lung model presentation

How To Make a Model of the Lungs

Dave King/Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images

• Cell Biology
• Weather & Climate
• B.A., Biology, Emory University
• A.S., Nursing, Chattahoochee Technical College

Constructing a lung model is an excellent way to learn about the respiratory system and how the lungs function. The lungs are respiratory organs that are vital to the breathing process and necessary to acquire life-giving oxygen. They provide a place for gas exchange between air from the outside environment and gases in the blood .

Gas exchange occurs at lung alveoli (tiny air sacs), as carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen. This oxygen is then delivered to the tissues and cells of the body by the circulatory system . Breathing is an involuntary process that is regulated by a region of the brain called the medulla oblongata .

Building your own lung model will help you to gain a better understanding of how the lungs work!

What You Need

• 3 Large balloons
• 2 Rubber bands
• Electrical tape
• Plastic 2-liter bottle
• Flexible plastic tubing - 8 inches
• Y-shaped hose connector

Here's How

• Gather together materials listed under the What You Need section above.
• Fit the plastic tubing into one of the openings of the hose connector. Use the tape to make an airtight seal around the area where the tubing and the hose connector meet.
• Place a balloon around each of the remaining 2 openings of the hose connector. Tightly wrap the rubber bands around the balloons where the balloons and hose connector meet. The seal should be airtight.
• Measure two inches from the bottom of the 2-liter bottle and cut the bottom off.
• Place the balloons and hose connector structure inside the bottle, threading the plastic tubing through the neck of the bottle.
• Use the tape to seal the opening where the plastic tubing goes through the narrow opening of the bottle at the neck. The seal should be airtight.
• Tie a knot at the end of the remaining balloon and cut the large part of the balloon in half horizontally.
• Using the balloon half with the knot, stretch the open end over the bottom of the bottle.
• Gently pull down on the balloon from the knot. This should cause air to flow into the balloons within your lung model.
• Release the balloon with the knot and watch as the air is expelled from your lung model.
• When cutting the bottom of the bottle, make sure to cut it as smoothly as possible.
• When stretching the balloon over the bottom of the bottle, make sure it is not loose but fits tightly.

Process Explained

The purpose of assembling this lung model is to demonstrate what happens when we breathe. In this model, structures of the respiratory system are represented as follows:

• plastic bottle = chest cavity
• plastic tubing = trachea
• Y-shaped connector = bronchi
• balloons inside bottle = lungs
• balloon covering the bottom of bottle = diaphragm

The chest cavity is the body chamber (bounded by the spine, rib cage, and breast bone ) that provides a protective environment for the lungs. The trachea, or windpipe, is a tube the extends from the larynx (voice box) down into the chest cavity, where it splits into two smaller tubes called bronchi. The trachea and bronchi function to provide a pathway for air to enter into and exit the lungs. Within the lungs, the air is directed into tiny air sacs (alveoli) that serve as the sites of gas exchange between the blood and external air. The breathing process (inhalation and exhalation) relies heavily on the muscular diaphragm, which separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity and works to expand and contract the chest cavity.

What Happens When I Pull Down on the Balloon?

Pulling down on the balloon at the bottom of the bottle (step 9) illustrates what happens when the diaphragm contracts and the respiratory muscles move outward. Volume increases in the chest cavity (bottle), which lowers air pressure in the lungs (balloons inside the bottle). The decrease of pressure in the lungs causes air from the environment to be drawn through the trachea (plastic tubing) and bronchi (Y-shaped connector) into the lungs. In our model, the balloons within the bottle expand as they fill with air.

What Happens When I Release the Balloon?

Releasing the balloon at the bottom of the bottle (step 10) demonstrates what happens when the diaphragm relaxes. The volume within the chest cavity decreases, forcing air out of the lungs. In our lung model, the balloons within the bottle contract to their original state as the air within them is expelled.

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FREE K-12 standards-aligned STEM

curriculum for educators everywhere!

Find more at TeachEngineering.org .

• TeachEngineering
• Creating Model Working Lungs: Just Breathe

Hands-on Activity Creating Model Working Lungs: Just Breathe

Grade Level: 5 (3-5)

Time Required: 45 minutes

Expendable Cost/Group: US $2.00

Group Size: 2

Activity Dependency: Lesson 9

Associated Informal Learning Activity: Creating Model Lungs: Just Breathe!

Subject Areas: Biology

Curriculum in this Unit Units serve as guides to a particular content or subject area. Nested under units are lessons (in purple) and hands-on activities (in blue). Note that not all lessons and activities will exist under a unit, and instead may exist as "standalone" curriculum.

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Engineering connection, learning objectives, materials list, worksheets and attachments, more curriculum like this, introduction/motivation, vocabulary/definitions, troubleshooting tips, activity extensions, activity scaling, user comments & tips.

By studying the respiratory system, engineers have created technologies such as the heart-lung machine, which keeps patients alive during heart transplants. Engineers are currently working on creating an implantable, artificial lung to aid people with serious lung diseases. One way that engineers study complicated systems is by creating models, similar to how students create their own model lungs in this activity.

After this activity, students should be able to:

• Describe the function of the respiratory system.
• Create a model of the lungs and explain what happens to them when you inhale and exhale.
• Give examples of engineering advancements that have helped with respiratory systems.

Educational Standards Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) , a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g. , by state; within source by type; e.g. , science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc .

Ngss: next generation science standards - science.

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International Technology and Engineering Educators Association - Technology

State standards, colorado - science.

Each group needs:

• 2-liter empty plastic bottle with cap
• 2 plastic drinking straws; available inexpensively at restaurant supply stores or donated by fast-food chains; do not use the flexible drinking straws
• 2 9-inch balloons
• 1 larger balloon; for example, for a punch ball
• 2 rubber bands
• Lung Worksheet , one per student

Have you ever been on a crowded subway or bus? You probably could not wait to get out where there were not so many people and you could move around freely. This is similar to the process that causes air to flow in and out of your lungs. The air molecules are either crowded outside (in the environment) and want to get into the lungs where there are less air molecules (inhalation), or they want to get outside because they are too crowded inside the lungs (exhalation).

When you inhale, your diaphragm muscle contracts downward and rib muscles pull upward causing air to fill the lungs. Can you think of why? Well, when your diaphragm moves down and ribs move up, they make more space in your chest (in the thoracic cavity) for air. This also decreases the pressure on your lungs so the air will flow in from the outside. The opposite happens when you breathe out. Your diaphragm relaxes and the ribs and lungs push in which causes air to be pushed out.

Engineers need to understand the respiratory process in order to design machines and medicines to help people whose respiratory systems function incorrectly or with difficulty. Have you ever known someone who suffers from asthma or pneumonia? Well, chemical engineers design devices and medicines, such as inhalers filled with an adrenergic bronchodilator to help people breathe better. Engineers have also developed artificial lungs that help people breathe while fighting off infections. And engineers also design the systems that help astronauts breathe easily during space flight, when they are far away from the Earth's atmosphere.

Engineers use models to study complicated processes and better understand them. In this activity, you will act like engineers by building models of the lungs in order to study the breathing process and what happens when you breathe in and out.

Before the Activity

• Gather materials and make copies of the Lung Worksheet .
• In each of the 2-liter bottle caps, drill 2 holes that are just big enough for a drinking straw to fit through. Tip: Make sure to drill the holes far enough apart that the holes do not become one big hole!
• Using a pair of scissors, cut off the bottom of each 2-liter bottle.

With the Students

• Peel off the labels, if any, on the 2-liter bottles.
• Tell students that the 2-liter bottle represents the human chest cavity.
• Stick two drinking straws through the two holes in the bottle cap.
• Place one 9-inch balloon on the end of each straw and secure them with rubber bands, as shown in Figure 2.

• Tell students that the straws represent the bronchi and the balloons represent the lungs.
• Stick the balloon ends of the straws through the bottle opening and tightly screw on the lid.
• Stretch out the larger balloon and place it over the open bottom of the bottle.
• Tell students that this larger balloon represents the diaphragm. Now they have a finished model of the lungs! (See Figure 3,) Next, it is time to make the lungs work!

• Pull the diaphragm (balloon) down (that is, away from the lungs) in order to inflate the lungs. (Note: This makes the chest cavity larger and decreases the pressure.)
• Push the diaphragm (balloon) in (towards the lungs) in order to deflate the lungs. (Note: This makes the chest cavity smaller and increases the pressure.)

• Have students complete the worksheet.
• To conclude, have teams make presentations of their model lungs, as described in the Assessment section.

bronchi: Two large tubes connected to the trachea that carry air to and from the lungs.

diaphragm: A shelf of muscle extending across the bottom of the rib cage.

lungs: Spongy, saclike respiratory organs that occupy the chest cavity, along with the heart. They provide oxygen to the blood and remove carbon dioxide from it.

Pre-Activity Assessment

Discussion Questions: Solicit, integrate and summarize student responses.

• How do the lungs work? How do you inhale and exhale?
• Does your breathing change when you exercise? How?

Activity Embedded Assessment

Worksheet: Have students record their observations and complete the Lung Worksheet . Review their answers to gauge their mastery of the subject.

Post-Activity Assessment

Presentation and Informal Discussion: Have one or more groups use their projects to demonstrate how the lungs work. Next, hypothesize with the class: What would happen to the respiratory system if we punctured it? Have one group puncture the cavity (bottle) or diaphragm (rubber bottom) and demonstrate what happens to the lungs if this body part is damaged. (Answer: The lungs are unable to inflate and/or deflate if the chest cavity has a leak. The lungs cannot maintain the pressure difference.) Discuss with the class: What could engineers do to help fix a puncture in a person's lungs?

When cutting off the plastic bottle bottom, make sure that the edges are as smooth as possible so it does not rip the balloon on the bottom. If edges are rough, bind them with masking or duct tape.

Seal any potential leaks with poster tack.

Have students research respiratory diseases and how they affect the function of the respiratory system. Can they alter their model to show what happens to the lungs with these diseases? Can they demonstrate on their models what has been done to help people with respiratory problems?

Engineers have developed an artificial lung to help people fight infection. The artificial lung is approximately 18-inches long and consists of membranes that pass oxygen to the blood and remove carbon dioxide. It is inserted through a vein in the leg and lodged in the main vein (the vena cava) passing blood to the heart. The blood is re-oxygenated through a catheter attached to an oxygen supply. Have students create a drawing of a machine that could help their model lungs "breathe" without having them pull down or push up on the lower balloon. Explain that this is how engineers might begin to develop life-saving machines.

For lower grades, have students make one lung rather than two. Use a smaller water bottle rather than a 2-liter bottle and one balloon lung rather than two.

Students learn about the parts of the human respiratory system and the gas exchange process that occurs in the lungs. They also learn about the changes in the respiratory system that occur during spaceflight, such as decreased lung capacity.

Students are introduced to the respiratory system, the lungs and air. They learn about how the lungs and diaphragm work, how air pollution affects lungs and respiratory functions, some widespread respiratory problems, and how engineers help us stay healthy by designing machines and medicines that su...

To gain a better understanding of the roles and functions of components of the human respiratory system and our need for clean air, students construct model lungs that include a diaphragm and chest cavity. Student teams design and build a prototype face mask pollution filter and use their model lung...

Students are introduced to the concepts of air pollution, air quality, and climate change. The three lesson parts (including the associated activities) focus on the prerequisites for understanding air pollution. First, students use M&M® candies to create pie graphs that express their understanding o...

