how to write an ib history paper 2 essay

How to Write a History Essay in IB

For a history essay, researching what we were studying was the most engaging method for understanding the material.  I did well in history because I genuinely enjoyed the subject. Pay attention in class, look up videos on your own time, and explore different perspectives – hopefully you’ll enjoy the subject enough to have fun working on it too. This extra research while also be the foundation of your essay. 

A strong thesis will provide an effective introduction to your history essay, so it is important to understand what you want to say with your essay and to spend some time refining the statement. I would suggest focusing on three major points in your thesis that you intend on developing in your essay. 

As for the conclusion, this is where I would reframe your thesis as well as some of the main arguments and counterarguments you brought up in the body of the essay.

Now onto some broader essay tips. Don’t merely list the facts of an event, say why they matter and what they add to your argument. Adding counter arguments and debunking them is also key to building a strong argument. In addition, making essay outlines is probably my second best tip. They helped me structure my thoughts in order to deliver well-constructed arguments. Discussing the events in class and with friends also helped with recalling the information. 

My best tip is to use historiography. Knowing the views and stances of different historians not only helped my understanding but is one of the criteria for a highly marked essay. Also, I find that knowing historiography helps greatly with structuring the essay, because you are able to interpret, interconnect and articulate events and evidence. 

History is a fun course, and although it does consist of a lot of writing, with the right approach and attitude, I’m sure you can excel!

You may also like…

• Joanne’s thoughts on how to approach a History EE
• Tyus’s tips on how to get an A on your History EE
• Find IB information about History here

Share this:

Leave a reply cancel reply, discover more from iblieve.

Subscribe now to keep reading and get access to the full archive.

Type your email…

Continue reading

Introduction

Step 1: learn the syllabus, step 2: study the past paper questions, step 3: read, write, and think, step 4: get more examples & ideas, step 5: know your time during the exam, historiography, what to aim for, how to write faster by hand, how much to write.

All historical arguments contained or referred to in this article are solely for exam preparation and do not necessarily reflect the view of the author.

This article includes:

• Steps for IB DP History paper 2 revision;
• Some extra tips (they can’t really fit into the steps);
• Study resources;
• My brief essay outlines,

which worked together to help me reach a 7 on paper 2 in my M21 history SL final exam.

This article works best for:

• Final exam prep;
• Short-term revision;
• Developing exam skills, not necessarily historical skills;
• SL students who need to know just enough for paper 2, not any more content for paper 3.

This article uses topic 10 authoritarian states (20th century) as an example.

In my blog article “ Short-Term Revision ”, I mentioned some of my experience preparing for the DP History final exam. I’ll try not to repeat too much of that here.

TL;DR is at the end of this article.

Learn the syllabus by heart.

For example, this is the IB syllabus for topic 10 authoritarian states:

Completing this revision step means that you can recall exactly what’s in the table. By that, I mean every single word in the table . Do make sure you read the description paragraph above, too, but you don’t need to learn it by heart.

Once you do this, every time when you come across a fact, a historical event, or a historiography, you can immediately identify the sub-topic you can use it for in an essay. Then, you can easily think about your arguments and try to structure your essays every time you revise factual information.

Look at the past paper questions to see what have already been asked, and when. The IB questions don’t tend to repeat a lot, especially not in successive exam sessions. This means you can guess the questions that are likely to come up on your exam paper, althugh officially, the IB discourages doing this.

Here are all the past paper questions summarized in one document, both organized by year and by syllabus theme:

You can download the document as an annotated PDF here , or access it here as a google doc without annotations.

This document doesn’t include the M21 questions, because I made it for my own revision before M21. The M21 TZ2 questions for topic 10 roughly stated:

Evaluate the impact of foreign policy on the maintenance of power in two authoritarian states. “Full control was not always achieved in authoritarian states.” Discuss with reference to two authoritarian states.

According to this thread on Reddit , treatment of opposition instead of foreign policy came up for TZ1.

What I found was that:

• Almost every sub-topic appeared fewer than twice in past papers.
• There’s usually a gap of around 2 exam sessions (e.g from M18 to N19) between the questions under the same sub-topic.
• The past paper questions (not counting the specimen papers here) never repeat exactly . They can be similar, but always with a slightly different emphasis.
• Usually, only 2 of the sub-topics (emergence, maintenance, and policy) appear in one exam session , except for once in N19 where question 2 was on both maintenance and policy.
• The appearance of sub-topics is quite balanced.
• It’s very rare that a question asks for only one authoritarian state— only happened twice . (Highlighted in yellow.)
• A few questions have appeared only once or never.

So I made guesses based on the findings and other information, and altered my revision plans:

I chose to ignore emergence and turned to focus on the other two sub-topics. My thinking process is outlined in a section of my blog article “Short-Term Revision”.

The things in pink are what I thought, when I was revising, that would be likely to come up. They were either questions that had never come up before under the current syllabus, or those that had only come up once. Most of them also fitted in the “2 exam session gap” time frame. Those were my priorities.

Apart from these, I was convinced that preparing for compare and contrast, or at least formulating arguments for two states , would be necessary.

Take concise, structured notes for every topic that you revise, especially those that are likely to come up based on what have been asked before. But only take notes if you know you can use them to support your arguments, or you’ll just waste time.

You can follow a textbook to save your time researching, which I found to be extremely helpful. I have talked about some history textbooks in this blog post: My Experience & Tips for IB Textbooks: History SL .

As you take notes, also write down thoughtful arguments . If you’re like me who wants to be safe, you can do that for every single possible essay question. Knowing the syllabus by heart helps a lot here, because that helps you formulate your own IB style questions quickly.

Try to come up with counter-arguments and then counter those counter-arguments to strengthen your original arguments. Add the “debates” into your essay, even if those are just your thoughts going back and forth.

I find it helpful to write out complete sentences when I work on my arguments. That helps me to clear up my own ideas and saves me time structuring my sentences during a tight essay exam. Then, I recommend that you condense the arguments so that you can remember them. I also prefer typing over writing on paper because I can write much faster by typing, and I can organize digital files better than physical ones.

As an example, I wrote a 3-line outline for every essay question I could think of. Each line (out of the 3 lines) summarizes a paragraph in my essay. Of course, this is after thinking about or writing out more detailed notes for my arguments and supporting evidence. This is a preview:

You can download the complete PDF document here . Unfortunately, I don’t have any detailed notes because I lost a lot of data on my laptop during a system update.

There’re a lot of my own short-hand notations in the document. So if you do use this to revise and find something confusing, don’t hesitate to ask me in the comments or via email (see the end of my “About” page). I’ll try my best to recall what I meant.

To emphasis, I repeat: all historical arguments contained or referred to in this article are solely for exam preparation and do not necessarily reflect my view.

