juvenile delinquency argument essays

132 Juvenile Delinquency Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best juvenile delinquency topic ideas & essay examples, 💡 interesting topics to write about juvenile delinquency, 📌 simple & easy juvenile delinquency essay titles, 👍 good essay topics on juvenile delinquency, ❓ research questions on juvenile delinquency.

• The Impact of Media on Juvenile Delinquency Besides, the media have been at the forefront of the fight against juvenile-related crimes. In this view, this document aims at critically evaluating the role of various forms of media in escalating juvenile delinquency, and […]
• Social Learning Theory and juvenile delinquency The empirical studies of the Social Learning Theory on juvenile delinquency helps to provide an insight on the past, present as well as the future of criminology i.e.the study sheds light on the future directions […] We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Methodologies Used to Measure Acts of Juvenile Delinquency Before moving into the aspects of measurement of actions of juvenile delinquents, it is necessary to define and know what a juvenile delinquent is, and what actions fall within the ambit of juvenile delinquency.
• Poverty Areas and Effects on Juvenile Delinquency The desire to live a better life contributes to the youths engaging in crimes, thus the increase in cases of juvenile delinquencies amid low-income families. The studies indicate that the fear of poverty is the […]
• The Issue of Juvenile Delinquency At the onset of the industrial revolution, public awareness concerning the fair and ethical treatment of children in workplaces emerged. The role of supervising and guiding children is left to other children, grandparents, or hired […]
• Juvenile Delinquency in Ancient and Modern Times The only policy related to juvenile delinquency existing in ancient Greece was the law that prohibited the youth in ancient Greece from beating their parents.
• The Broken Homes and Juvenile Delinquency The level of measurement in this study will be to assess the frequency of involvement in crime by the children from the broken homes as well as those from the two parent families.
• Juvenile Delinquency: Causes and Intervention The role of the family and parents cannot be discounted in the causes of juvenile delinquency. The courts and the lawyers are involved in the trial and sentencing of juvenile offenders.
• Juvenile Delinquency The defenders of the system on the other hand appreciate the marked role of juvenile justice system in rehabilitating juvenile delinquents and are advocating for the conservation of the system and reforming critical structures that […]
• The Problem of Juvenile Delinquency The addition of family context to the existing perception of adolescent crimes could be used to explore the core reasons for the crimes and to define possible methods for the prevention of juvenile crimes. The […]
• The Cognitive Theory in Juvenile Delinquency At this stage, a child can perform certain actions repeatedly and also be able to differentiate the means of doing actions.
• Problems of Juvenile Delinquency The main aim of writing this paper is to carry out an examination of a juvenile delinquent in order to understand what pushes them into doing the act and applicable solutions which can be applied […]
• The Relationship Between Parental Influence and Juvenile Delinquency Parents that do not allow their children to play with their neighbors, or discourage their children from associating with particular families lead to the children developing a negative attitude towards the families.
• Single Parenthood and Juvenile Delinquency in Modern Society The proposal seeks to establish the relationship between single parenthood and the increase in juvenile delinquency. I propose addressing child delinquency from the perspective of social and family background to understand the risks associated with […]
• Juvenile Delinquency and Affecting Factors The information gathered, synthesized, and analyzed in the research with the help of the proposed question has future value as it identifies factors that can be impacted by the society representatives.
• The Concepts of Nature and Nurture in Modern Psychologist to Explain Juvenile Delinquency Hence any behavior exhibited by a juvenile that is in total contrast with the value demands of the larger society can be termed as Juvenile Delinquency. On the one hand, it is believed that Juvenile […]
• Juvenile Delinquency: Social Disorganization Theory Hence, according to Lopez and Gillespie, tenets of the social disorganization theory have been resourceful in the present-day juvenile delinquency system.
• Developing Solutions to the Juvenile Delinquency Problem These include the creation of a creative activity center, the mandatory introduction of art classes in schools, and the implementation of urban sports programs.
• Juvenile Delinquency is a Product of Nurture These criminals have been exposed to unfavorable conditions in their lives such as violence and poverty and turn to criminal behavior as a coping mechanism.
• The Issue of Juvenile Delinquency: Recent Trends Violence and other criminal actions attract the attention of the government and the general public, as they affect the life of the society adversely.
• Juvenile Delinquency: Impact of Collective Efficacy and Mental Illnesses The perception of collective efficacy can be defined as the consideration that the people in a neighborhood are trustable and can do their part to partake in social control to benefit a specific community.
• Juvenile Delinquency: a Case Analysis The tracking of the juvenile from juvenile court to adult court and then through the system is shown in the outline below: Arrest.
• Implementing an Arts Program to Help Curb Juvenile Delinquency and Reduce Recidivism Therefore, the pieces of art will be customized to rhyme with society needs of the targeted children and the adolescents. Some of the enrollees to this program will be delinquents.
• Role of Family in Reducing Juvenile Delinquency Players in the criminal justice system recognize the contribution of family and familial factors to the development of criminal and delinquent tendencies and their potential to minimize minors’ engagement in illegal and socially unacceptable behaviors.
• Gangs and Juvenile Delinquency Hallsworth and Silverstone argues that although there have been a lot of violence, the main source is not quite clear and people live by speculations that the violence is linked to the emergence of a […]
• Juvenile Delinquency: Three Levels of Prevention It is made up of programs and ideals which are effective in treatment of the offender, reintegrating them in the society and limiting them from committing similar offenses. In conclusion, though most prevention programs are […]
• Day Treatment Centers and Juvenile Delinquency One of the core aspects that should not be disregarded is that such programs may be used as a particular assessment tool that would help to identify needs of a juvenile, and this approach may […]
• Court Unification and Juvenile Delinquency Speaking about the given issue, it is important to give the clear definition of this category and determine who could be judged by the juvenile court.
• Prevent Juvenile Delinquency in the USA Due to this fact, it is possible to describe the existing problem as the increase in the number of crimes that children commit.
• Juvenile Delinquency: Risk Assessment The investigatory processes to know the individual’s character and personality involve the use of complex and simple approaches, and these serve to provide organizations or institutions dealing with child welfare with important information that would […]
• Life Without Parole and Juvenile Delinquency The United States is one of the few countries which recognize the necessity of sentencing juveniles to life without parole. This is the main and only advantage of this approach.
• Juvenile Delinquency and Reasons That Lead to It Irrespective of the cause of juvenile delinquency, juvenile drug abuse is certainly most commonly related directly to either an increase or a decrease in any form of juvenile delinquency. This correlates to the increase in […]
• Drugs Influence on Juvenile Delinquency Additionally, parents are the ones who know the strengths and weaknesses of the children since they spend most of their time together, their suggestions and views towards the crime committed should be handled with a […]
• Theories of Juvenile Delinquency Research showed individuals’ attitudes toward crime may herald their criminal behavior, in agreement with criminological theories such as control theory, learning theory and psychological theories like the theory of reasoned action.
• Criminology Theories and Juvenile Delinquency From the point of view of labeling theory, the initial drinking and the first fight at the party is John’s primary deviance.
• Juvenile Delinquency in the United States According to Pennsylvania laws, children at the age of 10 and above can be trialed as adults for first- and second-degree murders.
• Juvenile Delinquency and the Importance of Socialization At the time of the incident, according to the authors of the article, twenty students out of a total of thirty had arrived for the lecture.
• Theories and Suggestions on Juvenile Delinquency The other factor is that the norms that governed relationships in the different family and societal set-ups such as in the school and the workplace are being challenged.
• The Phenomenon of Juvenile Delinquency They are very important in the proceedings and even have additional authority to propose a waiver of the subject. The judges are the other officials in a juvenile court system.
• The Juvenile Delinquency Rate In order to reduce the rate of crime committed by young people in my community, there is a need to educate the youth in matters of drug and substance abuse.
• Juvenile Delinquency Recidivism Prevention Many studies have been carried out to examine the rates of recidivism among juveniles and the ineffectiveness of the juvenile prison.
• Juvenile Delinquency: The Columbine Shootings This paper seeks to discuss and analyze the casual theory of juvenile delinquency by describing an instance of juvenile delinquency as highlighted in the mass media, by describing the casual theory of juvenile delinquency with […]
• Juvenile Delinquency Theories in the United States School and family are extremely important to juveniles regarding their worldview, and the failure of those communities to guide them may result in turning to questionable ideals and morals.
• Adolescent Diversion Project in Juvenile Delinquency Treatment in Michigan The focus of the program is to prevent future delinquency by creating social attachments to family and other prosocial youth by providing community resources and keeping individuals away from the juvenile justice system which can […]
• Crime Prevention and Juvenile Delinquency As a specific jurisdiction that will serve as the basis for assessing and implementing the provisions of the crime prevention program, the District of Florida will be considered.
• Adolescent Psychology and Juvenile Delinquency I will also promote the idea that when it comes to identifying the factors that contribute to the development of delinquency in youth, one must be willing to consider the effects of the combination of […]
• Juvenile Delinquency, Its Factors and Theories Under the individual risk factors, it is prudent to note that a lack of proper education coupled with lower intelligence might pose a serious risk to a minor in terms of engaging in criminal activities […]
• Factors Associated With Juvenile Delinquency Further, the authors propose that the family should be the main focus of prevention and clinical interventions and that establishment of social policy and programs should be directed to the family.
• Combating Juvenile Delinquency: Projects Management In order to prevent and reduce juvenile violence, the City of Hampton develops and implements various activities that were mentioned above, promoting the importance of moral standards.
• Juvenile Delinquency Investigation The social learning theory that is a part of it suggests that children observe the behavior of others and replicate it.
• Juvenile Delinquency’ Causes and Possible Treatments They investigated the issue in different perspectives but came up to the decision that the best way to treat young offenders is to utilize multisystemic therapy.
• Juvenile Delinquency: Criminological Theories These include the broken windows theory, the culture of the gang theory and the social disorganization theory. Cohen developed the culture of the gang theory to explain the origin of juvenile delinquency.
• Juvenile Delinquency and Criminal Gangs The proliferation of criminal gangs in my area of jurisdiction, as director of the county juvenile court, represents a nationwide problem. In the 1990s, the rate of crime rose in most parts of the world.
• Juvenile Delinquency, Treatment, and Interventions The performance of the child in school is one of the individual factors that are likely to cause the child to get involved in violent behaviors.
• Poverty and Juvenile Delinquency in the United States
• Roles of Family, School, and Church in Juvenile Delinquency
• Understanding Juvenile Delinquency and the Different Ways to Stop the Problem in Our Society
• Juvenile Delinquency and Crime as an Integral Part of the American Society
• Impact of Television Violence In Relation To Juvenile Delinquency
• The Vicious Circle of Child Abuse, Juvenile Delinquency, and Future Abuse
• Juvenile Delinquency, Domestic Violence, and the Effects of Substance Abuse
• The Explorers Program as a Preventative Measure in Juvenile Delinquency
• Juvenile Delinquency, Youth Culture, and Renegade Kids, Suburban Outlaws by Wooden
• The Alarming Rate of Juvenile Delinquency and Cases of Teenage Suicides in the U.S
• The Line Between Juvenile Delinquency And Adult Penalties
• Home Social Environment and Juvenile Delinquency
• The Effects of Neighborhood Crime on the Level of Juvenile Delinquency
• Interpersonal Learning Theory Plus Juvenile Delinquency
• How to Prevent Juvenile Delinquency in the U.S
• Relationship Between Juvenile Delinquency and Learning Disabilities
• The Impact of Television Violence and Its Relation to Juvenile Delinquency
• The Lack of Strong Parental Figures Causes Juvenile Delinquency
• Theories of Juvenile Delinquency: Why Young Individuals Commit Crimes
• Using Drugs and Juvenile Delinquency
• Theory of Social Disorganization and Juvenile Delinquency
• What Is the Best Way to Combat Juvenile Delinquency?
• The Marxist Crime Perspective On Juvenile Delinquency Of African Americans
• The Failures of the Act of Juvenile Delinquency in the United States
• Juvenile Delinquency And Its Effects On The Adult Justice System
• Juvenile Delinquency Contributing Factors Current Research and Intervention
• Impact Of Single Parents On Juvenile Delinquency Rates
• Video Game Violence Leading to Juvenile Delinquency
• Juvenile Delinquency: Exploring Factors of Gender and Family
• The Psychological Aspect of Juvenile Delinquency
• The Antisocial Behavior Leading to Juvenile Delinquency
• Lead and Juvenile Delinquency: New Evidence from Linked Birth, School and Juvenile Detention Records
• The Role of Family in Preventing Juvenile Delinquency and Behavioural Patterns of Children
• The Relationship Between Poverty and Juvenile Delinquency
• The Importance of Family in the Behavior of Children and in Preventing Juvenile Delinquency
• Preventing and Dealing with Juvenile Delinquency
• How Family Structures Can Play a Role in Juvenile Delinquency
• Juvenile Delinquency and A Child’s Emotional Needs
• Family Structural Changes and Juvenile Delinquency
• The Causes of the Problem of Juvenile Delinquency in the United States
• Juvenile Delinquency And The Juvenile Justice System
• The Curfew: Issues On Juvenile Delinquency And Constitutional Rights
• The Socioeconomic Triggers of Juvenile Delinquency: Analysis of “The Outsiders”
• Exploring the Root Causes of the Problem of Juvenile Delinquency
• The Rise of Juvenile Delinquency and the Flaws of the Juvenile Justice System
• The Causes And Possible Solutions Of Juvenile Delinquency
• The History of the Juvenile Delinquency and the Process of the Juvenile Justice System in Malaysia
• The Issue of Juvenile Delinquency Among Girls in the United States
• What Is the Importance of Studying Juvenile Delinquency?
• Does Authoritative Parenting Impact Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Are the Factors of Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Are Juvenile Delinquency Causes and Solutions?
• What Type of Problem Is Juvenile Delinquency?
• How Can Family Structures Play a Role in Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Is the Concept of Juvenile Delinquency?
• How Do You Explain Juvenile Delinquency?
• How Does Poverty and the Environment Cause or Contribute to Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Are the Leading Causes of Juvenile Delinquency?
• How Does Family Contribute to Juvenile Delinquency?
• How the Juvenile Delinquency Impact Society?
• Why Is Juvenile Delinquency a Problem?
• What Factors Cause Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Is the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Are the Types of Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Is an Example of a Juvenile Delinquent?
• How Can We Prevent Juvenile Delinquency?
• How Does Juvenile Delinquency Affect the Community?
• How Does Juvenile Delinquency Affect Education?
• Why Is Juvenile Delinquency a Problem in Our Society?
• How Does Juvenile Delinquency Affect the Individual?
• What Is Another Name for Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Causes Juvenile Delinquency?
• How Does Birth Order Affect Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Is the Main Problem in Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Is the Difference Between Crime and Juvenile Delinquency?
• What Are Some Effects of Juvenile Delinquency?
• How Does Juvenile Delinquency Affect Social Life?
• What Is the Nature of Juvenile Delinquency?
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111 Juvenile Delinquency Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Juvenile delinquency is a pressing issue that affects communities and families worldwide. It refers to the act of committing crimes by young individuals below the age of 18. Understanding the causes, consequences, and solutions to juvenile delinquency is crucial in addressing this problem effectively.