"How is Asthma Treated?" Diseases and Conditions Index, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Human Services. Accessed May 23, 2006. http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/respiratory

"Bronchi and Bronchial Tree." Training Website: Bronchi, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program, U.S. National Cancer Institute's Surveillance. Accessed May 23, 2006. http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/respiratory/passages/bronchi.html

"Respiratory system." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, Wikipedia,com. Accessed May 23, 2006. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_system

Contributors

Supporting program, acknowledgements.

The contents of this digital library curriculum were developed under grants from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), U.S. Department of Education and National Science Foundation (GK-12 grant no. 0338326). However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the DOE or NSF, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

Last modified: May 1, 2020

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How Do Lungs Work? Make A Model Lung

August 12, 2018 By Emma Vanstone 36 Comments

The lungs are an essential organ for all mammals. Lungs have several features which make them perfect for exchanging gases.

• a very large surface area, thanks to a network of small tubes and tiny air sacs called alveoli.
• they are moist
• and have a good blood supply

Today we’re going to find out how lungs work by making a lung model .

The lungs are part of our breathing system, which has two functions:

• ventilation  – the movement of air into and out of the lungs
• gas exchange  – gases are exchanged between tiny sacs called alveoli and the blood.

Under the lungs is the  diaphragm, a muscular sheet separating the lungs from the abdomen. The diaphragm moves up and down to increase the space in the chest like the balloon at the bottom of the model.

To make a model lung you’ll need

• A plastic bottle
• An elastic band
• Two balloons

The bottle acts like the chest cavity, the balloon at the bottom is like the diaphragm and the balloon in the centre is like a lung.

Instructions for making a model lung

• Carefully cut the bottle roughly in half. Ask an adult to help. Discard the bottom half.

2. Tie a knot in one end of one balloon and cut off the opposite end.

3. Stretch the balloon around the bottom of your plastic bottle.

4. Place a straw in the neck of the other balloon and secure it tightly with the elastic band but not so much that you crush the straw. The air must flow through, so test it with a little blow through the straw to see if the balloon inflates.

5. Put the straw and the balloon into the neck of the bottle and secure them with the play dough to make a seal around the bottle – make sure that again, you don’t crush the straw, but air can flow through.

Hold the bottle and pull the knot of the balloon at the bottom. What happens?

You should find that the balloon inside the bottle inflates, and as you let go the balloon deflates.

Why does this happen?

As the knotted balloon is pulled it creates more space inside the bottle. Air then comes down the straw and fills the balloon with air to fill the space! This is like breathing in.

When you let go of the knot the space no longer exists, so the air from the balloon is expelled making it deflate.

Inside the lungs is a network of tubes which allow air to pass through. Air is warmed, moistened and filtered as it travels through the mouth and nasal passages. It then passes through a network of tubes, eventually reaching tiny sacs called alveoli which is where gas exchange occurs.

How do lungs work?

This lung model demonstrates how the lungs work. Air is taken in through the mouth and nose, passes down the windpipe and into the lungs. The diaphragm at the bottom of our chest moves down to create more space. As we breathe out the diaphragm raises again. The knotted balloon represents the diaphragm and the balloon inside the container represents a lung. That’s how lungs work!!

More ideas for learning about the lungs

Create a labelled diagram of the gas exchange system.

Use balloons to make a very simple model of the lungs.

More human body science ideas

Create and build a DNA model from candy

Try this super simple heart rate investigation .

Make your own stethoscope with a cardboard tube, tape and a funnel.

If you liked this post, we’d love you to follow us on Facebook where we post fun science ideas daily!

If you enjoyed this activity do check out my other easy science investigations for kids of all ages.

Last Updated on April 11, 2023 by Emma Vanstone

Safety Notice

Science Sparks ( Wild Sparks Enterprises Ltd ) are not liable for the actions of activity of any person who uses the information in this resource or in any of the suggested further resources. Science Sparks assume no liability with regard to injuries or damage to property that may occur as a result of using the information and carrying out the practical activities contained in this resource or in any of the suggested further resources.

These activities are designed to be carried out by children working with a parent, guardian or other appropriate adult. The adult involved is fully responsible for ensuring that the activities are carried out safely.

Reader Interactions

April 13, 2012 at 11:39 am

Very cool – even if it does make me feel a bit queasy!

December 09, 2013 at 5:41 pm

I know how you feel.They could have chose a less effective colour.

January 17, 2014 at 8:57 pm

April 15, 2012 at 1:26 am

I have made this with my oldest son! It’s really neat; I plan to do it with all my kids when we study anatomy!

April 15, 2012 at 1:39 pm

I’m so glad you liked it!

April 16, 2012 at 10:10 pm

Very cool. Now to remember this when Bunny is a little older! My “No Time for Flashcards” post is a look at our week of playschool– http://www.notimeforflashcards.com/

April 17, 2012 at 7:05 pm

What a great demonstration!! Thank you for sharing at Sharing Saturday!! I hope you are having an amazing week!

April 18, 2012 at 9:59 am

That is seriously impressive. My get my husband to make one with our 8 yr old.

April 19, 2012 at 11:16 am

This is excellent, thank you. My son and I have just started exploring science at home and this site is wonderful. I’m so glad you link up to Sharing Saturday, thank you.

April 19, 2012 at 1:51 pm

Great way to teach science! Thanks for linking up to Kids Co-op.

April 20, 2012 at 1:28 pm

So Cool! This is the first time I’ve understood how a lung works. Thank you for giving me my weekly science lesson 🙂 Nominated you for a MAD award, btw. Thanks for sharing on Kids Get Crafty! ~Alissa and Maggy

April 21, 2012 at 1:11 am

I am new to your site and really like it! I pinned the how to make a lung idea to my learning ideas board – what a great idea…can be used in so many ways! Thank you!

April 22, 2012 at 9:48 pm

Thank you for pinning. xx

April 21, 2012 at 2:13 am

I just wanted to stop by to tell you that this is so awesome it is being featured this week on the The Sunday Showcase Have a wonderful week-

Aimee & Bern

Thank you so much. xx

July 23, 2012 at 3:24 am

This is a great idea! And it would work well to show the effects of smoking too. Use a wide straw (like one from McDonald’s) to fill the lung, then feel the difference in how fast or easily the lung fills using a narrow straw (like a tiny one for stirring coffee). I will for sure be doing this demo with kids! Thanks!

July 23, 2012 at 6:48 am

Fab. I’m glad you liked it.

January 13, 2023 at 2:24 pm

Thanks for sharing this video. This really helped in my school science fair. Thank you so much.

January 28, 2013 at 11:58 pm

You have to use a very sturdy water bottle for this project. My son and I went through many balloons trying to make it fit over a standard water bottle…..we ended up using a Snapple drink bottle because the plastic is stronger.

October 21, 2013 at 2:30 am

This looks great! We’ll be trying it this year when we learn about the respiratory system in our homeschool! Thanks for sharing!

December 09, 2013 at 5:44 pm

I’m making this for a science project and I hope that I do it right!How clever!It must have taken a while to think of that.GREAT IDEA!

January 24, 2014 at 8:45 am

It is so nise but we have two lungs.but you have shown only one.

March 24, 2014 at 11:40 pm

Great demonstration, I just wanted to correct the following statement:

“This demonstrates how our lungs work. Air is taken in through the mouth and nose, passes down the windpipe and into our lungs. The diaphragm at the bottom of our chest moves down dot create more space.”

The diaphragm is the muscle that makes breathing happen. As it contracts and spreads flat in the abdomen, it creates a vacuum that draws air into the body. This model demonstrates how a vacuum works.

August 29, 2014 at 2:02 pm

This is so great. I teach flute and was looking for some kind of demo – this is perfect – if I can get mine to work as well as yours does 🙂

March 12, 2015 at 3:48 pm

Awesome experiment! Did it with my school and didn’t understand the science bit…l thank you!!

March 12, 2015 at 3:50 pm

Suggestions: Instead of using a balloon as the lung, you can cut off the fingers of a doctors glove and Sellotape it to a y tube. It’s much more accurate

April 26, 2015 at 12:15 pm

It can be difficult to find plastic bottles that hold up to having a balloon stretched across the bottom. They all seem too thin. Can anyone suggest brands?

April 29, 2015 at 10:28 am

I’ve redone this recently and used a diet coke bottle, but I did reinforce it with some masking tape.

July 19, 2019 at 9:20 pm

Use a strong plastic clear cup with a lip at the bottom. The balloon fits nicely over it.

June 07, 2015 at 2:09 am

it is very easy to understand how they have discribe their eperiment i thank science aparks for this

May 13, 2016 at 8:19 pm

November 23, 2016 at 5:36 pm

This s a great experiment, we did it with 10 year olds and really got them thinking – easy and clear – thanks for the clear instructions 🙂 Just in case you want to know – few spelilng errors noticed – of not off and ballon and bow not blow.. x

November 25, 2018 at 8:22 pm

This looks like an absolutely perfect model for some school activities. I’ll definitely use it with my kids.

November 28, 2018 at 6:09 pm

Must have a strong 2 liter bottle. Many are too bendable

January 28, 2019 at 1:24 pm

This project is so cool I’m doing one for my project

October 23, 2019 at 1:33 pm

Wow! Thank you for sharing such a great activity! I’ll share it on my facebook page.

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Bluetree Education Group

• Primary Science

Lung Model 101: Understanding the Respiratory System

• August 8, 2023
• P5/P6 Human Systems - Respiratory & Circulatory Systems

Breathe easy, curious learners, for the Lung Model and Respiratory System Science Notes are here to pump up your knowledge! Picture this: your body’s very own respiratory symphony, starring the nose, windpipe, lungs, and diaphragm as the main players.

But wait, there’s more! Did you know that our curious selves sometimes choose to breathe through our mouths too? Yes, that’s right, the mouth is the stage for our spectacular inhalations and exhalations !

Let’s unlock the secrets of our incredible respiratory system, shall we? It’s like having your own personal air filtration system – extracting oxygen from the air we breathe while gracefully waving goodbye to unwanted carbon dioxide.

Now, here’s the real showstopper – the lungs! Imagine these mighty organs as a bustling city with air sacs acting as the VIP lounges for oxygen and carbon dioxide. Oxygen enters the bloodstream like rockstars entering a concert, while carbon dioxide takes its final bow before exiting the body.

Unraveling the Mystery of Breathing: Let’s Build a Lung Model!

Imagine this: with every inhalation , it’s like your body’s own symphony. The diaphragm, that incredible muscle, takes a graceful dip downward, inviting a rush of air into your lungs.

As the diaphragm contracts and swoops down, it’s like a magician creating a vacuum effect, pulling air into your chest cavity and expanding it to create more space for that life-giving oxygen.

Now, for the grand finale – exhalation! The diaphragm takes a leisurely stretch upwards, and air exits the stage with a flourish. Voilà, that’s the art of breathing – a dance of diaphragmatic elegance!

But why just imagine when you can witness the magic firsthand? Brace yourself to build your very own Lung Model – a hands-on adventure that will unveil the wondrous mechanics of your breathing! Get ready to be amazed!

Here’s how you can build a lung model to see how our lungs work!

Steps (difficult version with straws):

1. Prepare the following materials:

• Prepare the following materials:
• One recycled plastic bottle
• Two balloons (For one lung only. For two lungs, use three balloons.)
• One straw (For one lung only. For two lungs, use two straws.)
• A pair of scissors

2. Cut the base of a plastic bottle and throw the base away. Ask your parents or teachers for help in this step!

3. Insert the straw into one balloon. Secure with tape.

4. Place the balloon with a straw into the plastic bottle. Tape the upper portion of the straw to the mouth of the bottle. Make sure it is airtight.

5. Cut the tip off the last balloon about ¼ in (this will act as the diaphragm). Wrap the balloon around the cut base of the plastic bottle. Secure with tape.