This step can be done together with step 3. Sometimes you might run out of ideas or get confused about what kind of arguments the IB likes. Reading more essays can help. Especially, the good ones can give you some inspiration, as well as some excellent arguments to agree with or argue against in your own essay.

Some places to get example essays:

• Textbook appendices
• P2 Example 18 , scored 13/15
• P2 Example 19 , scored 13/15
• Your school teacher
• Your own paper 2 practices over the 2 years
• Your classmates' essays

I recommend that you get a physical copy of each example essay along with examiner’s comments (if any), so that you can read and annotate it carefully.

If you can’t find existing essays, write them yourself ! Write full essays, paragraphs, introduction, even just a short thesis, and kindly ask your teacher for feedback. Try out new writing approaches because you might find better ways to write. You don’t have to time yourself while writing these. At this point, getting feedback is the most important because it helps you improve and further develop your skills and arguments!

To get ideas for essays, you can also look at the indicative content in IB markschemes . The indicative content tends to be more detailed for papers testing the old syllabus (before first assessment 2017) but the new markschemes can also give you some hint.

Get used to the exam environment by practicing timed paper 2 exams. But it’s fine if you do it at the very end of your revision, because knowing what to write can help you write faster than doing anything else, including doing timed paper 2 exams.

However, it’s still important to plan your time prior to the exam and closely follow the plan. In this way, during the exam, you can stay calm so you don’t rush or forget about your arguments.

As an example, this is my plan, with all time and durations in minutes:

At the very beginning of my exam, I quickly calculated the exact time when I would need to finish each task. For example, if the reading time started at 8:33, I would calculate that I would need to finish my mental outline at 8:38, my written outline at 8:43, my intro at 8:48, etc. I wrote down the minute digits on a scratch paper so that during the exam, I could quickly check if my progress matched my plan.

It is possible to get to 12/15 with only a name-dropping of a historian and his/her argument. True personal story. I did that on my final exam.

Take a look at the example paper 2 essays in the Teacher Support Material , too, especially examples 18 and 19. (I’ve mentioned them above.) No historiography, no quoting of historians, but, bang—they both got 13/15 for the topic 10 question.

As long as there are decent original arguments in an essay, the lack of historians' views is fine , unless you’re aiming for 14 or 15 marks. This really alleviated a lot of stress for me.

You don’t need to have a 7 in every single component to get an overall 7 .

This is how I did my calculation before I took my M21 exams.

I used the IB M19 boundaries for SL TZ2, which was the most recent May exam-route session with available grade boundaries:

Using the modified marks and weightings in M21, I calculated that the number of marks needed to get a 7 for paper 2 was 12/15.

So I calculated that if I got:

• Paper 1: 17/24,
• Paper 2: 12/15,

then my total scaled score (out of 100) would be $\frac{20}{25} \times 25 + \frac{17}{24} \times 30 + \frac{12}{15} \times 45 \approx 77.3 %$, which is higher than 74, the boundary for getting an overall 7.

This is true for N20 and M18, too, and should be true for most exam sessions.

Let’s continue to use M19 as our example. The boundary for an overall 7 is slightly lower, so one can afford to lose one or more points. The following combination of marks can all give an overall 7.

Try calculating the overall result for different combinations and choose to work towards the one that seems the most realistic for you. Once you know what marks you need in each component, you have a more specific and a more accomplishable goal.

Notice that because paper 2 is weighted the more heavily (45%), getting a reasonably high mark on paper 2 is more important than on paper 1 or IA .

You don’t have to write prettily, or even clearly—as long as it’s legible in the context. This is my hand-writing at full speed:

Both my teacher and the examiner grading my final exam papers managed to recognize my writing.

Pick a pen in which the ink can flow smoothly and which you don’t need to press hard on the paper to write with.

If your pen has a cap, leave it off the end of the pen. It takes you more effort to move the pen when the cap is attached to the end, especially when you write a lot. I learned this from this YouTube video .

4 sides (on A4 size paper) should be enough. I even wrote only 3 sides several times and that was fine. Quality over quantity.

When we had timed, in-class summative assessments, I almost never managed to finish my essays.

And, although I usually wrote only a few sides, although I couldn’t really finish the essays, I could still get 10-12 marks out of 15. So, absolutely no worries if you can’t finish your essays or you only write 3 sides.

Feel free to ask me any questions in the comments or via email (see the end of my “About” page). I might share a few of my own history essay practices in the future but that’s not guaranteed 😅

• Learn by heart exactly what’s covered in the paper 2 topic you’re studying.
• Look for patterns in the past paper questions and prioritize the ones that you think are likely to come up.
• As you take notes for the possible essay questions, develop strong arguments that can stand counter-arguments.
• Read exemplar/example essays and indicative content in IB markschemes. Write your own essays/paragraphs and ask your teacher for feedback if you can’t find others' essays.
• Plan how much time you’ll use for each paragraph beforehand, so you don’t panic during an exam.
• You don’t need historiography to get to 12/15 (or you only need to name-drop one or two historians if that counts).
• You don’t need all 7s in all component to get an overall 7. Calculate how many marks you need to get the overall grade that you want to narrow down your goal.
• To write faster, use a smooth, light-weight pen. It’s alright to have messy (but legible) hand-writing.
• It’s fine if you write 3-4 sides on A4 size paper or you can’t finish your essays.

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, the best ib history notes and study guide for sl/hl.

International Baccalaureate (IB)

If you want to do well on the IB History exam, you'll need to have a solid set of notes to study from. This can be difficult though if you're missing notes or feel like some of your own notes don't cover certain topics in enough depth. Luckily, we're here to help! We've assembled the best FREE online IB History notes into this complete study guide.

feature image source: Mount Rushmore Monument America /Pixabay

What's the Format of the IB History Exam?

There are five prescribed subjects for IB History SL and HL:

• Military leaders
• Conquest and its impact
• The move to global war
• Rights and protest
• Conflict and intervention

Your teacher will choose one that you'll cover, and you'll be tested on this for paper 1 (one hour in length).

There is also a list of twelve world history topics. For paper 2 (1.5 hours), you'll cover two of these:

• Society and economy (750-1400)
• Causes and effects of wars (750-1500)
• Dynasties and rulers (750-1500)
• Societies in transition (1400-1700)
• Early Modern states (1450-1789)
• Causes and effects of Early Modern wars (1500-1750)
• Origins, development and impact of industrialization (1750-2005)
• Independence movements (1800-2000)
• Emergence and development of democratic states (1848-2000)
• Authoritarian states (20 th century)
• Causes and effects of 20 th -century wars
• The Cold War: superpower tensions and rivalries (20 th century)

If you're taking IB History HL, you'll also have a final paper (Paper 3) that is 2.5 hours and will cover one of the four Depth Studies:

• History of Africa and the Middle East
• History of the Americas
• History of Asia and Oceania
• History of Europe

If you're interested in taking a look at the entire IBO IB History Guide , you can find it as a .pdf here.