If you are tasked with writing an essay on juvenile delinquency, choosing a compelling topic is essential. To help you get started, here are 111 juvenile delinquency essay topic ideas and examples:

• The impact of family structure on juvenile delinquency
• The role of peer pressure in juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and mental health disorders
• The relationship between poverty and juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and substance abuse
• The influence of media on juvenile delinquency
• The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs for juvenile delinquents
• Juvenile delinquency and school dropout rates
• The link between child abuse and juvenile delinquency
• The role of genetics in juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and social media
• The impact of neighborhood characteristics on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and gang involvement
• The relationship between juvenile delinquency and race/ethnicity
• Juvenile delinquency and the juvenile justice system
• The role of trauma in juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and recidivism rates
• The influence of parental monitoring on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and educational attainment
• The impact of peer relationships on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and juvenile detention centers
• The relationship between juvenile delinquency and technology
• Juvenile delinquency and juvenile curfew laws
• The effectiveness of early intervention programs for at-risk youth
• Juvenile delinquency and juvenile probation programs
• The influence of social norms on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and juvenile diversion programs
• The role of gender in juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and juvenile court proceedings
• The impact of trauma-informed care on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and substance abuse treatment programs
• The relationship between juvenile delinquency and child welfare services
• Juvenile delinquency and community-based programs
• The influence of school climate on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and restorative justice practices
• The role of law enforcement in addressing juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and school resource officers
• The impact of social inequality on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and mental health treatment
• The relationship between juvenile delinquency and trauma exposure
• Juvenile delinquency and gun violence
• The influence of family dynamics on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and cyberbullying
• The role of community policing in preventing juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and school safety measures
• The impact of parental involvement on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and substance abuse prevention programs
• The relationship between juvenile delinquency and foster care
• Juvenile delinquency and the juvenile justice reform movement
• The influence of social support networks on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and the school-to-prison pipeline
• The role of mental health stigma in juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and trauma-informed education
• The impact of school discipline policies on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and community engagement strategies
• The relationship between juvenile delinquency and child advocacy programs
• Juvenile delinquency and the juvenile justice system disparities
• The influence of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and the impact of adverse childhood experiences
• The role of school counselors in addressing juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and the role of probation officers
• The impact of mentoring programs on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and the role of school resource officers
• The relationship between juvenile delinquency and parental incarceration
• Juvenile delinquency and the impact of school suspensions
• The influence of community-based mental health services on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and the role of school-based mental health screenings
• The impact of trauma-focused interventions on juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and the relationship between poverty and crime
• The role of parental involvement in preventing juvenile delinquency
• Juvenile delinquency and the impact of school climate on student behavior
• The relationship between juvenile delinquency and mental health disorders
• Juvenile delinquency and the role of community-based mental health services
• The influence of trauma-informed care on juvenile delinquency
• The impact of parental involvement in preventing juvenile delinquency

Choose a topic that interests you and conduct thorough research to support your arguments and findings. By shedding light on the complexities of juvenile delinquency, you can contribute to the ongoing dialogue on how to prevent and address this critical issue in our society.

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• v.41(1); 2017 Feb

Juvenile delinquency, welfare, justice and therapeutic interventions: a global perspective

Susan young.