Steps for an easier version with no straws:

• Two balloons

3. Take one balloon and put it inside the bottle. Then fold the bottom of the balloon around the rim of the bottle so the balloon hangs from the top. Secure with tape, make sure it is airtight.

4. Cut the tip off the last balloon about ¼ in (this will act as the diaphragm). Wrap the balloon around the cut base of the plastic bottle. Secure with tape.

Fun fact: When we hiccup, it is our diaphragms spasming and forcing us to suddenly suck air into the throat, hitting the voice box, creating the “hic!” sound.

Let’s watch as our BlueTree kids build their own Lung Models

At BlueTree, we’re all about sparking that curiosity in your child’s learning journey. Our classroom isn’t just about books and lessons; it’s a place of exploration, where kids get to roll up their sleeves and dive into hands-on experiments like our exciting lung model adventure.

This kind of experiential learning falls perfectly into our unique 3E framework: Explore, Explain, and Extend™ Approach . We want your child to not only grasp the concepts but truly understand them. So, whether it’s breathing life into a lung model, exploring the whys and hows, or taking those discoveries further, rest assured, we’re here to make learning engaging, memorable, and oh-so-fun.

Ready to let your child experience the magic? Drop us a Whatsapp at 9616 0312 to schedule a Science trial class. Let the exploration begin!

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Build a Lung Model

What happens when we blow up a balloon? As you blow, the air from your mouth fills the balloon, inflating it. When you let it go, the air leaves the balloon, and the balloon deflates. A very similar process takes place inside our bodies too. In this interesting project, you will learn about the human respiratory system and build a lung model that demonstrates how the lungs work. This is a fantastic project for biology class or as a science fair project.

BUILD A BALLOON LUNG MODEL

What you will discover in this article!

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How does the Human Respiratory System work?

The body is made up of many different organs. A few of these organs are used in the process of respiration or breathing. These organs make up the human respiratory system.

The respiration process takes place in the lungs. Inhalation is the process of taking in air and this air provides oxygen to our body. Exhalation is the process of breathing the air out of our bodies. This air leaves our bodies as carbon dioxide. The process of inhalation and exhalation together is known as breathing.

Let’s look closely at the parts of the respiratory system and how it works.

The nose and the mouth

The nose and mouth are lined with mucous membranes that keep the nose and mouth moist. These membranes help make the inhaled air moist and warm.

When we breathe in, the air enters our body through the nostrils and moves through the nasal cavity and travels down the pharynx which is at the back of the nasal cavity and then down into larynx.

Traveling to the lungs

The pharynx regulates the passage of the air from the nasal cavity to the lungs during the breathing process.

The larynx is situated between the pharynx and the trachea and is approximately 13cm/5 inch long. It is also known as the voice box because it regulates the pitch and volume of your voice via vocal folds.

The air then travels down the trachea, which is a long tube also known as the windpipe. It is also approximately 13cm/5 inch long.

The air makes its way down to the lungs through the two bronchi or bronchial passages, which connect the trachea to the lungs. Bronchial tubes are lined with mucus and cilia, which are like tiny hairs, together they filter the air of things like dust before it enters the lungs.

The two bronchi, branch off into smaller bronchioles, which almost resemble a tree-like structure. At the ends of the bronchioles are bunches of tiny air sacs called alveoli. Carbon dioxide from the body is stored in the capillaries of the alveoli. It is here that the air we breathe in, is exchanged with the carbon dioxide. When we breathe out the carbon dioxide travels back up the respiratory system and out of the mouth or nose.

The two lungs are not identical. The left lung is smaller and has two lobes while the right one has three lobes.

The muscles of respiration

Muscles of respiration allow us to inhale and exhale and the main muscles in the system are the diaphragm and the muscles of the rib cage.

The diaphragm is a strong muscle at the bottom of the thorax. The diaphragm contracts or squeezes in and moves up when we breathe out and moves down when we breathe in, helping our body inhale and exhale.

You can feel your diaphragm at work. Simply place a hand on your stomach and breathe in deeply. You should feel your stomach expand. This expansion is from your diaphragm working.

DIY Balloon Lung Model STEM Activity Video

Watch the video of this project to see how it is done. If you can’t see this video, please turn off your adblockers as they also block our video feed. You can also find this video on the STEAM Powered Family YouTube Channel .

How to make a Balloon Lung Model

Materials & tools.

Thin cardboard – a recycled box is perfect Glue gun Glue stick Super Glue Ruler Pencil Hobby knife Two medium sized balloons Fish tank “Y” connector or two bendable straws 1m/39inch length of clear fish tank or medical tubing 35ml/cc Syringe Wooden skewer Scissors Clear tape Sealing tape

Optional – If you don’t want to draw your own person and labels, you can get the templates to make your project look exactly like ours by joining the STEAM Powered Family mailing list. Simply enter your email into this form to unlock the printables.

Balloon Lung Model Directions

Getting your pieces ready.

Cut out all the pieces of cardboard as shown in the diagram below.

If you are using our templates, print, cut out and join the template pieces you choose to work with (either black & white or color). Or you can draw your own person if not using our templates.

A Note on Paper Sizes

The templates are A3 in size which is close the tabloid size paper in North America. They can be printed as a single A3 picture if your printer is able to do that or you can print 2 X A4 pieces which are joined, to be the correct size for the project. A4 paper is approximately 8.5×11, the standard paper size in North America.

Preparing all the cardboard pieces

Measure 3cm/1½ inches up from the bottom of the short side of the largest piece of cardboard and make a line across. You will glue the bottom of body on this line.

Using the glue gun, join the three thin strips of cardboard onto the underside of the smaller piece of cardboard, leaving one of the longest sides open. This is the base of the project where the syringe will be glued to.

Ensure appropriate adult supervision as the glue gun is very hot!

Join this base onto the bottom of the large cardboard where you drew a 3cm/1½ inch line from the bottom.

Adding all the other pieces to the lung model

Gather the syringe, balloons, insulation tape, the tube of Super Glue, the length of tubing, the “Y” connector (or straws), and a wooden skewer together.

Make a hole with the wooden skewer in the circle marked on the nose and then using a pencil, make the hole large enough to easily fit the tubing through it.

Do the same thing on the middle of the base, towards the back for the tubing to reach the syringe.

Cut about 2.5cm/1 inch off the neck of the two balloons.

Using a tiny drop of Super Glue, glue the balloon end onto the “Y” connector and tape in place using the insulation tape to create a seal. Do this with the other balloon as well. These will be placed inside the lungs.

Join one end of the tubing onto the Y-connector and begin by gluing the Y-connector and the tubing all the way up to the hole in the nose, with the glue gun, a little bit at a time.

Tip – Use Straws instead of Y-connector

An alternative way of building the Bronchus if you don’t have a Y-connector is to use straws. You can also use clay or playdough to create the seals.

Test the Lungs

Blow through the Y-connector to see that the balloons are inflating and deflating. This movement of the balloon mimics the way the lungs work. If the balloons are not inflating and deflating, check that the tubing is not blocked, especially where you have threaded it through any of the holes.

Glue the balloons to either side of the lungs with a few drops of Super Glue.

You can use small strips of tape to hold the tubing down.

Run the Tubing

Carefully thread the other end of the tubing through the hole in the nose, to the back of the model.

Make another hole at the very bottom of the back of the model with the wooden skewer and pencil and thread the tubing through this new hole and up the hole (you made earlier) in the base, to the front of the model.

Find the middle of the base and glue the syringe down, with the glue gun, making sure that the plunger of the syringe can move in and out of the body of the syringe freely.

Pull the plunger outwards to the opening of the syringe and join the tubing onto the syringe, cutting off the excess tubing.

Label the Lung Model

Add all the labels onto the front of your model as shown below:

Your Human Respiratory System Model is ready to show off!

This is a fantastic project idea for the science fair or as part of a biology unit study to really show your understanding of the human respiratory system.

Respiratory System Unit Study Printable

Building a lung model is a fantastic way to learn how the human respiratory system works. For a printable unit study to go with this project, check out the STEAM Powered Family Shop .

Have fun learning about the human respiratory system and the lungs!

5 Days of Smart STEM Ideas for Kids

Get started in STEM with easy, engaging activities.

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• Open access
• Published: 07 April 2024

An original aneuploidy-related gene model for predicting lung adenocarcinoma survival and guiding therapy

• Yalei Zhang 1   na1 &
• Dongmei Li 1   na1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  8135 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Lung cancer
• Surgical oncology

Aneuploidy is a hallmark of cancers, but the role of aneuploidy-related genes in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) and their prognostic value remain elusive. Gene expression and copy number variation (CNV) data were enrolled from TCGA and GEO database. Consistency clustering analysis was performed for molecular cluster. Tumor microenvironment was assessed by the xCell and ESTIMATE algorithm. Limma package was used for selecting differentially expressed genes (DEGs). LASSO and stepwise multivariate Cox regression analysis were used to establish an aneuploidy-related riskscore (ARS) signature. GDSC database was conducted to predict drug sensitivity. A nomogram was designed by rms R package. TCGA-LUAD patients were stratified into 3 clusters based on CNV data. The C1 cluster displayed the optimal survival advantage and highest inflammatory infiltration. Based on integrated intersecting DEGs, we constructed a 6-gene ARS model, which showed effective prediction for patient’s survival. Drug sensitivity test predicted possible sensitive drugs in two risk groups. Additionally, the nomogram exhibited great predictive clinical treatment benefits. We established a 6-gene aneuploidy-related signature that could effectively predict the survival and therapy for LUAD patients. Additionally, the ARS model and nomogram could offer guidance for the preoperative estimation and postoperative therapy of LUAD.

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Introduction

Lung cancer now ranks the top two major causes of cancer-relevant mortalities in both sexes all over the world 1 . The latest data showed that global new lung cancer deaths in 2020 was close to 1.8 million 1 . Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), which is the predominate type of lung cancer 2 , 3 , has witnessed an increase in incidence in the last 15 years and become the most infiltrative form of lung cancer 4 , 5 . For LUAD patients, the treatment results are far from satisfactory due to the delay in diagnosis and limitations of traditional therapies 6 . Hence, discovering novel biomarkers and individualized prognosis are urgently needed to improve early detection and treatment of LUAD patients.

Aneuploidy, also known as somatic cell copy number alterations, is widely detected in human tumors and has been considered as the cause of tumorigenesis 7 . Researchs on prostate cancer patients and head and neck squamous cell carcinomas pointed out that the increase of tumor aneuploidy contributed to a higher risk of fatal diseases 8 , 9 . The research on aneuploidy has also expanded to the field of lung cancer. Gao B’s team descripted a landscape of chromosome arm aneuploidy in LUAD in detail 10 . In non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients undergoing radiotherapy, aneuploidy was reported to cooperate with mutational burden for survival evaluation 11 . Spurr LF et al. 12 proposed that aneuploidy in cancer could help predict survival after immunotherapy in various cancers. These results indicated that aneuploidy may be a useful biomarker for tumor immunotherapy. In addition, copy number variation (CNV) is a polymorphism found in the human genome that primarily involves DNA segments larger than 1 kb. It has been reported that in cancer cells, chromosomal aneuploidy can lead to copy number alterations 13 . Hu et al. 14 identified a total of nine genes to be able to independently predict the prognosis of breast cancer patients based on public databases of breast cancer and CNV data. Bian et al. 15 comprehensively analyzed CNV differential data and differentially expressed gene data from TCGA and screened eight CNV driver genes (including AKR1B15 , TRIM16L , CBX2 , CDCA8 , EZH2 , FLVCR1 , EPS8L3 , and GPRIN1 ) to generate a prognostic model that could well predict the prognosis of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. In particular, there are studies on cancer biomarkers based on screening of aneuploidy-related genes that remain unclear. In addition, there is a lack of models for indicating the efficacy of immunotherapy or prognosis in LUAD based on aneuploidy.

