pump')
• Pick a reader that includes study questions
• At the beginning of the semester, provide a clearly written schedule of the class, your expectations, a time line, and the required readings for the class. Go through this whole class plan/policy verbally in class
• Make the student is aware of other campus support services and the kinds of resources at their disposal, such as

- textbooks recorded on tape

- student notetakers

Classroom activities/set-up:

• Provide written copies or detailed outlines of lectures or points made in class
• Be willing to break the class itself up into shorter activities (in other words, change gears once or twice to re-stimulate attention spans)
• Speak clearly, slowly, and with expression
• When giving a lecture or an assignment, offer the students several forms of the material. You might refer to an outline on an overhead as you speak, and also provide written copies of the assignments/materials (in other words, provide both verbal and written versions)
• Speak facing the class
• Avoid calling on students without warning    
• Explain technical or new vocabulary
• Start the class by reviewing the last class and giving an overview of what you are going to cover today. Then, at the end of the class, review the main points you covered
• When a student asks a question that requires you to repeat something you already said or was already in the reading you assigned, repeat the information patiently

Assignments :

• Break tasks into smaller parts, or help the student do this
• Provide students with examples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory work, with explicit reasons and criteria
• Leave space for notes on handouts so that they are easy to read, and so that students can write notes on the margins
• Try to allow students with LD both written and verbal feedback on assignments
• Allow for alternative measures; in other words, if a student has an extreme difficulty with collaborative work, allow her to work alone, etc. If you have noticed that a student has particular success with one type of activity, you might encourage the student to use this more often
• Provide students with a few prompts or questions that will guide their reading of a new text
• If you assign a reading, be sure to cover it in class; talk about the main points, and ask the students for their responses to the assigned questions/prompts. One effective device is to have them respond to the readings in journals or on notecards.
• Provide an LD student with more time on an assignment, but give her an enforced due date ("whenever you want to turn it in" will not work with many students who have trouble organizing their time).

Appendix 2: Strategies for LD Students in Writing Classrooms

• If you think you might have a learning disability, or you have been assessed already, do not hesitate to tell your teacher. Try to do this before or just when the semester begins so that the teacher can make any accommodations necessary
• Keep ONE calendar in which to record your assignments and due dates
• Set realistic goals for yourself
• Set a weekly timetable for yourself, and include the time you need to grocery shop, eat, do laundry, etc. Give yourself more time than you think you need to complete your assignments
• Attend all classes
• Have one or two people read through your final draft
• Use a 3-ring binder with loose-leaf notebook paper and colored notebook dividers in order to separate the different assignments you are working on in the class. Use a separate binder for each class
• Create a checksheet for each assignment you do. Include on this checksheet all of the requirements for the assignment, and then go through each category when you have finished the assignment (see Attachment 13)
• Try both recording the class and taking notes
• Take some time after your class to review what was covered and the assignments given
• Make note of any questions you have about the material in the margins of your notes
• Pick a place in the classroom where you can see the board clearly, hear the instructor, and where you are not likely to be distracted
• If you don't understand the purpose/objective of an assignment, talk to the instructor before trying to start it
• If you are having trouble keeping up even after using the above compensatory strategies, perhaps re-assess your academic load

Appendix 3: Assessment

These are some of the "symptoms" of LDs your student might exhibit:

• confusion of similar words, problem with multi-syllable words
• slow reading rate
• difficulty with retaining, comprehension, remembering
• difficulty picking out important themes or points
• skipping words or lines of printed materials
• difficulty reading for long periods of time
• difficulty with sentence structure, poor grammar, omitted words
• frequent but inconsistent misspelling errors
• difficulty copying from overhead, board
• poorly formed letters, spacing, capitals, punctuation
• difficulty planning and organizing a topic, putting thoughts on paper
• difficulty with proofreading and revision
• composition long and rambling or very short
• difficulty in varying sentence structure
• sentences in an illogical sequence
• writes and prints in the same document
• very slow writing
• writing off the lines
• difficulty with expressive, creative language

Study/Organization skills:

• poor organization and time management
• difficulty following directions
• poor organization of written materials
• turns things in late
• slow to start tasks
• inefficient use of library and reference materials

Other Signs:

• difficulty reading facial expressions, body language
• inappropriate, impulsive behavior
• has a hard time grasping subtlety
• spatial problems (cannot navigate a small class room, trips)
• quickly "overloads" and "shuts down"
• trouble sustaining attention
• hyper or hypo activity

Specific informal assessment results indicating problems in Summarizing/Revising

Summarizing

• inability to summarize from organizer chart
• not knowing how or where to begin
• inability to find main idea
• inability to separate main idea from supporting details
• inability to see connections between points
• inability to link reading to prior knowledge
• cannot understand context clues in text
• difficulty when asked to scan or discuss what is written
• difficulty identifying errors in own writing
• inability to use a dictionary successfully to check for errors
• different spelling of the same word
• inability to understand or use grammatically correct sentence structure

Appendix 4: Informal Assessment

Two approaches for Informal Assessment:

A. Questionnaire

If your student answers "yes" to 6 or more of these questions, you might take the next steps in encouraging the student to get formal assessment for reading difficulties:

(adapted from "Telltale Signs of a Learning Disability" by Hollybeth Kulick).

• Are you a slow reader?
• Do your eyes feel as if they are floating in your head when you read, or do the letters bounce around the page?
• When reading from a distance, do the letters seem to disappear?
• Have you known that you reversed letters or was it pointed out to you by a teacher?
• Do you remember what you have read ten minutes after you have read it?
• When reading do you have difficulty pronouncing words?
• When writing do you have difficulty putting your thoughts down on paper?
• Do you find that you cannot finish reading during class when the rest of the class has finished?

B. Possible approaches for informal assessment:

If you take a close look at both the student's writing/reading process and his or her sense of purpose, you can get a good idea of the kinds of trouble the student is having. For instance, if you are looking at the student's reading ability:

• Process: take a look at the way a student goes through the process of reading. You can have the student read aloud (but be sure to emphasize that you will not be evaluating or judging her), or have her read quietly as you pay attention to how long it takes her to read the text.
• Purpose: after the student has read the text, you can ask questions that will assess comprehension, questions that deal both with retention of content, and the student's ability to interpret, analyze, or personalize the content (see Appendix s 3 and 5 for a list of potential questions, and for a list of possible symptoms to watch for).

Appendix 5: Specific Symptoms of LDs

It might be useful, particularly for Writing Center consultants, to see the reference sheet the placement exam graders use to determine LDs in the CO150 placement exam essays.

A. Reverse letters

   1.     a. b for d, p for q

      b. "dig" for "big"

   2. Reverse adjunct letters

      a. "form" for "from"

      b. "clam" for "calm"

B. Confusion of similar sounding consonants

   1. /d/ for /t/, /p/ for /d/, /f/ for /th/, /m/ for /n/, /f/ for /v/

      a. "attentance" for "attendance"

      b. "imposder" for "impostor"

      c. "tranver" for "transfer"

      d. "assenble" for "assemble"

C. Confusion of similar words

   1. "hot" for "what"

   2. "where" for "there"

   3. "who" for "how"

D. Omission of syllables/letters

   1. "coarly" for "coarsely"

   2. "psychitrist" for "psychiatrist"

   3. "contempary" for "contemporary"

   4. "obvous" for "obvious"

   5. "peole" for "people"

   6. "epuiment" for "equipment"

E Addition of syllables/letters

   1. "occasionalally" for "occasionally"

   2. "symiphony" for "symphony"

F. Combination of errors

   1. "paricutaly" for "particularly"

   2. "ovbise" for "obvious"

   3. "relizse" for "realize"

   4. "electrice" for "electric"   

Appendix 6: Approaching a Student/Tutee about Potential LD

I noted that it is inadvisable to inform a person that he/she might have a learning disability. So how can we approach a writing student to do an "informal" assessment, or to let them know about the testing and resources available to them here at CSU? Authors from several sources offer these kinds of guidelines:

• Avoid the word "disability." It can be effective to talk to the student about different learning styles, and ask her what kinds of situations learning or writing make learning or writing difficult, and also when she feels most capable.
• It helps to be casual, conversational, and kind. You do not want to make this a "big deal," even if you think that this student's awareness of her potential learning difference could greatly change her ability to have success in college. The following are "lead-ins" provided by several of your colleagues:
• "There is a great place on campus that you can visit where they work with you to figure out your learning style, so you can start to use some different strategies for studying and writing that are best for you."
• "We all learn differently, only some ways of learning are seen as 'standard' and so classes don't always accommodate all of the different styles -- but you can find ways of compensating for this."
• "I am a very visual learner; I have to draw pictures of ideas, of new ideas, or outlines in order to get the most out them. You seem like you are more of an "hearing" learner, since you like to have things read aloud rather than written down."

Other suggestions:

• Meet in a private and confidential setting.
• Avoid jargon.
• Listen attentively and avoid talking too much.
• Keep note-taking down to a minimum; you don't want the student to feel like a case study subject.
• Follow the verbal and non-verbal cues the student gives you in order to determine whether you should continue with this approach.
• Avoid making any judgmental, or for that matter "remedial" comments.
• Be tactful, but honest.
• Ask open-ended questions.
• Remain relaxed and avoid defensiveness and sarcasm.

Attachment 7: Motivating Writers

Often, students who are used to being told that they are bad writers have very little motivating them to take the big steps toward learning writing strategies. Here are two ideas for motivating students to write:

Written Conversation:

In a tutorial, you have the opportunity to encourage the students' writing by having a written conversation. You might start by asking an easy and accessible question about something in which you know the student is interested, like "How is your team doing right now?" or "What did you think of The Simpsons last night?" The student then replies on paper, and you reply back with another question than will illicit an "easy" response.

Journal Writing:

You can use one of several different forms of journal writing with your tutee or student. The purpose of this journal is simply to get the student used to writing , so you might make an agreement that the journal is the student's private place to write. You might, on the other hand, try one of these other forms:

• Dialogue Journals: a two-way communication between you and your student. You can dialogue about casual issues, or talk about what you are doing in your session.
• Reading Response Journals: This is a great way for a student to generate ideas for writing about reading. You might give the student reading questions that she might respond to in her journal, or encourage the student to "freewrite" a response after she has read.
• Learning Log: This could be a place where your student writes about her use of the strategies you have taught her, the frustrations and questions she is having, and the successes she is experiencing. If you both agree that you will respond to these entries, be sure to emphasize that you WILL NOT evaluate this writing at all.

If your student is having a hard time getting started with the journal, even when you have offered suggestions for starting points, you might give her the following:

• Before you write, think of the kinds of things you have done that day.
• Make your entries brief if you like.
• Have a good-sized notebook on hand and something to write with.
• Choose the time of day that you feel most like reflecting and thinking
• Use all your senses as much as possible. Start with what you see and work through your other senses.

Appendix 8: Teaching Writing/Reading Strategies

Students with LDs often need to work in well defined steps. When you are teaching a student a new writing strategy, you can break up this teaching/learning process in the following ways:

Stage One: Introducing Strategies and Setting Goals

First you need to establish what goals you and the student have. What is it that the student wants to improve? What does the student have the most trouble with? Once you have established the goals, you will want to introduce the various strategies that can get the student to her goal. Explain the strategies slowly and clearly, then let the student decide which might be the most understandable or the most memorable, so that she might be able to employ it again on her own.

Stage Two: Preskill Development

You need to get the student up to the place he needs to be in order to use this strategy. For instance, if the student needs to learn how to use strategies to organize paragraphs, you will want to first make sure that he understands why paragraphs are used, how they are generally organized, etc.

Stage Three: Discussion of the Strategy

Explain the strategy in detail; its steps, its value, and when and where it might be used. You might explain this both verbally and visually.

Stage Four: Modeling the Strategy

Model the strategy using any prompts, charts, mnemonics or other aids that the student might find useful. Let the student watch you use the strategy step by step in a writing process. You can even work with the student to change the strategy, to make it easier to remember or use.

Stage Five: Providing Scaffolding

Help the student find ways to remember the strategy (for instance, if you are working on editing, have the student create a sentence that includes the mnemonic SCOPE -- see Appendix 13 -- : "To check the whole scope of my essay, I need to carefully edit)." Have the student reword the steps and purpose of the strategy in her own words.

Have the student try the strategy right then and there, then assign a writing situation where she will need to use the strategy at home.

Stage Seven: Feedback

Give the student definite feedback on his use of the strategy; be honest about the ways in which the strategy didn't work, and the ways the student might have implemented the strategy more effectively.

Stage Eight: Implement

Once the student has practiced and memorized this strategy, give her different situations where she can use it.

Appendix 9: Reading Strategies

Have the student bring the card to class or to the tutorial. She can use this card to refer to in class discussion, as well as a starting point for an essay. As a teacher or tutor, talk to the student about her quotes and how they illustrate the essay. Next, help the student see how these quotes and responses can be integrated into the construction of an essay.

• Go through numerous articles and have the student decide which information is "focus" information (important for the point of the articles), and what is "framing" information (analogies, digressions, metaphor, example, etc).
• title, author, source and page numbers
• selected quotes and page numbers that best illustrate the essay
• the student's response to the reading
• the first time to find only factual information (who, what, when, where, etc.)
• the second read could be in response to reading questions
• the third read could be to generate ideas for a writing assignment

You could help students with reading comprehension by giving them both "forward" and "backward" reading questions. The forward questions will help them focus their reading toward a certain purpose, and the backward questions allow students to review the text from various angles.

Learning Strategies for Adults by Sandra Crux (94-97), offers some very useful suggestions for reading strategies

a. the ConStruct Procedure:

• start with a rapid skimming of the text: look at the title, the subtitles, the first sentence of each paragraph, any illustrations, charts, etc. Then, start a diagram that includes the important information you have found
• next, do a more thorough reading of the text, this time reading to understand, but with no stress toward remembering points. Add any new important material to your diagram.
• Before beginning a third and forth reading, look over the diagram and make sure that it makes sense. Try to figure out what does not make sense and check back through the text to find this information.
• The final reading involves looking for more specific details, and anything that will fill out the diagram.

b. the Multipass Procedure: this strategy is for students who are required to do a lot of reading.

• Survey: quickly read the text only looking at titles, subtitles, etc. (same as above).
• Size-up: Use any questions/focus your instructor gave you, review questions that might come at the end of the reading, or decide on your own purpose for reading this text, and focus only on finding information that answers or responds to that.
• Sorting-out: Review notes you have made and check for any information that has not yet been answered or found.
• Predict: Try to predict what one section of the text is going to be about (you can do this by the subsections set up in the reading, or by paragraph).
• Read and Prove: Read the passage carefully and try to find evidence to prove your prediction. Repeat this for each section.

When teaching students to respond to texts, break the steps up so that the student can follow these steps each time she faces a reading-to-writing type of assignment. One way to break this up is:

Create a note card for the text, including quotes and notes.

• For what purpose was this written?
• What is the main thing the author wants to get across to me?
• What is the most important example in the text?
• Use the card to brainstorm ideas for a paper
• Organize thoughts into an outline
• Write at least 3 drafts, reading each 3 times before revising
• Conduct a self-evaluation of the draft
• Have at least 1 person read through the draft

Appendix 10: Writing Strategies

It is helpful to break any writing assignment up into separate "tasks." For instance, see Appendix 12 for a possible breakdown of a research project. For the most part, you can separate a writing task into 3 parts:

• Translating
• There are several different ways a student can plan a paper, including Brainstorming, Clustering, and Looping (see Stephen Reid's Prentice Hall Guide for a description of these strategies). You can also teach your student to use a graphic chart (there is a description of four types in Appendix 11). Try several of these charts to see which one works best for your student by having her brainstorm ideas on a topic.
• After she has found a strategy that works for her, have her refer to her chart and do some freewriting (if your student has difficulty with freewriting, have her make a list instead); at this point, encourage her not to worry about what she includes in her text. She will be able to decide what to include or exclude later.
• Next, have your student read through what she has done so far and decide what might be included and excluded from her essay.
• Have her then plan a new "action plan." At this point, have your student separate her plan into an Introduction, a Body, and a Conclusion:

         1. Introduction: Generally, an introduction includes

            a. necessary background on the topic

             b. the purpose of the paper (why it might be important to

            explore this topic)

            c. an overview of the main points that will be covered

          2. Body: the body of the essay is generally

            a. organized by point (and the order makes sense)

            b. clearly states each point

            c. offers evidence/details for each point

          3. Conclusion: make sure the conclusion

            a. is consistent with what is slated in the introduction

            b. explains the importance of issue addressed

Next comes the drafting step:

Translating:

Now it is time for your student to translate her chart into a draft. Some students might benefit from creating a more detailed linear outline before going on, and others will benefit more from a more detailed "pictorial" outline. For some students, once they have written a detailed outline the drafting is the easiest part of writing. However, most students with LDs have a very difficult time with this part of writing. Some students will need to freewrite again at this point, and then use a strategy like cutting the draft up and pasting it back together (see Appendix 11). Others will just need a lot of extra time and room for writing many drafts.

• Students may benefit from keeping a "drafting diary" where she can record revision questions she needs to ask herself, like "Do my thoughts follow each other logically and make sense?" and "Does each sentence say what I want it to say?" or "Have I left out any important information?" (see Appendix 13 for more revision and editing strategies). Most students with LDs should work with you to create an editing/proofreading check-list that they can use throughout their academic career.
• Some students might benefit from reading their essay into a tape recorder and then listening to the essay to find inconsistencies, errors, lack of coherence, etc.

Appendix 11: Organization Strategies

Students who have trouble with sequential organization might find some of these strategies useful:

• Have them draft as they normally would, then have them cut their draft up into what they determine as separate "points." Then work together to put them into a more logical order (the easiest way to do this may be to tape the pieces onto a large piece of posterboard). After a few times, they should be able to do this one on their own, although it does require extra drafting time.
• These "graphic organizers," adapted from Learning Strategies for Adults by Sandra Crux, (29, 93, 104-105) can be used as both reading-to-write strategies and as strategies to write about topics. Have the student try each one to find which will work best for him. Each one of these works well in the first stages of prewriting, and as a revision plan for a final draft:

Attachment 11a: Flow Chart (with activity idea)

               Central Theme

Main Points to be covered

1            2            3         4      

   Notecards containing facts go in envelopes below to be organized by topic

Envelope       Envelope       Envelope    Envelope   

1       2          3          4

This organizational chart is best placed on a large piece of cardboard or in the center of a piece of posterboard. Envelopes can then be stapled or pinned to the board. The student places 3 x 5 notecards that contain the different information into the appropriate envelope according to the way her topics are arranged.

Appendix 12: Breaking Research Papers Down into Steps

Research Papers:

• Choose a topic

-is your topic too broad or too narrow?

-is there enough factual information on the topic?

-are you interested in this topic?

-has your topic been approved by your teacher?

• Locate your sources

break your research down by each type of source you will find, including

   Internet sources

   Reference books

   Magazines/Journals

   Newspapers

   Books

   Experts

• Prepare Bibliography Cards

-prepare a separate card for each source you find. Include on each card

   The title of the piece

   Where you found it

   The author's name

   page numbers

-number each card in the right-hand corner and circle it for easy identification

• Prepare Note Cards

Use large note cards, and number these so that they correspond with the right bibliography card.

-Feel free to use more than one note card for each source, but be sure to number them.

-All notes should be in your handwriting, and each quote needs to be EXACT, and should be followed by the page number.

-write legibly, or type your notecards with a typewriter.

Prepare your paper outline (organize this by 'Intro,' 'parts of body' and 'conclusion.' See Appendix 10)      

      Title

I. Roman numerals for topics

A. Capital letters for subtopics

   1. Arabic numerals for details

    a. small letters for subdetails

-As you become more aquatinted with your topic, revise your outline with more specific information.

• Writing the Paper

- organize your notecards so that they are in the order of your outline

- Follow your notecards as you draft.

Appendix 13: Editing Proofreading Strategies

Many students with LDs have trouble both proofreading and editing their drafts. Since they often also tend to have more errors on their rough drafts, it is important for them to accumulate strategies that will help them clean up their final drafts. Here are a couple suggestions:

SCOPE is a mnemonic device to help students remember important steps in editing:

S - Spelling: Is the spelling correct?