1 Imperial College London, London, UK

2 Broadmoor Hospital, Crowthorne, UK

Richard Church

3 South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

This review considers juvenile delinquency and justice from an international perspective. Youth crime is a growing concern. Many young offenders are also victims with complex needs, leading to a public health approach that requires a balance of welfare and justice models. However, around the world there are variable and inadequate legal frameworks and a lack of a specialist workforce. The UK and other high-income countries worldwide have established forensic child and adolescent psychiatry, a multifaceted discipline incorporating legal, psychiatric and developmental fields. Its adoption of an evidence-based therapeutic intervention philosophy has been associated with greater reductions in recidivism compared with punitive approaches prevalent in some countries worldwide, and it is therefore a superior approach to dealing with the problem of juvenile delinquency.

Recent years have seen sustained public and academic interest in criminality and mental health, with attention often focused on antisocial behaviour by children and adolescents. The scale of the problem of juvenile delinquency has provoked mixed responses from governments and the media across the world, with calls for improved rehabilitation and support for juvenile offenders competing with voices advocating more punitive approaches. 1 Meanwhile, decades of rigorous academic scrutiny have shed light on the complex and diverse needs of children who come into conflict with the law. 2 – 5 Much of the growing body of literature on juvenile offenders shows considerable overlap between criminological, social and biomedical research, with a consensus emerging around the significance of a developmental understanding of the emergence of juvenile delinquency.

Importantly, juvenile offenders have consistently been identified as a population that suffers from a markedly elevated prevalence and severity of mental disorder compared with the general juvenile population. 6 , 7 Meeting the needs of these young offenders presents practical and ethical challenges concerning treatment and management, including liaison with other agencies.

What is juvenile delinquency?

Who counts as juvenile.

Juvenile delinquency is a term commonly used in academic literature for referring to a young person who has committed a criminal offence, although its precise definition can vary according to the local jurisdiction. The specific reasons underlying these differences are unclear, but they may arise from the lack of an agreed international standard. 8

A ‘juvenile’ in this context refers to an individual who is legally able to commit a criminal offence owing to being over the minimum age of criminal responsibility, but who is under the age of criminal majority, when a person is legally considered an adult. The minimum age of criminal responsibility varies internationally between 6 and 18 years, but the age of criminal majority is usually 18 years.

In some cases individuals older than 18 years may be heard in a juvenile court, and therefore will still be considered juveniles; indeed, the United Nations (UN) defines ‘youth’ as between 15 and 24 years of age. The term ‘child delinquents’ has been used in reference to children below the age of 13 who have committed a delinquent act, 9 although elsewhere ‘children’ are often defined as being under 18 years of age. The term ‘young offenders’ is broad, and can refer to offenders aged under 18 years or include young adults up to their mid-20s.

What is a crime?

A ‘delinquent’ is an individual who has committed a criminal offence. Delinquency therefore encompasses an enormous range of behaviours which are subject to legislation differing from one jurisdiction to another, and are subject to changes in law over time. Whereas acts of theft and serious interpersonal violence are commonly considered to constitute criminal offences, other acts including alcohol consumption and sexual behaviour in young people are tolerated to very differing degrees across the world. Sometimes these differences arise as a consequence of historical or cultural factors, and they may be underpinned by traditional religious laws, such as in some Middle Eastern countries. Some offences may be shared between jurisdictions but be enforced to differing standards – for instance, ‘unlawful assembly’, often used to prevent riots, is applied in Singapore to young people meeting in public in groups of five or more as part of police efforts to tackle youth gangs. Furthermore, ‘status offences’ – acts that would be permissible in adults but criminalised in children, such as consumption of alcohol or truancy – not only vary between jurisdictions, but contribute to discontinuity when comparing juvenile delinquency with adult populations in the same jurisdiction.

Lack of clarity can also arise in jurisdictions where a young offender is processed via a welfare system rather than a youth justice process. Countries with a high minimum age of criminal responsibility may not technically criminalise young people for behaviour that would normally be prosecuted and therefore classed as ‘delinquent’ elsewhere.

Not all incarcerated juveniles are ‘delinquent’, since some may be detained pre-trial and may not be convicted of an offence. Even if convicted, it would be wrong to assume that every ‘juvenile delinquent’ meets criteria for a diagnosis of conduct disorder; offences vary considerably and may not be associated with a broad repertoire of offending behaviour. Also, most ‘juvenile delinquents’ do not pose an immediate risk of violence to others, and the vast majority of convicted juveniles serve their sentences in the community.

To meet the diagnostic criteria of conduct disorder requires evidence of a persistent pattern of dissocial or aggressive conduct, such that it defies age-appropriate social expectations. Behaviours may include cruelty to people or animals, truancy, frequent and severe temper tantrums, excessive fighting or bullying and fire-setting; diagnosis of conduct disorder can be made in the marked presence of one of these behaviours. 10

Overall, the term ‘juvenile delinquent’ is used extensively in academic literature, but requires some care. It can be a potentially problematic term, and in some contexts can strike a pejorative tone with misleading negative assumptions. For several years the UN has used the phrase ‘children in conflict with the law’ to describe the breadth of the heterogeneous group of individuals under the age of 18 who have broken the law or are at risk of doing so.

General principles of juvenile justice

Welfare v. justice models.

The sentencing of an individual convicted of a criminal offence is largely driven by three key considerations: retribution (punishment), deterrence and rehabilitation. In the case of juvenile offenders the principle of rehabilitation is often assigned the greatest weight. 11

Special consideration for juveniles within the criminal justice system is not a new concept. In Roman law, the principle of doli incapax protected young children from prosecution owing to the presumption of a lack of capacity and understanding required to be guilty of a criminal offence. Most countries have some provision for special treatment of children who come into conflict with the law, however, the degree to which this is provided varies across the world. 1 , 12 In some countries a ‘welfare’ model prevails, which focuses on the needs of the child, diagnosis, treatment and more informal procedures, whereas other countries favour a ‘justice’ model, which emphasises accountability, punishment and procedural formality.

Belgium is frequently cited as an example of a country with a strong welfare process, supported by a high minimum age of criminal responsibility of 18 years. Similarly, France built a strong welfare reputation by placing education and rehabilitation at the centre of youth justice reforms in the 1940s. New Zealand in 1989 established the widely praised system of Family Group Conferencing as an integral part of youth justice, with a focus on restoration of relationships and reduction of incarceration that would be considered part of a welfare approach. In contrast, the UK and the USA have traditionally been associated with a justice model and low age of criminal responsibility – 10 years in England and Wales, and as low as 6 years in several US states.

Within welfare or justice models, a young person may at some point be ‘deprived of liberty’ – defined as any form of detention under official authorities in a public or private location which the child is not permitted to leave. Locations in which children may be deprived of liberty include police stations, detention centres, juvenile or adult prisons, secure remand homes, work or boot camps, penitentiary colonies, locked specialised schools, educational or rehabilitation establishments, military camps and prisons, immigration detention centres, secure youth hostels and hospitals. 13

Between the less and more punitive systems

The UN supports the development of specialised systems for managing children in conflict with the law. When the first children's courts were set up in the USA in the 1930s, they were widely praised as a progressive system for serving the best interests of the child. Although informality was championed as a particular benefit, in the 1960s substantial concerns arose about due process and the protection of the legal rights of minors. The subsequent development of formal juvenile courts occurred in the context of a continuing ethos of rehabilitation of young people, with a move away from incarceration of juveniles in the 1970s, especially in Massachusetts and California. However, following a marked peak in juvenile offending statistics during the 1980s and 1990s, public and political opinion swung firmly in a more punitive direction. This was accompanied by legal reforms that increased the severity of penalties available to juvenile courts and lowered the age threshold for juveniles to be tried in adult criminal courts.

When the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child entered into force in 1990, the USA was not a signatory owing to 22 states permitting capital punishment of individuals who had committed their crimes as juveniles. It is reported that 19 juvenile offenders were executed in the USA between 1990 and 2005. Although this number may represent a small percentage of the total who faced the death penalty in the USA during that period, the practice was widely criticised by international bodies and organisations. 14 A landmark ruling in the US Supreme Court 15 outlawed the execution of juvenile offenders in the USA, but to date a small number of countries worldwide still implement this practice, sometimes as a result of religious laws.

However, it would be wrong to assume that welfare systems are automatically preferable to a juvenile justice approach, since welfare arrangements can be equally coercive in terms of deprivation of liberty of juveniles. They may lack due process, safeguards for obtaining reliable evidence from young people, processes for testing evidence, and procedures for scrutiny or appeal following disposal.