How to Use This IB History Study Guide

If you're hoping for help on one subject, use Command + F to search this guide for specific IB History notes about that subject. As an example, if you want to read about the Cold War, use Command + F to cue the search function. Then type "Cold War," and it'll bring up all of the study materials for the Cold War.

The resource is separated into:

• Quick reference: one-page summary of material if you just need a quick refresher.
• Longer notes: notes (generally 3-10 pages) if you need more of an in-depth explanation.
• Flashcards: online quizzes of key terms.

Common Study Mistakes for IB History SL/HL

Two common mistakes are:

• Trying to ignore the topics you didn't comprehend from your teacher's lesson. If you didn't understand it in class, you need to find additional assistance through this IB History study guide or tutoring. You're still going to be tested over this material whether you understood it in class or not!
• Only trying to learn the material a week or two before the IB papers. There is too much history to learn—one or two weeks will not be enough time to learn it (that's why IB History SL/HL is spread over a year or two). The best solution is keeping up in class and studying the material throughout the year.

Current IB History Guides

Because IB History was recently updated, there aren't that many current notes and study guides, but we've found the best available. These guides follow the syllabus of the current version of IB History. If you are studying the same topics these notes cover, they are a great resource to use because they hit all or most of the main topics you need to know to be well prepared for the IB History exam. There are guides that cover multiple topics as well as guides that cover a single topic.

Multi-Topic Guides and Overviews

IB History Duck covers similar topics. This guide focuses primarily on authoritarian leaders such as Hitler, Mao, and Stalin, as well as the Cold War, histories of China, the USSR, and Imperial Japan.

The Student Room has a plethora of resources for you. Just keep in mind that notes for the 2017 syllabus are mixed in with information from earlier exams , so make sure you're accessing and studying the correct material.

Single Topic Guides

These are notes on single topics that you'll cover on the IB syllabus.

Prescribed Topics: Military Leaders

• Military leaders overview
• Ghenghis Khan (c1200-1227) unit
• Richard I of England (1173-1199) unit

Prescribed Topics: Conquest and Its Impacts

• General overview of ideas you should know
• The final stages of Muslim rule in Spain 
• The conquest of Mexico and Peru (1519-1551)

  Prescribed Topics: Move to Global War

• Move to global war Prezi notes
• Move to global war longer notes
• Japanese expansion in East Asia (1931-1941)  
• German expansion (1933-1940) unit
• Italian expansion (1933-1940)

Prescribed Topics: Rights and Protest

• Rights and protest US Civil Rights overview
• Rights and protest Apartheid South Africa overview
• Rights and protest complete unit

Prescribed Topics: Conflict and Intervention

• Conflict and Intervention general overview
• Conflict and Intervention workbook
• Conflict and Intervention Rwanda flash cards

World History Topics: Society and Economy

• Standard level economics brief
• Higher level economics brief

World History Topics: Causes and Effects of Wars (750-1500)

• Causes and effects of Medieval wars unit

World History Topics: Dynasties and Rulers (750-1500)

Dynasties and rulers (750-1500) unit, world history topics: societies in transition.

• Societies in transition Prezi

World History Topics: Early Modern States (1450-1789)

• Ferdinand/Isabella
• Charles I/Phillip II
• Henry VII (1485-1509)
• Henry VIII (1509-1529)
• Henry VIII (1529-1547)
• Edward VI (1547-1553)
• Mary I (1553-1558)
• Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

World History Topics: Causes and Effects of Modern Wars (1500-1750)

• Causes and effects of modern wars unit

World History Topics: Origins, Development and Impact of Industrialization (1750-2005)

• Origins, development, and impact of industrialization notes

World History Topics: Independence Movements   

• Independence movements longer notes
• Independence movements flashcards
• Independence movements  

World History Topics: Emergence and Development of Democratic States

• Evolution and development of democratic states overview

World History Topics: Authoritarian States (20th Century)

• Authoritarian states longer notes
• Authoritarian states (20th century)

World History Topics: Causes and Effects of 20th Century Wars

• Causes and effects of 20th Century wars general overview
• Causes and effects of 20th Century wars unit

World History Topics: The Cold War — Superpower Tensions and Rivalries (20th Century)

• Origins of the Cold War unit outline
• Origins of the Cold War event overview
• Origins of the Cold War longer notes

HL Depth Studies: History of Africa and the Middle East

• Africa and the Middle East unit

HL Depth Studies: History of the Americas

• History of the Americas longer notes
• History of the Americas unit

HL Depth Studies: History of Asia and Oceania

• History of China and Oceania longer notes
• History of China and Oceania unit

HL Depth Studies: History of Europe

• History of Europe longer notes
• History of Europe unit

Past IB History Guides

These notes are based on the older (pre-2017) version of IB History. They won't fit the syllabus you're currently following in class, but since the two versions cover many similar concepts, they can still be useful for learning more about a specific topic. Just be sure not to use them as your main study resource because they may not focus on the exact same areas you're expected to know.

Peacemaking, Peacekeeping - International Relations 1918-36

• 1.1 Aims of the participants and peacemakers: Wilson and the fourteen points
• 1.2 Terms of the Paris Peace Treaties 1919-20: Versailles, St Germain, Trianon, Neuilly, Sevre
• 1.3 The geopolitical and economic impact of the treaties on Europe and the mandate system
• 1.4 Enforcement of the provisions of the treaties: US isolationism, the retreat from the Anglo-American Guarantee, Disarmament-Washington, London and Geneva Conferences
• 1.5 The League of Nations: effects of the absence of major powers, the principles of collective responsibility, and early attempts at peacekeeping (1920-25)
• 1.6 The Ruhr Crisis (1923), Locarno and the Locarno Spring
• 1.7 Depression and threats to international peace and collective security, Manchuria (1931 to 1933) and Abyssinia (1935 to 1936)
• The Peace Treaties after World War One
• The League of Nations in the 1920s
• The Wall St. Crash / Depression
• The League of Nations in the 1930s

Communism in Crisis 1976–89

• 2.1 The struggle for power following the death of Mao Zedong, Hua Guofeng, the reemergence of Deng Xiaoping and the defeat of the Gang of Four
• 2.2 China under Deng Xiaoping, economic policies and the Four Modernizations
• 2.3 China Under Deng Xiaoping, Political Changes And Their Limits, Culminating In The Demonstrations In Tiananmen Square
• 2.4 Domestic and foreign problems of the Brezhnev era, economic and political stagnation, Afghanistan
• The Cold War c.1945-55
• The Cold War c.1955-91
• The Korean War c.1950-53

Causes, Practices and Effects of Wars

• World War One
• Causes of WW1
• Course / Effects WW1
• The Peace Treaties
• German Involvement in Spanish Civil War
• Causes of the Chinese Civil War
• Causes of WW2

The Cold War

Democratic states—challenges and responses.