C - Capitalization: Are the first words of sentences, proper names, and proper nouns capitalized?

O - Order of Words: Are the words in the right order?

P - Punctuation: Does each sentence end with a period, question mark, or exclamation mark? Are commas and apostrophes placed where needed?

E - Express Complete Thought: Is each sentence complete? Does each sentence have a subject and a predicate?

Check list for revising:

____ 1. My introduction clearly introduces the topic.

____ 2. The sub-headings help the reader understand the paper.

____ 3. The body of the paper contains all the facts needed.

____ 4. Each paragraph is written with a main idea.

____ 5. Every sentence and paragraph adds something to the paper.

____ 6. I have reread my sentences aloud to be sure they make sense.

____ 7. I chose the best words to explain my ideas.

____ 8. The conclusion follows from the facts.

____ 9. I corrected all the misspelled words.

____ 10. I capitalized all the appropriate words.

____ 11. I used quotation marks to identify all quotations.

____ 12. I reread the paper at least three times looking for ways to make it better.

____ 13. I numbered all the pages.

Sentence Level Editing:

For each sentence, ask the following questions:

1. Does the sentence state the topic?

2. Does the sentence add further information to the topic sentence?

3. Does the sentence follow a logical order?   

4. Does the sentence say what I really want it to say?   

5. Does the sentence sound right?

6. Does the sentence show what I really think?

7. Does the information sound credible?

8. Does the sentence summarize what has been said so far?

9. Does the sentence sound like a conclusive comment?

10. Will the readers see the importance of the sentence?

11. Will readers be interested in the sentence?

12. Will readers understand what I mean by the sentence?

13. Is the sentence clear and to the point?

14. Is the sentence connected to the previous one?

Appendix 14: Essay Test Taking Strategies

Although giving timed essay tests is not common practice in our composition classes, students are nonetheless apt to face these kinds of tests in other classes. Students who have visited the Resources for Disabled Students Office know that they can get extra time for these tests, but often students also need ideas for how to approach them, even with the extra time. Here are some ideas to pass on to your students:

Short answer/multiple choice:

• Relax through deep breathing
• Scan the entire test, searching for the part that appears to be the easiest for you.
• Read each question or prompt carefully. Place a check mark beside the ones you think you know and a question mark by the ones you think you do not know. First, complete all items you are certain you know. Practice this procedure on worksheets prior to the test day.
• To remember the answers, visualize yourself looking for the answer in the book, or picture yourself hearing the teacher give the answer in class, or close your eyes and mentally write the answer.
• Go back to the questions you do not know. Try the methods listed above. If you cannot remember the answer:

     -- eliminate the answers you know are wrong

     -- deep breathe to relax, and write or circle the answer you feel is correct

     -- look for the answer hidden in another uestion on the test.

Essay Tests:

Studying for essay tests:

• Spend some time DESCRIBING what you should do to get ready to study for the test.
• OUTLINE the five-day study plan.
• SUMMARIZE the things you should do when taking any test.
• PREDICT the way the questions on the test might be written. You might practice writing the test questions yourself.

Taking the test:

• Read and restate each item in your own words before attempting to answer it. In this way, you check to see if you understand it, and you make sure that you read ALL of the instructions.
• Decide if your answer needs to be long or just a few words. If your answer is going to be long, make a brief outline before writing your answer. This helps you organize your information.
• Answer all parts of the item.
• Write directly to the point of the item. This means that you must answer the question or statement and not write about something else you find interesting or happen to know about.
• Use pictures and diagrams to explain your ideas whenever it may be appropriate.
• Write neatly because teachers will not give you credit for something they cannot read.
• Proofread your answers for clarity, spelling, and grammar.
• When you are running out of time, quickly list the information you know about any remaining items so your teacher will see what you know. This may earn you partial credit.

Appendix 15: A Self-evaluation for Teachers

If you are not sure whether your classroom is conducive to successful learning, ask yourself the following questions:

• Do I create a climate that welcomes each new learner?
• Would I feel welcome here if I were new to the class?
• Is the classroom safe?
• Are students encouraged or discouraged from making fun of each other or criticizing each others' choice of questions, their writing, or their manner of speaking?
• What is my comfort level with the ethnic, racial, and gender groups in my class?
• If I am uncomfortable with some groups of students, do I tend to overlook negative interactions among students?
• Do I avoid using analogies, metaphors, or jokes that might be offensive to some learners?
• Do I take complaints and concerns of learners seriously, rather than ignoring them?
• Do I show that I value the contributions of each student?
• Do I model the way I want my students to treat each other?

Appendix 16: Dyslexia and Dysgraphia

Dyslexia, generally, is not a "syndrome" but a multifaceted problem. For the most part, dyslexia affects the student's ability to make sense of printed material (note that this includes the notes you write on the overhead and chalkboard!). Most of us think of backward letters when we think of dyslexia, but there are more serious problems than simply switching the letters "d" and "b." These reversals also happen at the sentence level: "to go the store" for "go to the store," and at the conceptual level: the student might start with the "middle" part of what she wanted to say, then end with an unfinished sentence, the "start" of the concept she intended.

Students who have dyslexia tend to:

• have problems writing legibly
• have trouble writing in a straight line
• have trouble keeping their place on the page
• have trouble with long-term memory
• might have visual problems that cause the letters to dance around on the page

Dysgraphia:

The concept of dysgraphia includes any serious problem with writing, including spelling problems, coherence and organization problems, problems copying down what one sees, and the inability to write ideas down at all. A student with a form of dysgraphia probably has a hard time maneuvering the complicated process of writing. This student tends to:

• take a very long time to write a sentence, or even a word
• complain that she knows what she wants to say but can't seem to get it down on paper
• have poor handwriting
• write in fragments
• write incoherently (sentences have no particular order)
• write sentences with little syntactic complexity
• do very poorly on any timed essay tests or exams
• have difficulty copying text from the board, or to copy down lecture notes given orally

Crux, Sandra C. Learning Strategies for Adults: Compensations for Learning Disabilities . Middletown: Wall & Emerson, Inc., 1991.

This text offers specific strategies for adult educators for helping adults learn compensatory methods for their specific learning disabilities.

Dunn, Patricia A. Learning Re-Abled: The Learning Disability Controversy and Composition Studies . Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc., 1995.

This book is a must read for any teacher or student interested in looking into the many issues that contribute to the learning disability controversy. The author not only offers a brief overview of how LD studies and composition have grown up together, but also gives teachers numerous possible approaches for working with students with learning disabilities.

Gaskins, Jacob C. "Teaching Writing to Students with Learning Disabilities: The Landmark Method." TETYC. 22.2 (1995): 116-122.

This article lays out the basic principles of the Landmark Method of teaching writing to LD students.

Gunning, Thomas G. Assessing and Correcting Reading and Writing Difficulties. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998.

This impressive text is mostly geared toward teachers of children with learning disabilities, but there are quite a few useful teaching and learning strategies that will apply to post-secondary students as well.

Hutto, Melanie P. "Adults Who Have A Learning Disability: A Guide for the ABE Instructor." 1995. ERIC . CD-ROM.

Although written specifically for ABE instructors, this guide provides numerous strategies that would be appropriate for any writing tutor.

Kulick, Hollybeth. "Telltale Signs of a Learning Disability." Denver: Blue Spectrum Press, 1980.

A fairly dated but still relevant overview of what teachers can look for to determine whether students might have a learning disability. Includes the "telltale signs," as well as questions to ask the students.

Lipson, Marjorie Y. and Karen K. Wixson. Assessment and Instruction of Reading and Writing Disability: An Interactive Approach . 2nd ed. New York: Longman, 1997.

This text offers a great mini-history of reading and writing theory and practice, and bases its own instructional models on a blend of cognitive and social approaches to learning. It leads writing and reading teachers through the process of assessing their own teaching methods as well as instruction in informal assessment.

Mather, Nancy and Rhia Roberts. Informal Assessment and Instruction In Written Language . New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995.

This text is a detailed instruction manual for teachers, particularly elementary school teachers, who are interested in informally assessing their students' possible learning difficulties. Although for the most part this text is not relevant for college students (the text is very specifically focused on children's writing samples), some of the reading comprehension strategies are perfectly applicable to any writing/reading teacher trying to help her students better understand and write about a text.

Merson, Martha. "An Ideal Student's Lack of Progress, or Snowshoveling in Unfamiliar Territory." Connections: A Journal of Adult Literacy . 5 Win 1995: 46-51.

Merson documents a "patient" teacher's approach to finding the best strategies for teaching reading and writing to a learning disabled student.

Pardes, Joan Rudel and Rebecca Z. Rich. "Teaching Writing to College Students with Learning Disabilities." Intervention in School and Clinic. 31.5 (1996): 297-302.

This article delineates a course to teach college students with learning disabilities how to become self-regulated learners in writing through strategies in prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing.

Plata, Maximino, et al. "Comparative Writing Performance of College Students With and Without Learning Disabilities." Journal of Research and Development in Education. 29.1 (1995): 20-26.

This article argues that holistic assessment can be used as a screening tool to find students who need additional assessment for learning disabilities.

Sherwood, Steve. "Apprenticed to Failure: Learning from the Students We Can't Help." The Writing Center Journal. 17.1 (1996): 49-57.

This article offers advice to writing center tutors who feel that they have failed in meeting the needs of students with learning disabilities. Sherwood argues that failure is a part of teaching, and can be used as learning tools to for re-evaluating and changing our tutoring strategies.

Smith, Judith O. "Self-Reported Written Language Difficulties of University Students with Learning Disabilities." Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability . 10.3 (1993): 1-10.

31 University students with learning disabilities were interviewed for their comments on the willingness of university professors to accommodate them and grant their requests.

Smith, Sally L. Succeeding Against the Odds: Strategies and Insights from the Learning Disabled . Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc, 1991.

A look at learning disabilities from the perspective of students and adults with various disabilities.

Stracher, Dorothy A. "Providing Strategies for Learning Disabled College Students: Continuous Assessment in Reading, Writing and Reasoning." Research and Teaching in Developmental Education. 10.1 (1993): 65-84.

This article describes a model program for potentially gifted learning disabled college students. This program both offers strategies for LD students and suggestions for tutors in in-depth training with their students.

"Tutor Training for Occupational Students With Learning Disabilities: PY95 Final Detailed Report." 15 Aug. 95 ERIC . Online. FirstSearch. 23 March 1998.

Although this source is specifically geared toward training tutors in occupational therapy, there are several great strategies for teaching writing and reading to adult learners.

• Sites to Promote Academic Success
• Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services Blog
• National Center for Learning Disabilities
• Learning Disabilities Association
• Internet Special Educational Resources

Heather Urschel. (2018). Teaching Strategies for Students with Learning Disabilities. The WAC Clearinghouse. Retrieved from https://wac.colostate.edu/repository/teaching/guides/ld/. Originally developed for Writing@CSU (https://writing.colostate.edu).

Note: Thanks to Lucas Gilbreth for the use of his essay, "Living with a Learning Disorder."

• Publications
• Conferences & Events
• Professional Learning
• Science Standards
• Awards & Competitions
• Daily Do Lesson Plans
• Free Resources
• American Rescue Plan
• For Preservice Teachers
• NCCSTS Case Collection
• Partner Jobs in Education
• Interactive eBooks+
• Digital Catalog
• Regional Product Representatives
• e-Newsletters
• Bestselling Books
• Latest Books
• Popular Book Series
• Prospective Authors
• Web Seminars
• Exhibits & Sponsorship
• Conference Reviewers
• National Conference • Denver 24
• Leaders Institute 2024
• National Conference • New Orleans 24
• Submit a Proposal
• Latest Resources
• Professional Learning Units & Courses
• For Districts
• Online Course Providers
• Schools & Districts
• College Professors & Students
• The Standards
• Teachers and Admin
• eCYBERMISSION
• Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision
• Junior Science & Humanities Symposium
• Teaching Awards
• Climate Change
• Earth & Space Science
• New Science Teachers
• Early Childhood
• Middle School
• High School
• Postsecondary
• Informal Education
• Journal Articles
• Lesson Plans
• e-newsletters
• Science & Children
• Science Scope
• The Science Teacher
• Journal of College Sci. Teaching
• Connected Science Learning
• NSTA Reports
• Next-Gen Navigator
• Science Update
• Teacher Tip Tuesday
• Trans. Sci. Learning

MyNSTA Community

• My Collections

Learning Disabilities

A learning disability (LD) is a neurological disorder that causes difficulty in organizing information received, remembering it, and expressing it, and therefore affects a person's basic functions such as reading, writing, comprehension, and reasoning. In simple terms, a learning disability results from a difference in the way a person's brain is "wired." While children with learning disabilities are as smart or smarter than their peers, they may have difficulty with reading, writing, spelling, reasoning, or recalling and/or organizing information if they are left to figure things out by themselves or if they are taught in conventional ways.

A learning disability may not be curable, but with the right support and intervention, children with learning disabilities can succeed in school and go on to successful, often distinguished careers later in life. Parents can help children with learning disabilities achieve such success by encouraging their strengths, knowing their weaknesses, understanding the educational system, working with professionals and learning about strategies for dealing with specific difficulties.

It is important to understand that learning disabilities are defined differently by different groups. The concept of “learning disability” has one meaning for the general public, but a different meaning for professionals. Furthermore, different professional groups use different definitions of learning disability.

Common Learning Disabilities

• Dyslexia – a language-based disability in which a person has trouble understanding written words. It may also be referred to as reading disability or reading disorder.
• Dyscalculia – a mathematical disability in which a person has a difficult time solving arithmetic problems and grasping math concepts.
• Dysgraphia – a writing disability in which a person finds it hard to form letters or write within a defined space.
• Auditory and Visual Processing Disorders – sensory disabilities in which a person has difficulty processing auditory or visual information despite normal hearing and vision.
• Nonverbal Learning Disabilities – a neurological disorder which originates in the right hemisphere of the brain, causing problems with visual-spatial, intuitive, organizational, evaluative and holistic processing functions.

(From: Learning Strategies for Problem Learners, by Thomas Lombardi, ldonline.org, and teachingld.org)

Possible Indicators

Becoming aware of the warning signs of learning disabilities and getting children the necessary help early on can be key to a child's future. The earlier a learning disability is detected, the better chance a child will have of succeeding in school and in life. All children learn in highly individual ways. To increase the likelihood of student success, detection is key.

• Speaks later than most children
• Pronunciation problems
• Slow vocabulary growth, often unable to find the right word
• Difficulty rhyming words
• Trouble learning numbers, alphabet, days of the week, colors, shapes
• Extremely restless and easily distracted
• Trouble interacting with peers
• Difficulty following directions or routines
• Fine motor skills slow to develop
• Slow to learn the connection between letters and sounds
• Confuses basic words (run, eat, want)
• Makes consistent reading and spelling errors including letter reversals (b/d), inversions (m/w), transpositions (felt/left), and substitutions (house/home)
• Transposes number sequences and confuses arithmetic signs (+, -, x, /, =)
• Slow to remember facts
• Slow to learn new skills, relies heavily on memorization
• Impulsive, difficulty planning
• Unstable pencil grip
• Trouble learning about time
• Poor coordination, unaware of physical surroundings, prone to accidents
• Reverses letter sequences (soiled/solid, left/felt)
• Slow to learn prefixes, suffixes, root words, and other spelling strategies
• Avoids reading aloud
• Trouble with word problems
• Difficulty with handwriting
• Awkward, fist-like, or tight pencil grip
• Avoids writing assignments
• Slow or poor recall of facts
• Difficulty making friends
• Trouble understanding body language and facial expressions

High School Students and Adults

• Continues to spell incorrectly, frequently spells the same word differently in a single piece of writing
• Avoids reading and writing tasks
• Trouble summarizing
• Trouble with open-ended questions on tests
• Weak memory skills
• Difficulty adjusting to new settings
• Works slowly
• Poor grasp of abstract concepts
• Either pays too little attention to details or focuses on them too much
• Misreads information

Sample Strategies

Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed. Generally, a person with learning disabilities may experience difficulties in study skills, writing skills, oral skills, reading skills, math skills, and social skills.

In studying, students may experience inability to organize time and may be unable to finish assignments on time. They also may have trouble taking notes and following instructions. They often have difficulty spelling correctly and may make frequent grammatical errors which results in poor sentence structure and poor penmanship. If the lecturer speaks too fast, they may have difficulty understanding the lecture and recalling the words. They are often slow readers and sometimes have incorrect comprehension and poor retention. They may be confused with math symbols and may have difficulty with concepts of time and money. Realizing their inabilities  result in low self-esteem which can greatly affects their social skills. They might have impulsive behavior and be disorientated in time.

Dealing with students with learning disabilities, as with other students, requires that teachers have a good understanding of individual students’ strengths and needs, and plan instruction to build on their strengths and address their needs. The following are some suggestions and guidelines for a teacher with students with learning disabilities.

General Courtesy

• Don't assume that the person is not listening just because you are getting no verbal or visual feedback.
• Don't assume that you have to explain everything to students with learning disabilities. They do not necessarily have a problem with general comprehension.
• Consult with the special education specialist to obtain help in understanding the specific nature of the learning disability for each student.
• Never assess a student's capabilities based solely on their IQ or other standardized test scores.
• Give student with learning disabilities priority in registration for classes.
• Allow course substitution for nonessential course requirements in their major studies.
• A student may have documented intelligence with test scores in the average to superior range with adequate sensory and motor systems and still have a learning disability. Learning disabilities often go undiagnosed, hence teacher observation can be a major source of identification.
• Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.

Teacher Presentation

• Always ask questions in a clarifying manner, then have the students with learning disabilities describe his or her understanding of the questions.
• Use an overhead projector with an outline of the lesson or unit of the day.
• Ensure that students have a managable course load.
• Provide clear photocopies of your notes and overhead transparencies, if the student benefits from such strategies.
• Provide students with chapter outlines or study guides that cue them to key points in their readings.
• Provide a detailed course syllabus before class begins.
• Ask questions in a way that helps the student gain confidence. Keep oral instructions logical and concise. Reinforce them with a brief cue words.
• Repeat or re-word complicated directions. Frequently verbalize what is being written on the chalkboard.
• Eliminate classroom distractions such as, excessive noise, flickering lights, etc.
• Outline class presentations on the chalkboard or on an overhead transparency.
• Outline material to be covered during each class period unit. (At the end of class, summarize the important segments of each presentation.)Establish the clarity of understanding that the student has about class assignments.
• Give assignments both in written and oral form.
• Have more complex lessons recorded and available to the students with learning disabilities.
• Have practice exercises available for lessons, in case the student has problems.
• Have students with learning disabilities underline key words or directions on activity sheets (then review the sheets with them).
• Have complex homework assignments due in two or three days rather than on the next day.
• Pace instruction carefully to ensure clarity.
• Present new and or technical vocabulary on the chalkboard or overhead.
• Provide and teach memory associations (mnemonic strategies).
• Support one modality of presentation by following it with instruction and then use another modality.
• Talk distinctly and at a rate that the student with a learning disability can be follow.
• Technical content should be presented in small incremental steps.
• Use plenty of examples, oral or otherwise, in order to make topics more applied.
• Use straight forward instructions with step-by-step unambiguous terms. (Preferably, presented one at a time).
• Write legibly, use large type; do not clutter the blackboard with non-current / non-relevant information.
• Use props to make narrative situations more vivid and clear.
• Assist the student, if necessary, in borrowing classmates' notes.
• Consider cross-age or peer tutoring if the student appears unable to keep up with the class pace or with complex subject matter. The more capable reader can help in summarizing the essential points of the reading or in establishing the main idea of the reading.
• Clearly label equipment, tools, and materials. Color code them for enhanced visual recognition.
• Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives.
• Provide clear photocopies of your notes and overhead transparencies.
• For students with learning disabilities, make available cue cards or labels designating the steps of a procedure to expedite the mastering.
• Allow extended time for responses and the preparation and delivery of reports.
• In dealing with abstract concepts, use visual tools such as charts and graphs. Also, paraphrase and present them in specific terms, and sequence and illustrate them with concrete examples, personal experiences, or hands-on exercises.
• To minimize student anxiety, provide an individual orientation to the laboratory and equipment and give extra practice with tasks and equipment.
• Find areas of strength in the student's lab experiences and emphasize those as much as possible.
• Allow the students with learning disabilities the use of computers and spell checking programs on assignments.
• Announce readings as well as assignments well in advance.
• Find materials paralleling the textbook, but written at a lower reading level. (Also, include activities that make the reading assignment more relevant.)
• Introduce simulations to make abstract content more concrete.
• Make lists of required readings available early and arrange to obtain texts on tape from Recording for the Blind or a Reading/Typing Service.
• Offer to read written material aloud, when necessary.
• Read aloud material that is written on the chalkboard and on the overhead transparencies.
• Review relevant material, preview the material to be presented, present the new material then summarize the material just presented.
• Suggest that the students use both visual and auditory senses when reading the text.
• Rely less on textbooks. Reading for students with learning disabilities may be slow and deliberate, and comprehension may be impaired for the student , particularly when dealing with large quantities of material. Comprehension and speed usually dramatically increase with the addition of auditory input.
• Spend more time on building background for the reading selections and creating a mental scheme for the organization of the text.
• Encourage students to practice using technical words in exchanges among peers.
• Choose books with a reduced number of difficult words, direct non convoluted syntax, and passages that deliver clear meaning. Also, select readings that are organized by subheads because this aids in the flow of ideas.
• When writing materials for reading by students with learning disabilities, some of the strategies referred to in the reading section of the hearing impaired presentation will be appropriate.
• Allow the student to use a playback device, such as tape player, computer, mp3 player, etc...