To our knowledge, it is only the first time that risk modeling based on aneuploidy-related genes and screening of key genes to predict patient prognosis have been performed in LUAD. Firstly, consensus clustering 16 was applied to classify different patient subgroups using the CNV data from TCGA database. Then, after intersecting DEGs between subgroups for WGCNA 17 and aneuploidy score related genes, LASSO analysis 18 was performed. Finally, 6 genes were selected and an aneuploidy-related model was constructed to guide survival prediction and therapy selection for LUAD patients.

Material and methods

Ethics statement.

Data in our study were downloaded from online databases without any in vitro or in vivo tests.

Study source

The latest expression data and clinical follow-up information of 387 LUAD samples were downloaded from the TCGA database ( https://cancergenome.nih.gov , access date: June 9, 2023) as the testing cohort. The GSE31210 dataset with clinical survival information was retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/ , access date: June 9, 2023) website as the validation cohort. Genomic aneuploidy score for TCGA-LUAD samples (Table S1 ) was derived from an article 19 . Additionally, two immunotherapeutic datasets with anti- programmed cell death 1 ( PD-1 ) checkpoint inhibition therapy GSE78220 20 and GSE135222 21 , 22 were selected from the GEO database. It is worth mentioning, this study aimed to predict prognosis, immunotherapy response in LUAD samples, thus didn’t need healthy individuals.

Cluster analysis

Based on the copy number variation data from the TCGA database, GISTIC 2.0 software (version 6.15.28, https://cloud.genepattern.org , refgene file = Human_Hg19.mat, focal length cutoff = 0.50, gene gistic = yes, confidence level = 0.9. Other parameters were set as default) 23 was used to analyze amplification and deletion regions using TCGA-LUAD data. Then, consistency clustering analysis was conducted. The ConsensusClusterPlus R package (parameters: maxK = 5, reps = 100, pItem = 0.8, pFeature = 1, clusterAlg = “kmdist”, distance = “pearson”) 16 was implemented. The optimal number of clusters was determined by cumulative distribution function (CDF) and CDF Delta area curve.

Evaluation of immune cell infiltration in different clusters

The xCell tool offers 64 cell types, including immune cells, stromal cells, stem cells, and other cells. Therefore, the xCell algorithm was used to calculate the scores for 64 cell types in the xCell R package (xCellAnalysis function run with the ‘rnaseq = TRUE’ option) 24 . For supplement, the sum of immune and stromal scores was computed through ESTIMATE R package 25 .

Identification of differentially expressed genes in clusters

Differential gene analysis was conducted applying the R package “limma” 26 for distinguishing the DEGs between different clusters. Filtering criteria was set at log2 fold change |log2FC|> log2 (1.2) and false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.05 using BenjaminiHochberg correction 27 . Volcano and Venn plots were employed to display the results.

Co-expression network construction

WGCNA can gather genes and recruit modules through analogous gene expression patterns and investigate the correlation between modules and particular characteristics (clinic pathologic feature of patients, etc.) 28 . Hence, we applied the R package “WGCNA” 17 to generate a scale-free co-expression network using the obtained DEGs.

Establishment of a prognostic risk model for LUAD patients

Based on aneuploidy-related key module genes, Univariate cox regression analysis was conducted to screen genes relevant to LUAD prognosis. Subsequently, glmnet in the R software package (parameters: alpha = 1 and nlambda = 100) 29 was used for LASSO Cox regression analysis, followed by stepwise multivariate Cox regression analysis. The aneuploidy-related gene scores (ARS) was calculated based on the following formula ( 1 ):

The βi here means the coefficient value of selected gene, and Exp i means the expression level of selected gene.

The surv_cutpoint function in survminer package 30 was adopted to distinguish the optimal point to separate LUAD patients into high and low ARS groups.

Construction of a nomogram and validation

The independent indicators such as ARS and clinical features were used to design a nomogram applying “rms” R package (parameters ‘lp = F, maxscale = 100, fun.at = c(1,0.8,0.6,0.4,0.2,0)’ for ‘nomogram’) 31 in TCGA-LUAD cohort. Calibration curves were plotted to evaluate the consistency of the model between the ideal and actual status. The clinical practicality of the nomogram was also evaluated adopting decision curve.

LUAD cell line and drug sensitivity prediction

Drug sensitivity data concerning LUAD cell lines were downloaded from Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer (GDSC) database 32 . The antitumor drug area under concentration–time curve (AUC) was employed as the drug response index, Spearman correlation analysis was conducted to compute the relevance between AUC and ARS. |Rs|> 0.35 and FDR < 0.05 were defined as noticeably relevant. At the same time, we also analyzed the drug sensitivity in all the risk groups. The AUC values of LUAD cell lines were collected from The Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia (CCLE) database 33 and correlation and difference analysis were performed.

Statistical analysis

All statistical analyses were performed using R software (version 4.0.3). The prognostic differences were displayed through Kaplan–Meier curves along with log-rank test. Receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curves were drawn using “timeROC” package (cause = 1, weighting = “marginal”, times = c(1,3,5) and iid = TRUE) 34 . Moreover, Sangerbox 35 ( http://sangerbox.com/home.html ) was used for data processing in this research. Statistical significance was defined at p value < 0.05.

Identification of molecular subtypes based on CNV data

The CDF and CDF Delta area curves showed that a stable clustering result was obtained when cluster number k is selected as 3 (Fig.  1 A,B). The clustering TCGA-LUAD samples in a clustering heatmap displayed clear boundaries among three molecular subtypes (Fig.  1 C). Meanwhile, the survival analysis demonstrated that the C1 subtype exhibited a longer survival time compared to the C2 and C3 subtypes (Fig.  1 D). The amplification and deletion regions in the three clusters were shown in heatmaps (Fig.  1 E,F). We found that the C1 subgroup with the best prognosis exhibited the least gene amplification and deletion. Finally, analysis on the distribution of different clinical characteristics in three subtypes demonstrated that C1 subtypes was characterized by more female, age over 60 years, and more patients in T1 early stage (Fig.  2 ).

Identification of molecular subtypes based on CNV data. ( A ) CDF curve from k = 2–5. ( B ) CDF Delta area curve when k = 2–5. ( C ) A clustering heatmap when k = 3 in TCGA-LUAD cohort. ( D ) Kaplan–Meier survival analysis. ( E ) Amplification regions in three clusters. ( F ) Deletion regions in three clusters.

The distribution of clinical features in 3 clusters. The distribution of clinical features, such as Gender, T stage, N stage, Stage and Age, in 3 clusters.

C1 subtypes with better prognosis exhibited higher level of immune infiltration

Subsequently, we analyzed the immune infiltration status among the three subtypes. Xcell algorithm revealed that the higher scores of Dendritic cells (DC), activated dendritic cells (aDC), conventional dendritic cells (cDC), immature dendritic cells (iDC), plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC), B cells, CD8 + T cell, CD8 + Central Memory T cell, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, fibroblasts, macrophages, macrophages M1, macrophages M2, immunescore and microenvironmentscore were enriched in C1 subtypes (Fig.  3 A). ESTIMATE analysis further supported above finding, as C1 subtypes had the highest Stromal Score, Immune Score and ESTIMATE Score among 3 clusters (Fig.  3 B).

Immune characteristics in three subtypes. ( A ) Xcell score for assessing the combined level of immune cell and stromal cell types. ( B ) EXTIMATE analysis. * p  < 0.05, ** p  < 0.01, *** p  < 0.001, *** p  < 0.0001, ns: no significance.

Screening of differentially expressed genes

As displayed in Fig.  4 A–C. The most 6287 DEGs (3048 up-regulated and 3239 down-regulated) were identified in C1 and C3 clusters. 2297 DEGs (1267 up-regulated and 1030 down-regulated) were identified in the C1 and C2 clusters. 1686 DEGs (968 up-regulated and 718 down-regulated) were identified in the C2 and C3 clusters. By integrating three groups of DEGs, we obtained a total of 696 common DEGs (Fig.  4 D). Functional enrichment analysis to further understand the differences in gene and functional levels between clusters. Overall, immune-related pathways were activated in the C1 subtype, and cell cycle-related pathways were activated in C2 and C3 (Supplementary Fig.  1 A–C).

Differentially expressed genes analysis among 3 clusters. ( A – C ) Volcano plot depicting DEGs among 3 clusters. ( D ) Venn diagram showing the intersection of DEGs among 3 clusters.

Identification of key modules genes based on co-expression network

We based our data on 387 expression profiles in the TCGA-LUAD database and proposed differentially expressed genes from them. When the correlation coefficient is greater than 0.9, the optimal soft threshold is set to 7 to screen for co-expressed modules. To ensure that the network is scale-free, we set β to 12 and convert the expression matrix to a topology matrix. Following the criteria for hybrid dynamic shear trees, the number of genes per gene network module was set to a minimum of 30. (Fig.  5 A,B). We compute the eigengenes of each module in turn and synthesize the closer modules into new ones. Finally, a total of nine modules were identified for subsequent analysis (Fig.  5 C). The turquoise module was highly related to aneuploidy score (Fig.  5 D). Thereby, a total of 1785 distinctly correlated module genes in this module were selected for further analysis.

Co-expression network construction and identification of key modules. ( A , B ) Screening of soft thresholds and the relationship between soft thresholds and connectivity. ( C ) Building a hierarchical clustering tree. ( D ) Correlation analysis of 9 modules with clinical information and aneuploidy score (the correlation coefficient and p value were filled in each intersecting grid). The grey modules are collections of genes that cannot be aggregated to other modules.

The establishment of an ARS model based on aneuploidy-related module genes and validation

As 1785 module genes were distinctly correlated with aneuploidy score, we first performed Univariate cox regression analysis and identified 116 genes closely connected to LUAD prognosis ( p  < 0.01, Supplementary Fig.  2 A). 12 out of the 166 genes were preserved by LASSO-cox regression model with lambda at 0.0135 (Supplementary Fig.  2 B,C). Further, through stepwise multivariate regression analysis, 6 genes were retained for establishing an ARS model. The detailed information of these genes was listed in Table 1 . The expression levels of these 6 genes combining clinical features were displayed in Fig.  6 A. In addition, we analyzed by multivariate cox regression to be used to further evaluate these 6 key genes (Fig.  6 B). Each patient’s ARS was calculated based on the following formula ( 2 ):

The establishment and assessment of a riskscore model. ( A ) The expression of 6 selected genes, distribution of Age, Gender, T. Stage, N. Stage and Stage in high and low risk groups. ( B ) Multivariate cox regression analysis of six selected genes. ( C , D ) Survival analysis between two risk groups in TCGA-LUAD cohort. ( E ) Time-ROC analysis between two risk groups in TCGA-LUAD cohort. ( F – H ) Model validation analysis in GSE41613 dataset.

Correlation analysis between 6 key genes and genes affects aneuploidy showed a significant association (supplementary Fig.  3 ), indicating those genes closely correlated aneuploidy. Given optimal cutoff value, 151 patients were stratified into high ARS group, and 236 patients were separated into low ARS group. Patients with high ARS had worse survival status (even dead) and shorter survival time (Fig.  6 C,D), indicating that samples with high ARS had poorer prognosis. Time-dependent ROC analysis validated the predictability of the ARS signature in LUAD as all values of area under the curve were higher than 0.6 (Fig.  6 E). The model was also validated in GSE41613 dataset (Fig.  6 F–H). In addition, as shown in Supplementary Fig.  4 , there was a significant difference in the distribution of the three subtypes in the high and low ARS groups. We found that the proportion of C3 was the largest in the high ARS group, which was associated with its poorer prognosis.