• Weimar Germany

Origins and Development of Authoritarian and Single-Party States

• Tsarist / Revolutionary Russia
• Stalin's USSR
• Additional Stalin's USSR materials
• Hitler's Germany

• Cold War Origins 

Aspects of the History of the Americas

• United States Civil War: Causes, Course and Effects 1840-1877
• Emergence of the Americas in Global Affairs 1880-1929
• Political Developments in the Americas after the Second World War 1945-79
• The Cold War and the Americas
• Civil Rights and Social Movements in America

Aspects of the History of Europe and the Middle East

#1: The French Revolution and Napoleon

• Longer notes

#2: Unification and Consolidation of Germany and Italy

#3: The Ottoman Empire

#4: Western and Northern Europe 1848-1914

#5: Imperial Russia, Revolutions, Emergence of Soviet State 1853-1924

• Longer notes: Tsarist and Revolutionary Russia to 1924
• Longer notes: Alexander II
• Longer notes: Alexander III
• Longer notes: Nicholas II

#6: European Diplomacy and the First World War 1870-1923

• Longer notes: Causes of WW1 , Course / Effects WW1 , the Peace Treaties

#7: War and Change in the Middle East 1914-49

• Longer notes: The Peace Treaties after World War One
• Longer notes: The League of Nations in the 1920s
• Longer notes: The Wall St. Crash / Depression
• Longer notes: The League of Nations in the 1930s
• Khrushchev and Brezhnev
• Causes for the Collapse of Communism in Europe

#10: The Second World War and Post-War Western Europe 1939-2000

#11: Post-War Developments in the Middle East 1945-2000

• Longer notes: European Option

What's Next?

Looking for more practice material for IB History? Then you'll definitely want to delve into our complete collection of free and official past IB history papers .

Interested in brushing up on some of your historical knowledge? Read about the Platt Amendment , checks and balances in the US government (as well as how the executive branch checks the judicial branch ), and lighthouse keeper Ida Lewis .

Alternatively, boost your esoteric knowledge by learning about the history of the three-hole punch and the real story of David Ghantt and the Loomis Fargo heist .

Finally, you can get practice materials for other IB classes on our blog:

• Every IB Biology Past Paper Available: Free and Official
• Every IB Business and Management Past Paper Available: FREE and Official
• Where to Find IB Chemistry Past Papers - Free and Official
• Every IB Economics Past Paper Available: Free and Official
• Every IB English Past Paper: Free and Official
• The Complete IB Extended Essay Guide: Examples, Topics, and Ideas
• Every IB Geography Past Paper Available: Free and Official
• Every IB Math Past Paper: Free and Official
• Where to Find IB Physics Past Papers - Free and Official

Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

As an SAT/ACT tutor, Dora has guided many students to test prep success. She loves watching students succeed and is committed to helping you get there. Dora received a full-tuition merit based scholarship to University of Southern California. She graduated magna cum laude and scored in the 99th percentile on the ACT. She is also passionate about acting, writing, and photography.

Student and Parent Forum

Our new student and parent forum, at ExpertHub.PrepScholar.com , allow you to interact with your peers and the PrepScholar staff. See how other students and parents are navigating high school, college, and the college admissions process. Ask questions; get answers.

Ask a Question Below

Have any questions about this article or other topics? Ask below and we'll reply!

Improve With Our Famous Guides

• For All Students

The 5 Strategies You Must Be Using to Improve 160+ SAT Points

How to Get a Perfect 1600, by a Perfect Scorer

Series: How to Get 800 on Each SAT Section:

Score 800 on SAT Math

Score 800 on SAT Reading

Score 800 on SAT Writing

Series: How to Get to 600 on Each SAT Section:

Score 600 on SAT Math

Score 600 on SAT Reading

Score 600 on SAT Writing

Free Complete Official SAT Practice Tests

What SAT Target Score Should You Be Aiming For?

15 Strategies to Improve Your SAT Essay

The 5 Strategies You Must Be Using to Improve 4+ ACT Points

How to Get a Perfect 36 ACT, by a Perfect Scorer

Series: How to Get 36 on Each ACT Section:

36 on ACT English

36 on ACT Math

36 on ACT Reading

36 on ACT Science

Series: How to Get to 24 on Each ACT Section:

24 on ACT English

24 on ACT Math

24 on ACT Reading

24 on ACT Science

What ACT target score should you be aiming for?

ACT Vocabulary You Must Know

ACT Writing: 15 Tips to Raise Your Essay Score

How to Get Into Harvard and the Ivy League

How to Get a Perfect 4.0 GPA

How to Write an Amazing College Essay

What Exactly Are Colleges Looking For?

Is the ACT easier than the SAT? A Comprehensive Guide

Should you retake your SAT or ACT?

When should you take the SAT or ACT?

Stay Informed

Get the latest articles and test prep tips!

Looking for Graduate School Test Prep?

Check out our top-rated graduate blogs here:

GRE Online Prep Blog

GMAT Online Prep Blog

TOEFL Online Prep Blog

Holly R. "I am absolutely overjoyed and cannot thank you enough for helping me!”

• Remember me Not recommended on shared computers

Forgot your password?

Or sign in with one of these services

How to organize Paper 2 essay?

By xxAnkaxx June 8, 2012 in History

• Reply to this topic
• Start new topic

Recommended Posts

I would appreciate it if someone can give me a general plan of how to write a really good paper 2.

I need guides for my papers, for example in English I know I have to write a 5-paragraph essay, otherwise my paper is going to be really chaotic...

Thanks for your help!

Kind regards

Link to post

Share on other sites.

• Popular Post

As far as I know the rules for History have not changed substantially, so I'm assuming you still have those 5 sections and having to answer two questions from two different sections in 1.5 hours total.

When I prepped for Paper 2, I looked at past exam papers at length and figured out which questions ALWAYS come. What I found was there is always a question on the World Wars in Section 1, every year the subject of the question alternated i.e. causes, consequences or nature of the World Wars. So I studied the causes and consequences of the WWs at length and did just enough for Nature of Warfare. In 2010, it just so happened that the question was about Nature, but I knew enough to bullsh!t my way through.

The other question that always turned up was in the Cold War section, there was ALWAYS a question on the Origins/Causes of the Cold War. So I prepped for that question extensively as well. This question turned up just as I expected it to.

In terms of the actual exam, you have 45 minutes to write each essay, which is very little time. I suggest writing both essay outlines before you start writing the examination in as little time as possible. I wrote my Outlines in 6 minutes flat for both essays and then started writing, giving me roughly 42 minutes to write each essay.