Group Interaction and Discussion

• Assist the student, if necessary, in borrowing classmates discussion notes.
• Encourage questions during or after class to ensure that materials are understood by students with learning disabilities.
• Give individual conferences to guide students with learning disabilities to monitor progress and understanding of the assignment and of the course content.
• Give plenty of reinforcement when it is evident that the student with a learning disability is trying things that are made difficult by the disability.
• Have frequent question-and-answer sessions for students with learning disabilities.

Field Experiences

• Allow the students with learning disabilities the use of computers and spell checking programs on field notes and reports.
• Review and discuss with the student the steps involved in a research activity. Think about which step(s) may be difficult for the student's specific functional limitations and jointly devise accommodations for that student.
• Use appropriate laboratory and field strategies.
• Avoid overly complicated language in exam questions and clearly separate items when spacing them on the exam sheet. (Refer to writing for students with hearing impairments in the reading section .)
• Consider other forms of testing (oral, hands-on demonstration, open-book etc.). Some students with learning disabilities find that large print helps their processing ability.
• Consider the use of illustrations by the students with learning disabilities as an acceptable form of response to questions in lieu of written responses.
• Eliminate distractions while students are taking exams.
• For students with perceptual problems, for whom transferring answers is especially difficult, avoid answer sheets, especially computer forms. Allow them to write answers (check or circle) on the test (or try to have them dictate their responses on a tape recorder.)
• For students who have reading difficulties, have a proctor read the test to the student.
• For students with writing difficulties, have someone scibe the answers for them or use a tape recorder to take down the answers.
• Gradually increase expectations as the students with learning disabilities gains confidence.
• Grant time extensions on exams and written assignments when there are significant demands on reading and writing skills.
• If distractions are excessive, permit the students with learning disabilities to take examinations in a separate quiet room with a proctor.
• Provide study questions for exams that demonstrate the format along with the content of the exam.
• Review with the student how to proofread assignments and tests.
• Do not test material just presented or outcomes just produced, since for the students with learning disabilities, additional time is generally required to assimilate new knowledge and concepts.
• Permit the students with learning disabilities the use of a dictionary, thesaurus, or a calculator during tests.
• Provide computer with spell check/grammar/ cut & paste features

Organizations

Council for Exceptional Children - Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD) The Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD) is one of 17 special interest groups of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). DLD works on behalf of students with learning disabilities and the professionals who serve them to meet the needs of youth currently identified as having learning disabilities in the United States.

Council for Learning Disabilities (CLD) Professionals representing diverse disciplines who are committed to the development of individuals with learning disabilities. Information on conferences, advocacy, research and teaching tips.

International Dyslexia Association General information, branch services, membership, conferences and seminars, bookstore and bulletin boards.

Learning Disability Association of America The Learning Disabilities Association of America is a national, non-profit organization with the purpose of advancing the education and general welfare of children and adults of normal or potentially normal intelligence who manifest handicaps of a perceptual, conceptual, or coordinative nature.

The National Center for Learning Disabilities NCLD is a national non-profit organization committed to improving the lives of those affected by learning disabilities. NCLD provides, free of charge, the latest information on learning disabilities and resources available in communities nationwide to parents, professionals and adults with learning disabilities.

Learning Disability Resources

Learning Disability Online This site is about Learning Disabilities from the Research and Training Division of the Learning Disabilities Center. Questions and comments are appreciated. Information about, Research Articles, Training Activities, A List of Products, and Consumer Led Empowerment Training are included.

The Resources for Learning Disabilities This site contains a variety of resources for learning disabilities.

Assistive Software for Learning Disabilities

Creature Antics by Laureate Learning Systems Inc . Designed for those with severe difficulties, this program has cast of animated characters helping users to begin learning about cause and effect and turn taking. Similar programs included Creature Capers, Creature Cartoons, Creature Chorus, Creature features, Creature magic.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Laureate Learning Systems, Inc. Phone: +1-802-655-4755 Fax: +1-802-655-4757 E-mail: [email protected]

Early Learning I, II, III by Marblesoft This program is designed to let the student have fun learning while requite a minimum amount of time from the teacher or parent. Early Learning I includes 4 activities that teach pre-reading skills, Early Learning II includes 4 activities that teach addition and number sequencing. Early Learning III includes 3 activities that teach subtraction and number comparison.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Marblesoft USA E-mail: [email protected]

Following Directions: Left and Right by Laureate Learning Systems Inc. Designed to help those with disabilities and impairments, this program offers 10 activities to help student learn to follow directions and discriminate between left and right, accessible through keyboard, touch screen or single switch.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Laureate Learning Systems Inc. Phone: +1-802-655-4755 Fax: +1-802-655-4757 E-mail: [email protected]

Micro-LADs: MicroComputers Language Assessment and Development System by Laureate Learning Systems Inc. Designed to train 46 basic syntactic structures, this is aimed at the special needs of those with disabilities and impairments, accessible with keyboard, touch screen, single switch or mouse.

Monkeys jumping on the bed by Soft Touch Software This program combines a favorite preschool song with number and color activities. Students with cognitive delays respond to upbeat music and interesting sounds. Large graphics help learners focus on the action.

Availability: Commercial product. Contact: Soft Touch Software USA Phone: +1-877-763-8868 Fax: +1-661-396-8760 E-mail: [email protected]

Teach Me to Talk by Soft Touch Software Many students have difficulties learning to speak. This program features several strategies where children learn language through rhyme, rhythm, and repetition.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Soft Touch Software USA Phone: +1-877-763-8868 Fax: +1-661-396-8760 E-mail: [email protected]

Co: Writer 4000 by Don Johnston Inc. Co: Writer is a writing assistant with intelligent word prediction, a productivity tool for those who struggle with writing due to injury, physical limitation, language delay or learning disability. Co: Writer is suitable for all vocabulary levels. And the speech output gives auditory feedback to those who need to hear their words. Co: Writer is a whole-language-writing tool for novel communication and for student with language deficiencies or learning disabilities.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Don Johnston Inc USA Phone: +1-847-526-2682 Fax: +1-847-526-4177 E-mail: [email protected]

Write: OutLoud by Don Johnston Inc. Write: OutLoud is a flexible and user-friendly talking word processor that offers multisensory learning and positive reinforcement for writers of all ages and ability levels. Write: OutLoud uses CD-quality audio to repeat words, letters and sentences as students type. The auditory feedback is great for students with learning disabilities because they can hear if words are omitted or substituted. Write: OutLoud is a suitable creature writing program for all ages and especially for students with learning disabilities.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Don Johnston Inc. USA Phone: +1-847-526-2682 Fax: +1-847-526-4177 E-mail: [email protected]

Dyna Vox Mac by Dyna Vox Systems Inc. Dyna Vox Mac software helps students with disabilities break through the barriers to learn and succeed in the classroom. Dyna Vox software can be used to create dynamically linked communication pages for those with special speech, language and learning needs. Dyna Vox Mac acts as a speech/language therapy tool and also helps turn a Macintosh into an augmentative communication device for the speech disabled.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Dyna Vox Systems Inc. Phone: +1-888-697-7332 E-mail: [email protected]

Fast Forword A software for very young children to build the critical early learning skills. It is recommended as an appropriate tool for children with Autism.

Address: Scientific Learning, 300 Frank H. Ogawa Plaza, Suite 500, Oakland CA 94612-2040 Phone: 1-888-665-9707 Fax: 510-444-3580 E-mail: [email protected] www.fastforword.com

Access to Math An on screen talking math worksheet that guides a student to math solutions. Students with learning disabilities can learn math at their own pace with this program.

Academic Accommodations for Students with Learning Disabilities

In recent years, the number of students diagnosed with disabilities who are attending postsecondary institutions has increased dramatically. Members of the largest group of students with disabilities have learning disabilities.

In most situations, a learning disability is not readily observable. Because there are no outward signs of a disability such as a white cane or wheelchair, students with learning disabilities are often overlooked or misunderstood. Some instructors and administrators suspect that students who claim to have learning disabilities are faking it, are playing the system, or lack the intelligence needed to succeed in college. Understanding the implications of learning disabilities, preparing to teach students with diverse characteristics, and learning to accommodate students with learning disabilities are essential for faculty and staff to provide academic and career opportunities for these students that are equivalent to those provided to their nondisabled peers.

Learning Disabilities and Functional Limitations

Generally speaking, students may be diagnosed with learning disabilities if they are of average or above-average intelligence and there is a significant discrepancy between their academic achievement and their intellectual ability. The diagnosis of a learning disability is often made by a psychologist trained in administering and interpreting psycho-educational assessments. Psychologists use the results of their assessments to understand how individuals receive, process, integrate, retain, and communicate information. Since these functions cannot always be directly observed, it is often difficult to diagnose specific learning disabilities, determine their impact, and recommend appropriate accommodations.

There are many types of learning disabilities; they often impact student abilities in one or more of the following categories:

• Spoken language —listening and speaking.
• Written language —reading, writing, and spelling.
• Arithmetic —calculation and mathematical concepts.
• Reasoning —organization and integration of ideas and thoughts.

Learning disabilities may also be present along with other disabilities such as mobility and sensory impairments, brain injuries, Attention Deficit Disorder/Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADD/ADHD), and psychiatric disabilities.

Described below are some of the functional limitations that may require accommodations. A student with a learning disability may have one or more of these limitations.

• Auditory perception and processing —the student may have difficulty processing information communicated through lectures or class discussions. They may have difficulty distinguishing subtle differences in sound or knowing which sounds to attend to.
• Visual perception and processing —the student may have difficulty distinguishing subtle differences in shape (e.g., the letters b and d), deciding what images to focus on when multiple images are present, skip words or repeat sections when reading, or misjudge depth or distance. They may have difficulty processing information communicated via overhead projection, through video, in graphs and charts, by email, or within web-based distance learning courses.
• Information processing speed —the student may process auditory and visual information more slowly than the average person. They may be a slow reader because of the need for additional time to decode and comprehend written material.
• Abstract reasoning —the student may have difficulty understanding the context of subjects such as philosophy and logic, which require high level reasoning skills.
• Memory (long-term, short-term) —the student may have difficulty with the storing or recalling of information during short or long time periods.
• Spoken and written language —the student may have difficulty with spelling (e.g., mixing up letters) or with speaking (e.g., reversing words or phrases).
• Mathematical calculation —the student may have difficulty manipulating numbers, may sometimes invert numbers, and may have difficulty converting problems described in words to mathematical expressions.
• Executive functioning (planning and time management) —the student may have difficulty breaking larger projects into smaller sub-projects, creating and following a timeline, and meeting deadlines.

Universal Design

As the number of individuals being diagnosed with learning disabilities has increased, so have the understanding and utilization of academic and technological strategies for accommodation. There are a number of things instructors can do while planning a course to make it more accessible to all students, including those with learning disabilities. Proactively considering these strategies is part of a process called universal design (UD). UD offers the following suggestions:

• Include a statement in your syllabus inviting students to talk with you and the disability services office about disability-related issues.
• Point out campus resources available to all students such as tutoring centers, study skills labs, counseling centers, and computer labs.
• Clearly and early in a course define course requirements, announce the dates of exams, and tell students when assignments are due. Avoid last-minute readings or additional assignments and provide advance notice of changes in assignments and due dates.
• Provide printed materials early to allow students sufficient time to read and comprehend the material. Many students with learning disabilities find it beneficial to use software that can read the textbook and other text-based materials aloud. In order for them to take advantage of this technology, the printed text must first be converted into an electronic file. This process can be time-consuming.
• Use multi-modal methods to present classroom material, in order to address a variety of learning styles and strengths (e.g., auditory, visual, kinesthetic). Provide important information in both oral and written formats.
• When teaching a lesson, state objectives, review previous lessons, and summarize periodically.
• Use more than one way to demonstrate or explain information.
• Read aloud what you write on the board or present on an overhead visual.
• Keep instructions brief and uncomplicated. Repeat them word-for-word.
• Allow time for clarification of directions and essential information.
• Use captioned videos and know how to turn on the captioning feature. Although captioned videos are typically used for students who are deaf, they also help some students with learning disabilities and those for whom English is a second language, by ensuring content is presented visually and audibly. Give all students an opportunity to view a video multiple times (e.g., by making it available in a library or learning center, or on a website).
• Provide study guides or review sheets.
• Have multiple methods for course assessment, such as allowing students to take an exam or writing a paper; work alone or in a group; or deliver an oral, written, or videotaped project presentation.
• Stress organization and ideas rather than mechanics when grading in-class writing assignments and assessments.
• Design distance learning courses with accessibility in mind. For example, avoid real-time chat sessions, because not all students can type quickly or accurately enough to fully participate.

Accommodations

Typically, a higher education institution requires that a student with a disability register with the office that provides support services for students with disabilities, in order to receive accommodations. It is the student's responsibility to request services in a timely manner. These offices confirm the student's disability and eligibility for services and accommodations. A course instructor typically receives a letter from this office detailing recommended accommodations for a student. The student with a disability is responsible for meeting all course requirements using only approved accommodations.

The goal is to give the student with a disability equal access to the learning environment. Individualized accommodations are not designed to give the student an advantage over other students, to alter a fundamental aspect of the course, nor to weaken academic rigor.

A specific learning disability is unique to the individual and can be manifested in a variety of ways. Therefore, accommodations for a specific student must be tailored to the individual. The following are examples of classroom, assignment, and examination accommodations that may be recommended for a student with a learning disability. When in doubt about how to assist a student, work with the student privately or contact the campus office that provides support services for students with disabilities.

Classroom and Assignment Accommodations

You may be asked to

• assist the student in finding effective peer note-takers from the class. Alternatively, you could provide the student with a copy of your lecture notes or outline.
• allow the student to tape record lectures.
• allow the student additional time to complete in-class assignments, particularly writing assignments.
• provide feedback and assist the student in planning the workflow of assignments. This is especially important with large writing assignments. It may be helpful to break the larger assignment into smaller components with opportunities for draft feedback.
• provide assistance with proofreading written work.

Examination Accommodations

You may be asked to allow the student with a learning disability

• extended exam time, typically time and one half to double time.
• to take exams in a room with reduced distractions.
• the assistance of a reader, scribe, or word processor for exams.
• the option of an oral exam.
• to use spelling and grammar assistive devices for essay exams.
• to use a calculator for exams.
• to use scratch paper during exams.

Additional Resources

Your campus student disability support office is a valuable resource for better understanding learning disabilities and effective instructional strategies. The following resources may also be helpful:

The Center for Universal Design in Education is a comprehensive resource on the principles, processes, and strategies for applying UD in academic settings. 

The Faculty Room is a space for faculty and administrators at postsecondary institutions to learn about how to create classroom environments and activities that maximize the learning of all students, including those with disabilities.

Invisible Disabilities and Postsecondary Education is the title of both a video and a publication that include suggestions for working with students with invisible disabilities on postsecondary campuses.

Equal Access: Universal Design of Instruction is the title of both a video and a publication that provide postsecondary instructors with strategies for making campuses welcoming and accessible to all students.

LDOnline is a comprehensive website on learning disabilities for parents, teachers, and other professionals.

The Learning Disabilities Association of America , (LDA) is a nonprofit grassroots organization whose members are individuals with learning disabilities, their families, and professionals who work with them to advance the education and general welfare of children and adults with learning disabilities.

About DO-IT

DO-IT (Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, and Technology) serves to increase the successful participation of individuals with disabilities in challenging academic programs such as those in science, engineering, mathematics, and technology. Primary funding for DO-IT is provided by the National Science Foundation, the State of Washington, and the U.S. Department of Education. DO-IT is a collaboration of UW Information Technology and the Colleges of Engineering and Education at the University of Washington.

Grants and gifts fund DO-IT publications, videos, and programs to support the academic and career success of people with disabilities. Contribute today by sending a check to DO-IT, Box 354842, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-4842.

Your gift is tax deductible as specified in IRS regulations. Pursuant to RCW 19.09, the University of Washington is registered as a charitable organization with the Secretary of State, state of Washington. For more information call the Office of the Secretary of State, 1-800-322-4483.

To order free publications or newsletters use the DO-IT Publications Order Form ; to order videos and training materials use the Videos, Books and Comprehensive Training Materials Order Form . For further information, to be placed on the DO-IT mailing list, request materials in an alternate format, or to make comments or suggestions about DO-IT publications or web pages contact:

DO-IT University of Washington Box 354842 Seattle, WA 98195-4842 [email protected] www.uw.edu/doit 206-685-DOIT (3648) (voice/TTY) 888-972-DOIT (3648) (voice/TTY) 206-221-4171 (fax) 509-328-9331 (voice/TTY) Spokane

Founder and Director: Sheryl Burgstahler , Ph.D.

DO-IT Funding and Partners

Acknowledgment

The contents of this publication were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education (#P333A020044, #P333A050064). However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2007, 2004, University of Washington. Permission is granted to copy these materials for educational, noncommercial purposes provided the source is acknowledged.

Initial Thoughts

Perspectives & resources, what should teachers know about accommodations for students with disabilities.

• Page 1: Accommodations

Page 2: Practices Confused with Accommodations

What types of accommodations are commonly used for students with disabilities.

• Page 3: Instructional Versus Testing Accommodations
• Page 4: Selecting an Accommodation
• Page 5: Presentation Accommodations
• Page 6: Response Accommodations
• Page 7: Setting Accommodations
• Page 8: Timing and Scheduling Accommodations

What are the teacher’s responsibilities for students with disabilities who use accommodations?

• Page 9: Implementing an Accommodation
• Page 10: Evaluating Effectiveness
• Page 11: References & Additional Resources
• Page 12: Credits

Teachers use a number of instructional practices to improve their students’ learning. It is not unusual for several of these—specifically, modifications, instructional strategies, and interventions—to be confused with accommodations. In the sections below, we’ll describe each of these practices and explain what characteristics set them apart from accommodations.

Modifications

Modifications are adaptations that change what students learn and are used with students who require more support or adjustments than accommodations can provide. Whereas accommodations level the playing field, modifications change the playing field. Unlike accommodations, modifications:

• Do change the expectations for learning
• Do reduce the requirements of the task

The table below lists some modifications that could be used to address the barriers presented by students’ disabilities. Note that in each instance, the modification actually changes or modifies the expectations or requirements of the task.

Though often confused, the terms accommodations and modifications are not interchangeable. Listen as Margaret McLaughlin further elaborates on the distinction (time: 3:03).