Construction and assessment of the nomogram

Univariate and Multivariate cox analysis showed only ARS and stage had prominent relevance to prognosis (Table 2 ). Therefore, a nomogram was designed ARS and stage. Figure  7 A exhibited a liner chart to calculate survival rates of a patient. The total score was obtained through adding all the individual scores. The calibration curve showed favorable consistency between the predicted and ideal values of 1, 3, 5 years survival time (Fig.  7 B). From the decision curve, both the nomogram and ARS had the optimal clinical net benefits (Fig.  7 C). Briefly, the nomogram for LUAD had remarkable discrimination and calibration capacity.

Nomogram analysis. ( A ) Design a nomogram. ( B ) The calibration curve. ( C ) The decision curve.

Immunotherapy and drug sensitivity analysis applying ARS model

Immune checkpoint inhibitors play a crucial role in cancer immunotherapy and has been widely adopted to treat multiple types of cancers 36 . PD-1 and its ligand ( PD-L1 ) are preferential therapeutic targets for immune checkpoint inhibitors 37 , 38 . We selected two immunotherapy datasets involving anti-PD-1 treatment to evaluate the potential of ARS model for immunotherapy. Based on our previously confirmed ARS formula and classifying method, patients treated by immunotherapy were successfully divided into high and low ARS groups. As seen in GSE135222 cohort, low ARS groups had prolonged survival time. Time-ROC analysis demonstrated the predictive capacity of the model. Higher proportions of progressive disease (PD)/stable disease (SD) were observed in high ARS group (Fig.  8 A). Similar phenomenon was also detected in GSE78220 cohort with more PD patients in high ARS group (Fig.  8 B). As for drug sensitivity prediction, high ARS patients were sensitive to MG-132, while low ARS patients were more sensitive to Erlotinib and Remodelin among 6 closely relevant medications selected from GDSC database (Fig.  8 C,D). In another CCLE database, high ARS patients were sensitive to Erlotinib and ZD-6474, while low ARS patients were more sensitive to Sorafenib among 4 closely correlated medications (Fig.  8 E,F).

Immunotherapy and drug sensitivity analysis applying ARS model. ( A ) Immunotherapy evaluation in GSE135222 cohort. ( B ) Immunotherapy evaluation in GSE78220 cohort. ( C , D ) Drug sensitivity prediction using GDSC database. ( E , F ) Drug sensitivity prediction using CCLE database. * p  < 0.05, ** p  < 0.01, ns: no significance.

The number of patients with LUAD is increasing significantly, and LUAD has been proven as the most prevalent subtype in lung cancers 39 . Along with in-depth investigations on cancer, aneuploidy involves point mutations, and whole-chromosome gains and losses as signs of cancer often occurs in an array of cancers 40 , 41 . Therefore, exploring aneuploidy relevant genes to evaluate the prognosis of patients with LUAD is meaningful. In this study, we firstly stratified TCGA-LUAD patients into 3 clusters based on CNV data with significant differences in the patterns of amplification and deletion in genomic regions. Given proper subgroup subtyping, we integrated intersecting DEGs and performed WGCNA and correlation analysis concerning aneuploidy to acquire significant hub module genes. Lasso analysis was then performed to build a 6-gene ARS model and a nomogram. Collectively, the ARS model contributed to the survival prediction for LUAD patients.

Reduced immune infiltration in high aneuploidy samples was observed within numerous cancer types 19 . Intensive work found that aneuploidy was irrelevant to the expression of immune signaling markers, positively correlated with genes of immune evasion, and could reduce response to immunotherapy 12 , 42 , 43 . Consistent with previous research, in the initial TCGA-LUAD grouping, C1 subgroup with a low degree of chromosomal CNV displayed favorable prognosis and high levels of immune infiltration. Patients in immunotherapy datasets were also divided into high and low ARS group based on the ARS model. Similarly, low ARS group patients displayed a distinct survival advantage and more active response to immunotherapy. Our work further supported the view that cancer aneuploidy could help predict patients’ survival after immunotherapy in future cancer therapy. More importantly, aneuploidy-related genes in specific cancer were expected to become drug research targets for cancer therapy.

A robust ARS model including 6 genes ( IRX5 , EDA2R , MAPK1IP1L , SEC61G , FAM83A and GPR37 ) was constructed. Cancer-related studies have enlightened the significance of these genes in tumorigenesis and pathogenesis. The Iroquois homeobox gene 5 ( IRX5 ) facilitated metastasis of colorectal cancer cells via suppressing the RHOA-ROCK1-LIMK1 axis 44 . Another colorectal cancer study discovered that IRX5 improved genomic instability in colorectal cancer cells as overexpressed IRX5 decreased tumor cell proliferation and promoted G1/S cell cycle arrest and senescent activity 45 . In our research, up-regulated IRX5 level was detected in high ARS group with poor prognosis, indicating an anticancer effect of IRX5 . The possible mechanism should be analyzed in the future. EDA2R was a direct target of wild-type TP53. The enhanced expression of EDA2R in specimens may explain an unfavorable prognosis in ovarian cancer with wild-type TP53 46 . A reverse relationship between immune-related gene riskscore and EDA2R were also uncovered in other LUAD study 47 . Urine proteome profiling showed that high proportions of MAPK1IP1L could distinguish lung cancer patients from control and other cancers 47 . Sec61 Translocon Gamma Subunit ( SEC61G ) often played an oncogenic role through enhancing tumor cell proliferation 48 , metastasis 49 , 50 and was negatively correlated with immune cell infiltration 51 . Therefore, the role of SEC61G was also studied in LUAD. Consistent with our finding, a high level of SEC61G was noticeably related to a poor prognosis in LUAD patients 52 . Family with sequence similarity 83 member A ( FAM83A ) was widely recognized as a oncogene, as it was frequently overexpressed in various tumors such as breast cancer 53 , ovarian cancer 54 and cervical cancer cells 55 or specimens with a poor prognosis. FAM83A was also reported to facilitate lung cancer development via wnt and hippo signaling pathways 56 . Wang H and colleagues discovered that regenerating islet-derived family, member 4, stimulated peritoneal metastasis in gastric cancer through G protein-coupled receptor 37 ( GPR37 ) 57 . Xie et al. identified GPR37 as a predictive biomarker for LUAD by obtaining LUAD differentially expressed genes from TCGA. They showed that GPR37 was able to bind to CDK6 , which in turn induced cell cycle arrest to promote tumor progression in LUAD 58 . These results suggest the importance of studying the potential relationship between aneuploidy-related gene and the prognosis of LUAD patients.

Furthermore, we found that patients in the LUAD high-risk group were more sensitive to MG-132. MG-132 as a proteasome inhibitor has been shown to be useful in the treatment of lung cancer patients 59 . Han et al. 60 showed that.MG132 was able to inhibit the growth of Calu-6 lung cancer cells by promoting apoptosis and facilitating glutathione depletio. Remodelin is a small molecule inhibitor of N-acetyltransferase 10, which is thought to be able to reverse conditions of cancer development, including epithelial-mesenchymal transition, drug resistance and hypoxia 61 . In addition, Erlotinib in combination with signaling inhibitors (e.g., MK-2206) is also considered a potential advantage in the treatment of lung cancer 62 . In our study, patients in the low risk group of LUAD were more sensitive to Erlotinib and Remodelin. These results illustrate that a prognostic model based on aneuploidy-related genes can provide a good prediction of therapeutic agents for LUAD patients. Cancer prognostic models based on CNV-related genes have become a research hotspot for knowing tumor prognosis. Hu et al. developed a model to predict the prognosis of breast cancer patients based on CNV-related genes. The area of the ROC curve for this model was 0.7, 0.63, and 0.58 in the TCGA test set, while the AUC values were 0.66,0.68, and 0.71 in the TCGA all data sets 14 . In this study, we constructed a risk model based on aneuploidy-associated genes with AUC values of 0.7, 0.81, and 0.77 in the GEO cohort, respectively. This suggests that the predictive power of our constructed model is not inferior to that of previous studies. In order to facilitate further clinical application, we developed and calibrated a nomogram. The calibration curve showed that the nomogram was well calibrated. However, there were also some limitations to the clinical application of the model. Firstly, the signature of 6-gene was only developed using a TCGA cohort and validated in a GEO database. The nomogram was designed using only TCGA queue. In the future, we will use more LUAD cohorts to further calibrate nomogram for its clinical benefits.

To sum up, our study illustrated that aneuploidy was closely connected to LUAD. Moreover, an ARS model generated based on 6 aneuploidy relevant genes could help predict LUAD patient’s survival, immunotherapy response and treatment selections to sensitive drugs. The present findings may offer a significant basis for future studies.

Data availability

The dataset used in this study is available in GSE31210 ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE31210 ), GSE78220 ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE78220 ), GSE135222 ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE135222 ), GSE41613 ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE41613 ), GSE78220 ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE78220 ).

Abbreviations

Aneuploidy related riskscore

Area under concentration–time curve

Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia

Cumulative distribution function

Copy Number Variation

Dendritic cells

Differentially expressed genes

Estimation of STromal and Immune cells in MAlignant Tumor tissues using Expression data

False discovery rate

Gene Expression Omnibus

Genomics of Drug Sensitibity in Cancer

Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator

• Lung adenocarcinoma

Progressive disease

Programmed cell death 1

Receiver operating characteristic analysis

Stable disease

The Cancer Genome Atlas

Weighted correlation network analysis

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These authors contributed equally: Yalei Zhang and Dongmei Li.

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All authors contributed to this present work: [Y.L.Z.] and [D.M.L.] designed the study, [Y.L.Z.] acquired the data. [D.M.L.] drafted the manuscript, [Y.L.Z.] revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript.

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Zhang, Y., Li, D. An original aneuploidy-related gene model for predicting lung adenocarcinoma survival and guiding therapy. Sci Rep 14 , 8135 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58020-y

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Modelling the lungs

The PowerPoint has instructions for making model lungs which can be displayed for the class to see. It is a suitable activity for KS3 Breathing topic. There is a link to a short video that demonstrates how to make the model from everyday items. 

The worksheet can be used alongside the presentation and is structured to help students analyse and evaluate the model of the lungs. Why is it realistic? Why is it not realistic? How could it be improved? Answers are provided.

All reviews

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Resources you might like

How To Make a Lung Model With Kids – Printable Template Included

By: Author Agnes Hsu

Posted on Last updated: March 6, 2023

Categories Latest , Learn

B y using this site, you agree to our  Terms of Use . This post may contain affiliate links. Read our  disclosure policy. 

Follow us on  Instagram   for more fun ideas for kids!

Scroll down below to watch the video to see our cool lung model in action and make sure to subscribe to our YouTube channel for more fun videos!

Check out this fun DIY Lung Model Activity for Kids: Step-by-Step Guide to Making a Fun Learning Experience. 

Kids love asking questions about their bodies, e.g. swallowing, peeing, and breathing. We recommend this book for understanding body anatomy .

To explain body anatomy to them in an easy and fun way, I made a lung model with them. This model is a great visual way to teach them how the lungs work.

It also helps them to understand the anatomy of the lungs and the different parts that work together to make sure that we can keep breathing. 

This activity is a great way to keep your kids engaged and learning about their bodies. Plus, it’s an easy project that can be done with minimal materials. 

So let’s get started and help your kids learn about the amazing human body!

Get the printable lung template 

How do lungs work?