The actual body of the essay should be something like this:

Introduction : Not more than two sentences from which the second sentence should be a succinct description of your thesis.

Body Paragraph : First sentence should be a descriptor of what exactly you want to prove in that particular body paragraph. You then say Historian X believed Nationalism was a Cause for WW1 and WW2. This essay finds that Nationalism was more of a Cause of WW2 in Germany and WW1 in France because of this... Therefore Historian X is right in this regard, but wrong in that regard. Your last sentence is a concluding sentence that connects the topic back to the thesis of your essay and explains briefly the purpose of including this analysis in your essay.

You should generally have 3-4 body paragraphs, however, when I say body paragraphs, I mean important points as subtheses. You can very much divide each subthesis into one, two, or more body paragraphs as you discuss them, something I often did, which resulted in my History essays having 6-9 body paragraphs in general.

An important technique to keep in mind when writing about historic events and assuring that you've analysed them sufficiently is ID/MHS = Identification AND Major Historical Signifiance. Every time you mention an important happening in an essay i.e. say the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Six Day War '67, The U2 Incident '62. You should always identify the event in one line and explain what happened and then spend alteast one to two sentences outlining its major historical significance in the context of your essay and thesis. This ensures effective analysis.

Conclusion: I'm sure you know how to write an effective conclusion. Briefly summarise your points throughout your essay, not more than 3-4 short sentences. It is important that you restate your thesis, then show through brief discussion of the body paragraphs that you have proven it in some manner.

That should ensure an effective structure and provided you put in sufficient content and analysis, a formidable essay.

Thanks, that helped a lot!

Hope the exams next year won't be too bad...

• 1 year later...

Join the conversation

You can post now and register later. If you have an account, sign in now to post with your account.

×   Pasted as rich text.    Paste as plain text instead

  Only 75 emoji are allowed.

×   Your link has been automatically embedded.    Display as a link instead

×   Your previous content has been restored.    Clear editor

×   You cannot paste images directly. Upload or insert images from URL.

• Insert image from URL
• Submit Reply
• Existing user? Sign In
• Latest Activity
• Notes & Files
• Leaderboard
• Create New...

IB English Paper 2 Explained

Free introductory guide to IB English Paper 2 by IB45 and IB7 graduates.

This guide will explain IB English Paper 2 and what you need to ace the exam come May or November, when the IB Gods throw you this (seemingly) insurmountable task.

If you don't know all about Paper 1 already, do check out LitLearn's amazing guide  for IB English Paper 1. Paper 1 is all about on-the-spot thinking and  adrenaline-pumping analysis . What about Paper 2?

Well, IB English Paper 2 is  all of those things , plus extensive preparation . But don't fret! I survived Paper 2, and so have many others before you. All you need is a couple sprinkles of guidance from a seasoned Paper 2 veteran (ahem).

Meet your instructor Jackson Huang, Founder of LitLearn. His mission is to make IB English as pain-free as possible with fun, practical lessons. Jackson scored an IB45 and was accepted to Harvard, Amherst, Williams Colleges, and full scholarships to University of Melbourne & Queensland.

What is IB English Paper 2?

You're in the exam room. You stare at the page and wipe the sweat from your forehead and try to focus on the words on the page:

"We are all prisoners of ourselves.” Discuss how the sense of imprisonment shapes the meaning and the effect on the audience of at least two texts you have studied."

A Paper 2 exam consists of four of these prompts. From these options, you choose one prompt and write a 1000 to 1300-word essay on it.

How long do you get? 1 hour 45 minutes for both Standard Level (SL) and Higher Level (HL) students.

In these 1000 to 1300 words, your task is to write a comparative essay , which — you guessed it — means comparing similarities and contrasting differences between the texts you've studied in class for Paper 2 (i.e., poems, novels, plays or short stories) .

Now that you understand what a Paper 2 essay involves, let's jump into how to properly answer one of these IB English Paper 2 prompts.

How to answer a Paper 2 Question

Let's stick with the above example about the theme of “imprisonment”.

First, see that philosophical quote at the start of the prompt? It's there to spark ideas, to get the juices flowing in your brain. You don't have to refer to it directly unless the questions explicitly asks you to do so. So the take-away message here is to not be ‘imprisoned' by the philosophical quotes at the start of the prompts.

Second, notice the command term “discuss”. This is usually replaced by words like “evaluate”, “analyse”, “examine”. Don't worry about it too much : it doesn't mean anything too important, because at the end of the day you still have to analyse, you still have to compare, and you still have to contrast.

The key of the prompt

The part after the command term is the most important part of the prompt:

"[…] how the sense of imprisonment shapes the meaning and the effect on the audience […]"

Here the “sense of imprisonment” — the key of the prompt — tells us exactly what we need to write about in the essay.

Can you find the key in this next prompt?

"Compare and contrast the effectiveness of the use of irony in two or more texts you have studied."

Notice the command term “compare and contrast” and the important part after it. The key of this prompt is “ the use of irony “.

Get comfy with morphing stuff

More often than not, our texts do not contain anything explicitly related to the prompt's key, say, the theme of “imprisonment”.

Pay attention to this next paragraph…

The secret to scoring a 7 in IB English Paper 2 is to get very comfortable with bending, morphing and twisting your texts and/or the prompt so that they are as compatible with each other as possible.

There are two ways that this can be achieved:

1. Morphing existing ideas in your own texts to fit the prompt

While Jane Sherwood's (some random character) nostalgia in your Incredible Text 1 may not directly relate to “imprisonment”, you could twist the character's nostalgia into the idea that emotions can trap or “imprison” an individual in a treasured memory or a past experience.

Nostalgia and imprisonment seem like unlikely brothers at first, but with a bit of justification they look almost like identical twins.

2. Redefining the prompt (reasonably)

The key of the prompt can often be vague . For example, there was a real IB exam prompt that asked whether “male characters were more interesting than female characters.” What does “interesting” even mean?

The IB Gods are inviting you to constrain the topic in a way that works for your texts specifically. You could write in the first sentence of your introduction:

"Interest, an important part of dramatic works, is often generated by emotional conflict and the subsequent creation of tension." "

Here I have restricted the broad topic of “interesting” to the more clearly-defined topic of “emotional conflict” because this redefinition works well for the texts I've studied for IB English Paper 2. You should do the same.

In reality, you have to morph both your texts and the prompt in order to reach a snug fit between the two. Getting to this point, which all happens during the planning stage, is the most difficult part of the Paper 2 process because it requires you to know your texts so well that you can apply the ideas in your texts to different situations.

How many texts to compare and contrast?