Margaret J. McLaughlin, PhD Associate Dean and Professor, Special Education University of Maryland, College Park

View Transcript

Transcript: Margaret J. McLaughlin, PhD

Accommodation and modification , these are terms that get mixed up a lot. In fact, I think many people have different understandings of these terms, and sometimes they throw in the term adaptation , as well. We need to make a major distinction between an accommodation and a modification because there are major implications for how they are applied and what they mean for the learner. First of all, an accommodation does not change the content standard or the performance expectation. It could be as simple as putting a grip on a pencil to help a child who may have some writing problems write a little more smoothly. And it could move to very complex kinds of technologies that help students communicate. It is something that offsets the impact of the disability without changing the content standard or performance expectation.

In contrast, a modification actually changes, or alters, the content standard or the performance expectation. If a content standard requires that students be able to read a variety of texts—narrative texts, technical texts—critically and make inferences, or requires that the student be able to write for different purposes, we could imagine any number of accommodations that could help an individual with a disability meet that standard. But we must never change the idea that the student will read a variety of texts—and typically those texts must be at grade level—that they will be able to demonstrate that they can think critically and make inferences about the text and, indeed, whether they use a pencil, a pen, a word processor, or perhaps a specially adapted word processor, that they can write the required passages and do the required tasks.

Now, modification to those same standards might be a student who is only going to read narrative texts, and perhaps the text is going to be something that has a controlled vocabulary or in some way has been simplified because the individual has a significant reading disability. In this example, you have made a modification to the performance, but you are still requiring that the child read and that the child critique the text and make inferences. Keep in mind that, if you pull a child away from the curriculum, if you modify that curriculum, you’re also running a very good risk that that child is not learning some important material that is going to be assessed. And if we are really talking about improving learning and improving test scores for students with disabilities, we need to make sure that they are getting access to the right stuff.

Instructional Strategy or Intervention

In addition to providing accommodations and modifications, teachers often help struggling students by implementing an instructional intervention or strategy, both of which involve teaching the students to work through a series of steps to improve in an area of deficit or to remediate a certain set of skills. Unlike accommodations, strategies or interventions do not specifically address the barriers presented by a student’s disability; rather, they address a skill or knowledge deficit experienced by students with or without disabilities. To further complicate matters, accommodations can be used in conjunction with interventions. The table below lists a few areas in which students often struggle. Example instructional interventions or strategies are contrasted with examples of accommodations that might be used to help students be successful in class.

Each of the following scenarios introduces a student with a disability and identifies his or her related challenge. For each student, the teacher implements several types of supports. Determine whether each support is an accommodation, modification, or strategy/intervention.

Danica, a student with a learning disability (LD), struggles with writing. Her teacher assigns the following class project: research a planet using a minimum of three sources and then write a five-paragraph essay about that planet. Because Danica produces few complete sentences and ideas when given a writing task, her teacher implements several types of support to help her complete the assignment.

Brody, a 6th-grade student with ADHD, has difficulty organizing his time. His social studies teacher assigns a long-term project that involves researching the history of their town. The assignment includes the following requirements: visit the local library to complete a demographic information sheet, interview three people who have lived in the town since childhood, and create a presentation using that information. Because the teacher knows that Brody has difficulty completing long-term assignments by the due date, she implements several types of support to help him to do so.

Aliyah, a middle school student with muscular dystrophy, often experiences physical fatigue. She is a highly motivated student and excels academically. Her language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies teachers typically assign homework that requires access to textbooks. Because her teachers realize that carrying heavy textbooks home each night is difficult for Aliyah, they implement several types of support to help her complete her assignments.

Ahmed, a high school student with an intellectual disability, reads at a 2nd-grade level. Because he has difficulty with decoding words, he is not able to read fluently enough to comprehend the grade-level text. His special education teacher has noticed that he typically understands and remembers the information that she presents orally. For this reason, his teacher implements several types of support to help him succeed in the classroom.

Five Homework Strategies for Teaching Students With Learning Disabilities

Many students with learning or reading disabilities find homework challenging. Here are five research-based strategies that teachers can use to help students.

On this page:

Strategy 1. give clear and appropriate assignments, strategy 2. make homework accommodations, strategy 3. teach study skills, strategy 4. use a homework calendar, strategy 5. ensure clear home/school communication.

Homework is one aspect of the general education curriculum that has been widely recognized as important to academic success. Teachers have long used homework to provide additional learning time, strengthen study and organizational skills, and in some respects, keep parents informed of their children’s progress.

Generally, when students with disabilities participate in the general education curriculum, they are expected to complete homework along with their peers. But, just as students with disabilities may need instructional accommodations in the classroom, they may also need homework accommodations.

Many students with disabilities find homework challenging, and teachers are frequently called upon to make accommodations for these students. What research supports this practice? This article describes five strategies that researchers have identified that help students with disabilities get the most from their homework. They include:

• Give clear and appropriate assignments
• Make homework accommodations
• Teach study skills
• Use a homework calendar
• Ensure clear home/school communication

Teachers need to take special care when assigning homework. If the homework assignment is too hard, is perceived as busy work, or takes too long to complete, students might tune out and resist doing it. Never send home any assignment that students cannot do. Homework should be an extension of what students have learned in class. To ensure that homework is clear and appropriate, consider the following tips from teachers for assigning homework:

• Make sure students and parents have information regarding the policy on missed and late assignments, extra credit, and available adaptations
• Establish a set homework routine at the beginning of the year
• Assign work that the students can do
• Assign homework in small units
• Explain the assignment clearly
• Write the assignment on the chalkboard and leave it there until the assignment is due
• Remind students of due dates periodically
• Coordinate with other teachers to prevent homework overload

Students concur with these tips. They add that teachers can:

• Establish a routine at the beginning of the year for how homework will be assigned
• Assign homework toward the beginning of class
• Relate homework to classwork or real life (and/or inform students how they will use the content of the homework in real life)
• Explain how to do the homework, provide examples and write directions on the chalkboard
• Have students begin the homework in class, check that they understand, and provide assistance as necessary
• Allow students to work together on homework

Make any necessary modifications to the homework assignment before sending it home. Identify practices that will be most helpful to individual students and have the potential to increase their involvement, understanding, and motivation to learn. The most common homework accommodations are to:

• Provide additional one-on-one assistance to students
• Monitor students’ homework more closely
• Allow alternative response formats (e.g., allow the student to audiotape an assignment rather than handwriting it)
• Adjust the length of the assignment
• Provide a peer tutor or assign the student to a study group
• Provide learning tools (e.g., calculators)
• Adjust evaluation standards
• Give fewer assignments

It is important to check out all accommodations with other teachers, students, and their families. If teachers, students, or families do not find homework accommodations palatable, they may not use them.

Both general and special education teachers consistently report that homework problems seem to be exacerbated by deficient basic study skills. Many students, particularly students with disabilities, need instruction in study and organizational skills. Here is a list of organizational strategies basic to homework:

• Identify a location for doing homework that is free of distractions
• Have all materials available and organized
• Allocate enough time to complete activities and keep on schedule
• Take good notes
• Develop a sequential plan for completing multi-task assignments
• Check assignments for accuracy and completion before turning them in
• Know how to get help when it is needed
• Turn in completed homework on time

Teachers can enhance homework completion and accuracy by providing classroom instruction in organizational skills. They should talk with parents about how to support the application of organizational skills at home.

Students with disabilities often need additional organizational support. Just as adults use calendars, schedulers, lists, and other devices to self-monitor activities, students can benefit from these tools as well. Students with disabilities can monitor their own homework using a planning calendar to keep track of homework assignments. Homework planners also can double as home-school communication tools if they include a space next to each assignment for messages from teachers and parents.

Here’s how one teacher used a homework planner to increase communication with students’ families and improve homework completion rates:

Students developed their own homework calendars. Each page in the calendar reflected one week. There was a space for students to write their homework assignments and a column for parent-teacher notes. The cover was a heavy card stock that children decorated. Students were expected to take their homework planners home each day and return them the next day to class.

In conjunction with the homework planner, students graphed their homework return and completion rates. Another strategy that is linked to homework completion and improved performance on classroom assessments. The teacher built a reward system for returning homework and the planners. On a self-monitoring chart in their planner, students recorded each time they completed and returned their homework assignment by:

• Coloring the square for the day green if homework was completed and returned
• Coloring the square for the day red if homework was not done
• Coloring one-half of the square yellow and one-half of the square red if homework was late

If students met the success criterion, they received a reward at the end of the week, such as 15 extra minutes of recess. The teacher found that more frequent rewards were needed for students with emotional and behavioral disabilities.

Homework accounts for one-fifth of the time that successful students invest in academic tasks, yet students complete homework in environments over which teachers have no control. Given the fact that many students experience learning difficulties, this creates a major dilemma. Teachers and parents of students with disabilities must communicate clearly and effectively with one another about homework policies, required practices, mutual expectations, student performance on homework, homework completion difficulties, and other homework-related concerns.

Recommended ways that teachers can improve communications with parents include:

• Encouraging students to keep assignment books
• Providing a list of suggestions on how parents might assist with homework. For example, ask parents to check with their children about homework daily
• Providing parents with frequent written communication about homework (e.g., progress reports, notes, letters, forms)
• Sharing information with other teachers regarding student strengths and needs and necessary accommodations

Ways that administrators can support teachers in improving communications include:

• Supplying teachers with the technology needed to aid communication (e.g., telephone answering systems, e-mail, homework hotlines)
• Providing incentives for teachers to participate in face-to-face meetings with parents (e.g., release time, compensation)
• Suggesting that the school district offer after school and/or peer tutoring sessions to give students extra help with homework

Liked it? Share it!

Bryan, T., Nelson, C., & Mathur, S. (1995). Homework: A survey of primary students in regular, resource, and self-contained special education classrooms. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 10(2), 85-90.

Bryan, T., & Sullivan-Burstein, K. (1997). Homework how-to's. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 29(6), 32-37.

Epstein, M., Munk, D., Bursuck, W., Polloway, E., & Jayanthi, M. (1999). Strategies for improving home-school communication about homework for students with disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 33(3), 166-176.

Jayanthi, M., Bursuck, W., Epstein, M., & Polloway, E. (1997). Strategies for successful homework. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 30(1), 4-7.

Jayanthi, M., Sawyer, V., Nelson, J., Bursuck, W., & Epstein, M. (1995). Recommendations for homework-communication problems: From parents, classroom teachers, and special education teachers. Remedial and Special Education, 16(4), 212-225.

Klinger, J., & Vaughn, S. (1999). Students' perceptions of instruction in inclusion classrooms: Implications for students with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 66(1), 23-37.

Polloway, E., Bursuck, W., Jayanthi, M., Epstein, M., & Nelson, J. (1996). Treatment acceptability: Determining appropriate interventions within inclusive classrooms. Intervention In School and Clinic, 31(3), 133-144.

Adapted and reprinted with permission from the ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education (opens in a new window) .

Visit our sister websites:

Reading rockets launching young readers (opens in a new window), start with a book read. explore. learn (opens in a new window), colorín colorado helping ells succeed (opens in a new window), adlit all about adolescent literacy (opens in a new window), reading universe all about teaching reading and writing (opens in a new window).

Center for Teaching

Teaching students with disabilities, there is a newer version of this teaching guide., visit creating accessible learning environments for the most recent guide on the topic., students of all abilities and backgrounds want classrooms that are inclusive and convey respect. for those students with disabilities, the classroom setting may present certain challenges that need accommodation and consideration..

Terminology | Types of Disabilities | Access to Resources | Confidentiality and Disclosure | Inclusive Design | Learn More | References

Terminology

In order to create an inclusive classroom where all students are respected, it is important to use language that prioritizes the student over his or her disability. Disability labels can be stigmatizing and perpetuate false stereotypes where students who are disabled are not as capable as their peers.  In general, it is appropriate to reference the disability only when it is pertinent to the situation. For instance, it is better to say “The student, who has a disability” rather than “The disabled student” because it places the importance on the student, rather than on the fact that the student has a disability.

For more information on terminology, see the guide provided by the National Center on Disability and Journalism: http://ncdj.org/style-guide/

Types of Disabilities

Disabilities can be temporary (such as a broken arm), relapsing and remitting, or long-term. Types of disabilities may include:

• Hearing loss
• Low vision or blindness
• Learning disabilities, such as Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, dyslexia, or dyscalculia
• Mobility disabilities
• Chronic health disorders, such as epilepsy, Crohn’s disease, arthritis, cancer, diabetes, migraine headaches, or multiple sclerosis
• Psychological or psychiatric disabilities, such as mood, anxiety and depressive disorders, or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
• Asperger’s disorder and other Autism spectrum disorders
• Traumatic Brain Injury

Students may have disabilities that are more or less apparent. For instance, you may not know that a student has epilepsy or a chronic pain disorder unless she chooses to disclose or an incident arises. These “hidden” disorders can be hard for students to disclose because many people assume they are healthy because “they look fine.” In some cases, the student may make a seemingly strange request or action that is disability-related. For example, if you ask the students to rearrange the desks, a student may not help because he has a torn ligament or a relapsing and remitting condition like Multiple Sclerosis. Or, a student may ask to record lectures because she has dyslexia and it takes longer to transcribe the lectures.

Access to Resources

When students enter the university setting, they are responsible for requesting accommodations through the appropriate office. This may be the first time the student will have had to advocate for himself. For first year students, this may be a different process than what they experienced in high school with an Individualized Education Program (IEP) or Section 504 plan. The U.S. Department of Education has a pamphlet discussing rights and responsibilities for students entering postsecondary education: http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS74685

Every university has its own process for filing paperwork and the type of paperwork needed. At Vanderbilt, students must request accommodations through the Equal Opportunity, Affirmative Action, and Disability Services Department (EAD) [ http://www.vanderbilt.edu/ead/ ]. As part of the required paperwork, the student must present documentation from an appropriate medical professional indicating the diagnosis of the current disability and, among other things, the types of accommodations requested. All medical information provided is kept confidential. Only the approved accommodation arrangements are discussed with faculty and administrators on an as-needed basis.

It is important to note that this process takes time and certain accommodations, like an interpreter, must be made within a certain time period.

Confidentiality, Stigma, and Disclosure

A student’s disclosure of a disability is always voluntary. However, students with disabilities may feel nervous to disclose sensitive medical information to an instructor. Often, students must combat negative stereotypes about their disabilities held by others and even themselves. For instance, a recent study by May & Stone (2010) on disability stereotypes found that undergraduates with and without learning disabilities rated individuals with learning disabilities as being less able to learn or of lower ability than students without those disabilities. In fact, students with learning disabilities are no less able than any other student; they simply receive, process, store, and/or respond to information differently (National Center for Learning Disabilities).

Similarly students with physical disabilities face damaging and incorrect stereotypes, such as that those who use a wheelchair must also have a mental disability. (Scorgie, K., Kildal, L., & Wilgosh, L., 2010) Additionally, those students with “hidden disabilities” like epilepsy or chronic pain frequently describe awkward situations in which others minimize their disability with phrases like “Well, you look fine.” (Scorgie, K., Kildal, L., & Wilgosh, L., 2010)

In Barbara Davis’s Tools for Teaching , she explains that it is important for instructors to “become aware of any biases and stereotypes [they] may have absorbed….Your attitudes and values not only influence the attitudes and values of your students, but they can affect the way you teach, particularly your assumptions about students…which can lead to unequal learning outcomes for those in your classes.” (Davis, 2010, p. 58) As a way to combat these issues, she advises that instructors treat each student as an individual and recognize the complexity of diversity.

• A statement in your syllabus inviting students with disabilities to meet with you privately is a good step in starting a conversation with those students who need accommodations and feel comfortable approaching you about their needs. Let the student know times s/he can meet you to discuss the accommodations and how soon the student should do so. Here are two sample statements:

The Department of Spanish and Portuguese is committed to making educational opportunities available to all students. In order for its faculty members to properly address the needs of students who have disabilities, it is necessary that those students approach their instructors as soon as the semester starts, preferably on the first day of class. They should bring an official letter from the Opportunity Development Center (2-4705) explaining their specific needs so that their instructors are aware of them early on and can make the appropriate arrangements. If you have a learning or physical disability, or if you learn best utilizing a particular method, please discuss with me how I can best accommodate your learning needs. I am committed to creating an effective learning environment for all learning styles. However, I can only do this successfully if you discuss your needs with me in advance of the quizzes, papers, and notebooks. I will maintain the confidentiality of your learning needs. If appropriate, you should contact the Equal Opportunity, Affirmative Action, and Disability Services Department to get more information on accommodating disabilities.

• Provide an easily understood and detailed course syllabus. Make the syllabus, texts, and other materials available before registration.
• If materials are on-line, consider colors, fonts, and formats that are easily viewed by students with low vision or a form of color blindness.
• Clearly spell out expectations before the course begins (e.g., grading, material to be covered, due dates).
• Make sure that all students can access your office or arrange to meet in a location that is more accessible.
• On the first day of class, you can distribute a brief Getting to Know You questionnaire that ends with the question ‘Is there anything you’d like me to know about you?’ This invites students to privately self-disclose important challenges that may not meet the EAD accommodations requirements or that may be uncomfortable for the student to talk to you about in person upon first meeting you.
• Don’t assume what students can or cannot do with regards to participating in classroom activities. Think of multiple ways students may be able to participate without feeling excluded. The next section on “Teaching for Inclusion” has some ideas for alternative participation.

Teaching for Inclusion: Inclusive Design

One of the common concerns instructors have about accommodations is whether they will change the nature of the course they are teaching. However, accommodations are designed to give all students equal access to learning in the classroom. When planning your course, consider the following questions (from Scott, 1998):

What is the purpose of the course? What methods of instruction are absolutely necessary? Why? What outcomes are absolutely required of all students? Why? What methods of assessing student outcomes are absolutely necessary? Why? What are acceptable levels of performance on these student outcome measures

Answering these questions can help you define essential requirements for you and your students. For instance, participation in lab settings is critical for many biology classes; however, is traditional class lecture the only means of delivering instruction in a humanities or social science course? Additionally, is an in-class written essay exam the only means of evaluating a student who has limited use of her hands? Could an in-person or taped oral exam accomplish the same goal? (Scott, 1998; Bourke, Strehorn, & Silver, 2000)

When teaching a student with any disability, it is important to remember that many of the principles for inclusive design could be considered beneficial to any student. The idea of “Universal Design” is a method of designing course materials, content, and instruction to benefit all learners. Instead of adapting or retrofitting a course to a specific audience, Universal Design emphasizes environments that are accessible to everyone regardless of ability. By focusing on these design principles when crafting a syllabus, you may find that most of your course easily accommodates all students. (Hodge & Preston-Sabin, 1997)

Many of Universal Design’s methods emphasize a deliberate type of teaching that clearly lays out the course’s goals for the semester and for the particular class period. For instance, a syllabus with clear course objectives, assignment details, and deadlines helps students plan their schedules accordingly. Additionally, providing an outline of the day’s topic at the beginning of a class period and summarizing key points at the end can help students understand the logic of your organization and give them more time to record the information.

Similarly, some instructional material may be difficult for students with certain disabilities. For instance, when showing a video in class you need to consider your audience. Students with visual disabilities may have difficulty seeing non-verbalized actions; while those with disorders like photosensitive epilepsy may experience seizures with flashing lights or images; and those students with hearing loss may not be able to hear the accompanying audio. Using closed-captioning, providing electronic transcripts, describing on-screen action, allowing students to check the video out on their own, and outlining the role the video plays in the day’s lesson helps reduce the access barrier for students with disabilities and allows them the ability to be an active member of the class. Additionally, it allows other students the opportunity to engage with the material in multiple ways as needed. (Burgstahler & Cory, 2010; Scott, McGuire & Shaw, 2003; Silver, Bourke & Strehorn, 1998)

For more information on Universal Design or making your class more inclusive at Vanderbilt, the Center for Teaching offers workshops and one-on-one consultations. Additionally, the EAD office can help students and instructors address any questions or concerns they may have (322-4705).