Trends in youth crime

The USA witnessed a dramatic increase in arrest rates of young people for homicide and other violent crimes in the 1980s and 1990s, sometimes referred to as the ‘violence epidemic’. 16 The ensuing moral panic led to harsh and punitive policy changes in juvenile justice and, although official statistics document a subsequent fall of 20% in court case-loads between 1997 and 2009, victimisation surveys have indicated a degree of continuity in high levels of offending, consistent with a reported increase in juvenile offending between 2000 and 2006. 17

In common with the USA and several other high-income countries, the UK also experienced a rise in juvenile offending in the 1980s and 1990s, but figures from the Youth Justice Board for England and Wales appear to indicate a general improvement in recent years. Between 2009/2010 and 2014/2015 a 67% reduction has been observed in the number of young people entering the juvenile justice system for the first time, a 65% reduction in the number of young people receiving a caution or court disposal and a 57% reduction in the number of young people in custody. 18 These figures support an overall decrease in juvenile offending noted since the early 1990s. 19

Youth crime figures from Australia have documented a 4% reduction in the overall number of young offenders in 2013/2014, 20 although the number of violent offences committed by young people in the urbanised and densely populated region of Victoria has increased by 75% between 2000 and 2010. 21

The Nordic countries have witnessed an increase in the number of law-abiding youths from 1994 and 2008. 22 In Sweden, both objective levels of juvenile crime 23 and self-reported involvement in juvenile crime 24 have fallen between 1995 and 2005. Similarly in Finland, where, despite fluctuating trends in juvenile drug use, juvenile property and violent crime is reported to have decreased between 1992 and 2013. 25

To summarise, whereas regional and annual trends in juvenile offending are observed and expected, a global trend characterised by decreased juvenile offending appears to have emerged in recent years. Indeed, UN data from a sample of 40 countries lend support to this conclusion, indicating a decrease in the proportion of juveniles suspected (10.9% to 9.2%) and convicted (7.5% to 6%) of crime between 2004 and 2012, respectively. 26

Juvenile gang membership

Influence on crime involvement.

One of the features of urbanisation across the world has been the rise of youth gangs, groups of young people often defined by geographical area, ethnic identity or ideology; recent reports indicate a rise in groups with extremist views. Explanatory models for the rise in youth gangs include factors such as economic migration, loss of extended family networks, reduced supervision of children, globalisation and exposure to inaccessible lifestyle ‘ideals’ portrayed in modern media.

Authorities in Japan attributed a surge in serious youth crime in the 1990s primarily to juvenile bike gangs known as ‘bosozoku’, who were deemed responsible for over 80% of serious offences perpetrated by juveniles, putatively bolstered by a crackdown on yakuza organised crime syndicates. 27 Although difficult to quantify, gang involvement appears to feature in a large proportion of juvenile offences, and there is evidence that gang membership has a facilitating effect on perpetration of the most serious violence including homicide. 28

Mental health

Compared with general and juvenile offender populations, juvenile gang members exhibit significantly higher rates of mental health problems such as conduct disorder/antisocial personality disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 29 Gang members, compared with non-violent men who do not belong to a gang, are far more likely to utilise mental health services and display significantly higher levels of psychiatric morbidity, most notably antisocial personality disorder, psychosis and anxiety disorders. 30 Gang membership has also been positively correlated with an increased incidence of depressed mood and suicidal ideation among younger gang members. 31 Prevalence of ADHD is significantly greater in incarcerated youth populations (30.1%) than in general youth population estimates (3–7%), 32 therefore it may be reasonable to expect a similarly increased prevalence in juvenile gang members. ADHD has also been associated with a significantly increased risk of comorbid mood/affective disorder. 33

Forensic child and adolescent psychiatric services

Increased awareness of constitutional and environmental factors that contribute to juvenile offending has strengthened a public health perspective towards the problem, and in the UK entry into the youth justice system has been adopted as an indicator of general public health. 34

Dictionaries frequently define ‘forensic’ as meaning ‘legal’, implying a relationship with any court of law. Indeed, many forensic psychiatrists, particularly in child and adolescent services, undertake roles that encompass multiple legal domains relevant to mental health, including criminal law, family and child custody proceedings, special educational tribunals, and immigration or extradition matters.

Specialist forensic psychiatric services vary considerably between countries, 35 but usually forensic psychiatrists assess and treat individuals in secure psychiatric hospitals, prisons, law courts, police stations and in the community under various levels of security, supervision and support. In some countries there has been a trend towards forensic psychiatrists working almost exclusively with courts of law, providing independent specialist opinion to assist the court.

In the UK, forensic child and adolescent psychiatry has emerged as a clinical subspecialty. Some services are based in specialist secure hospitals for young people and cater for the relatively small number of high-risk young offenders with the most severe mental disorders. In the absence of such specialist resources, young people may be managed in suboptimal environments such as juvenile prisons, secure residential placements or secure mental health wards for adults, or even fail to receive treatment at all.

In light of growing evidence-based interventions for juvenile offenders within a public health framework, 36 the role of child and family mental health services may increase over time. Aside from direct clinical roles, practitioners in forensic child and adolescent psychiatry are also well placed to work with a wide range of partner agencies on the planning and delivery of broader interventions for the primary and secondary prevention of juvenile delinquency.

Prevalence of mental health problems among juvenile offenders

Rates of mental health problems among juvenile offenders are significantly higher than in their non-offender peers, with two-thirds of male juvenile offenders in the USA suggested as meeting criteria for at least one psychiatric disorder. 37 One in five juvenile offenders is estimated to suffer severe functional impairment as a result of their mental health problems. 38 Paradoxically, these needs are often unmet, 39 , 40 despite evidence of increased contact with mental health services, particularly among first-time juvenile offenders. 41 , 42 Of additional concern are the reported associations between mental health problems and mortality in incarcerated juveniles, 43 including an elevated suicide rate for males. 44 Mental health problems must be a target in interventions for juvenile offenders; however, treatments which focus solely on clinical problems are unlikely to result in benefit for criminogenic outcomes. 45 There is therefore a clear need for effective interventions which address both the clinical and criminogenic needs of these individuals.

Evidence-based treatments for mental health problems

Treatment of ptsd.

Estimates regarding the prevalence of PTSD among juvenile offenders suggest that 20 to 23% meet the clinical criteria, 46 , 47 with prevalence rates significantly higher among females than males (40% v . 17%). 46 Moreover, with 62% experiencing trauma within the first 5 years of life 47 and up to 93% experiencing at least one traumatic event during childhood or adolescence, 48 this should be a target for intervention.

Cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT) is regarded as the most effective intervention for adults with PTSD 49 and also has demonstrated efficacy for juvenile non-offenders. 50 , 51 There is limited evidence suggesting a significant reduction in self-reported symptoms of PTSD following group-based CBT in male juvenile offenders, 52 and of an adapted version of CBT, cognitive processing therapy, 53 also resulting in a significant reduction in self-reported symptoms of PTSD and depression compared with waitlist controls. 54

A trauma-focused emotion regulation intervention (TARGET) has received preliminary empirical support for use in this population. TARGET resulted in nearly twice as much reduction in PTSD symptom severity as treatment as usual (TAU), 55 in addition to significant reductions in depression, behavioural disturbances and increased optimism. 56

Mood/anxiety disorders and self-harm

Juvenile offenders in the UK present with a high prevalence of mood and anxiety disorders (67% of females, 41% of males), self-harm (11% of females, 7% of males) and history of suicide attempts (33% of females, 20% of males). 57 Similarly high prevalence has also been observed cross-culturally, namely in the USA, 37 , 58 Switzerland 59 and Finland. 60

Despite such high prevalence, there appears to be a paucity of high-quality evaluations regarding the effectiveness of interventions for juvenile offenders with mood and/or anxiety disorders, or problems with self-harm. However, the limited evidence that is available suggests that group-based CBT may aid symptom reduction. 61 Recovery rates for major depressive disorder following group-based CBT are over double those for a life skills tutoring intervention (39% v . 19%, respectively), although no significant difference was noted at 6- or 12-month follow-up. CBT also resulted in significantly greater improvements in self- and observer-reported symptoms of depression and social functioning. 62

However, group-based CBT is not reported to be significantly different from TAU in reduction of self-harm, 63 whereas individual CBT is not significantly different from TAU in outcomes for depression, anxiety, conduct disorder or PTSD. 64 Yet recruitment to and retention in intervention seems good, suggesting that CBT is feasible to implement in juvenile offender populations. 64

Evaluations of alternative interventions have posited muscle relaxation as effective in improving juvenile offenders' tolerance of frustration. 65 Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) has also been reported to significantly reduce incidences of physical aggression in a juvenile offender population 66 and among juvenile non-offenders expressing suicidal ideation. 67 It significantly reduced serious behavioural problems and staff punitive actions among juvenile offenders within a mental health unit, although no similar significant reductions were observed for those without mental health problems. 68

Evidence-based treatments for conduct disorder: family approaches

Relationships with family and peers are recognised as key factors in the criminogenic profile of juvenile offenders. 69 Multisystemic therapy (MST) is a family-focused intervention targeting characteristics related to antisocial behaviour, including family relationships and peer associations, 70 with evidence from US and UK studies suggesting MST is a beneficial intervention for juvenile offenders. When compared with conventional services offered by juvenile offending services, MST was associated with a significant reduction in the likelihood of reoffending, 71 maintained 2 and 4 years post-treatment. 72 , 73 Offenders engaging in MST are reported to be significantly less likely to become involved in serious and violent offending. 73 , 74 Significant improvements have also been observed in both self- and parent-reported delinquency, 74 family relations and interactions, 73 and home, school, community and emotional functioning. 71 A cost offset analysis of MST among UK juvenile offenders suggested that combining MST and conventional services provides greater cost savings than conventional services alone, as a result of its positive effects on recidivism. 75 Qualitative impressions of MST from juvenile offenders and their parents indicate that key components of a successful delivery of MST include the quality of the therapeutic relationship and ability to re-engage the offender with educational systems. 76