Before we continue with this introductory guide, we need to address the age-old question of how many texts should we compare and contrast in an IB English Paper 2 comparative essay?

In the old syllabus, you had the choice to compare and contrast up to three texts.

Luckily, in the new syllabus (First assessment 2021), you don't have to make a choice: the IB requires you to compare and contrast just two texts . One less decision for you to make!

However, you are still recommended to prepare three texts, so that you have 3 possible combinations of texts to answer your prompts (Texts 1 & 2, Texts 1 & 3 and Texts 2 & 3).

Now that we agree on how many texts to compare and contrast, let's see how we can make the texts work together.

Choosing the best points across your two texts

There's an easy way, and there's a hard way.

If you want a score of 5 or below , you can simply think of two points to answer the prompt for Text 1 and two other points to answer the prompt for Text 2. Then, slap them together into different paragraphs, regurgitate some shallow comparison and contrast, and call it a comparative essay. That doesn't sound very sophisticated, does it?

On the other hand, if you want a score of 6 or 7 , you'll need to use a lot more brainpower and insight. The points that you choose for your two texts are very important, in terms of how the points relate to each other and to the prompt. The points need to have enough overlaps that similarities can be analysed, but not too much similarity because you also want to contrast differences.

What ends up happening is you enter an algorithm — a set of steps, sort of like a recipe — where you repeatedly attempt to find good points for the prompt, gradually morphing them while re-defining the prompt itself, until you reach a good plan for your Paper 2 essay.

What does a good plan generally look like?

• Your re-defined prompt has not strayed far, or at all, from the original prompt.
• The points for Text 1 fit well with the prompt.
• The points for Text 2 fit well with the prompt as well as the points your chose for Text 1.

The million dollar question is: How do we get to this optimum stage where the prompts and the texts and married so harmoniously ? The answer is brainstorming.

In these Pro lessons from our study guide, we go into detail about the exact strategies for brainstorming for Paper 2 under exam conditions, choosing the right Paper 2 essay structure, and writing a strong Paper 2 thesis.

Pro members only

How to best prepare for Paper 2

We've talked a lot about the skills and questions necessary to tackle an IB English Paper 2 prompt, but all of that happens during the exam itself. What can we do before Paper 2 to put ourselves in the best position?

• (Really) understanding your text
• Choosing great quotes for your Paper 2 (covered in a later lesson )
• Practice past Paper 2 exams

Let's go through Steps 1 and 3.

Understanding your text

IB English Paper 2 tests skills that require a deep understanding . First, to compare and contrast effectively, you need to know your texts well enough that you can find similarities and differences in the micro-details and in the macro themes, in the characters and in the techniques. Second, in order to adapt the ideas in your text to the prompt , you need to know how far you can stretch those ideas while maintaining their validity.

Without a deep understanding, you're dead in the water.

In our Paper 2 Preparation guide, we tell you exactly how to prepare your Paper 2 knowledge and notes, down to the specific questions you should be able to answer. The preparation is organized into Level 1 to Level 4 to give you a structured study roadmap for Paper 2. That way you don't get overwhelmed.

No sign up or credit card required.

Practising Past Paper 2s

The most challenging part of Paper 2 is bringing together three aspects:

• The quotes you've memorised
• Your analysis skills
• Your ability to adapt the quotes and ideas to a new prompt that you've never, ever encountered before

Grabbing that 7 in IB English Paper 2 requires that you are solid on all three fronts . You cannot just practice each of these aspects individually. Practising to plan and write Paper 2 responses ensures that you practise this core trifecta of skills together, all at once.

Practising past Paper 2s was the core of my IB English Paper 2 preparation schedule. It helped me to memorise quotes, learn which quotes are better than others, and learn certain pairs of themes, characters and techniques that work well in my texts for comparison and contrast.

By practising Paper 2s extensively, you increase your awareness of what works (and what doesn't) for your texts. Hence, the main thing you have to worry about on the day of your exam is the prompt itself--the only variable that you cannot control.

In the Paper 2 study guide, we have an exemplar IB English Paper 2 essay from a past exam: See the exemplar essay .

Question​bank

Paper 1 Practice Exams

Past Paper 1 Solutions

Paper 2 Guide

From Struggling to Succeeding in IB English

How IB English students like you have improved their grades with LitLearn Pro... Read the reviews.

IB4 to IB6 in 12 days " LitLearn helped me understand exactly what I was doing wrong and how to improve upon those mistakes. " Read the full review

IB6 to IB7 in 1 week " I ended with a 7 in English Literature HL and I am so happy about that. Thank you Jackson. " Read the full review

IB5 to Perfect 20/20 in 1 week " I managed to be the only person in my IB cohort of 120 students to get a perfect score of 20/20 " Read the full review

IB4 to IB6 in 2 weeks " The lessons are really effective in grabbing my attention and making English more fun to learn. "

IB4 to IB6 in 1 day " With just day 1 of the course, I improved immediately and overnight when I did a practice essay and improved by 4 marks from my previous grades " Read the full review

IB5 to IB7 " I got 5s since my first year of DP and now my final grade is 7! I can't thank you enough 🙂 LitLearn is truly a lifesaver. "

Not ready to sign up yet? Free

No email signup required. Access these lessons now.

Learn Analysis

The 3 basic principles essential to IB English analysis

Learn how to analyze diction for IB English

Learn how to analyze modality & imperative language for IB English

Questionbank

Try Question 7 from the Analysis Questionbank

Try Question 23 from the Analysis Questionbank

Free introductory guide to the Paper 1 guided analysis exam

The 3 ingredients you're not including in your thesis

Free introductory guide to the Paper 2 comparative analysis exam

Covers the levels of knowledge crucial to Paper 2 preparation

Individual Oral

Free introductory guide to the Individual Oral assessment

Helpful list of global issue starters to kickstart your imagination.

Higher Level Essay

Free introductory guide to the HLE assessment

• International
• Schools directory
• Resources Jobs Schools directory News Search

IB History: Writing Essays for IBDP History Paper 2

Subject: History

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

21 March 2024

• Share through email
• Share through twitter
• Share through linkedin
• Share through facebook
• Share through pinterest

Diving into the complexities of 20th-century history demands not just understanding but an ability to critically engage and articulate thoughts with precision. “Writing Essays for IBDP History Paper 2” stands as a beacon for educators seeking to empower their students with the skills to dissect and analyse historical events with a keen eye. The historical context of the IBDP curriculum, encompassing pivotal wars, the rise of authoritarian states led by figures such as Stalin and Mao, and the Cold War’s global impact, provides a rich tapestry for intellectual exploration.

This lesson plan shines by emphasizing the benefits for students through a meticulously structured approach to essay writing. It begins with a robust foundation, guiding students through the analysis of essay questions, thus ensuring they grasp the essence from the get-go. Understanding key terms, contextualizing historical events, and identifying critical viewpoints form the cornerstone of this initial phase.