The Association for Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) has a list of resources for implementing universal design principles in the classroom: www.ahead.org/resources/ud

Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), home to the National Technical Institute for the Deaf (NTID), has an extensive guide on considerations and suggested classroom practices for teaching students with disabilities: http://www.rit.edu/studentaffairs/disabilityservices/info.php

The United Spinal Association has a publication on Tips for Interacting with People with Disabilities: http://www.unitedspinal.org/disability-etiquette/

References:

Bourke, A. B., Strehorn, K. C., & Silver, P. (2000). Faculty Members’ Provision of Instructional Accommodations to Students with LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33 (1), 26-32.

Burgstahler, S., & Cory, R. (2010). Universal design in higher education: From principles to practice . Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Education Press.

Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for teaching . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Hodge, B. M., & Preston-Sabin, J. (1997). Accommodations–or just good teaching?: Strategies for teaching college students with disabilities . Westport, Conn: Praeger.

May, A. L., & Stone, C. A. (2010). Stereotypes of individuals with learning disabilities: views of college students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43 (6), 483-499. doi: 10.1177/0022219409355483

National Center for Learning Disabilities. http://www.ncld.org/

Scorgie, K., Kildal, L., & Wilgosh, L. (2010). Post-Secondary Students with Disabilities: Issues Related to Empowerment and Self-Determination. Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 38 (2010), 133-145.

Scott, S. S. (1998). Accommodating College Students with Learning Disabilities: How Much Is Enough?. Innovative Higher Education, 22 (2), 85-99.

Scott, S., Mcguire, J., & Shaw, S. (2003). Universal Design for Instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 24 (6), 369-379.

Silver, P., Bourke, A., & Strehorn, K. C. (1998). Universal Instruction Design in Higher Education: An Approach for Inclusion. Equity & Excellence in Education, 31 (2), 47-51.

United States. (2002). Students with disabilities preparing for postsecondary education: Know your rights and responsibilities . Washington, D.C: U.S. Dept. of Education, Office for Civil Rights. Retrieved from http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS74685

Walters, S. (2010). Toward an Accessible Pedagogy: Dis/ability, Multimodality, and Universal Design in the Technical Communication Classroom. Technical Communication Quarterly , 19 (4), 427-454. doi:10.1080/10572252.2010.502090

Wolf, L. E., Brown, J. T., Bork, G. R. K., Volkmar, F. R., & Klin, A. (2009). Students with Asperger syndrome: A guide for college personnel . Shawnee Mission, Kan: Autism Asperger Pub. Co.

Teaching Guides

• Online Course Development Resources
• Principles & Frameworks
• Pedagogies & Strategies
• Reflecting & Assessing
• Challenges & Opportunities
• Populations & Contexts

Quick Links

• Services for Departments and Schools
• Examples of Online Instructional Modules

Adjusting/Modifying Assignments to Support Students with Learning Disabilities while Engaging in NGSS Science and Engineering Practices and Inquiry-Based Learning

Effective science instruction involves opportunities for all students to do science, including engaging in the NGSS Science and Engineering Practices through inquiry-based learning. Many students with learning disabilities have the accommodation of shortened or reduced assignments in their Individualized Educational Programs to allow them equal access to science learning. Science teachers struggle to provide this accommodation. This practice brief provides examples of supports and strategies for implementing this accommodation during an inquiry-based investigation. A vignette is used to follow a science teacher and her students through an investigation; it details how she provides equal access to the learning objectives as well as her evaluation techniques.. Keywords: NGSS Science and Engineering Practices, shortened or reduced assignments, students with learning disabilities, Inquiry-based learning (IBL)

notation.bib

*Corresponding Author, Shannon Morago ([email protected]) Submitted June 23, 2022 Accepted December 2, 2022 Published online December 31, 2022 DOI: 10.14448/jsesd.14.0008

Vignette: A High School Chemistry Dissolution Investigation

Ms. G’s Science Classroom. Ms. G’s science courses use an inquiry-based approach that focuses on all students learning science content through engagement with the NGSS Science and Engineering Practices (SEPs). Ms. G teaches at a sub-urban school with approximately 1000 pupils that uses a “push in” model of inclusion for students with specialized learning needs. Up to a quarter of the students in Ms. G’s college preparatory chemistry courses have specialized learning needs. Ms. G has several students whose Individualized Educational Programs (IEP) require that they are provided “reduced/shortened assignments to focus on quality over quantity.” Ms. G is committed to the idea that this does not mean a reduction in critical thinking or deeper learning. Additionally, Ms. G knows that her students with learning disabilities need targeted support when she provides inquiry-based learning (IBL) opportunities. With this in mind, Ms. G plans an IBL investigation that asks students to determine how temperature, stirring and surface area of a solute affect the rate of dissolution.* At the end of this investigation students will create a model at the molecular level showing how these variables affect the rate of dissolution and why they have this effect.

*Ms. G’s investigation was adapted from Argument-Driven Inquiry in Chemistry: Lab Investigations for Grades 9-12 (Sampson, et. al., 2015), Lab 3: Rate of Dissolution. Some materials referenced in the vignette are directly from this curriculum.

Introduction

Science achievement and literacy open doors for students in terms of careers, college, personal well-being, and even societal improvement. Effective science learning for all students is grounded in them doing science (Bransford & Donovan, 2005; Melber, 2004). The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013) provide guidance for this by requiring that students engage in “science practices” or with ways that science works as a discipline to explore and build knowledge of the natural world. Inquiry based learning (IBL) is one effective way to provide opportunities for students to develop competencies in the NGSS Science and Engineering Practices (SEPs) (Table 1) and in NGSS content knowledge. Inquiry based learning can generally be defined as students asking questions and answering them using an investigative process that relies on evidence (National Research Council, 2006). This process mirrors scientific inquiry, which is a method for gathering evidence that allows a scientist to draw conclusions or create an explanation regarding a phenomenon. The NGSS SEPs emphasize students engaging in argumentation, investigation, scientific discourse, modeling, and creating explanations using evidence; areas that intersect with scientific inquiry and IBL. However, “open inquiry,” an IBL approach where students formulate a research question and design and carry out an investigation with less teacher guidance (Martin-Hansen, 2002), can be problematic for students with learning disabilities (Rizzo & Taylor, 2016). Students with learning disabilities, as defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 as disorders in psychological processes involved in language use and mathematical calculations, need support to engage in these kinds of scientific investigations. When steps are taken to assure accessibility, using inquiry-based science instruction increases the achievement of students with learning disabilities (Rizzo & Taylor, 2016). Providing access through explicit and targeted support to science learning while using an inquiry-based approach is key for all students, but especially for students with learning disabilities (Therrien, Taylor, Hosp, Kaldenberg, & Gorsh, 2011, Rizzo & Taylor, 2016).

To provide equal access for students with learning disabilities many Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) require that teachers reduce, shorten or modify assignments to focus on the quality of learning over the quantity of learning. Shortening assignments is an important tool for inclusion, however, many teachers do not receive training on how this accommodation can be implemented in their general education classrooms (Ketterlin-Geller, Alonzo & Braun-Monegan, 2007, Gutierrez, 2013). Additionally, it has been established that science educators do not provide accommodations from students’ IEPs during inquiry opportunities due to a lack of knowledge of how to do so (McGrath & Hughes, 2018). Gutierrez (2013) also found that a lack of training often thwarted the potential benefits of this accommodation. Given that shortening or reducing assignments also focuses on maintaining the quality of learning, teachers should be mindful of reducing opportunities for higher order thinking when making their curriculum accessible for students with learning disabilities. Typically, to make an assignment more accessible for a student with this accommodation, a teacher will reduce the number of “questions” a student must answer. Yet, given the importance and complexity of learning science by doing science, it is not easy or obvious how to shorten assignments or learning tasks related to investigations, NGSS SEPs, or IBL experiences, in ways that maintain the quality of learning.

It is a teacher’s responsibility to provide equal access to challenging and meaningful science curriculum for students with learning disabilities. Learning science should include opportunities to do science through engagement in the NGSS SEPs and IBL in the form of a scientific investigation is often how teachers engage students with these practices. Several strategies are discussed in this brief for reducing and shortening assignments or learning tasks that allow students with learning disabilities to access the higher order thinking skills and understanding of the nature of science that are developed when engaging in inquiry to learn the NGSS SEPs. Additionally, a vignette illustrates these strategies and other supports, such as ways to provide peer support, vocabulary acquisition, time management, and organization of work and thinking. The vignette follows Ms. G, a high school chemistry teacher, as she provides students an opportunity to engage in a scientific investigation where students are given a research question, write their own experimental and investigative procedure, collect data, develop methods to analyze and interpret their data, and finally create a conceptual model demonstrating their understanding. Table 1 summarizes the NGSS SEPs students are expected to demonstrate in grades K-12. All students in public schools are required to demonstrate they can do and understand these practices, however, the strategies discussed in this paper may be more appropriate for older students. The students in the vignette engage primarily with SEPs 2-5, although there are additional connections to SEPs 6 and 8 in the investigation they complete.

Strategies for Shortening or Reducing Assignments

Scientific inquiry is a method for gathering evidence that allows a learner to draw conclusions or create an explanation regarding a phenomenon. Often inquiries are set up as a series of sequential steps and tasks for learners to engage in, many addressing the NGSS SEPs. The end product of these inquiries or investigations can be a lab report, a scientific argumentation session, development of a model or some other product that demonstrates understanding. These investigations often take place over several class periods.

Science teachers must align their assignment of scientific investigations with the learning needs of all of their students. Reducing or shortening learning tasks in an investigation to provide students with learning disabilities opportunities to engage deeply in the tasks and learn the intended objectives can be challenging for teachers. The vignette relates how one teacher, Ms. G, uses specific strategies to modify and reduce or shorten parts of these tasks as her students engage in NGSS SEPs 2-5. Many of these strategies allow access to learning the science practices by reducing the choices students must make to those that focus on key areas of learning, thus allowing for purposeful practice. This also gives students more time to engage in selected tasks. For instance, during inquiry investigations students often design and create their own data tables. One purpose of this task is that students will more fully understand the procedure of an investigation if they interpret it into the organizational structure of a data table. In other words, students initiate the design of a data table based on how they interpret a procedure. They then determine how to organize their thinking about data to be collected into rows and columns or other structures, using their prior knowledge as well as trial and error. Interpreting a written procedure into a structured and organized table is abstract and challenging for many students. Students who have the accommodation of reduced and shortened assignments can be provided a partially created, premade table which can help them organize their thinking in a manageable way. Providing a premade table can reduce the abstract nature of this task and offer structure in how to approach it. Students still have the opportunity to practice thinking about and organizing their data in a meaningful way, but the openness of the task is reduced, allowing access.

Premade data tables can be created for different levels of support. For instance, a blank data table can provide the rows and columns and the student fills in the appropriate titles based on variables they are investigating (Figure 1). Students can be provided a way to organize their thinking around the controlled, independent or dependent variables or any variation of these, depending on their individualized needs. For students who need increased support, a more structured and explicit table can be provided (Figure 2). With a premade data table students may need to determine what variables they should focus on from the procedure or these variables can be given and students need to determine how they will measure the variable (i.e., measuring the volume in milliliters). Additionally, if there are two or more variables a student is exploring, a premade data table can be provided for one variable and they can use it as a model or template to design their second table. In all of these cases students receive support as they practice with designing parts of an investigation.

There are multiple areas in an investigation where templates or organization structures can be provided to students to allow them access by reducing the abstract quality of a task, thereby shortening or reducing the effort or time required. However, another way to provide students access is to consider the experimental work students engage in. Students engage in experimentation to learn a scientific process that can provide empirical evidence for ideas or hypotheses. When they design their own procedure they learn that science involves imagination and creativity. When they connect these procedures to how they will collect, represent, and ultimately analyze and interpret data, they learn to think abstractly and mathematically. Practicing disciplinary processes, skills, and dispositions is an important way students learn; however, one purpose of reducing or shortening assignments for students with learning disabilities is to focus practice opportunities while maintaining the quality of learning. In short, to make practice purposeful without reducing access to grade level objectives or standards. Adding structure or organization allows an entry into this type of disciplinary thinking while providing focused practice for students needing targeted support.

Beginning the Investigation

Before the investigation Ms. G strategically groups all of her students based on their strengths and needs. She groups, in this case, in twos, putting students with reduced and shortened assignments accommodations together, choosing students who work well together and whose strengths complement each other to provide peer support. For instance, Jose and Terri are grouped together. Terri has terrific laboratory skills as well as visual and spatial strengths, while Jose is a strong writer with skills in organization of ideas. Ms. G has six students with this accommodation in her class so she makes three groups. Ms. G introduces the investigation to her whole chemistry class using several strategies to support vocabulary development and understanding of the instructions (i.e., class reads instructions together in chunks, class creates a word bank for reference, groups think-pair-share for any words or concepts they are unfamiliar with then discuss/define as a class with Ms. G’s help, Ms. G checks for understanding with questions and explicitly connects students prior knowledge to the investigation, visuals are used in instructions etc.). She has a set of written materials with visual cues for every student, both physical copies and accessible digital copies. Materials for data collection are clearly labeled around the room and pictures of any new equipment are provided in the instructions and drawn on the front white board. Ms. G demonstrates how to use any new equipment and checks for understanding as she does. As students begin to engage with creating a procedure for the investigation, Ms. G checks in with her three groups of two students who have the accommodation of shortened or reduced assignments. At each group, she discusses with them that instead of experimenting with three variables they will be examining one or two, depending on the needs of the group. She has eliminated the most abstract variable, that of surface area, for these groups. Groups will engage with either the effects of temperature and stirring on dissolution rates, or stirring alone, depending on the strengths and needs of the group and in consideration of her learning objectives. Stirring is the most concrete variable and surface area is the most abstract. She tells these groups that they should create a procedure for their experiments and those procedures should be written with bullet points and explained verbally to her, when they are ready. The written instructions provide questions to all groups that help guide the creation of a procedure. Ms. G continues to check in with all groups around her classroom, monitoring their progress and understanding and referring them to resources such as the written directions, word bank etc. when needed.

Adjusting Assigned Variables

Another important method to reduce or shorten tasks while engaging in scientific inquiry is to purposely assign variables for students to experiment with. When experimenting there are often several variables students can investigate. In the vignette, Ms. G’s class is working with three variables related to the rate of dissolution of a solute (a solute is the thing in the solution being dissolved, for example, sugar in a solution of tea is a solute and water is the solvent); surface area of a solute, temperature of a solution, and stirring of a solution. The students are first tasked with designing an investigation that allows them to discover how these factors impact the rate of dissolution. After this, they engage with representing how and why these factors impact dissolution by creating a model. In considering her general learning objectives, which are that students will understand the dissolving process at a molecular level and practice scientific inquiry, Ms. G has determined that to focus the experience of her students with learning disabilities she will reduce the variables they will investigate. Doing so allows them access and opportunity to learn about the dissolution process and provides opportunities to practice all stages of scientific inquiry and the intended NGSS SEPs included in the investigation. Additionally, this key shift has repercussions throughout the investigation as it allows for more time and focus on purposeful practice; students who receive it will have reduced data to collect, analyze, interpret, and model.

To apply this accommodation in the dissolution investigation she has chosen that two of the groups will investigate stirring and temperature effects, removing the surface area variable, and that her final group will investigate only stirring. Engaging with any of these variables requires that students think on a particulate and abstract level, however, surface area is the most abstract variable in terms of designing a procedure and analyzing and interpreting data. Temperature has some abstract aspects and stirring is the most concrete. Stirring mechanically results in dissolution, and is done kinesthetically during experimentation, and temperature requires students to think about the concept of heat energy in a system and its impact on the movement of molecules. Surface area requires that students think about the ratio of surface area of a solute versus the volume, requiring proportional thinking in addition to studying the kinetics of the dissolution process. In this case, she has considered that students will practice designing a procedure, collecting data, and analyzing and interpreting data; however, they can learn and practice these skills with one or two variables rather than three. They still have access to her learning objectives of understanding dissolution at a particulate level, a challenging and meaningful concept, but students experimenting with a reduced number of variables can better focus their engagement, time, and efforts to develop the same content understanding and science process skills.

Data Collection and Analysis

Prior to data collection, student groups create their data tables based on their procedures. To adjust this part of the assignment Ms. G offers her groups with reduced/shortened assignments several data table templates to choose from. The groups justify to Ms. G why their chosen table will work for their experiments and to display their data. During data collection Ms. G checks in regularly with all groups in her class, asking questions about the fidelity of their data collection, display, and what they think is happening at a particulate level.

After data collection students analyze their data. General education groups develop a strategy that will work to help them find patterns in their data. They try different ways of calculating and graphing and choose the one that they think best represents and shows the patterns in their data. For students who need enrichment they are strongly encouraged to use a mathematical tool such as Desmos. For the three groups with the shortened/reduced assignment accommodation, Ms. G offers two ways for the groups to analyze their data to find patterns. Groups choose which method they think will work best, usually in consultation with Ms. G and using guided trial and error. For instance, Ms. G asks students’ questions about what kind of patterns they think they might find if they subtract initial data from final data and use this number to graph or display. She asks them to try this to see if it makes sense. She might also ask students to think about using a method they have practiced in their math class, such as the graphing tool Desmos, or in previous science investigations, spreadsheet programs such as Excel or Google Charts. She asks students what kind of graph might best display their data so they can see any patterns, such as a bar graph or a line graph, showing examples if needed. Groups engage with each method to determine which will be the best choice for their data.

After all groups analyze their data Ms. G organizes a “gallery walk” so groups can see ways that other groups analyzed and displayed data. Computers (if used), notebooks, and graphs are left at lab stations and/or desks and each group moves through the classroom together looking at how at least three other groups performed this task. Ms. G then asks the class what they noticed about how others analyzed their data and if they’d like to make changes and why. Time is then given for groups to revise or edit their analysis and data display if they see fit.

Reducing Choices for Analyzing Data

As discussed prior, providing templates for organization of thinking is a way to reduce or shorten the practice, time, or abstract qualities of an inquiry. Students can focus on key objectives in this way; the quality of learning. Yet, in addition to using templates, there are other ways to reduce or shorten data analysis and interpretation opportunities and still provide meaningful ways to practice this skill. Ms. G recognizes the key learning outcomes of developing skills for data interpretation result from students choosing and justifying their own methods. Due to this, she does not want to require a certain process; however, she also knows that opening data analysis to any method available could be overwhelming for some of her students. Prior to data analysis Ms. G determined several methods students could use. She knew that two of her three groups of students with the shortened/reduced assignments accommodation were in an Advanced Algebra class and that students in the other group were in a Pre-algebra math class. Knowing this she provided each group two methods that they could use to reason with their data. Each method would allow students to practice thinking mathematically in a way that made sense to them and would be aligned with their current skills, but that would also stretch and apply their prior knowledge. After some trial and error, which Ms. G encouraged as a way to decide, one of the groups chose to analyze their data using Desmos, a tool they had been exploring in their math class, and the other groups chose to use Google Charts to graph their variable(s) in relation to time. Samples of student work from these groups are in Table 2. Ms. G provides written directions for using Desmos, Excel and Google Charts to graph for all students in her class. Students also have the option of graphing by hand. Students are encouraged to ask questions of their peers and collaborate and share their knowledge of graphing and different programs, which they do readily. Additionally, for her groups that were assigned one or two variables, rather than three, the data they need to analyze and display is reduced. Ms. G uses frequent check-ins to monitor progress and emphasizes with the class the importance of developing and practicing this skill while using the tools, rather than perfection of the product.

Data Interpretation and Modeling

In this investigation Ms. G asks students to interpret data by creating a model of their results that shows why the variable(s) impacted dissolution in the way that the students determined experimentally. She communicates to all students that their models should represent what is happening at the molecular level, especially in relation to their variables, and incorporate the concept of energy, which has been a continuous topic of study in the class. Students create models in their groups and have choices about how to represent their understanding. Students can draw, or create a digital or physical model. Students with reduced and shortened assignments accommodations are engaged in a discussion at the beginning of this phase of the investigation to help them choose a model type that could represent their understanding, however, they are also provided the freedom to engage in trial and error. Ms. G provides these students a list of features that should be present in their model such as representations of different types and “levels” of energy, examples of how to represent a “particle” of a solution and or solute, etc. The three groups of students use the list to create their models.