Some evidence also exists regarding the efficacy of MST when delivered to non-offender antisocial juvenile populations outside the USA and the UK. Compared with TAU, MST resulted in a significantly greater increase in social competence and caregiver satisfaction, and a significant reduction in referrals for out-of-home placements, in Norwegian juveniles exhibiting serious behavioural problems. 77 However, no significant difference between MST and TAU was reported in outcomes for antisocial behaviour and psychiatric symptoms in Swedish juvenile offenders. 78 MST was also found to have no significant benefit over TAU in outcomes including recidivism in a sample of Canadian juvenile offenders. 79 These differing outcomes have been posited as the result of barriers in transferring MST from US and UK populations owing to differing approaches to juvenile justice between countries (i.e. a welfare v . justice approach). 78 The heterogeneous nature of studies concerning MST in juvenile offender populations prevent a firm conclusion being drawn as to its superiority over alternative interventions, although this does not diminish the positive outcomes which have been observed. 80

Substance misuse

Motivational interviewing represents a promising approach for juvenile offenders, particularly as a treatment for substance misuse. 81 Group-based motivational interviewing has received positive feedback from participants when implemented with first-time juvenile alcohol or drug offenders, 82 and compared with TAU, juvenile offenders in receipt of motivational interviewing have greater satisfaction and display lower, though not statistically significant, rates of recidivism at 12-months post-motivational interviewing. 83 There is therefore preliminary evidence for the acceptability and feasibility of motivational interviewing for substance-misusing juvenile offenders, but future research regarding long-term outcomes is warranted. To date, motivational interviewing for difficulties faced by juvenile offenders beyond that of substance misuse does not appear to have received much research attention. Juvenile offenders are known for their difficulty to engage in rehabilitative services, therefore further investigation of the effectiveness of motivational interviewing in encouraging engagement is warranted.

Preliminary investigations have also developed a conceptual framework for the delivery of mindfulness-based interventions (MBI) to incarcerated substance-misusing juveniles, with qualitative impressions suggesting this is a potentially feasible and efficacious intervention. 84 Although literature regarding the effectiveness of MBI in juvenile offenders is scarce, qualitative feedback has indicated positive reception of this style of intervention, with particular improvements in subjective well-being reported by juvenile participants. 85

Employment and education

Engaging juvenile offenders with education and skills-based training is an important component of successful rehabilitation, with positive engagement in meaningful activities associated with improvements in areas such as self-belief 86 and protection against future participation in criminal activities. 87 It is concerning therefore that an evaluation of the use of leisure time over a 1-week period by probationary juvenile offenders in Australia indicated only 10% of this time was spent engaging in productive activities, such as employment or education, with 57% used for passive leisure activities, a level 30% higher than that of their non-offender peers. 88

Efforts to engage juvenile offenders in vocational and/or occupational activities have shown benefits in a number of areas. A specialised vocational and employment training programme (CRAFT) emphasising practical skills was evaluated against conventional education provision to juvenile offenders in the USA. Over a 30-month follow-up period, those engaged in CRAFT were significantly more likely to be in employment, to have attended an educational diploma programme and to have attended for a significantly longer period of time. 89 Benefits have also been reported with regard to risk of reoffending, with an after-school programme in the USA incorporating practical community projects, educational sessions and family therapy resulting in a significant reduction in recidivism at 1-year follow-up. 90

Qualitative investigations of US juvenile offenders suggest there is not a lack of interest in pursuing education among this population, but rather a disconnection with educational systems when education providers are perceived not to care about students' progress. 91 Ensuring education providers are perceived as proactive and caring in this regard may therefore be an important consideration for efforts to engage juvenile offenders with educational systems. Significant barriers to engagement include difficulties in obtaining accurate information regarding the offender's educational history, in addition to identifying community-based education providers willing to accept previously incarcerated juveniles on their release. 92

Language and communication

Difficulties with language and communication skills appear to be prevalent among juvenile offenders, with estimates of those falling into the poor or very poor categories ranging from 46 to 67%; overall, up to 90% of juvenile offenders demonstrated language skills below average. 93 Specifically, high rates of illiteracy are reported in this population, 94 with evidence to suggest that an awareness of such problems among juvenile offenders themselves is associated with dissatisfaction and poor self-esteem. 95 These difficulties may act as barriers to engagement in therapeutic interventions, particularly those delivered in group settings, as well as re-engagement with educational systems. Awareness of the challenges these young people face with regard to confidence and ability to communicate is important, and potential involvement of a speech and language therapist could be considered. Preventing deficits in language and communication through effective schooling and appropriate support in the early years of life may serve as an aid to effective engagement in rehabilitative interventions, and may also mitigate the risk of engagement in criminal activities in the first instance.

Delivery of therapeutic services

Common challenges to a therapeutic youth justice pathway.

There are common obstacles to smooth care pathways between different parts of systems, such as in transitions between secure settings and the community, between prisons and secure psychiatric settings, and between child and adult services. In some jurisdictions individuals can only be treated pharmacologically against their will in a hospital setting, a safeguard which limits the extent to which individuals can be treated in prison, but there is still great scope for intervention by prison mental health teams in juvenile prisons.

Factors associated with good outcomes

A meta-analysis has revealed three primary factors associated with effective interventions for juvenile offenders: a ‘therapeutic’ intervention philosophy, serving high-risk offenders, and quality of implementation. 96 These findings are consistent with factors posited as correlating with good outcome in residential centres for troubled adolescents and juvenile offenders: good staff-adolescent relations, perception of staff as pro-social role models, positive peer pressure, an individualised therapeutic programme approach, developmentally appropriate programmes and activities, clear expectations and boundaries, and placement locations which allow for continued family contact. 97 , 98

In the community, coercive styles of engagement have been found to be less successful at achieving adherence among juvenile offenders than a client-centred approach. 99

Factors associated with poor outcomes

‘Scared Straight’ programmes expose juveniles who have begun to commit offences to inmates of high-security prisons, yet these approaches have been discredited due to evidence that risk of recidivism may in fact increase following such exposure. 100 Similarly poor outcomes have been observed in programmes modelled on military boot camps, in which harsh discipline is considered to be of therapeutic benefit, 101 and initiatives such as curfew, probation and hearing juvenile cases in adult court were also shown to be ineffective in reducing recidivism. 13

Over recent years it has been repeatedly demonstrated that exposure to juvenile court itself appears to have a detrimental effect on juvenile offending. 102 – 104 This may be partially explained by effects of labelling, stigma and negative self-image associated with a criminal conviction, but also the practical consequences of sentences, including assortment of delinquent peers in community or prison sentences. Incarceration presents several additional harms, including disturbance of care and pro-social relationships, discontinuity in education, association with delinquent peers, and exposure to violence. Half of detained young offenders in the UK reported victimisation during their current prison term, 57 while 12% of incarcerated youth in the USA reported sexual victimisation in the previous year. 105 International agreements state that deprivation of liberty (such as juvenile prison) should be used as a last resort and for the shortest time necessary, so should be reserved for the highest-risk offenders. The cost of juvenile antisocial behaviour is known to be high, and to fall on many agencies. 106 The current climate of austerity in public services demands that any interventions should be not only effective, but also cost-effective, raising a clear challenge – and opportunity – for the implementation of interventions for this population of vulnerable young people. For example, parenting programmes have demonstrated sustained benefits for this population, 107 , 108 with economic analysis indicating gross savings of £9288 per child over a 25 year period. 109 Considered together with wider costs of crime, these gross savings exceed the average cost of parenting programmes (£1177) by a factor of approximately 8 to 1.

Conclusions

Many argue that we have a long way to go before arriving at ‘child friendly’ juvenile justice. 110 Around the world there are variable and inadequate legal frameworks that are not age-appropriate, there is a lack of age-appropriate services and establishments, and a lack of a specialist workforce, leading to challenges around training and supervision to work with this vulnerable population. In the UK and other high-income countries worldwide, forensic child and adolescent psychiatry is a multifaceted discipline incorporating legal, psychiatric and developmental fields. This approach has navigated clinical and ethical challenges and made an important contribution to welfare and justice needs by its adoption of an evidence-based therapeutic intervention philosophy.

Declaration of interests S.Y. has received honoraria for consultancy, travel, educational talks and/or research from Janssen, Eli Lilly, Shire, Novartis, HB Pharma and Flynn Pharma.

Question and Answer forum for K12 Students

Juvenile Delinquency Essay | Essay on Juvenile Delinquency for Students and Children in English

Juvenile Delinquency Essay: “In our country, children are considered a gift from heaven and if the child is a boy then nothing could be more soothing for the family as from the very beginning children are exempted from severe punishment for any wrong commitment on their part irrespective of the gravity of the act.” This one statement itself says and justifies for the social evil, our society is facing today: Juvenile Delinquency.

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Long and Short Essays On Juvenile Delinquency for Kids and Students in English

Given below are two essays in English for students and children about the topic of ‘Juvenile Delinquency’ in both long and short form. The first essay is a long essay on the Juvenile Delinquency of 400-500 words. This long essay about Juvenile Delinquency is suitable for students of class 7, 8, 9 and 10, and also for competitive exam aspirants. The second essay is a short essay on Juvenile Delinquency of 150-200 words. These are suitable for students and children in class 6 and below.