As we delve deeper, the plan’s focus on student activities comes to the fore, promising a transformative learning experience. Activities are designed to sharpen analytical skills, with exercises that challenge students to compare and contrast different historical narratives, evaluate the efficacy of policies, and discuss the myriad perspectives surrounding contentious issues. These tasks are not just exercises in academic rigor but are engaging explorations that make history come alive, fostering a classroom environment where every opinion is valued and every analysis contributes to a deeper understanding of the past.

The culmination of this lesson plan is not just an improved ability to tackle IBDP History Paper 2 but a nurturing of critical thinking and argumentation skills that students will carry beyond the classroom. The emphasis on using evidence, making judicious assessments, and presenting coherent arguments ensures that students are not just prepared for exams but are equipped to navigate the complexities of the world with an informed and critical perspective.

“Writing Essays for IBDP History Paper 2” is not just a lesson plan; it’s a commitment to historical excellence. It promises a journey that begins with the understanding of a question’s nuances and ends with the crafting of essays that not only meet the rigorous standards of the IBDP curriculum but also reflect the intellectual growth and curiosity of the students themselves. This is history teaching at its most impactful, where every lesson is an opportunity to inspire and every essay a testament to learning.

** Total Pages: 19 Teaching Duration: 90 minutes

Tes paid licence How can I reuse this?

Your rating is required to reflect your happiness.

It's good to leave some feedback.

Something went wrong, please try again later.

This resource hasn't been reviewed yet

To ensure quality for our reviews, only customers who have purchased this resource can review it

Report this resource to let us know if it violates our terms and conditions. Our customer service team will review your report and will be in touch.

Not quite what you were looking for? Search by keyword to find the right resource:

IB History: Writing Effective Paper 3 Essays

In the International Baccalaureate (IB) History course, Paper 3 assesses the "Aspects of the History of the Americas" for HL students. Writing effective essays for Paper 3 requires a combination of historical knowledge, critical analysis, and strong essay-writing skills. Here's a guide on how to write compelling Paper 3 essays:

 1. Understanding the Assessment Criteria:

1. command terms:.

   - Analyze, evaluate, and compare historical events.

   - Clearly understand the meaning of each command term and tailor your response accordingly.

2. Historical Concepts:

   - Demonstrate an understanding of key historical concepts such as causation, consequence, continuity, and change.

3. Synthesis:

   - Integrate information from different sources and demonstrate the ability to synthesize knowledge.

 2. Essay Structure:

1. introduction:.

   - Provide a clear thesis statement that outlines the main argument of your essay.

   - Offer a brief overview of the historical context.

2. Body Paragraphs:

   - Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that relates to your thesis.

   - Provide evidence, examples, and historical facts to support your arguments.

   - Analyze and interpret the significance of the evidence.

3. Counterarguments:

   - Address potential counterarguments to your thesis.

   - Either refute counterarguments or incorporate them into your analysis to show a nuanced understanding.

4. Use of Historical Perspectives:

   - Integrate different historical perspectives into your analysis.

   - Discuss how the perspectives of different groups or individuals shape historical events.

5. Conclusion:

   - Summarize your main arguments and restate your thesis.

   - Provide a brief reflection on the broader historical significance of your analysis.

 3. Historical Context and Background:

1. demonstrate contextual knowledge:.

   - Begin your essay by providing the necessary historical context.

   - Show an understanding of the broader historical forces at play during the period in question.

2. Chronological Organization:

   - Organize your essay chronologically if it makes sense for the topic.

   - Chronological organization helps demonstrate an understanding of the temporal development of events.

 4. Analysis and Evaluation:

1. cause-and-effect relationships:.

   - Analyze the cause-and-effect relationships between historical events.

   - Examine the short-term and long-term consequences of key actions.

2. Historical Significance:

   - Evaluate the historical significance of events, individuals, or developments.

   - Discuss the impact of the chosen topic on the broader course of history.

3. Causal Links and Comparisons:

   - Establish clear causal links between events.

   - Make effective comparisons to highlight similarities and differences.

 5. Use of Evidence:

1. primary and secondary sources:.

   - Integrate evidence from both primary and secondary sources.

   - Critically evaluate the reliability and bias of your sources.

2. Quantitative Data:

   - Incorporate relevant quantitative data when applicable.

   - Use statistics and figures to strengthen your arguments.

 6. Writing Style:

1. clarity and cohesion:.

   - Write in a clear and concise manner.

   - Ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next.

2. Avoid Repetition:

   - Avoid unnecessary repetition of ideas.

   - Use varied sentence structures to maintain reader engagement.

3. Historical Terminology:

   - Demonstrate a command of historical terminology.

   - Use specific terms and concepts relevant to the time period.

 7. Revision and Proofreading:

1. review your essay:.

   - Take time to review and revise your essay.

   - Check for coherence, consistency, and clarity.

2. Seek Feedback:

   - Share your essay with peers or teachers for feedback.

   - Consider their suggestions for improvement.

By following these guidelines, you can craft well-structured, insightful, and historically grounded essays for the IB History Paper 3. Remember to practice regularly and engage with a variety of historical sources to enhance your analytical and writing skills.

You Might Also Like

Know Why Demonstrated Interest is Crucial

If you want to gain admission in your dream college, you have to show your demonstrated interest to join the institution and why it is crucial

How can Conducting Research get you into Your Dream College

Want to get admission in your dream college? Do formal research for college admission that will help you to gain admission in your dream college - Read a blog

Planning for Successful College Applications

Know the right way for successful college application and how to get prepared for college admission to gain admission in your dream college - Read our blog

Free Resources

IBDP History

Website by Jo Thomas & Keely Rogers

Updated 29 March 2024

InThinking Subject Sites

Subscription websites for IB teachers & their classes

Find out more

• www.thinkib.net
• IBDP Biology
• IBDP Business Management
• IBDP Chemistry
• IBDP Economics
• IBDP English A Literature
• IBDP English A: Language & Literature
• IBDP English B
• IBDP Environmental Systems & Societies
• IBDP French B
• IBDP Geography
• IBDP German A: Language & Literature
• IBDP Maths: Analysis & Approaches
• IBDP Maths: Applications & Interpretation
• IBDP Physics
• IBDP Psychology
• IBDP Spanish A
• IBDP Spanish Ab Initio
• IBDP Spanish B
• IBDP Visual Arts
• IBMYP English Language & Literature
• IBMYP Resources
• IBMYP Spanish Language Acquisition
• IB Career-related Programme
• IB School Leadership

Disclaimer : InThinking subject sites are neither endorsed by nor connected with the International Baccalaureate Organisation.

InThinking Subject Sites for IB Teachers and their Classes

Supporting ib educators.