Developing Models to Increase and Demonstrate Understanding

Developing and using models (NGSS SEP 2) is important for science learning and allows students to represent concepts to help them make sense, develop a deeper understanding, and communicate and refine their understanding, especially of abstract ideas (Park, Rodriquez, & Campbell, 2019). Scientific modeling is dynamic and diverse. Examples include mathematical modeling, such as students creating an equation for photosynthesis after experimentation, and visual or physical representations, such as what Ms. G was requiring of her students; create a model that represents the dissolving process at a molecular level using the results of investigation and experimentation. Her students had determined how their variable(s) impacted dissolution, now they had to model the why . Because Ms. G had already reduced the number of variables in the investigation to focus on purposeful practice, creating a model was also impacted. Her three groups of students would need to consider fewer variables in creating their model, allowing students more time to focus on representing and explaining the impacts of one or two variables, rather than three. However, Ms. G went beyond this in supporting students in this task. Ms. G created a list of key features of a completed model and provided this to her three groups. She did not tell students what to create or how, but assisted them in understanding factors that need to be represented. For instance, prior to creating their model they knew different ways that they could represent what was happening at a particulate level. Ms. G used their text, personal science notebooks, and class notes to remind them of other times they had drawn or used particulate level models. She also chose a particular model in their text that showed vibrating or energized atoms and asked students how the illustrator showed that the atoms were moving and what inputs (shown in the drawing) impacted this movement. These explicit questions tied to students’ prior academic knowledge and provided the groups an example and a starting point. Students could reference these illustrations as they made sense of and modeled their experimental findings in relation to what they were learning about the dissolution process. Additionally, they could use the checklist to determine their next steps in developing their model.

Evaluation of Learning and Practice

Ms. G created a rubric (Table 3) that aligned with one of the science practices and her content learning objectives. Her rubric focused on NGSS Science and Engineering Practice 2: Developing and Using Models, specifically, developing a model to explain experimental results related to the kinetics of dissolution. She shared the rubric with her students and asked them to use it prior to submitting the models to self-assess and potentially revise their work. After this, students submitted their models for her assessment. Ms. G used the rubric to evaluate and provide feedback to each group as well as to assign a grade (five points per model factor). Ms. G highlighted in yellow sections of the rubric related to the model that needed more detail or attention. Ms. G also collected student notebooks to offer feedback on how they planned and carried out an investigation (Practice 3) and analyzed and interpreted data (Practice 4). When Ms. G was finished with her evaluation and feedback, she returned the notebooks, models, and completed rubrics to students and provided them an opportunity for further revision based on her feedback. The six students with the shortened/reduced assignments accommodation were assessed in the same manner as her general education students. They also had the same opportunities to demonstrate mastery through revision and use of feedback. These groups used the highlighted areas of the rubric to further revise and develop their model before giving it back to Ms. G for another round of evaluation. All students participated in as many revision/feedback cycles as they needed to demonstrate mastery.

Evaluation and Feedback When Reducing or Shortening Investigation Tasks

Shortening and reducing assignments while maintaining quality of work is an accommodation for students with learning disabilities that is designed to allow access to the same learning objectives and opportunities as general education students, but reduces practice in a purposeful way. It can be difficult for teachers to evaluate students equitably who have this accommodation (Ketterlin-Geller, Alonzo, Braun-Monegan, & Tindal, 2007). Evaluation of student learning should be related to demonstration of understanding and mastery of the learning objectives. If students have access, through accommodation, they should be evaluated on the objectives using the same criteria as general education students. A key question Ms. G asked was, did her six students with learning disabilities meet the learning objectives? In this case, did they provide evidence that they understood dissolution at a particulate level? Did they provide evidence that they practiced and engaged in the NGSS SEPs? Ms. G evaluated student developed models with the same rubric as her general education students to determine if they met the content objective. To promote deeper understanding she required that all students demonstrate mastery of this objective by providing feedback and time for revision based on the rubric. She additionally provided students feedback on the objectives related to the NGSS SEPs 3 and 4 through reading their notebooks but did not assign a grade related to this portion of her objectives. Ms. G emphasized to all of her students that they were to continue practicing their science process skills, taking her feedback into account, to become more adept at using an investigative and experimental approach to gather and interpret evidence, and to create and evaluate scientific explanations, including models.

In Ms. G’s class students who received the shortened/reduced assignments accommodation were afforded accessible opportunities to practice and improve their science process skills and dispositions while developing grade-level content understanding during an inquiry investigation. A summary of the strategies Ms. G used to support her students is illustrated in Figure 4 and detailed in Table 4. In Ms. G’s class, all students practiced planning and carrying out an investigation, analyzing and interpreting data, and developing and using models during an inquiry investigation while learning about the process of dissolution on a particulate level.

Bransford, J., & Donovan, S. (2005). How Students Learn: Science in the Classroom. National Research Council. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Chittleborough, G., & Treagust, D. (2009) Why Models are Advantageous to Learning Science. Educación Química, (20)1, 12-17.

Gutierrez, Y. (2013). Co-teachers and parents’ perceptions of shortened assignments for learning disabled students. (Doctoral dissertation) Retrieved from: https://www.proquest.com/openview/fb285af7d0270bbd2b87f58bfaab7954/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750

Instructional Leadership for Science Practices. (n.d.) Definitions of NGSS Science Practices. https://www.sciencepracticesleadership.com/

Ketterlin-Geller, L. R., Alonzo, J., Braun-Monegan, J., & Tindal, G. (2007). Recommendations for accommodations: Implications of (in)consistency. Remedial and Special Education, 28(4), 194–206.

Martin-Hansen, L. (2002). Defining inquiry: Exploring the many types of inquiry in the science classroom. The Science Teacher, 69(2), 34-37.

McGrath, A.L., & Hughes, M. T. (2018). Students with learning disabilities in inquiry-based science classrooms: A cross-case analysis. Learning Disability Quarterly 41(3), 131–143.

Melber, L. (2004). Inquiry for everyone: Authentic science experiences for students with special needs. Teaching Exceptional Children Plus, 1(2), Article 4.

National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

NGSS Lead States. (2013). Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

O’Rourke, J., & Houghton, S. (2009). The perceptions of secondary teachers and students about the implementation of an inclusive classroom model for students with mild disabilities. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 31(1), Article 3.

Park, B., Rodriquez, L., & Campbell, T. (2019). Using models to teach science. The Science Teacher. 87(4), Article 2.

Rizzo, K. L., & Taylor, J. C. (2016). Effects of inquiry-based instruction on science achievement for students with disabilities: an analysis of the literature. Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities, 19(1), Article 2.

Sampson, V., Carafano, P., Enderle, P., Fannin, S., Grooms, J., Southerland, S., Stallworth, C., & Williams, K. (2015). Argument-Driven Inquiry in Chemistry: Lab Investigations for Grades 9-12. Arlington, Virginia: NSTA Press, National Science Teachers Association

Therrien, W. J., Taylor, J. C., Hosp, J. L., Kaldenberg, E. R., & Gorsh, J. (2011). Science instruction for students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 26, 188–203.

Supalo, C., Mallouk, T.E., Amorosi, C. Rankel, L., Wohlers,D.H., Roth, A., & Greenberg, A., (2007). Talking Tools to Assist Students Who are Blind in Laboratory Courses, Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities, 12(1), 27-32.

Supalo, C. (2012). The Next Generation Laboratory Interface for Students with Blindness or Low Vision in the Science Laboratory, Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities, 16 (1),34-39.

Swanson, A & Steere, N. (1981). Safety considerations for physically handicapped individuals in the chemistry laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education, 58(3), 234.

Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools. New York: Flamer Press.

Wild, T. & Koehler, K. (2017). Science education. In Holbrook, C., KameiHannan, C, & McCarthy, T. (Eds.) Foundations of education volume II (2nd ed.). New York: AFB Press.

Wild, T., Hilson, M. & Farrand, K. (2013). Conceptual understandings of geological concepts by students with visual impairments. Journal of Geoscience Education, 61, 222-230.

Wild, T., Hilson, M., Hobson, S. (2013). Conceptual understandings of sound by elementary students with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 107(2), 107-116.

Wild, T. & Trundle, K. (April, 2010a). Talking turkey: Teaching about America’s greatest conservation story with children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 104(4), 198-201.

Wild, T & Trundle, K. (February, 2010b). Conceptual understandings of seasonal change by middle school students with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 104(2), 107-118.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• HHS Author Manuscripts

The University Experiences of Students with Learning Disabilities

To explore the university experiences of students with learning disabilities (LD), 63,802 responses to the 2014 Student Experience in the Research University Survey were analyzed. Compared to other students, those with self-reported LD (5.96%) had difficulty with assignments and had more obstacles caused by non-academic responsibilities and imposed by their skill levels. Students with self-reported LD sensed more bias towards people with disabilities on campus, and they were less satisfied with their overall experience. Interactions between disability status and age suggested even more challenges for older students who self-reported LD. Approximately one-third of students who self-reported LD received accommodations. The rate of accommodations was higher among individuals who were wealthy, who lived alone, and who were out-of-state students. Compared to students who self-reported LD but reported no accommodations, those with accommodations had more contact with faculty and less difficulty with assignments.

The university experience is highly individual. Students vary in engagement with the intellectual and social campus milieu, academic success, degree outcome, and overall satisfaction. One potential source of variability in the university experience is the presence or absence of a specific learning disability (LD).

The term LD denotes “… a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span” ( National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 1990 , p. 3). Standards for identification of LD at the postsecondary level vary widely ( Sparks & Lovett, 2009 ), but most institutions require standardized test scores that reveal a significant discrepancy between ability and achievement, deficits in academic achievement relative to normative expectations, or underlying cognitive processing problems ( Weis, Sykes, & Unadkat, 2011 ).

LD is the most common type of disability reported by postsecondary students in the U.S. ( American Youth Policy Forum and Center on Education Policy, 2001 ). At the postsecondary level, 31% of all students with disabilities have LD ( Raue & Lewis, 2011 ). In recent decades in the United States, students with disabilities of all kinds have become increasingly represented on campuses nation-wide as federal legislation, including the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, its amendment in 1997, and its reauthorization in 2004, fostered greater inclusion and access to educational opportunities ( Shaw, 2006 ). In particular, students in postsecondary studies today should have benefited from the mandate for secondary-to-postsecondary transition services included in IDEA 2004.

Nevertheless, the transition from secondary to post-secondary levels involves particular challenges for students with LD. One challenge is the disconnect between the documentation process at the secondary level, which increasingly involves a response-to-intervention approach for LD identification, and the postsecondary level, which maintains reliance on standardized tests ( Madaus & Shaw, 2004 ). Another challenge is the need for self-disclosure. Whereas elementary and secondary schools are mandated to identify students with disabilities, postsecondary institutions are not. The burden is on the student to disclose and document the disability ( Shaw, 2006 ). A third, related factor is that LD is a hidden disability and, as such, the challenges faced by students with LD are often unnoticed or misunderstood ( Janiga & Costenbader, 2002 ; Wolf, 2001 ). It is not surprising, then, that postsecondary students with LD take longer to earn a degree ( Jorgensen, Fichten, Havel, Lamb, James, et al., 2007 ) and are more likely to leave postsecondary schooling without earning a degree ( Newman et al., 2011 ) than other students.

For students with disabilities, access to higher education is enabled by accommodation. Accommodation improves grades ( Trammell, 2003 ; Troiano, Liefeld, & Trachtenberg, 2010 ) and persistence to degree ( Mamiseishvili & Koch, 2010 ); however, only a minority of postsecondary students with LD disclose their disability to receive accommodations. For example, Newman et al. (2011) queried students who had been diagnosed with LD by secondary school staff about their disclosure rates once they entered postsecondary education. Only 24.2% disclosed their LD status to postsecondary staff; 68.9% did not disclose because they did not perceive themselves as having LD; 6.9% perceived themselves as having LD but chose not to disclose.

Cost, in both time and money, may be an obstacle to disclosure ( Lightner, Kipps-Vaughan, Schulte, & Trice, 2012 ), as the assessments required for documentation of LD at the postsecondary level are typically arranged and paid for by the student, not the institution ( Grossman, 2001 ). Indeed, the prevalence of LD is higher among more affluent postsecondary students, presumably because the assessment cost is a barrier to identification for the less affluent ( Vickers, 2010 ; Wolanin & Steele, 2004 ). Qualitative interviews of students with LD in a university setting revealed poor knowledge of available accommodations, negative self-perceptions, skepticism about the usefulness of accommodations, and the wish to maintain a “typical” identity as additional reasons for not disclosing ( Cole & Cawthon, 2015 ).

Postsecondary Enrollment

An exploration of the experiences of students with LD who pursue postsecondary education in university settings is timely. Although students with LD are now as likely as peers without disabilities to enroll in postsecondary studies, they are about twice as likely as their peers to enroll in community colleges or vocational schools, but about half as likely as their peers to enroll in 4-year colleges and universities ( Newman et al., 2011 ; Sanford et al., 2011 ). In 2009, among young adults who had been out of high school up to 8 years, 21.2% of those with LD and 40.2% of those without disabilities had enrolled in a 4-year college or university ( Newman et al., 2011 ).

Why are universities the less frequent educational setting for students with LD? University students with LD who were interviewed by Field, Sarver, and Shaw (2003) reported the large size and impersonal nature of the university to be challenging. They found university faculty to be inaccessible, and communication with faculty and staff to be confusing. They considered community colleges to be more nurturing and supportive. Indeed, as a group, university students with LD are more successful when they begin their postsecondary careers at community colleges. Johnson, Zascavage, and Gerber (2008) reviewed the records of 85 undergraduates with LD who had received accommodations at a four-year university. Fifty-eight percent began their postsecondary education at a two-year college and then transferred; 40% began at a four-year university. Half of those who began in a two-year college environment graduated with a bachelor’s degree, compared to only 26% of those who were university students from the start.

However, university students with LD attribute their educational outcomes not only to the university environment itself, but also to their strengths and weaknesses, and the familial and social supports available to them ( Field et al., 2003 ). They acknowledge that multiple factors determine whether they meet the challenges of a university education with success or failure. Following is a conceptual framework that captures these factors.

Models of student success in higher education posit multiple interacting factors that shape each student’s experience, outcomes, and decision to persist. Astin’s (1970) input-process-outcome model draws attention to the importance of both student and institutional factors in student success. The expanded theory of student involvement ( Astin 1975 ; 1993 ) argues that student achievement is directly tied to the quantity and quality of student engagement in the postsecondary context. Institutions play a significant role in facilitating opportunities that increase student involvement, as well as minimizing or mitigating the effects of factors that might inhibit it.

Tinto’s (1993) theory of student departure links student success to engagement of particular types. Students’ decisions to persist or depart from postsecondary studies are directly shaped by the extent of their social and academic integration -- that is, the degree to which they form connections both with a community of peers who share their attitudes and values, and with a community of faculty who engage them intellectually in issues they perceive as relevant.

Terenzini and Reason (2014) extend the social-psychological models of Astin ( 1970 ; 1975 ; 1993 ), Tinto (1993) , and others to posit a more comprehensive model of the influences on students’ educational and developmental outcomes. This model involves interactions between the student’s characteristics and experiences prior to postsecondary enrollment (e.g., demographic characteristics, academic preparation, and personal and social experiences), the postsecondary context itself (e.g., faculty culture, policies, academic and co-curricular programs), and the peer environment in which the individual student’s experiences in and out of the classroom are embedded. The recognition that successful outcomes depend not only on the student but also on the interaction between the student and the social and academic context of the postsecondary institution is compatible with conceptualizations of LD as a social construction rather than a deficit that resides specifically within the individual ( Reid & Valle, 2004 ).

The particular factors that influence student outcomes will vary within and between subgroups of the student population. For example, Mamiseishvili and Koch (2010) examined the persistence of postsecondary students with a range of disabilities. They found that both academic and social engagement were positively associated with persistence, but demographic variables (gender, race, age), and in-university experiences (attendance intensity, grade point average [GPA], degree aspirations, and cost of attendance) were the best predictors of persistence in this broadly-defined population.

In the current study, we aimed to document the prevalence of self-reported LD on university campuses in the United States and to discover whether disability status is associated with differences in the quality of the university experience. Additionally, we aimed to determine the proportion of students with LD who receive accommodations and to discover whether receipt of accommodations is associated with differences in the quality of the university experience. Given opportunities opened to students with LD since the passage of IDEA 2004, we predicted that prevalence would be high, but previous literature led us to predict that the rate of accommodation would be low. As one of the few large-scale studies of students with LD in universities, we did not make nuanced predictions about the influence of LD and accommodation on the quality of the university experience, but given the conceptual model, we anticipated that overall satisfaction would vary with demographic characteristics and in-university experiences.

The Data Set

Data comprised responses to the Student Experience in the Research University survey (SERU) (Center for Studies in Higher Education, no date) administered in 2014 to undergraduates at 11 four-year doctorate-granting public universities in the U.S. The 2014 SERU survey queried undergraduates about campus climate, time expenditures, obstacles and supports for learning, academic success, engagement in and out of the classroom, and overall satisfaction. In other words, it provided a broad view of the undergraduate university experience as reported by the undergraduates themselves. Some questions were deemed “core” in that they were administered to all campuses, and others were deemed “modules” because they were administered to a subset of campuses. With the recognition that the university experience is best understood in terms of interactions among student background, student characteristics, institutional factors, and environmental factors, each institution supplemented students’ SERU survey responses with a set of pre-university outcomes. These included high school GPA, ACT scores, the demographic variables of gender and race/ethnicity, and in-university characteristics such as the year enrolled and whether the student is an in-state resident. Data collected through the SERU survey can provide an overview of the broad range of student experiences at an institution, and can also be disaggregated to examine experiences of particular student populations within the institution such as first-generation students ( Stebleton, Soria, & Huesman, 2014 ), recent immigrants ( Stebleton, Soria, Huesman, & Torres, 2014 ), service-minded students ( Trolian, San Giovani, & Jacobson, in press ), and international students ( Van Horne, Jacobson, & Anson, 2014 ).

Participants

The universities who participated in the 2014 SERU survey were Indiana University, Purdue University, Rutgers University, Texas A&M University, the University of Iowa, the University of Michigan, the University of Minnesota, the University of Pittsburgh, the University of Southern California, the University of Virginia, and the University of Washington. All of these institutions have more than 20,000 students, and one exceeds 65,000 students. All have competitive rather than open admission processes. The participating schools are members of the Association of American Universities, the Association that distributes the SERU survey.

In 2014, these universities distributed the SERU survey electronically to all of their currently enrolled, degree-earning undergraduates, a total of 285,436 students. Of these, 63,802 students participated, yielding a response rate of 22%. The sample composition was 60.7% women and 39.3% men. Regarding ethnicity or race, 0.4% were American Indian; 3.7% were African American; 5.7% were Hispanic; 12.1% were Asian; 63.0% were White; 3.6% were multiracial; 6.5% were International, and 4.8% declined to state. Regarding age, 28.8% were in their teens; 68.3% were in their twenties; 2% were in their thirties, and 1% were 40 years or older.

Data Analysis Approach

The core survey contained nearly 200 questions that tapped students’ academic and nonacademic experiences on campus. Two questions on the survey were critical for our analysis: “Do you have any learning disabilities that affect how you read, study, or do your coursework?” and “Do you currently receive accommodations from campus due to your disability?” The answers to these questions allowed for two sets of analyses, the first comparing the experiences of students who identified themselves as having LD to the experiences of students who identified with no disability (ND), and the second comparing the experiences of students who identified themselves as having LD who did, and who did not, receive accommodations.