In short (source: nih ).

“Your lungs are organs in your chest that allow your body to take in oxygen from the air. They also help remove carbon dioxide (a waste gas that can be toxic) from your body. The lungs’ intake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide is called gas exchange. Gas exchange is part of breathing. Breathing is a vital function of life; it helps your body work properly.”

We got the idea of creating a lung model from one of our favorite kids’ learning and creative Instagram accounts, Lnnally , who made a lung model here . 

To make it easier for you, I have listed the supplies we used, created a how-to video for you to see the steps for making your own set of “lungs,” and included a printable. 

I got this great idea to construct a lung model from one of my favorite kids’ learning and creative Instagram accounts, Lnnally , who made a lung model here . To make it easy for you, I’ve listed the supplies we used, created a how-to video to show you the steps to make your own set of “lungs,” and also included a printable.

Read more below to make this fun lung model with kids or watch the video above to see how we made ours.

Lung Model – Materials:

– Long Straws – Scissors – Tape – Two plastic bags (we used sandiwch bags) – Double stick tape or glue

Printable template (download on my Etsy)

Instructions:

Step 1. Print and cut your template out. Step 2. Trim the straws at the top. Step 3. Add some tape to the bottom to keep the two straws together. Step 4. Glue or double stick tape your nose and lips to the straws. Step 5. Cut the zipper part of your sandwich bags out. Step 6. Tape your lung printable to the back of the straws. Step 7. Tape your bag to each lung, tightly so no air escapes.

Blow and watch the “lungs” expand and take in air and exhale. Repeat.

Engaging Activities Once Done Making the Lung Model

Let your kids color in a diagram of the lungs .

Coloring in a diagram of the lungs is a great way to help your kids learn about the anatomy of their lungs. You can either print out a diagram or draw one yourself. 

As your kids color in the diagram, explain each part and how it works. This is a great way to help your kids understand how the lungs work and what they look like. 

Compare a Healthy Lung to a Diseased One 

Help your kids understand the importance of keeping their lungs healthy by showing them a comparison of a healthy lung and a diseased one. 

Explain the differences and talk about how smoking and air pollution can affect the lungs. 

Have Your Kids Draw a Diagram of the Respiratory System 

Having your kids draw a diagram of the respiratory system is a great way to help them understand how the lungs and other organs work together to help us breathe. 

Explain each part and how it works, and then have your kids draw a diagram of their own. 

Lung Snack Time

This activity is a great way to teach kids about the different parts of the lungs while having a yummy snack. Cut up different types of fruits and vegetables into shapes.

For example, you can cut them to resemble the different parts of the lungs, such as the trachea and the bronchioles. Have your child identify each part as they eat their snack. 

Lung Puzzle

This activity is great for kids who like puzzles . Have your child put together a lung-themed jigsaw puzzle or a 3D puzzle of the lungs. 

This activity will help them understand the anatomy of the lungs in a fun, interactive way. expand the above lung puzzle paragraph This activity is great for kids who like puzzles. 

The Amazing Benefits of Crafting a Lung Model

Teach anatomy and biology .

Making a lung model with kids is a great way to teach them about anatomy and biology in an interactive way. Kids will learn about the different parts of the lungs. 

This model is a great visual way to help kids understand how the body works and is a great starting point for further exploration into how the respiratory system operates. 

Foster Creativity and Imagination

Making a lung model with kids can also be a great way to foster their creativity and imagination. By providing materials to help them create and build something new, they can be creative!

This encourages them to think outside the box and helps them to learn problem-solving skills. 

Encourage Teamwork and Collaboration

Making a lung model with kids can also help to encourage teamwork and collaboration. By working together, kids will learn how to work together and share ideas.

Plus, they will learn to be patient and understanding with one another. This is a great way to promote social-emotional skills and learn how to work effectively as a team. 

Develop Fine Motor Skills

Making a lung model with kids can help to develop their fine motor skills . Kids will be able to practice their hand-eye coordination while they put together the model.

They will also learn how to follow directions and complete tasks. This is an excellent way to teach them how to use their hands to create and build.

Explaining body anatomy and the way the lungs work to children can be a fun and easy way to help them learn about their own bodies. 

Making a lung model is a great way to introduce them to the anatomy of the lungs and how they work together to keep us breathing.  What are some fun ways you teach your kids anatomy? Here’s a neat learning book all about body anatomy your kids might enjoy! Get more creative ideas for kids here !

HOW TO MAKE A LUNG MODEL WITH KIDS

This easy and visual lung model is an easy way to teach kids lung anatomy and how lungs work to keep us breathing.

• Long Straws
• Two plastic bags (we used sandwich bags)
• Double stick tape or glue
• Printable template

Instructions

Step 1. Print and cut your template out.

Step 2. Trim the straws at the top.

Step 3. Add some tape to the bottom to keep the two straws together.

Step 4. Glue or double stick tape your nose and lips to the straws.

Step 5. Cut the zipper part of your sandwich bags out.

Step 6. Tape your lung printable to the back of the straws.

Step 7. Tape your bag to each lung, tightly so no air escapes.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Disclosure: Some of the links in the post above are “affiliate links.” This means if you click on the link and purchase the item, we will receive a small affiliate commission. Regardless, we give our promise that we only recommend products or services we would use personally and believe will add values to our readers.

Agnes Hsu is a mom of three and has been inspiring parents and kids to get creative with easy activities and family friendly recipes for over 10 years. She shares her love for creative play and kids food to her 2MM+ followers online. Agnes' commitment to playful learning and kindness has not only raised funds for charity but also earned features in prestigious nationwide publications.

• Agnes Hsu https://www.hellowonderful.co/post/author/timhsu/ Solar Eclipse Handprint Craft 2024
• Agnes Hsu https://www.hellowonderful.co/post/author/timhsu/ DIY Pressed Flower Bookmarks With Printable Template
• Agnes Hsu https://www.hellowonderful.co/post/author/timhsu/ This Easter Spoon Craft Is An Easy Last Minute Easter Project For Kids
• Agnes Hsu https://www.hellowonderful.co/post/author/timhsu/ Clever Rainbow Cat Squeegee Art

22.2 The Lungs

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe the overall function of the lung
• Summarize the blood flow pattern associated with the lungs
• Outline the anatomy of the blood supply to the lungs
• Describe the pleura of the lungs and their function

A major organ of the respiratory system, each lung houses structures of both the conducting and respiratory zones. The main function of the lungs is to perform the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with air from the atmosphere. To this end, the lungs exchange respiratory gases across a very large epithelial surface area—about 70 square meters—that is highly permeable to gases.

Gross Anatomy of the Lungs

The lungs are pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea by the right and left bronchi; on the inferior surface, the lungs are bordered by the diaphragm. The diaphragm is the flat, dome-shaped muscle located at the base of the lungs and thoracic cavity. The lungs are enclosed by the pleurae, which are attached to the mediastinum. The right lung is shorter and wider than the left lung, and the left lung occupies a smaller volume than the right. The cardiac notch is an indentation on the surface of the left lung, and it allows space for the heart ( Figure 22.2.1 ). The apex of the lung is the superior region, whereas the base is the opposite region near the diaphragm. The costal surface of the lung borders the ribs. The mediastinal surface faces the midline.

Each lung is composed of smaller units called lobes. Fissures separate these lobes from each other. The right lung consists of three lobes: the superior, middle, and inferior lobes. The left lung consists of two lobes: the superior and inferior lobes. A bronchopulmonary segment is a division of a lobe, and each lobe houses multiple bronchopulmonary segments. Each segment receives air from its own tertiary bronchus and is supplied with blood by its own artery. Some diseases of the lungs typically affect one or more bronchopulmonary segments, and in some cases, the diseased segments can be surgically removed with little influence on neighboring segments. A pulmonary lobule is a subdivision formed as the bronchi branch into bronchioles. Each lobule receives its own large bronchiole that has multiple branches. An interlobular septum is a wall, composed of connective tissue, which separates lobules from one another.

Blood Supply and Nervous Innervation of the Lungs

The blood supply of the lungs plays an important role in gas exchange and serves as a transport system for gases throughout the body. In addition, innervation by the both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems provides an important level of control through dilation and constriction of the airway.

Blood Supply

The major function of the lungs is to perform gas exchange, which requires blood from the pulmonary circulation. This blood supply contains deoxygenated blood and travels to the lungs where erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells, pick up oxygen to be transported to tissues throughout the body. The pulmonary artery is an artery that arises from the pulmonary trunk and carries deoxygenated, arterial blood to the alveoli. The pulmonary artery branches multiple times as it follows the bronchi, and each branch becomes progressively smaller in diameter. One arteriole and an accompanying venule supply and drain one pulmonary lobule. As they near the alveoli, the pulmonary arteries become the pulmonary capillary network. The pulmonary capillary network consists of tiny vessels with very thin walls that lack smooth muscle fibers. The capillaries branch and follow the bronchioles and structure of the alveoli. It is at this point that the capillary wall meets the alveolar wall, creating the respiratory membrane. Once the blood is oxygenated, it drains from the alveoli by way of multiple pulmonary veins, which exit the lungs through the hilum .

Nervous Innervation

Dilation and constriction of the airway are achieved through nervous control by the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. The parasympathetic system causes bronchoconstriction , whereas the sympathetic nervous system stimulates bronchodilation . Reflexes such as coughing, and the ability of the lungs to regulate oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, also result from this autonomic nervous system control. Sensory nerve fibers arise from the vagus nerve, and from the second to fifth thoracic ganglia. The pulmonary plexus is a region on the lung root formed by the entrance of the nerves at the hilum. The nerves then follow the bronchi in the lungs and branch to innervate muscle fibers, glands, and blood vessels.

Pleura of the Lungs

Each lung is enclosed within a cavity that is surrounded by the pleura. The pleura (plural = pleurae) is a serous membrane that surrounds the lung. The right and left pleurae, which enclose the right and left lungs, respectively, are separated by the mediastinum. The pleurae consist of two layers. The visceral pleura is the layer that is superficial to the lungs, and extends into and lines the lung fissures ( Figure 22.2.2 ). In contrast, the parietal pleura is the outer layer that connects to the thoracic wall, the mediastinum, and the diaphragm. The visceral and parietal pleurae connect to each other at the hilum. The pleural cavity is the space between the visceral and parietal layers.

The pleurae perform two major functions: They produce pleural fluid and create cavities that separate the major organs. Pleural fluid is secreted by mesothelial cells from both pleural layers and acts to lubricate their surfaces. This lubrication reduces friction between the two layers to prevent trauma during breathing, and creates surface tension that helps maintain the position of the lungs against the thoracic wall. This adhesive characteristic of the pleural fluid causes the lungs to enlarge when the thoracic wall expands during ventilation, allowing the lungs to fill with air. The pleurae also create a division between major organs that prevents interference due to the movement of the organs, while preventing the spread of infection.

Everyday Connection –  The Effects of Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke

The burning of a tobacco cigarette creates multiple chemical compounds that are released through mainstream smoke, which is inhaled by the smoker, and through sidestream smoke, which is the smoke that is given off by the burning cigarette. Second-hand smoke, which is a combination of sidestream smoke and the mainstream smoke that is exhaled by the smoker, has been demonstrated by numerous scientific studies to cause disease. At least 40 chemicals in sidestream smoke have been identified that negatively impact human health, leading to the development of cancer or other conditions, such as immune system dysfunction, liver toxicity, cardiac arrhythmias, pulmonary edema, and neurological dysfunction. Furthermore, second-hand smoke has been found to harbor at least 250 compounds that are known to be toxic, carcinogenic, or both. Some major classes of carcinogens in second-hand smoke are polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), N-nitrosamines, aromatic amines, formaldehyde, and acetaldehyde.