Long Essay on Juvenile Delinquency 500 Words in English

Below we have given a long essay on Juvenile Delinquency of 500 words is helpful for classes 7, 8, 9 and 10 and Competitive Exam Aspirants. This long essay on the topic is suitable for students of class 7 to class 10, and also for competitive exam aspirants.

In ordinary terms, a child roughly between the age of 7 to 16/18 years who is involved in some kind of a ‘status offence’ such as vagrancy, immortality, truancy and ungovern ability is a juvenile delinquent. Thus, juvenile delinquency is not just about under-aged criminals, who get involved in criminal activities. In fact, the term ‘juvenile delinquency’ refers to the violation of a code of conduct or a regular occurrence of certain patterns of disapproved behaviour of children and adolescents. The well accepted age at present for juvenile delinquents is 16 years for boys and 18 years for girls.

Juvenile delinquents are mainly classified on the basis of their behavioural patterns. They range from the escapers, who keep away from school and get involved in petty thefts and armed robberies, destruction of property, violence and sexual offences. They are also classified according to the type of violation they commit.

Thus, psychologists have grouped juvenile delinquents on the basis of their personality traits as mentally defective, psychotic, neurotic, situational and cultural delinquents. According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) report, the trend of children committing crime has an alarming echo across the country.

It is extremely hard to trace and keep a check on juvenile delinquency as of all the delinquencies committed by juveniles, only a small percentage come to the notice of the police and the courts. Traditionally, surveys suggest that delinquencies like theft, burglary, robbery, dacoity and other such offences are most commonly committed by juveniles. But recent statistics reveal that juveniles have also been found actively involved in riots, murder, rape, kidnapping and abduction as well.

Reason being that courts and juvenile rights advocates believe that second chance should be given to youth who commit crimes, so criminals are walking in the streets, living as our neighbours and in many cases committing additional crimes.

The delinquency rates are comparatively much higher among boys than in girls. Children from broken homes or disturbed families who are either homeless or living with guardians are more likely to indulge in criminal activities. Low education or illiteracy and poor economic background are major features of juvenile delinquents. But now-a-days, it’s not only street children who take to crime, even children from well-off middle and upper middle class families are turning to crime due to peer pressure and crime thrill the hunger of adolescents to be heroes among their friends, the need to portray class and style, effect of cinema have propelled the rate of juvenile delinquency in the society.

The media plays a major role in creating bogus desires and images in the minds of the youth, for which they are willing to do anything. Moreover, unmonitored access to the internet is another reason for growth in these crimes, as many are caught swindling money from bank accounts. Children belonging to the elite class, who are either sons or daughters of politicians, businessmen are also found involved in criminal acts. This largely attributes to criminals going scot-free in high-profile criminal cases, so the fear barrier no longer exists.

Increased exposure combined with isolation is the root cause of these behavioural issues. Children are growing up much faster, but their conscience and ability to distinguish between right and wrong isn’t developing at the same rate and they don’t feel the need to think things through. In most cases, the cause behind juvenile delinquency is defective upbringing or no upbringing, faulty or no family interaction. Children are not born criminals.

It’s the situations and circumstances that lead them into delinquencies. Mostly all juvenile offences have deeper roots and serious situational factors which are responsible for a child behaving in a particular way. Family plays a vital role in structuring the mental, emotional and behavioural patterns of a child. Other factors that are responsible for the rise in juvenile delinquency are unhealthy neighbourhood, cinema, pornographic literature and bad company.

In UK, child between 10 to 18 years become criminally responsible for his action and be tried by the youth court or could be tried in an adult court as per the gravity of the offence committed. In our country too, the time has come to bring some reforms in the Juvenile laws. There is a steep rise in serious crimes involving youth of 16 to 18 years of age as they very well know that below 18 years is the ‘getaway pass’ for them from criminal prosecution. The punishment should be made a big deterrent in order to inject the feeling of fear in the mind of the criminals.

Short Essay on Juvenile Delinquency 200 Words in English

Below we have given a short essay on Juvenile Delinquency is for Classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. This short essay on the topic is suitable for students of class 6 and below.

In the recent 2012 Delhi gang rape case, media too highlighted that ‘Most Brutal’ of all the accused person was the juvenile. For the brutalising act, he has been sentenced to imprisonment for the period of 3 years where others have got the death sentence. The principle that should have been followed for trying juvenile offenders is that Juvenility should be decided as per the state of mind and not just the state of body.

Juvenile Justice Act, 1986 was enacted by our Parliament in order to provide care, protection, treatment, development and rehabilitation of neglected or delinquent as a uniform system of juvenile justice mechanism throughout our country. These days we have observation homes, reformatory schools, custody institutions, probation homes etc., to help juvenile delinquents reform themselves so that they can be gradually absorbed into the mainstream society.

Moreover, we need to pay greater attention to improving the average condition in a society so that no child confronts such situations that force them to adopt unacceptable behavioural patterns. We need to find ways and means to pool the youthful energy of the children in a constructive and desired direction.

11 Lines to Remember Essay on Juvenile Delinquency

• Exempted – to free from an obligation or liability to which others are subject
• Vagrancy – a person without a settled home or regular work who wanders from place to place and lives by begging
• Truancy – the action of staying away from school without good reason; absenteeism
• Psychotic – mentally unstable; intensely upset, anxious, or angry
• Neurotic – abnormally sensitive, obsessive, or anxious; disturbed; irrational
• Echo – a sound heard again and again, any repetition of the ideas or opinions
• Burglary -theft, robbery, illegal entry of a building with intent to commit a crime
• Propelled – drive or push something forward, to urge onward
• Bogus – false, fake, not genuine
• Swindling – to obtain money by fraud, to cheat for money
• Deterrent – a thing that discourages or is intended to discourage someone from doing something

Juvenile Delinquency and Punishment

The given paper is devoted to the investigation of the topical theme of juvenile delinquency and punishments provided to young offenders. The modern justice system considers this group to be more vulnerable and important for society and provides an altered approach to sentencing. However, this perspective might be considered unfair by adult criminals. In this regard, the given research revolves around the opposition juvenile vs. adults and touches upon the major concerns related to the issue. The background of the given question is provided and discussed. Moreover, the problems of ethics, age, and specific attitude are also touched upon. To support the basic assumptions made in the paper with clear evidence, the real contradictory cases are provided and analyzed. Altogether, the paper offers a detailed and comprehensive investigation of the most problematic aspects of sentencing and the provision of punishments both for juveniles and adults and the grounds that were considered when making a certain decision.

Keywords: juvenile delinquency, adults, sentencing, the justice system, light sentence, ethics, law.

Introduction

The modern world faces several various problems that result from the blistering evolution of society and the development of peoples mentality impacted by this process. The question of crime is one of these contradictory issues that could be considered topical nowadays. However, this problem is not new. For centuries humanity, has been trying to create an efficient approach that will be able to solve most existing problems and protect law obedient citizens from criminals. In these regards, the existing justice system could be taken as the result of these attempts as they contributed to the formation of the main ideas and principles per which the modern system functions. However, one should mind the ever-changing character of the environment and the appearance of the new challenges that threaten the modern society. For these reasons, the alteration of the existing justice system is crucial as it must be able to solve the new nagging problems. For instance, the sphere of juvenile delinquency is nowadays often discussed because of the increased level of crimes committed by young people.

Background. Literature review

Per the latest statistics, law enforcement agencies in the U.S. made an estimated 1 million arrests of persons under age 18 (Trulson, Caudill, Belshaw, & DeLisi, 2011) (9th reference). The above-mentioned data contribute to the understanding of the fact that the great part of the youth could be considered dangerous elements that threaten common citizens and have a pernicious impact on the further evolution of our society. Some sociologists describe a situation as catastrophic and tend to emphasize the necessity to find the appropriate solution for this nagging problem (Redding, 2003) (5th reference). However, the question is complicated by several ethical issues that arise while speaking about the problem of juvenile delinquency. Besides, children aged from 7 to 14 years are usually related to this very group. For this very reason, the modern law and justice system suggest another approach created in response to the peculiarities of the age. Lenient sentences and uncensorious attitude could be considered the main aspects peculiar to the given sphere.

Being rather logical and humane, at the same time, the given practice establishes a precedent as there are numerous problems related to the definition of a person, his/her categorization, and the choice of the appropriate standards. Cops, De Boeck, and Pleysier are sure that the focus on the given pattern might also result in the appearance of certain risk factors that could trigger the rapid rise in juvenile delinquency rates and precondition its further spread (2015) (1st reference). The feeling of impunity has a pernicious impact on young peoples mentality and makes them act in some perverted ways to prove their selectness and unusual status. For this reason, there are some sources that insist on the necessity of the reconsideration of this very approach because of several problems that might appear. Yet, deviations of the psyche are also one of these concerns. Therefore, Semel is sure that psychiatric disorders among youth might be preconditioned by the great attention given to their selectness and the emphasis on their unique importance (2014) (7th reference). In terms of the juvenile delinquency, it might mean that numerous deviant behaviors come from the lack of responsibility and even fear of punishment. Nevertheless, there are numerous perspectives on the given issue. The divergence of the approaches provides the basis for vigorous discussions and debates related to the topic.