Although all 63,802 students had the opportunity to answer the core questions, students were randomly assigned to other specific modules. Five outcome variables consisted of a composite of core questions plus questions arising from randomly assigned specific modules. If not randomly assigned to a module, any student would be considered “missing” for that outcome. The missing data mechanism can be considered Missing Completely At Random (MCAR), meaning that each subsample should then be representative of the larger sample due to randomness ( Little & Rubin, 2002 ). Using only the “completers” subsample would overlook important data. For example, the financial obstacles construct was comprised of eight core questions and one question from the Academic Engagement & Global Experience module. We would be ignoring data from approximately 55,000 students by considering only the 8,400 in the module who had the opportunity to answer that specific module. Because data were assumed to be MCAR, a factor score computed as the average of the eight observed modules would be approximately equivalent to the computed factor score if all nine modules were observed and averaged.

As one of the few large-scale studies of students with LD in universities, our aims were exploratory. However, given that the large sample size allowed discovery of even subtle differences, a type one error rate at alpha less than 0.05 we deemed to be too lenient; therefore, we defined the type one error rate to be alpha less than 0.01. We also evaluated effect sizes and disregarded those that were not meaningful. All statistical analyses were performed using SAS v9.3 software.

LD-ND Comparison

We determined the percentage of students who self-identified as having LD, and then determined whether there were over- or under-represented subgroups defined by four demographic characteristics -- (1) gender, (2) race/ethnicity, (3) SES, and (4) age -- or by nine in-university characteristics -- (1) state residency status, (2) living arrangement, (3) matriculation, (4) level in school, (5) whether the student had declared a major, (6) whether the student anticipated degree completion in the current spring or summer, (7) the year the student first registered, (8) the number of course units the student had completed at the current institution, and (9) the number of course units the student had completed overall. A chi-square test was implemented to compare groups when the outcome variable was categorical; the two-sample independent t-test was implemented when the outcome variable was continuous. Equality of variances between groups was tested using the F-test for equal variances. If the variances differed significantly, a t-test with unequal variances was used with a Satterthwaite degrees of freedom adjustment. The null hypothesis was that there was no difference between LD and ND groups in the distribution of demographic or in-university characteristics.

Next we sought to determine the effect of LD on students’ university experiences as defined by 18 different constructs (see Table 1 ). We standardized the questions so that they were on the same scale in the same direction. We created each construct score by taking the average of the standardized question scores within the construct. Data from any person who answered at least half of the questions within a construct were used to create the score. To validate this scoring approach, we computed the first principal component of the questions believed to measure each of the constructs. The first principal component is the linear combination of the original questions that explains the maximum amount of variance in the original variables. If one of the questions was deemed not to measure the same construct (e.g., had a weight near zero), then it was removed from the principal component. The questions retained are available from the first author. After observing the weights, all variables contributed nearly equally to the first principal component; thus, we used a simple average of the standardized variables as our measure of the construct for further analyses. Because our measure is an average of scores, and the data are assumed to be MCAR, the assumption is reasonable. The numerical results of the principal components analysis are also available upon request.

To further validate the internal reliability of the measures, we computed Cronbach’s alpha. The factors ranged in internal reliability from a low of Cronbach’s alpha = .40 (academic time expenditures) to a high of Cronbach’s alpha = .95 (classroom technology), with 14 of the 17 constructs having values greater than 0.69. Note that Cronbach’s alpha is technically a lower bound of the reliability of the measure ( Sijtsma, 2009 ), and the value depends on the number of items being compared. It is being used here to showcase the degree to which the items in a construct correlate with each other, and as supporting evidence for the principal components analysis. The content of the survey limited the questions belonging to each construct, which led to some constructs having lower than desired reliability. Results from constructs with low reliability, although providing useful information, should be interpreted with caution.

We then applied a linear mixed model with LD status as a covariate and a random intercept for university to account for any within-university correlation. The 18 construct scores, expressed as standardized scores with a mean of zero and a standard deviation (SD) of one, served as outcome variables. We controlled for the 13 aforementioned demographic and in-university variables. Given the findings of Mamiseishvili and Koch (2010) , we also controlled for interactions between LD and demographic characteristics if they were significant at alpha = .05. As above, outcomes were deemed significant if alpha < .01. A p-value less than 0.01 coincides with a 99% confidence interval around β that does not include 0. We reported the standardized regression coefficient β (β is the change in SD units in the outcome associated with a one unit change in the predictor after controlling for all other predictors). We defined effects of less than .10 SD difference between groups as not meaningful; .20 - .49 as small; .50 - .79 as moderate; and .80+ as large ( Ferguson, 2009 ).

Accommodations-No Accommodations

We determined the percentage of students with LD who reported receiving accommodations. We then repeated the same analyses described above to determine whether the percentage differed between subgroups, and to discover the effect of accommodations on students’ university experiences.

LD – ND Comparisons

Prevalence of ld among university students.

Overall, 5.96% (3804/63,802) of respondents self-reported LD. Race/ethnicity was a significant point of variation, with percentages of self-reported LD noticeably lower for students identifying as Asian or International (although “international” is not a race or ethnicity, it is categorized as such on the SERU survey) and noticeably higher for students identifying as American Indian and for those who “declined to state” (see Table 2 ). SES was also a point of variation, with higher percentages of self-reported LD among the lowest and highest SES categories and values closer to the overall mean for the three middle SES categories. As a group, students who self-reported LD were significantly older than those who reported ND (see Table 3 ). The percentages of self-reported LD did not vary with gender.

Self-reported LD varied with the level in school; rates hovered around the overall rate at the Freshman and Sophomore levels and were higher at the Junior and Senior levels. Two related findings indicated that the percentage of students who identified as having LD was higher among those who had declared a major and among those who had been registered for five or more years. Disability status also varied with matriculation; notably, more than 10% of transfer students self-reported LD. Three related findings were that as a group, students who self-reported LD had completed more total units -- but no more units at the current institution -- than students who reported ND, and disability status did not vary with anticipated receipt of bachelor’s degree in the following spring or summer.

The rate of LD was higher among in-state than among out-of-state students. Students living with student roommates, or with their families of origin, reported the lowest rate of LD. All other living arrangements were associated with higher rates of LD. The highest rate, 14%, was among students who were single parents.

The effect of LD on university experiences

Next, we modeled the 18 constructs used to capture the effect of LD on the university experience (see Table 3 ). Eleven of these were significantly affected by disability status alone, or by an interaction between disability status and age; seven were not. Notably, the LD and ND groups did not differ on goals for their university experience or in perceived growth while at the university.

Students who self-reported LD perceived more bias against people with disabilities on their campus than those who reported ND. They also experienced more difficulty with assignments, more faculty contact outside of the classroom, more non-academic obstacles to university success, more skill-based obstacles to university success, and less satisfaction with the university experience than students who reported ND. Perceptions of bias and skill-based obstacles were the largest effects obtained (more than .33 SD), but all effects were small (less than .50 SD). It should be noted that “non-academic obstacles” was a construct with low internal validity and, as such, that finding should be considered tentative. Students with LD also engaged more often in the classroom, but this effect was too small to be meaningful.

There were four interactions between disability status and age ( Table 3 ). Among younger students, those who self-reported LD had lower GPAs than those who reported ND, but the opposite was true for the older population. In the ND group, with each year of age, GPA decreased by .0225 SD, but this decrease was closer to zero in the LD group. Regardless of disability status, older students reported greater financial obstacles than younger students (see Table 3 ), but this was particularly true of students who had LD. For that group, the rate of increased financial obstacles with age was steeper. Younger students in the LD and ND groups reported approximately equal academic time expenditures, and these were higher than those reported by older students. The rate of decrease in academic time expenditures with age was steeper for students who reported ND than for students with LD. At younger ages, students with LD spent more time on non-academic pursuits than students who reported ND. However, for older students, the trend reversed so that students with LD spent less time on non-academic pursuits than students who reported ND. Another way to view this is that, overall, the older the student, the lower the non-academic time expenditures, but this relationship was stronger among older students who self-reported LD.

Accommodation – No Accommodation Comparisons

Nearly 33% of students who self-reported LD received accommodations (1251/3804 = 32.9%). Accommodations varied with one demographic characteristic, SES (see Table 4 ). Whereas roughly 30% of low-income, working-class, and middle-class students received accommodations, that rate rose to 36% of upper-middle-class students, and to a full 50% of wealthy students. Two in-university characteristics resulted in significant differences in the rate of accommodation as well. First, the percentage of students with and without accommodations was distributed differently according to living arrangement. Students who lived as single parents reported the lowest rate of accommodations, whereas students who lived alone reported the highest. Second, out-of-state students who self-reported LD received accommodations at a higher rate than in-state students.

The final part of our analysis was to determine if the university experience varied with accommodations (see Table 5 ). It did, in two ways. Students with LD who received accommodations reported less difficulty with assignments and more contact with faculty outside of the classroom than students with LD who did not have accommodations. Both effects were small. No other aspects of the university experience varied with accommodations. Most notably, accommodations were not associated with higher GPAs or higher levels of satisfaction.

That students with accommodations had less difficulty with assignments seemed at odds with the fact that GPA did not vary with accommodation status. Perhaps students with more severe LDs are the ones who seek accommodations, and those accommodations work to pull them up to the level of their peers with milder LDs. As a means of exploring this posthoc hypothesis, we ran an independent sample t-test to compare the ACT achievement scores given in the university applications of these two groups. (Some students took the SAT, but universities did not report these scores consistently, so we analyzed ACT scores only). The mean ACT score for students with accommodations was 25.88 (n=618) and the score for those without was 26.44 (n=1150), p = 0.0075, d = .13. Therefore, students with accommodations entered university with lower levels of achievement as indexed by the ACT.

This analysis of a survey of 63,802 students at 11 four-year doctorate-granting universities throughout the U.S. revealed self-reported LD to be a highly prevalent condition that is associated with a different and less satisfying university experience. Only a minority of students with LD had accommodations, but those who did reported more contact with faculty and less difficulty with assignments.

Nearly 6% of the undergraduates surveyed identified themselves as having LD. In survey data collected in 2003-2004, 9.3% of undergraduates at public 4-year doctorate-granting universities self-reported a disability of any type; of those, 7.4% self-reported LD ( Horn & Nevill, 2006 ). Thus, only .68% (.093 × .074 = .004) of all undergraduates at these universities self-reported LD. The prevalence of disabilities at postsecondary institutions has been on a steady increase since the introduction of the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) ; nevertheless, it would be rash to conclude that the prevalence of LD has increased nearly 9-fold in just 12 years. The survey analyzed by Horn and Nevill (2006) queried nine different subtypes of disabilities (visual, hearing, speech, orthopedic, LD, ADHD, mental illness/depression, health impairments/problems, and other), whereas the SERU survey presented only a binary division (LD or physical disability). It is possible that the binary distinction forced students to consider a broader conception of LD on the SERU survey. One null finding that speaks to this possibility is the lack of gender effect in the present study. Typically, men present with LD at higher rates than women ( Horn & Nevill, 2006 ; Flannery, Liederman, Daly, & Schultz, 2000 ; Katusic, Colligan, Barbaresi, Schaid, & Jacobsen, 2001 ). A broader conception of LD may have minimized this gender difference.

It is particularly likely that, given a binary choice, students with ADHD endorsed the LD category. When it comes to the legal right to accommodation, ADHD is treated as a learning disability at postsecondary institutions ( Griggins, 2005 ; Wilson, Getzel, & Brown, 2000 ). If the LD and ADHD categories are combined, the prevalence estimate in Horn and Nevill (2006) rises to 2.1%, and the rate of 6% reported here would represent a tripling over 12 years.

SES was another point of variation. The poorest and the wealthiest students had the highest rates of LD; students in working and middle classes had rates closer to the overall mean. The high rate among low-income university students is consistent with data on the prevalence of LD during childhood. Among U.S. children under 18 years, the odds of having LD are 2.66 times higher for those in the lowest income bracket (below 100% federal poverty line) than for those in the highest income bracket (400% or more of the federal poverty line) ( Larson & Halfon, 2010 ). What must be explained is the high rate among the wealthiest university students. In that subgroup, more than 10% of students self-identified as having LD. Drawing from data collected by the U.S. Department of Education, Wolanin and Steele (2004) noted that, among students with LD who are enrolled in postsecondary institutions (of any kind) and who are still dependent on their family for support, 36% hail from the highest income quartile. They related this phenomenon to the fact that the financial burden of hiring professionals to document LD falls on the student and family, and not on the postsecondary institution. Wolanin and Steele (2004) also explored a second explanation; that high-income students are manipulating the system to gain an academic advantage over others. Given that credible evidence is lacking, they attributed this explanation to urban legend.

Students who self-reported LD were older, on average, than those who reported ND. This point of variation likely relates to some differences in prevalence associated with in-university characteristics. Specifically, students who had declared a major, who were juniors or seniors, who were transfer students, and who had been registered for postsecondary studies for five or more years were over-represented in the LD population. Additionally, students who self-reported LD had completed more academic units than those who reported ND. All of these differences are consistent with the long and circuitous matriculation that characterizes many students with LD ( Jorgensen et al., 2007 ). On average, undergraduates who report some type of disability are four years older ( Horn and Nevill, 2006 ), and they take twice as long to complete their degree than those who reported no disability ( Wolanin, 2005 ). Therefore, older age upon first enrollment and a longer matriculation characterize postsecondary students with disabilities in general.

Prevalence also varied with living arrangements. Single parents were over-represented in the LD population, whereas students living with student roommates, or with their families of origin, were under-represented. This finding might be related to the fact that students with LD tend to be older; therefore, they have more adult-like living arrangements than traditional undergraduates living with their parents or dorm roommates. The percentage of students who identified as having LD was higher among students attending a university within their home state than among students from out-of-state. Students with LD may prefer to remain close to their family support system and, again, this may be true for postsecondary students with disabilities in general. In Horn and Nevill (2006) , undergraduates who reported some type of disability were more likely than undergraduates without disabilities to attend a postsecondary institution in-state and to live closer to their parents’ homes (see U.S. Department of Education, 2014 ). In a recent study, 79% of university students with reading disabilities reported parents to be critical in helping them reach their goals during their undergraduate careers ( Stack-Cutler, Parrila, Jokisaari, & Nurmi, 2015 ).

The Experience of Students with LD

Students who self-reported LD indicated that they had more difficulties with assignments than their peers who reported ND. Moreover, their non-academic responsibilities and their skills posed obstacles to learning. The latter seems self-explanatory; by definition, students with LD may have skill limitations that impede learning. Non-academic responsibilities may relate to the over-representation of students living as single parents or living with a significant other. Family responsibilities would demand their attention. These obstacles should be considered in light of the finding that students with LD reported more contact with professors outside of the classroom than students who reported ND. Increased contact may be a strategy employed by students with LD to compensate for obstacles to learning and success ( Getzel & Thoma, 2008 ).

Students with LD also reported heightened perceptions of bias against people with disabilities on campus. The questions that comprise the bias construct involved how respected, valued, and included the student felt at his or her university as well as whether the student had heard negative or stereotypical viewpoints (about disabilities of any kind) expressed by students, staff, or faculty. Although the effect was small, this difference between students with LD and their ND peers should not be underestimated. May and Stone (2010) found that 53% of university students with LD and 38% of university students with ND believe that people stereotype individuals with LD as being less intelligent than other people. Moreover, Smart (2008) reported that students with LD and other hidden disabilities are more often suspected of malingering than students with visible disabilities. Some postsecondary students with LD feel misunderstood, devalued, marginalized, or even discriminated against (Kurth & Mellard, 2002) and those who feel this way often choose not to seek accommodations for fear that they will be seen as taking advantage of the system, or for fear that their request will be met with a lack of empathy ( Denhart, 2008 ).

Finally, there was a small but significant difference between LD and ND groups in overall satisfaction with the university experience. Students with LD were less satisfied with the social experience, the academic experience, the monetary value of the experience, the general campus climate, or some combination of these. Notice that these aspects of overall satisfaction are not independent of the differences reported above. Academic obstacles, non-academic obstacles, and perceptions of bias likely inform answers to this particular SERU survey question. Smaller-scale but more in-depth interviews with university students have identified factors related to the institution itself (e.g., a campus that is too big), the curriculum (e.g., foreign language requirements), the faculty (e.g., lack of empathy), and the social context (e.g., loneliness) as impediments to satisfaction and success ( Greenbaum, Graham, & Scales, 1995 ). Other investigators have identified a factor not tapped by the SERU survey that might lessen satisfaction; namely, as a group, university students with LD have a lower sense of well-being than students with ND, a difference mediated by rates of anxiety and depression (Davis, Nida, Zlomke, & Nebel-Schwalm, 2008).

Interactions between disability status and age suggest that older students with LD faced additional challenges. Although we did not predict this specific outcome, previous qualitative studies foreshadowed it. A 31-year-old woman with LD noted that the community college she attended was geared towards young students entering directly from high school. She also stated that it was painful to be working towards an undergraduate degree nearly 15 years after high school graduation ( Bradshaw, 2001 ). A woman with LD in her late 20s shared that she continues to live with her parents, she holds two jobs in addition to attending college, and she does not participate in non-academic activities such as socializing with friends ( Dodge, 2012 ). These are individual cases, but they are consistent with several findings in the current study: older students who self-reported LD faced more financial obstacles and had less time for non-academic pursuits, whether compared to younger students with LD or to older students who reported ND. They earned similar GPAs as older adults who reported ND, but they expended more time on academics to do so.

Accommodations

Only 33% of students who identified as having LD reported current use of accommodations. This rate is similar to that reported by Newman et al. (2011) and Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, and Levine (2005 ). The survey did not ask the students why they did or did not seek accommodation, but patterns in the data point to the affordability of accommodations as influential. First, fewer than 33% of low-income, working-class, and middle-class students had accommodations, but 50% of all wealthy students did. Second, the rate of accommodations was higher among out-of-state than in-state students, and this too could reflect affluence as out-of-state tuition is typically two-to-five times greater than in-state tuition ( Cohen, 2011 ). Finally, consider that the rate of accommodation varied with living arrangement such that students who lived alone reported the highest rate of accommodation, whereas students who lived as single parents reported the lowest. Because the documentation process is time-consuming and expensive ( Lightner et al., 2012 ), students with dependents might be less able to pursue accommodations than students without these responsibilities.

It is also possible that the decision to seek accommodations was influenced by the severity of the LD and by the academic obstacles imposed by the LD. In the current study, students with accommodations earned lower ACT scores than students without accommodations. Likewise, in Trammell (2003) , the verbal SAT scores of students who self-reported LD correlated with the number of accommodations they received. Moreover, postsecondary students’ most common reason for seeking accommodations is that they had begun to earn low grades ( Newman et al., 2011 ). Those with lower achievement levels were more likely to recognize the need for accommodations and to follow through with the process of obtaining them ( Cole & Cawthon, 2015 ).

In the current study, there were no negative outcomes associated with receipt of accommodations. There were two indications that accommodations were associated with positive outcomes. Students with LD who had accommodations reported more contact with faculty outside of class than students with LD who did not have accommodations. This is, in part, a logical necessity. To receive accommodations, students must meet with each course instructor at the beginning of the semester to communicate the nature of the accommodation, and they often meet again periodically to arrange varied test schedules and locations or to receive course notes and outlines. However, it may also be that students motivated enough to seek accommodations are also motivated to make the extra effort to attend office hours and to take other steps towards building a relationship with the faculty. The extent to which faculty are approachable and empathetic is seen as a key determinant of success among postsecondary students with LD ( Orr & Hammig, 2009 ). Higher levels of informal contact with faculty can increase social integration at the university (Tinto, 1975, 1993 ), and this increased degree of social integration, in turn, is associated with higher persistence to university degree ( DaDeppo, 2009 ).