• Comprehensive help & advice on teaching the IB diploma.
• Written by experts with vast subject knowledge.
• Innovative ideas on ATL & pedagogy.
• Detailed guidance on all aspects of assessment.

Developing great materials

• More than 14 million words across 24 sites.
• Masses of ready-to-go resources for the classroom.
• Dynamic links to current affairs & real world issues.
• Updates every week 52 weeks a year.

Integrating student access

• Give your students direct access to relevant site pages.
• Single student login for all of your school’s subscriptions.
• Create reading, writing, discussion, and quiz tasks.
• Monitor student progress & collate in online gradebook.

Meeting schools' needs

• Global reach with more than 200,000 users worldwide.
• Use our materials to create compelling unit plans.
• Save time & effort which you can reinvest elsewhere.
• Consistently good feedback from subscribers.

For information about pricing, click here

Download brochure

See what users are saying about our Subject Sites:

Find out more about our Student Access feature:

• Cold War Crises: Graded student examples
• Topic 12: The Cold War: Superpower tensions and rivalries
• 3. Theme 3 - Cold War Crises

Causes of Crises

Compare and contrast the causes of two crises each taken from a different region

The following essay was written by a final year IB student and it got into the top markband for Paper Two

Click on the eye below to see the essay or download the PDF

The late 1950s and early 1960s saw tensions between the USA and the USSR in the Cold War reach new heights. It was in these years that the Berlin Crisis of 1958 – 1961 and the Cuban missile crisis of 1962 brought the world to the edge of a nuclear war. Both crises were strongly influenced by the long-term tensions and competition that had been mounting since the end of the Second World War and both were affected by Khrushchev’s decisions. However, the crises differed in the extent of US responsibility in causing each situation and in the nature of the short-term causes.

The Berlin Crisis and the Cuban Missile crisis occurred within a few years of each other and hence at the same point in Cold War relations; tension had been growing since around 1946 and it was not yet clear how far each side could push the other. The rules of the cold war, which would become clearer after the Cuban missile crisis, were not yet in place and these factors help to explain the causes of both crises.  The 1950s had seen an intense arms and space race and by the late 1950s the Americans feared ‘a missile gap’. Eisenhower was using U2 spy planes which proved this ‘gap’ to be false but, nevertheless, the rivalry was intense and the shooting down of a U2 plane in 1960 and revelation of US spying caused a considerable increase in tension between the two countries. In addition, Eisenhower’s policy of ‘massive retaliation’ and increased reliance on nuclear weapons for dealing with crises indicated that there was no clear strategy on how to use nuclear weapons. Kennedy’s ‘counterforce’ strategy arguably was even more dangerous with its emphasis on the success of a first strike. Meanwhile both sides were developing new weapons and attempting to spread their influence globally. This atmosphere of high tension and the competition regarding the arms race and spheres of influence help to explain the long-term causes of these crises.

Khrushchev’s actions were key in causing both crises. In Berlin, having been pressurised by Ulbricht, he set a six month ultimatum in 1958 threatening to turn over control of access routes to the Western sectors of Berlin to the GDR. He backed down at this stage but when Kennedy became President he attempted to exploit Kennedy’s youth and apparent incompetence in foreign policy following the Bay of Pigs incident, bullying and threatening him at the Vienna Summit over Berlin in 1961. This forced a reaction from Kennedy who went on television to make a broadcast making it clear that the West would not leave Berlin. Similarly, it was Khrushchev who made the first move in Cuba, putting inter-mediate nuclear missile bases on the island. In so doing, Robert Beggs writes that ‘he stole a march on the Americans’ whose missiles already threatened the USSR from their bases in Turkey. Though, as Gaddis writes, his other aim was probably to prevent another US invasion of Cuba and thus preserve the Cuban revolution. Khrushchev underestimated the reaction of the Americans to having missiles in what was considered to be their ‘backyard’; thus again, he forced Kennedy to take a stand, once again causing a crisis.

In fact, Kennedy’s reaction was partly linked the situation in Berlin. At a loss to understand why Khrushchev would take the risk of putting missiles into Cuba, the Americans interpreted the action as part of a Soviet plan to put pressure on the West to get out of Berlin. As Tony Judt writes, ‘the officials in Washington thought that their Soviet opponents were playing a complicated game of diplomatic chess’. The possibility of a link between the crises resulted in further tension. Kennedy went on television to alert the US public about the Cuban threat and set up ExCom to deal with the threat and options to deal with Cuba included a nuclear strike on the island.

The USA’s reaction to Cuba indicate that the USA played more of a role in creating the crisis of 1962 than the Berlin crisis. Revisionist historians argue that Kennedy unnecessarily raised the Cuban episode to the level of crisis and confrontation, especially with his decision to make a public announcement about the missiles instead of carrying out behind the scenes diplomacy. As argued by David Horovitz, ‘missiles were to do with a question of political balance not strategic balance and therefore he subjected his people to unnecessary fear’. Such a perspective links Kennedy’s actions to gaining personal and national prestige and in winning the forthcoming mid-term elections. With the Berlin crisis, it could be argued that Kennedy’s actions in making it clear to Khrushchev that the West would not be forced out of Berlin made Khrushchev back down from his war threats and opt to build a wall instead which ended the crisis. However, Kennedy’s action in Cuba unnecessarily raised tension and fear world-wide and contributed to the cause of this crisis.

A further difference in the causes between these crises is that while the Cuban crisis was purely caused by Khrushchev pursing strategic and political aims, it was economic factors that primarily precipitated the Berlin crisis. While West Germany experienced a period of economic miracle, the GDR faced a disastrous economy caused by the spread of Ulbricht’s collectivisation and socialisation programmes. Many skilled workers moved from East Germany to West Germany via Berlin. Between 1945 and 1961 about one sixth of the East population emigrated; on 12 th August 1961 alone, 40 000 refugees fled which had a devastating impact on the economy of East Germany. This is the main factor that led Ulbricht to pressurise Khrushchev to put pressure on the West and, ultimately, to build the wall. With Cuba, however, Khrushchev seems to have been acting on his own volition – not under pressure from Castro, and for strategic and political reasons i.e. to even up the strategic nuclear balance and to preserve the Cuban revolution.

In conclusion, both these crises were the impact of the tensions that had been building up since the end of the Second World War – the arms race and the battle for strategic superiority. Khrushchev’s actions were a key cause of both crises. In both, he was driven by the need to gain an edge over the Americans; however it can be argued that Kennedy’s actions also helped bring events in 1962 to a crisis point. A further contrast is that, while the cause of the Berlin crisis was arguably driven by pressure from Ulbricht and an economic crisis, the Cuban crisis was caused by Khrushchev acting along and for mainly political and strategic factors.