Law and ethics

Ethical issues could be considered a major concern related to the sphere of juvenile delinquency. The fact is that there is the strong opinion that states that children and young people should be treated in another way using less severe laws and punishments. The existence of the given perspective contributes to the formation of the prejudiced attitude. Statistics show that the bigger part of judgments of conviction related to the given sphere are less severe that the same judgments related to the traditional sphere (Jordan & Freiburger, 2010) (3rd reference). However, the given approach undermines the basis of the justice system and law. For this reason, it could be considered a threatening tendency. It has been widely accepted that such issues as law and ethics should not come together as the fairness and severity of punishment might suffer. In these regards, there are numerous speculations in the sphere of juvenile delinquency as a young person could count on indulgence.

Besides, the ethics of the modern society recognizes children and young people as the main contributors to its evolution. The given idea could be considered logical. However, it also creates the basis for a certain misbalance and shift of priorities towards the reconsideration of the value system and creation of a certain approach that would excuse any fault or misbehavior. The given model also preconditions the appearance of the conflict between law and ethics. DeLisi, Angton, Behnken, and Kusow admit that in case the modern tendencies will preserve, the society will face the great problem related to the rise of crime (2013) (2nd reference). These criminals will derive from young people raised in accordance with the new value system that appreciates their freedom and provides mild punishments for them. For this reason, the unreflective shift of priorities towards ethical issues might be dangerous; however, most people still consider children to be irresponsible for their actions because of the lack of understanding and social experience and several lawyers use it and try to obtain lenient sentence (Semel, 2014).

Juvenile delinquency

The problem is also topical due to the great switch in the system related to the persons movement from being a minor to being an adult. The difference in one day could have the great impact on the final sentence as per the existing laws a person of majority age could not count on the indulgence even if he/she was minor yesterday. The law states clear difference between a minor and major person and treats him/her in accordance with the suggested approaches. Nevertheless, this commitment to principles might result in numerous misunderstandings and extremely severe sentences for people who do not deserve them. One realizes the fact that one day does not change a person completely, and he/she remains the same child. Nevertheless, the law proclaims this difference extremely significant and applies the rules and laws as established.

Furthermore, given approach to the classification of criminals could be considered rather new. As stated above, the evolution of human thought and approach to children had been altering during the evolution of our world. Societies of the past had their own understanding of justice and provided equal punishments for both children and adults (DeLisi et al., 2013).). However, the improvement of the conditions under which people lived and the shift of priorities towards the appreciation of human life preconditioned the creation of a new pattern and the rise of juvenile delinquency. Yet, the ambiguousness of its nature has given ground to numerous debates and doubts related to the efficiency of the given approach. The opponents of the given practice underline the unfair distribution and provision of punishments and stress the idea that the given alterations to the law make it less efficient and decreases the level of trust to it as people do not feel that they are given equal conditions. For this very reason, there are numerous claims that appeal to reconsider the existing system and create the most flexible approach.

The problem of age

The problem of age is now new for the given system as there have always been vigorous debates related to the above-mentioned attitude towards the determination of crime and definition of minor and major persons. Attaining years of discretion, a person also obtains the legal status and should be ready to assume responsibility for all his/her actions. It means that the law will not be merciful anymore. The given practice is one of the basic elements of any society as it guarantees law compliance and security for all members of society. Yet, there is another perspective related to the given question. The age could not be considered the main fact that determines the courts attitude to person, especially if he/she has recently achieved it (Tufts & Roberts, 2002) (10th reference). Furthermore, there is also a tendency to assume that the psyche of a child is not able to admit the alterations that happen to and individual and accept the changed character of responsibility at a short period (Semel, 2013).

Adaptation to new responsibilities and conditions is a long-termed process that should be given great attention. For this reason, an individual should be guaranteed some extra time to understand the new conditions and demands. However, the law does not provide this opportunity and classifies a yesterday child as an adult and provides severe punishment for him/her. Therefore, another perspective on the problem of the determination of age explores this problem and states that if the pattern that is used nowadays fails to provide the fair classification, the necessity of its implementation should be doubted. In other words, there is no need for the creation of a certain dividing line that should be applied when cogitating about the provision of a certain punishment to an offender. In this regards, the question of the usage of special rules and approaches for a certain person becomes central for the sphere of juvenile delinquency

Nevertheless, the modern justice system has a set of laws that regulate the functioning of the coherent society and provide punishments for adults who break the law and pose a threat to well-being and security of common citizens (Tufts & Roberts, 2002). All practices and procedures that refer to the given sphere could be taken as severe measures needed to control the level and number of crimes. Speaking about the sentences given to adults, one should admit the fact that they result from the existing laws and approaches. The modern justice system could be considered the result of the long-term evolution of this institution and that is why several practices and rules have their own history and traditions. There are no ethical questions related to the usage of these very punishments as society has accepted their necessity and efficiency.

Mainly due to this fact, most sentences provided to adults do not give rise to vigorous debates. Yet, the existence of the alternative approach to the classification of crimes and the possibility of the provision of the milder sentence might undermine the attitude towards the existing system. For instance, now a grown-up offender might be suggested some other sort of sentence or even the approach the whole case only if he/she suffers from some mental problems or there are certain mitigating circumstances (DeLisi et al., 2013). At the same time, the existence of the altered approach and the shift of priorities towards the uncensorious attitude to young people might trigger the growths of dissatisfaction with this pattern among criminals who are sentenced in accordance with other laws. For this reason, the problem becomes especially significant when comparing the conditions provided for adults and young people. The convergence in perspectives on the necessity of altered punishments and sentences might also bring some uncertainty to the sphere of traditional law and its functioning with adult offenders.

Young offenders

Yet, the situation is different when it comes to the sphere of juvenile delinquency. Blistering evolution of the main humanistic ideas resulted in the significant reconsideration of the main values appreciated by the coherent society. In this regard, children became the most important part of any community as they determine its future and impact the further development. It is obvious that these shifts in mentality conditioned the appearance of the new approach to children which implied the uncensorious attitude and creation of the most comfortable environment (Redding, 2003). These tendencies also impacted the sphere of law and resulted in the appearance of the category of juvenile delinquency. It is focused on cases and crimes committed only by citizens who are not major.

The nature of the given sphere and the increased importance of humanistic values predetermined the development of less severe punishments and sentences. Additionally, there is also the tendency to involve parents and provide various measures for them as they are responsible for their child. This practice could not but give grounds for some discussion. One obviously recognizes the fact that adults bear responsibility for children and they should be ready to protect them and provide with the conditions beneficial for their growth and evolution. However, there is also some problem that comes from the given approach. If a child commits a crime, he/she is taken as not responsible for it and his/her parents should be ready to pay fees and suffer from a certain punishment. In other words, a child becomes the reason that makes adults suffer from the unfair penalty or punishment. For this reason, the given approach poses a certain question whether a person who is responsible for a child should also bear responsibility for his/her actions that break the law and undermine the basis of the functioning of our society.

Children vs adults

Besides, comparing these various aspects of the justice system, one admits a great number of significant differences that provide the basis for vigorous discussions. The fact is that some of the juvenile courts’ procedures reflect an effort to balance these the main concerns related to the issue and provide the fair punishment. However, statistics show that these attempts are not rather efficient as the bigger part of young criminals still obtain light sentences (Mann & Reynolds, 2006) (4th reference). At the same time, adults and major people often suffer from the biased attitude and are given severe punishments. This misbalance also conditions the evolution of practices aimed at using various loopholes in the law to qualify the severity of the sentence and use penalties prepared for young people (Spiranovic et al. 2011) (8th reference). Furthermore, as stated above, there is another problem related to the given sphere as young people who have just reached the needed age, should be judged in accordance with all laws and rules applied to majors.

Juveniles as adults

Besides, if today a person is considered a minor and tomorrow an adult, the rules and laws are applied as established. This sentence describes the existing problem and results in the appearance of numerous cases when a sentence is not fair and results in the significant deterioration of the court and the whole systems image. The fact is that very often a person who is on remand suffers from this very approach. He/she might become major in terms of the given court. However, they are to be judged in accordance with the severe laws. There is also another tendency when young people commit serious crimes counting on mercy and special attitude that results from their unique status (Redding, 2003).

Analyzing the given practice, it is also possible to admit the fact that these differences and problematic concerns pose a great threat for the further evolution of the justice system as it results in the appearance of several unfair sentences. It could not but undermine the basis of the justice system and pose a great threat to the existing pattern that regulates relations between criminals and the law. The usage of these loopholes might precondition the failure of the existing system and the significant rise in the crime rates. Furthermore, the further deterioration of the situation related to the existing tendency to given even more attention to young offenders could be predicted. In case the altered and mild sentences are applied in terms of juvenile delinquency, the divergence in perspectives will become even more obvious and the appearance of a certain conflict could be predicted.

Cases analysis

For these reasons both adherers and opponents of the existing practices have rather strong arguments to protect the existing pattern and promote its further evolution. There are numerous specialists who are sure that the modern approach promotes the evolution of responsible attitude and contributes to the creation of a certain barrier between the youth and crime. Hence, there is also the point of view that states that the difference in one day should not be considered the main degerminator of a persons age especially when it comes to sentence. Yet, there are also several controversial cases that might be used to support one or another point of view.