Limitations and Future Directions

The primary limitation of a survey of this size is that detail is sacrificed for scope. It would be interesting, for example, to ask more nuanced questions about the type of learning disabilities the students report, so that a more precise estimate of prevalence may be obtained. Another limitation of this particular sample is that it is U.S.-centric. Because universities and supports for students with disabilities will vary internationally, the extent to which our findings generalize to other countries is debatable. Moreover, the U.S. institutions represented were major doctoral-granting research universities. Major research universities are characterized by a strong commitment to research that permeates not only research activities but teaching at both graduate and undergraduate levels ( Group of Eight, 2013 ). It may be that the experiences of students with LD at universities that place less emphasis on research will differ. A final limitation concerns the response rate of 22%. Low response rates are not unusual. The Personal and Social Responsibility Inventory (PSRI) is a 22-institution, campus-wide survey querying student experience and perceptions of campus climate. The response rate for a recent PSRI was 14.8% ( Barnhardt, Antonaros, Holsapple, Ott, & Dey, 2010 ). In their analysis of response rates by mode of administration, Sax, Gilmartin, and Bryant (2003) found college and university freshmen to respond at a rate of 19.8% to internet surveys that lacked any response incentive. Despite being fairly typical, validity would be enhanced had a higher response rate been obtained.

Our findings present ideas for future work. Future explorations of the obstacles to receipt of accommodations are important, as the majority of students presently opt out or are denied. Additionally, studies that compare student success and satisfaction before and after receipt of accommodations in the same individuals would more accurately reveal the effect of accommodations. Finally, some attention should be paid to older students who have LD. In our sample, there were only 234 students with LD who were 30 years or older. The low numbers will make quantitative studies of this population difficult, but the frequent interactions between disability status and age in the current study point to the importance of exploring the experiences of these students in detail. Qualitative studies may be a good beginning.

Conclusions and Implications

LD is prevalent on university campuses in the U.S., yet this study confirms that universities are challenging settings for students with LD. To place the findings within the conceptual models that framed the study, one particular pre-university characteristic, having LD, influenced the university experience. One demographic characteristic, age, and one within-university characteristic, receipt of accommodations, were also influential. As a group, students with LD sensed bias and obstacles to success, and they were less satisfied with their university experience than other students. That said, they did not differ in the goals they held for the university years, nor in the growth they perceived over those years.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Mark Harris for his support in our efforts to understand LD at the university level and Addison Stone, Teniell Trolian, Katherine Gordon and Boglarka Takacs for useful comments on a previous draft. Drs. McGregor and Oleson acknowledge the support of NIH-NIDCD 5R01DC011742 awarded to Dr. McGregor. Researchers interested in accessing the data presented here should contact Dr. Jacobson to discuss a data-sharing agreement. Those who want a list of the questions that defined each construct, the numerical results of the principal components analysis, or the visual representations of the interaction effects should contact Dr. McGregor.

About the Authors. Karla K. McGregor earned a Ph.D. from Purdue University. She is a professor in the Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders at The University of Iowa where she conducts research on language learning disabilities. Natalie Langenfeld earned a M.S degree from Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. She is currently pursuing a Ph.D. from the University of Iowa where she teaches Introduction to Biostatistics and conducts research on Bayesian hierarchical models of correlated data including spatio-temporal models for infectious disease processes. Sam Van Horne received his Ph.D. from the Department of Teaching and Learning in the College of Education at the University of Iowa where he now holds a joint appointment in the Office of Assessment and in the Office of Teaching, Learning and Technology. His research interests include students’ abilities to regulate their learning in educational technology applications as well as the factors associated with college student success. Jacob Oleson earned his Ph.D. from the University of Missouri at Columbia. He is an associate professor of biostatistics in the College of Public Health at the University of Iowa and the Director of the Center for Public Health Statistics. He conducts both biostatistical methodologic research and collaborative clinical research. His current research activities are focused on Bayesian hierarchical models of correlated data including spatio-temporal models for infectious disease processes and longitudinal data arising from studies in communication sciences and disorders. Wayne Jacobson holds a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin - Madison. He serves as Assessment Director in the Office of the Provost and holds an adjunct faculty appointment in Educational Policy and Leadership Studies at the University of Iowa.

The authors have no financial disclosures.

• Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. §12101 et seq. 1990. [ Google Scholar ]
• American Youth Policy Forum and Center on Education Policy . Twenty-five Years of Educating Children with Disabilities: The Good News and the Work Ahead. Washington, DC: 2001. [ Google Scholar ]
• Astin A. College influence: A comprehensive view. Contemporary Psychology. 1970; 15 (9):543–546. [ Google Scholar ]
• Astin A. Preventing students from dropping out. Jossey-Bass; San Francisco, CA: 1975. [ Google Scholar ]
• Astin A. What matters in college? Four critical years revisited. Jossey-Bass; San Francisco: 1993. [ Google Scholar ]
• Barnhardt C, Antonaros M, Holsapple MA, Ott MC, Dey EL. The PSRI Technical Guide. Association of American Colleges and Universities; Washington, DC: 2010. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bradshaw YM. Case studies of postsecondary college students with learning disabilities. 2001 (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu .
• Center for Studies in Higher Education . SERU Student Experience in the Research University; no date. http://www.cshe.berkeley.edu/SERU . [ Google Scholar ]
• Cohen S. The out-of-state admissions edge. The Daily Beast. 2011 http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2011/08/18/college-admissions-which-state-schools-give-an-edge-to-out-of-state-students.html .
• Cole EV, Cawthon SW. Self-disclosure decisions of university students with learning disabilities. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability. 2015; 28 (2):163–179. [ Google Scholar ]
• DaDeppo LM. Integration factors related to the academic success and intent to persist of college students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. 2009; 24 (3):122–131. [ Google Scholar ]
• Davis K. Intersectionality as Buzzword: A Sociology of Science Perspective on What Makes a Feminist Theory Successful. Feminist Theory. 2008; 9 :67–85. [ Google Scholar ]
• Davis TE, III, Nida RE, Zlomke KR, Nebel-Schwalm MS. Health-related quality of life in college undergraduates with learning disabilities: The mediational roles of anxiety and sadness. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 2009; 31 (3):228–234. [ Google Scholar ]
• Denhart H. Deconstructing barriers: perceptions of students labeled with learning disabilities in higher education. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2008; 41 (6):483–497. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dodge KM. Examining the lived experience of students with reading comprehension learning disabilities and the perceived value of the accommodations received. 2012 (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://utdr.utoledo.edu/theses-dissertations .
• Ferguson CJ. An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 2009; 40 (5):532. [ Google Scholar ]
• Field S, Sarver MD, Shaw SF. Self-determination. [A key to success in postsecondary education for students with learning disabilities.] Remedial and Special Education. 2003; 24 :339–349. doi: 10.1177/07419325030240060501. [ Google Scholar ]
• Flannery KA, Liederman J, Daly L, Schultz J. Male prevalence for reading disability is found in a large sample of black and white children free from ascertainment bias. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 2000; 6 (4):433–442. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Getzel EE, Thoma CA. Experiences of college students with disabilities and the importance of self-determination in higher education settings. Career development for exceptional individuals. 2008; 31 (2):77–84. [ Google Scholar ]
• Greenbaum B, Graham S, Scales W. Adults with learning disabilities: Educational and social experiences during college. Exceptional Children. 1995; 61 (5):460–471. [ Google Scholar ]
• Griggins C. Dosing dilemmas: are you rich and white or poor and black? The American Journal of Bioethics. 2005; 5 (3):55–57. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grossman PD. Making accommodations: the legal world of students with disabilities. Academe. 2001; 87 (6):41–46. [ Google Scholar ]
• Group of Eight Hefei statement on the ten characteristics of contemporary research universities. 2013 Downloaded from https://go8-dev.launchpad.agileware.com.au/article/hefei-statement-10-characteristics-contemporary-research-universities .
• Horn L, Nevill S. Profile of undergraduates in U.S, postsecondary education institutions: 2003-04: With a special analysis of community college students. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics; Washington, DC: 2006. NCES 2006-184. [ Google Scholar ]
• Janiga SJ, Costenbader V. The transition from high school to postsecondary education for students with learning disabilities: A survey of college service coordinators. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2002; 35 (5):463–470. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Johnson G, Zascavage V, Gerber S. Junior college experience and students with learning disabilities: Implications for success at the four year university. College Student Journal. 2008; 42 :1162–1168. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jorgensen S, Fichten CS, Havel A, Lamb D, James C, Barile M. Academic performance of college students with and without disabilities: An archival study. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy. 2007; 39 (2) Retrieved from http://cjc-rcc.ucalgary.ca/cjc/index.php/rcc/article/view/272 . [ Google Scholar ]
• Katusic SK, Colligan RC, Barbaresi WJ, Schaid DJ, Jacobsen SJ. Incidence of reading disability in a population-based birth cohort, 1976-1982, Rochester, Minn. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2001; 76 :1081–1092. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kurth N, Mellard D. Student perceptions of the accommodation process in postsecondary education. The Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability. 2006; 19 (1):71–84. [ Google Scholar ]
• Larson K, Halfon N. Family income gradients in the health and health care access of US children. Maternal and Child Health Journal. 2010; 14 (3):332–342. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lightner KL, Kipps-Vaughan D, Schulte T, Trice AD. Reasons university students with a learning disability wait to seek disability services. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability. 2012; 25 (2):159–177. [ Google Scholar ]
• Little RJA, Rubin DB. Statistical Analysis with Missing Data. second edition John Wiley & Sons; Hoboken, NJ: 2002. [ Google Scholar ]
• Madaus JW. Employment outcomes of university graduates with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly. 2006; 29 :19–31. doi: 10.2307/30035529. [ Google Scholar ]
• Madaus JW, Shaw SF. Section 504 Differences in the Regulations for Secondary and Postsecondary Education. Intervention in School and Clinic. 2004; 40 (2):81–87. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mamiseishvili K, Koch LC. First-to-second-year persistence of students with disabilities in postsecondary institutions in the United States. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin. 2010; 54 (2):93–105. [ Google Scholar ]
• May AL, Stone CA. Stereotypes of individuals with learning disabilities: Views of college students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of learning disabilities. 2010; 43 :483–499. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities Learning Disabilities: Issues on Definition. 1990 Retrieved from http://www.ldonline.org/about/partners/njcld/archives .
• Newman L, Wagner M, Knokey A-M, Marder C, Nagle K, Shaver D, Schwarting M. The post-high school outcomes of young adults with disabilities up to 8 years after high school. 2011 [A report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2)]. NCSER 2011-3005. Retrieved from http://www.nlts2.org/reports .
• Orr AC, Hammig SB. Inclusive postsecondary strategies for teaching students with learning disabilities: A review of the literature. Learning Disability Quarterly. 2009; 32 (3):181–196. [ Google Scholar ]
• Raue K, Lewis L, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics . Students with Disabilities at Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions. U.S. Government Printing Office; Washington, DC: 2011. NCES 2011-018. [ Google Scholar ]
• Reid DK, Valle JW. The discursive practice of learning disability: Implications for instruction and parent-school relations. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2004; 37 (6):466–481. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sanford C, Newman L, Wagner M, Cameto R, Knokey AM, Shaver D. The Post-High School Outcomes of Young Adults with Disabilities up to 6 Years after High School: Key Findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) National Center for Special Education Research; 2011. NCSER 2011-3004. [ Google Scholar ]
• SAS 9.3 [Computer software]. Copyright © 2002-2010. SAS Institute Inc.; Cary, NC: [ Google Scholar ]
• Sax LJ, Gilmartin SK, Bryant AN. Assessing response rates and nonresponse bias in web and paper surveys. Research in Higher Education. 2003; 44 (4):409–432. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shaw S. Legal and policy perspectives on transition assessment and documentation. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals. 2006; 29 (2):108–113. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sijtsma K. On the use, the misuse, and the very limited usefulness of Cronbach’s alpha. Psychometrika. 2009; 74 :107–120. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Smart JF. Disability, society, and the individual. 2nd ed. Pro Ed.; Austin, TX: 2008. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sparks RL, Lovett BJ. College students with learning disability diagnoses. [Who are they and how do they perform?] Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2009; 42 :494–510. doi: 10.1177/0022219409338746. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stack-Cutler HL, Parrila RK, Jokisaari M, Nurmi JE. How university students with reading difficulties are supported in achieving their goals. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2015; 48 (3):323–34. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stebleton M, Soria K, Huesman R. First-generation students’ sense of belonging, mental health, and use of counseling services at public research universities. Journal of College Counseling. 2014; 17 (1):6–20. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stebleton M, Soria K, Huesman R, Torres V. Recent immigrant students at research universities: The relationship between campus climate and sense of belonging. Journal of College Student Development. 2014; 55 (2):196–202. [ Google Scholar ]
• Terenzini PT, Reason RD. Rethinking between-college effects on student learning: A new model to guide assessment and quality assurance. In: Yamada R, editor. Measuring Quality of Undergraduate Education in Japan. Springer; Singapore: 2014. pp. 59–73. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tinto V. Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition. 2nd ed. University of Chicago Press; Chicago, IL: 1993. [ Google Scholar ]
• Trammell JK. The impact of academic accommodations on final grades in a postsecondarysetting. Journal of College Reading and Learning. 2003; 34 (1):76–89. [ Google Scholar ]
• Troiano PF, Liefeld JA, Trachtenberg JV. Academic support and college success for postsecondary students with learning disabilities. Journal of College Reading and Learning. 2010; 40 :35–44. doi: 10.1080/10790195.2010.10850329. [ Google Scholar ]
• Trolian T, San Giovani S, Jacobson W. Belonging and Satisfaction of Service-Minded Students at Research Universities. In: Soria K, Mitchell T, editors. Revisiting the Civic Mission of the American Public Research University. Palgrave Macmillan; New York: in press. [ Google Scholar ]
• U.S. Department of Education . Profile of Undergraduate Students: 2011-12. 2014. Web Tables. NCES 2015-167. [ Google Scholar ]
• Van Horne S, Jacobson W, Anson M. International Students and Engagement in the Research University; Annual Conference of the Professional and Organizational Development Network in Higher Education (POD); Dallas, TX. 2014, November. [ Google Scholar ]
• Vickers MZ. Accommodating college students with learning disabilities: ADD, ADHD, and dyslexia. John W. Pope Center for Higher Education Policy; Raleigh, NC: 2010. Retrieved from http://www.popecenter.org/acrobat/vickers-mar2010.pdf . [ Google Scholar ]
• Wagner M, Newman L, Cameto R, Garza N, Levine P. After high school: A first look at the postschool experiences of youth with disabilities. A report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) Online Submission. 2005 [ Google Scholar ]
• Weis R, Sykes L, Unadkat D. Qualitative differences in learning disabilities across postsecondary institutions. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2011; 45 :491–502. doi: 10.1177/0022219411400747. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wilson K, Getzel E, Brown T. Enhancing the postsecondary campus climate for students with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation. 2000; 14 (1):37–50. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wolanin TR. Students with disabilities: Financial aid policy issues. Journal of Student Financial Aid. 2005; 35 (1):2. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wolanin TR, Steele PE. Higher education opportunities for students with disabilities: A primer for policymakers. The Institute for Higher Education Policy; Washington, DC: 2004. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wolf LE. College students with ADHD and other hidden disabilities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2001; 931 (1):385–395. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

• Our Mission

The Benefits of Reflection for Students With Disabilities

By reflecting on their past work, students with disabilities can see how far they’ve come and their potential for future success.

Reflection is one of the most important and powerful skills for anyone to engage with, and it’s important for educators to introduce this concept to all students. Far too often, students with disabilities are not afforded the opportunity to learn about reflection and how it can help them succeed in school.

Reflection encourages students to evaluate and understand their mistakes while supporting a growth mindset to develop either solutions or action plans to improve their skills in order to master a topic or standard.

First Steps

The first thing an educator must do to ensure that students have a valuable reflective experience is to share the goal or goals for learning tasks. Students should understand the why behind a specific learning task and how it relates to the overarching unit goal and objectives.

Once students have completed the task, they mainly worry about submission of the assignment but miss the important part: honing and reflecting on their learning. Completing the task alone, depending on whether or not it was differentiated, can be difficult for students with disabilities (SWD), who are often our most vulnerable students. Encouraging time for reflection can be particularly helpful after these students have completed a challenging task.

3 Reflective Activities to Try for SWD

These particular activities will work for any student, but I’ve found them to be especially effective for SWD.

1. Snowball reflection activity. The snowball reflection is a fun way to get students engaged and thinking about their work or progress without the anxiety of whole-class sharing. The activity involves students receiving a blank sheet of paper and reflecting on the questions presented by the teacher in terms of their progress or solution to a particular problem the class is tackling.

Students put their name in the right-hand corner of the paper. Then, they draw two lines to divide the paper into four equal parts and number the sections 1, 2, 3, 4.

The students will have the opportunity to answer four questions, providing an answer in each of the sections of the divided paper. You might start by asking them what’s the most interesting thing they learned in the last unit. The most powerful snowball reflection questions are open-ended, allowing the student to think and be free from restriction in a response.

Once the students write a response (these do not have to be in complete sentences), the students crumple their sheet of paper. Then, at the teacher’s direction, they throw these crumpled sheets toward some central location. It’s helpful to provide a target like multiple baskets and clear expectations to avoid any conflict.

Next, the students retrieve a piece of crumpled paper, read the first response, answer a second question in space 2, and recrumple the paper. This process continues two more times. The next question might ask students to explain what made it so interesting. For the third question, you could ask how they think this new knowledge will help them in the future, and the final question could be what do they want to learn next.

The snowball activity is a great way to have written discourse without the fear of being singled out. To support SWD, make sure to provide sentence starters on posters around the room:

• “I disagree with you somewhat/completely.”
• “I agree with you because…”
• “In other words, you think…”
• “Based on my experience, I think…”
• “You/we might consider…”
• “I have a different point of view, which is…”

2. Reflection partners. Students can pair up with a student of their choice to help answer reflection questions on how they feel their progress has been with a certain activity or with a particular goal they have set for themselves. The following are sample questions to provide students during their work with a partner or afterward:

• What do you think you could have done better?
• What are your thoughts on your partner’s point of view in the project?

The conversation can be structured with scaffolded questions and sentence stems to provide support. Often, students with disabilities struggle to put into words their thoughts about a particular project or ask the right questions to reflect on their progress. Sentence stems and scaffolded questions help guide these students to navigate their thoughts in a clear, focused, and concise manner, allowing their voices to be heard and their reflective thoughts to occur.

3. Reflection game. To help our learners engage in reflection, we can also try to make it fun. Reflection is sometimes hard because it can do the opposite of what it’s intended to do. It can create a negative mindset in a child based on their interpretation of their progress and what it may mean. This tends to be a particular issue for SWD.

At times, they may struggle to see any positives in the areas where they need to improve and feel like they have failed themselves or others. Helping them to reframe these areas as future strengths is extremely important. To help with this, create a reflection game. Hand students a pair of dice, one with reflection questions and another with positive phrases to help answer them. Have students roll the dice for several rounds, answering questions and thinking of solutions.

A second option can be to place reflection questions in a Kahoot game. Group students into teams so that they can reflect on their work but focus on collaboration in developing positive solutions.

Reflection can take on many different formats. It can be done in quiet sessions or loud gatherings involving discourse and games. The more students practice reflecting, the more likely they are to develop a sense of pride, grit, determination, and growth. For SWD this can be quite a task, but it’s not impossible. With the right support, all students can blossom under consistent, personal, and collaborative reflective practices.

A newer edition of this book is available.

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

30 Nursing patients with learning disability

• Published: August 2009
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

Principles of care

Definition of learning disability.

A learning disability is a lifelong condition where the person has a reduced ability to understand new and complex information or to learn new skills, and has a reduced ability to cope independently. This has a lasting effect on the individual’s development.

People with learning disability

Nursing care, communication, difficulties in communication.

These arise when professionals fail to provide appropriate levels of explanation, communicate exclusively with the carer and ignore the patient, fail to work with carers who know the patient well, or misunderstand nonverbal communication and behaviours.

People with learning disability often use behaviours to communicate. They may have difficulty expressing pain and discomfort, or appear threatening or over-friendly because of limited communication skills. Examples may include shouting, crying, changing posture, silence, and gesticulation. They may have an acute awareness of other people’s non-verbal communication.

Improving communication

Consent to treatment, signed in as, institutional accounts.

• GoogleCrawler [DO NOT DELETE]
• Google Scholar Indexing

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code

Institutional access

• Sign in with a library card Sign in with username/password Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Sign in through your institution

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Sign in with a library card

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.