Tobacco and second-hand smoke are considered to be carcinogenic. Exposure to second-hand smoke can cause lung cancer in individuals who are not tobacco users themselves. It is estimated that the risk of developing lung cancer is increased by up to 30 percent in nonsmokers who live with an individual who smokes in the house, as compared to nonsmokers who are not regularly exposed to second-hand smoke. Children are especially affected by second-hand smoke. Children who live with an individual who smokes inside the home have a larger number of lower respiratory infections, which are associated with hospitalizations, and higher risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Second-hand smoke in the home has also been linked to a greater number of ear infections in children, as well as worsening symptoms of asthma.

Chapter Review

The lungs are the major organs of the respiratory system and are responsible for performing gas exchange. The lungs are paired and separated into lobes; The left lung consists of two lobes, whereas the right lung consists of three lobes. Blood circulation is very important, as blood is required to transport oxygen from the lungs to other tissues throughout the body. The function of the pulmonary circulation is to aid in gas exchange. The pulmonary artery provides deoxygenated blood to the capillaries that form respiratory membranes with the alveoli, and the pulmonary veins return newly oxygenated blood to the heart for further transport throughout the body. The lungs are innervated by the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems, which coordinate the bronchodilation and bronchoconstriction of the airways. The lungs are enclosed by the pleura, a membrane that is composed of visceral and parietal pleural layers. The space between these two layers is called the pleural cavity. The mesothelial cells of the pleural membrane create pleural fluid, which serves as both a lubricant (to reduce friction during breathing) and as an adhesive to adhere the lungs to the thoracic wall (to facilitate movement of the lungs during ventilation).

How to Make a Lung Model in 6 Easy Steps

How does air flow into your lungs? What happens when a person has trouble breathing? These are common questions about the human body . Thankfully, kids can make a simple DIY model to learn how lungs work. With a DIY lung model, kids can see lung anatomy in action.

Although the lung model is a classic craft for preschools and elementary schools, it’s easy to make at home with materials you already have.

Get ready to see why the lungs are important for breathing in oxygen and breathing out carbon dioxide!

Parts of the respiratory system in the DIY lung model

Did you know your breathing team hangs out in your face, neck, and chest? The main members are these body parts:

• Larynx (voicebox)
• Trachea (windpipe)
• Bronchioles

First, air enters the body through the nose and mouth.

Then, it flows down your throat through your larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), and bronchi.

Finally, air makes its way through tree-branch-like tunnels — the bronchioles — and the alveoli (air sacs) in your lungs!

How to make a lung model with kids

After looking at the picture of the respiratory system, it’s time to bring amazing lung facts to life!

When kids make a DIY lung model, the science of breathing will make a lot more sense.

Human Body Learning is reader-supported. Some links are affiliate links. When you buy something through an affiliate link, Human Body Learning may earn a small commission that supports this website at no additional cost to you. Please see the disclosure policy for details.

Tip: Instead of getting brand-new supplies, see what things you can reuse and recycle from your home.

• 4 silicone straws
• 4 small brown paper bags
• Masking tape
• Marker or crayon
• Nose and mouth template: Sign up for Human Body Learning updates in the form below to instantly receive the printable!

After you hit subscribe, a copy of the lung model template will be sent to your email. Then, you can download the template onto your computer and print it out.

Instructions for making a healthy lung model

Kids can make a DIY lung model in just six steps!

Print the template and cut out one nose and mouth.

(Cut out more if you want to make more lung models!)

Put the straws together to make an upside-down “Y” shape.

Tape the long part of the straws together.

Tape the nose and mouth to the straws.

This is where air first enters the human body.

Doctors call this area the “upper airway” or the “upper respiratory tract.”

Draw bronchioles and alveoli with a crayon or marker on the brown paper bags “lungs.”

(Tip: If you have long bags, cut them shorter. “Smaller” lungs will be easier for kids to blow into.)

Your lungs have lots of little bronchioles and alveoli. Bronchioles are the smallest airways in the respiratory system. Alveoli are the small bags of air at the end of each bronchiole.

Doctors call this area the “lower airways” or the “lower respiratory tract.”

Tape a brown paper bag around each straw end. The paper bags are the lungs of the DIY lung model.

Make sure there are no gaps for air to leak out!

Experiment!

Blow slowly into the straws. What do you see? Are you able to blow air into the paper bag lungs?

Notice how both lungs fill up with air. Because the straw “airways” are open, the lungs can breathe in fresh air.

Now try squeezing the air out of the paper bag lungs. What do you notice? Did the paper bag lungs get smaller? Did you feel the air rush out of the open end of the straws?

What happens if air can’t get into the lungs?

This DIY lung model can show you where airflow sometimes gets blocked.

How to make a blocked windpipe (trachea)

With your fingers, squeeze the straws under the mouth in the “trachea” part of the lung model.

Now, try blowing air through the straws.

What do you notice? Are you able to blow air into the lungs?

How do you think someone would feel if their trachea was blocked?

How to make an unhealthy lung model

Repeat steps 1 through 4 described above.

Then, cover the end of a straw with tape to block the hole.

Return to step 5 and tape a brown paper bag around each straw end. Make sure there are no gaps for air to leak out.

When you get to step 6, what do you notice? Are you able to blow air into both lungs or only one lung?

When the straw “airways” are blocked, the lungs cannot breathe fresh air.

In real life, when airways are blocked with snot and swelling, a person would have trouble breathing.

Video tutorial: how to make a lung model

Pediatrician Dr. Betty Choi explains how to make a lung model and how air gets into the lungs.

Transcript:

“How do lungs work? And what happens when airways get blocked?

This classic DIY lung model shows how air goes through the nose or mouth, down the windpipe (trachea) and bronchi, and into the small airways (bronchioles) in the lungs.

If you get a stuffy nose, you can breathe through your mouth as backup. It might feel uncomfortable, but air can still get into your lungs.

If a child has croup, this top part of the windpipe near the voicebox gets swollen and filled with mucus.

The good news is that it usually doesn’t get fully blocked, so air can still make its way into the lungs.

Sometimes, other infections can plug up the small airways with mucus and swelling. This can block airflow.

Now, this lung needs help filling up with air.”

What happens if the DIY lung model has a hole?

Cut a small hole in the brown paper bag of your lung model. See what happens when you try to blow air in and suck air out.

Sometimes, the lung can get a hole when the chest gets hit or poked with a lot of force. When a person has a hole in a lung, doctors call this a “pneumothorax” because air from the lungs can leak out into the chest. “Pneumo” means “air,” and “thorax” means” chest.

This can be very painful! Because the lungs cannot inhale and exhale properly, someone with a hole in the lung would have trouble breathing and getting oxygen.

Other ways to make a lung model with kids

• What if you don’t have paper bags? Instead of paper bag lungs, use small plastic sandwich bags for this science project. Try to reuse and upcycle plastic bags to minimize waste!
• Check out Human Body Learning Lab , pages 84 to 85, for another cool way to make a lung model with recycled materials. The lung model activity from the book shows kids how the diaphragm muscle works to help you breathe.

Learn more about the amazing human lungs!

EXPLORE :  What Causes Hiccups and How to Get Rid of Them?

DISCOVER : Which is Better? Breathing Through the Nose or Mouth?

LEARN : How to Blow Your Nose in 3 Steps

ENJOY : Printable Anatomy Bookmarks

Human Body Learning has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on information from peer-reviewed research studies, academic institutions, and medical associations.

• Anatomy, Thorax, Lungs (StatPearls)
• Croup: Diagnosis and Management (American Family Physician)
• Physiology, Lung (StatPearls)
• Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax Outcomes in Children: A National Analysis (Innovations)
• Three-Dimensional Models of the Lung: Past, Present, and Future (Biochemical Society Transactions)

Published on September 7, 2022. Updated on January 23, 2024 by Betty Choi, MD

Betty Choi, MD

Dr. Betty Choi is a Harvard-trained pediatrician who makes learning fun and doable. She created the kids’ anatomy book Human Body Learning Lab , which Science Magazine recommended as a “notable standout in the genre.”

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How to Build a Model Lung

Last Updated: September 18, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Justine Borzumato and by wikiHow staff writer, Eric McClure . Justine Borzumato is a Biology Teacher at the Wardlaw+Hartridge School in Edison, New Jersey. Justine has been teaching biology since 2015 and has taught courses including AP Biology, Honors Biology, Epidemiology, and Anatomy and Physiology. She received her Bachelor of Science in Biology from Loyola University Maryland and a Master of Science in Biology from New York University. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 84,355 times.

Building a model lung is a fun way to participate in a science fair, complete an assignment for class, or simply learn more about how the human body works. Creating a model lung is simple, and uses materials that you probably already have sitting around in your home. To make a model lung, you’ll need a plastic bottle, some straws, a few balloons, hot glue, and a pair of scissors. A utility knife will also make cutting through your bottle cap easy.

Cutting Your Bottle and Straws

• A 20 fluid ounces (590 ml) bottle works best, but you can use a slightly larger plastic bottle as well.

Safety Tip: Take the proper safety precautions when using a utility knife. Cut away from you, keep your hand away from the knife and use a newer, sharper blade so that you don’t have to apply as much pressure. If you don't feel comfortable using a utility knife, ask an adult for help.

Tip: Rotate the bottle with your nondominant hand while you cut to make it easier.

• You may need to use a drill bit to puncture your hole if the bottle cap is too thick for a utility knife. In this case, use clamps to secure the bottle cap in place. If you don't feel comfortable using a drill, ask an experienced adult for help. [2] X Research source
• You’ll be inserting a straw through this opening, so don’t make the hole too big!

Adding Your Balloons and Straws

• You can use electrical tape or duct tape if you don’t have any hot glue. Just don’t wrap it so tightly that you constrict the movement of air in the straw. [6] X Research source

Tip: Don’t use too much glue. If any hot glue gets inside of the straws, it could block air from flowing.

• Blow into the open end of your straw to test it. If the balloons expand, you’re ready to continue. If you hear air coming out, identify the leak and cover it with hot glue.
• You can also use rubber bands or tape to keep your balloons attached to the straw, but the seal may end up being too tight.

Finishing and Using Your Model Lung

• You’ll have a long length of straw sticking out through the top of your bottle cap. You only need 2–3 inches (5.1–7.6 cm) of straw sticking out to make your lung work, so feel free to trim the rest of it off with your scissors.

Did You Know?: You can simulate a sick lung by putting a little water inside of your straw and seeing how the lung reacts!

Expert Q&A

Things You’ll Need

• Plastic bottle
• Utility knife
• 2 plastic straws
• Tape or rubber band

You Might Also Like

Expert Interview

Thanks for reading our article! If you’d like to learn more about biology, check out our in-depth interview with Justine Borzumato .

• ↑ https://www.kiwico.com/diy/stem/anatomy-biology/lung-model
• ↑ https://ctsciencecenter.org/blog/science-at-play-make-your-own-lung-model/
• ↑ https://youtu.be/lmy2AXoLZ-4?t=182
• ↑ https://youtu.be/lmy2AXoLZ-4?t=365
• ↑ https://youtu.be/lmy2AXoLZ-4
• ↑ https://www.science-sparks.com/breathing-making-a-fake-lung/

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• Published: 03 April 2024

Updated reference values for static lung volumes from a healthy population in Austria

• Tobias Mraz 1 , 2 ,
• Shervin Asgari 2 , 3 ,
• Ahmad Karimi 2 , 3 ,
• Marie-Kathrin Breyer 1 , 2 ,
• Sylvia Hartl 2 , 3 ,
• Owat Sunanta 2 ,
• Alina Ofenheimer 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Otto C. Burghuber 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Angela Zacharasiewicz 5 ,
• Bernd Lamprecht 6 , 7 ,
• Caspar Schiffers 2 ,
• Emiel F. M. Wouters 2 , 3 , 4 &
• Robab Breyer-Kohansal 2 , 8  

Respiratory Research volume  25 , Article number:  155 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

174 Accesses

Metrics details

Reference values for lung volumes are necessary to identify and diagnose restrictive lung diseases and hyperinflation, but the values have to be validated in the relevant population. Our aim was to investigate the Global Lung Function Initiative (GLI) reference equations in a representative healthy Austrian population and create population-derived reference equations if poor fit was observed.