For instance, the case of AL artiste on H.C. implied the similar situation (“Recent Court Cases”, n.d.) (6th reference). At the period, criminals were under 18. This fact conditions the necessity of the usage of the special laws and rules related to the sphere of juvenile delinquency. However, now the defendants of the given case are major persons who must accept the responsibility and obtain fair punishment. Besides, the complex character of the case gives rise to several various concerns. One of them is whether it is necessary to consider the criminals age as one of the mitigating factors or it is vital to sentence them resting on their status. Nevertheless, the court decided to provide severe punishment for both offenders, introducing 77 and 50 years’ imprisonment (“Recent Court Cases”, n.d.). It becomes obvious that it acted in accordance with the existing laws and ignored the fact that the main actors were under 18 now of crime. The case also evidences the imperfection of the whole system. As stated above, now of the crime, criminals were under 18. However, due to the long-term character of the process they attained majority and were punished without regard to their age at that moment.

Nevertheless, there is another case that could be used as a good example to demonstrate the problematic character of the given issue. Defendants were both seventeen-year-old people who were convicted of special circumstance murder (“Recent Court Cases”, n.d.). Besides, the comparatively low age of these young men did not have any impact on the court as they were both sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility to parole ( Recent Court Cases on Extreme Sentences for Youth , n.d.). The given case proves the idea that there are many various aspects that might impact any case expect the age of the main. defendants. The life imprisonment could not be considered the penalty that is often used in the sphere of juvenile delinquency. In this regards, the given case could be considered the great evidence of the existence of numerous problems related to the sphere of juvenile delinquency as very often children are treated like adults and obtain severe punishments.

These controversial cases provide the ground for numerous debates. Defendants advocates appealed against the courts decision insisting on the unfair character of the sentences and highlighting the age of the main figurants. However, their attempts were not successful.

It is possible to conclude that the existing justice system is not perfect as it admits the existence of various approaches to the same issues. Analyzing the sphere of juvenile delinquency, it is impossible not to admit several problems that result from the existence of the strict line between minor and major persons. Per the modern laws, one day could play the great role and condition a great switch in the system. The analyzed cases prove the fact that the given approach could hardly be taken as the efficient one as very often young people might be taken as adults. Additionally, another significant problem is related to the ethical side of the given question as the coherent society considers children the main value which should be protected. That is why there is a special attitude towards this very group which impacts most sentences and results in the increased importance of the creation of the new practice that will be able to change the existing situation and guarantee the appearance of the new approach that will be able to consider all aspects and provide real and fair punishments. Yet, now the given concerns remain topical for the modern justice system.

Cops, D., De Boeck, A., & Pleysier, S. (2015). School vs. mail surveys: Disentangling selection and measurement effects in self-reported juvenile delinquency. European Journal of Criminology, 13 (1), 92-110.

DeLisi, M., Angton, A., Behnken, M., & Kusow, A. (2013). Do adolescent drug users fare the worst? International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 59 (2), 180-195.

Jordan, K., & Freiburger, T. (2010). Examining the impact of race and ethnicity on the sentencing of juveniles in the adult court. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 21 (2), 185-201.

Mann, E., & Reynolds, A. (2006). Early intervention and juvenile delinquency prevention: evidence from the Chicago Longitudinal Study. Social Work Research. 30 (3), n. pag. Web.

Redding, R. (2003). The effects of adjudicating and sentencing juveniles as adults. Research and policy implications. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 1 (2), 128-155.

Recent court cases on extreme sentences for youth . (n.d.). Web.

Semel, R. (2014). Strengths and limitations of the personality inventory for youth (PIY) in juvenile delinquency assessments. SAGE Open , 1-12.

Spiranovic, C., Roberts, L., Indermaur, D., Warner, K., Gelb, K., & Mackenzie, G. (2011). Public preferences for sentencing purposes: What difference does offender age, criminal history and offence type make? Criminology and Criminal Justice, 12 (3), 289-306.

Trulson, C., Caudill, J., Belshaw, S., & DeLisi, M. (2011). A Problem of fit: extreme delinquents, blended sentencing, and the determinants of continued adult sanctions . Criminal Justice Policy Review, 22 (3), 263-284.

Tufts, J., & Roberts, J. (2002). Sentencing juvenile offenders: comparing public preferences and Judicial Practice. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 13 (1), 46-64. Web.

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Juvenile Delinquency Essay

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Topic: Social Strains That Promote Juvenile Delinquency

Many criminological theories have emerged over the years seeking to establish the causes of prevalent criminal acts in specific segments of the society. The theories continue to be reviewed, both individually and in combination, by stakeholders exploring on ways to control or prevent crime from happening (Crow & Smykla, 2013). On this basis, the subsequent paragraphs of this paper are centered on the Strain Anomie Theory, postulated by Robert Merton, as one of theoretical frameworks that attempts to associate an array of social factors to juvenile delinquency.

The underlying argument in favor of this theory is that certain strains or stressors increase the likelihood of committing crime. Thus, instances of strains may include the inability for the adolescents to achieve life goals, such as money and quality education; the loss of a positive stimuli, such the demise of a friend or a valued possession; and the presentation of such a negative stimuli as verbal abuse (Crow & Smykla, 2013). In response, the victims may turn to crime as a coping mechanism for reducing or escaping from strains.

Based on the tenets of the strain theory I concur that there exists a correlation between crime and juvenile delinquency. For instance, John Bowlby, in his Attachment Theory independently observes that a significant number of juveniles with errant and antisocial behaviors have a history cold relationship with parents (Hollin, 2013). Notably, parents with a drinking or substance abuse habit may turn violent towards their children. Such negative stimuli compel the children to begin viewing the world as unfair and one in which they have to fight against to ensure survival. Here, survival mechanisms may include running from the abusive parents and engaging in drug abuse in order to feel better. On the same note, the inability by the parents to indiscipline the child also contributes to deviant behaviors that may be irreparable in the future. An applicable scenario in this case includes the failure by the parent to punish a child who deliberately skips school. In the end, the child is unable to achieve life goals enjoyed by peers who went through school, and thus resorts to delinquent behaviors.

Through the prisms of the Relative Deprivation Theory, I further find it reasonable to agree that the loss of a positive stimulus, as exemplified earlier, can also lead to high cases of juvenile delinquency. The Relative Deprivation theory fosters an argument that, for instance, children who lose parents in their dependence age may feel disappointed in life because they have certain expectations from their parents (Kendall, 2008). At least, they expect someone to be there to provide them with basic needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter. In the absence of such provisions the underage will yield in to social pressure to earn a decent life like the one enjoyed by their peers. Noteworthy, in this case, is that the end means could mean the children engaging in crimes.

The above discourse on the correlation between juvenile delinquency and the scholarly frameworks of the Strain Anomie theory puts emphasis on the need to have a functional family structure as well as a caring society. Such an arrangement is devoid of violence, abuse, and negligence towards children in the dependency stage. Ultimately, the children begin acquiring positive values right from their formative years.

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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Juvenile Delinquency — A Study of Juvenile Delinquency and the Juvenile Justice System

A Study of Juvenile Delinquency and The Juvenile Justice System

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An unusually levelheaded and perceptive view of the so-called child welfare system. Hubner, a reporter with the San Jose...

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"SOMEBODY ELSE'S CHILDREN: The Courts, the Kids, and the Struggle to Save America's Troubled Families"

by John & Jill Wolf son Hubner ‧ RELEASE DATE: Jan. 1, 1997

An unusually levelheaded and perceptive view of the so-called child welfare system. Hubner, a reporter with the San Jose Mercury News, and Wolfson, a freelance journalist (and former probation officer), live in California's Santa Clara County, site of Silicon Valley and the boomtown of San Jose, now the 11th-largest city in the country. Despite its flourishing economy, San Jose is burdened with all the usual societal problems, including juvenile delinquency and child abuse. With the cooperation of the presiding judge of the county juvenile court, the authors were given access to usually confidential court, probation, and child welfare agency records, and they have produced a fascinating insider's view of the mesh of policy, precedent, legislation, and social gestalt that shapes how children in trouble are treated. They interviewed not only children at risk, but their families, friends, teachers, foster parents, and counselors. Neither awash in bathos nor steeped in cynicism, their report focuses on a number of individuals, including Jenny, a teenage mother fighting to keep her baby; Nicky, a baby born prematurely with cocaine and alcohol in his frail system; and Corey, a 15-year-old who stabbed a counselor to death. These stories gain dimension by being set within the larger perspective of America's roller-coaster attitudes toward out-of-control children, a review of often confusing social welfare policy (preserve the family and keep the children safe--sometimes mutually exclusive goals), and an understanding, if not always sympathetic, look at the difficult roles of social workers, attorneys, and prison staff. Despite increasing political pressure to punish juvenile offenders with long prison terms, the authors produce impressive statistics to show that incarceration doesn't work and that intensive, long-term therapy in small, controlled settings does. Balanced, informative, and often very sad, not only in the tragic stories but in the picture of a system that seems close to being overwhelmed.

Pub Date: Jan. 1, 1997

Page Count: 384

Publisher: Crown

Review Posted Online: N/A

Kirkus Reviews Issue: Dec. 1, 1996

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