We analysed spirometry and body plethysmography data from 5371 respiratory healthy subjects (6–80 years) from the Austrian LEAD Study. Fit with the GLI equations was examined using z-scores and distributions within the limits of normality. LEAD reference equations were then created using the LMS method and the generalized additive model of location shape and scale package according to GLI models.

Good fit, defined as mean z-scores between + 0.5 and -0.5,was not observed for the GLI static lung volume equations, with mean z-scores > 0.5 for residual volume (RV), RV/TLC (total lung capacity) and TLC in both sexes, and for expiratory reserve volume (ERV) and inspiratory capacity in females. Distribution within the limits of normality were shifted to the upper limit except for ERV. Population-derived reference equations from the LEAD cohort showed superior fit for lung volumes and provided reproducible results.

GLI lung volume reference equations demonstrated a poor fit for our cohort, especially in females. Therefore a new set of Austrian reference equations for static lung volumes was developed, that can be applied to both children and adults (6–80 years of age).

Introduction

Respiratory disease conditions are largely based on measurement of lung physiology. A disease can be described as a set of characteristics by which they differ from the norm in such a way that they are biologically disadvantaged [ 1 ]. Reference values are used to help identify and diagnose individuals with abnormal values. Apart from measurement of forced maneuvers in spirometry, lung function can be described using lung volumes, determined by body plethysmography or gas dilution methods. Especially diagnosing restrictive lung disease only is possible by measuring the total lung capacity (TLC), thus requiring lung volumes [ 2 ].

The most commonly used reference values for lung volumes in adult populations are from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which were derived from data in 1983, and have limitations in terms of the inclusion of smokers and the lack of females [ 2 , 3 ]. These are not applicable to children, and so separate reference values have to be used, the most common being based on work by Zapletal and colleagues published in the 1970s [ 3 ]. Values by Rosenthal et al. were also published more than 20 years ago [ 4 ]. Recognizing the need to update reference values for lung function testing, in 2012 the Global Lung Function Initiative (GLI) published multi-ethnic spirometry reference values that could be used across an age range of 3 to 95 years, with separate calculations for males and females [ 5 ]. Subsequently, the GLI published reference values for static lung volumes that are applicable to assessment either by gas dilution methods or plethysmography [ 6 ]. Whereas the GLI spirometry values are based on data from over 74,000 examinations and have been validated in a number of different populations [ 7 ], the static lung volume reference values are based on a more limited dataset of approximately 7,700 measurements [ 5 , 6 ] and require further validation. We therefore aimed to investigate the fit of the GLI lung volume equations in a cohort of healthy never smokers in Austria. If resulting in a poor fit for the Austrian population, creation of population-derived reference equations was planned.

Material and methods

Population and study design.

The LEAD (Lung, hEart, sociAl, boDy) Study (ClinicalTrials.gov; NCT01727518; http://clinicaltrials.gov ) is an ongoing, longitudinal, observational, population-based cohort study that aims to provide a comprehensive database of risk factors for non-communicable diseases. The study has recruited a random sample (stratified by age, sex, and residential area) of males and females aged 6–80 years from Vienna and lower Austria that are representative of the general Austrian population, and who are being assessed every 4 years [ 8 ] since 2011. LEAD is being carried out according to the Declaration of Helsinki (2008) and has been approved by the Vienna local ethics committee (EK-11–117-0711). Written informed consent was given by all participants (or by parents or legal representatives for those aged under 18 years).

The current analyses focus on pre-bronchodilator data collected from the baseline visit. At each visit, all participants undergo spirometry and body plethysmography lung function testing by trained personnel at the LEAD study centre of the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Health at the Clinic Penzing in Vienna, Austria. All measurements were conducted according to international recommendations (European Respiratory Society [ERS]/American Thoracic Society [ATS]) [ 9 , 10 ], using BT-MasterScope Body 0478© (Jaeger, Germany) with the JLAB software. The body plethysmograph was calibrated daily using a 3 L syringe and a box pressure calibrator. Lung volume indices were expressed in body temperature pressure saturated conditions.

The lung function examination started with the subject sitting and breathing steadily, registering the pressure–flow diagrams, and producing at least three reproducible diagrams. Functional residual capacity (FRC) was then measured by closure of the shutter at the end of a normal expiration. At least two FRC loops were obtained, with the subject breathing against the shutter at resting ventilation. The subject then carried out a maximal expiration to measure expiratory reserve volume (ERV), with residual volume (RV) calculated by subtracting ERV from FRC, followed by a slow, maximal inspiration, from which inspiratory capacity (IC) was measured. Finally forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV 1 ) and forced vital capacity (FVC) were assessed using forced spirometry, with three acceptable and reproducible loops obtained. Total lung capacity (TLC) was determined by adding RV to the best achieved vital capacity (VC), either from body plethysmography or spirometry. Strict regular quality control was in place for data collection and entry.

Age was registered in full days between the participants day of birth and the date of visit and is expressed in years with two decimals. Height was measured in centimeters without decimals. Weight was measured in kilograms with two decimals.

Definition of healthy never smoking respiratory cohort

All current and ex-smokers were excluded from the analyses. Participants with respiratory symptoms (wheeze, cough, sputum, or dyspnoea) in the last 12-months were also excluded, obtained using an interview-based questionnaire. Further subjects with a doctor’s diagnosis of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic bronchitis, or emphysema were also excluded.

In order to avoid extreme outliers, patients with Z-scores ± 5 for height, weight or spirometric values were excluded from the analyses, and lung function reports of outliers were re-checked for errors and were evaluated for quality of the flow diagrams. Finally, we included only subjects with a complete set of pre- and post-bronchodilation spirometry and body plethysmography. As we believed this definition would describe pulmonary healthy subjects, no further exclusion criteria using spirometry or lung volumes were used.

To evaluate the cohort for single centre bias concerning pulmonary function testing, we included data from study participants, who underwent a second pulmonary function testing, using the same protocol, in the pulmonary function testing laboratory of the Clinic Penzing, Vienna. These were selected out of the initial study collective for bronchial challenge testing and do not necessarily correspond to the same subjects as in the healthy study cohort.

Statistical analysis

Z-scores were calculated for the cohort using the available GLI reference equations for pre-bronchodilation spirometry and lung volumes [ 5 , 6 ]. Spirometry was included to check for general comparability to the GLI cohorts. Fit was analysed using the mean Z-scores, the 95% confidence intervals and the percentage above the upper limit of normal (ULN) and below the lower limit of normal (LLN). A good fit was to be concluded if: 1) the mean Z-score was between + 0.5 and -0.5 2) the standard deviation (SD) was approximately 1; and 3) ≤ 5% of the observations were below the LLN and ≤ 5% were above the ULN [ 11 ].

Population-specific reference equations were created based on the same, healthy cohort using the LMS method, consistent with GLI [ 5 ], as described earlier by Cole et al. [ 12 ], and the generalised additive model of location, scale and shape (GAMLSS) package in R (Version 4.2.2, R Foundation, Vienna, Austria, http://www.r-project.org ). Equations were generated separately for males and females, with height and age being the predictive variables. The LMS method allows modelling of the skewness (lamda), the median (mu) and the coefficient of variation (sigma). Fit of the equations was determined using Q-Q plots, worm plots and the distribution of Z-scores. The Kolmogorow-Smirnow test was used to test for normal distribution, indicated by a p -value > 0.05. Degrees of freedom were adapted to achieve the lowest Schwartz-Bayesian-Criterion while avoiding overly complex models.

The analyses used data from 5371 subjects (Fig.  1 ), including 2397 males (43.9%) and 2974 females (56.1%), aged from 6 to 80 years. The baseline characteristics of this cohort are shown in Table  1 for males and Table  2 for females. The majority of included individuals were between 6 to 30 years. A decline of lung function could be observed for both sexes, but more pronounced for FEV1 and FVC than lung volumes. In contrast, RV, RV/TLC and FRC grow larger with increasing age.

Flow chart for selection of a healthy, asymptomatic cohort

In the cohort, 31,2% of adults were overweight (body mass index [BMI] > 25 kg/m 2 ) and 10,7% were obese (BMI > 30 kg/m 2 ). In participants aged < 19 years 18,2% were overweight (BMI WHO Z-score > 1) and 9,6% were obese (BMI WHO Z-score > 2).

In a first step Z-scores were created using the GLI spirometry equations, to check for comparability to the Caucasian GLI cohorts. A good fit could be observed for all spirometry indices (Table  3 ). Females showed slightly lower numbers than the 5% expected under the LLN for FEV1 and FVC, especially at age > 65 years.

Existing reference equations for lung volume data

The fit of the GLI static lung volume equations were poor, as shown by the mean Z-scores in Table  4 . Mean Z-scores for RV and RV/TLC using the GLI reference values were >  ± 0.5 for both males and females, with fit also poor for TLC, IC and ERV in females. Furthermore, there was a shift towards higher values for all indices except ERV, as indicated by a higher proportion of values above the ULN than below the LLN. A absent normal distribution was demonstrated for all indices by an p  < 0.05 in the Kolmogorow-Smirnow test. An acceptable fit could be observed for FRC, IC and ERV in males, especially in the age group between 18–65 years.

Creation of population-specific reference equations

Given the unsatisfactorily fit of the lung volume data when using the GLI reference equations, new equations were created using the LMS method (Table  5 , Supplementary Figures.  1 and 2 ). Consistent with the approach used by GLI, subjects with calculated Z-scores >  ± 5 were excluded before recalculating the equations, to avoid influence by extreme outliers. Look-up tables containing the varying coefficients were created and are available in the online supplement. All equations showed a good fit, with mean Z-scores of 0 and SDs of 1 (Table  6 ). Furthermore, all distributions were even with approximately 5% of subjects above and below ULN and LLN, respectively. All indices were normally distributed in the Kolmogorow-Smirnow test.

Intraindividual variability

As this was a single centre study, a measurement bias by operator or equipment couldn’t be excluded. However, a subgroup of the LEAD cohort underwent an additional pulmonary function testing at a different site: participants with history of atopy, allergy, eosinophilia or positive skin prick test were selected for a bronchial challenge testing, which was carried out at the pulmonary function lab of the Clinic Penzing. The protocol and equipment were the same type as in the study centre, being a BT-MasterScope Body 0478 (Jaeger, Germany). Normal spirometry and plethysmography were carried out, tough only TLC, RV and ERV were available in the database. During Phase 1765 individuals underwent the additional testing, after excluding all with missing or invalid data, 706 participants remained. As the mean interval between the measurements was 40 months, a manual quality check was carried out, to exclude children and adolescents with large differences between the dates due to natural growth, contributing to the high number of exclusions. In the end, data of 602 participants were analysed. As the mean intraindividual difference was < 100 ml for all included parameters (FEV1, FVC, ERV, RV, TLC), a single centre bias of measurements seemed unlikely. (Table  7 ).

These analyses use cross-sectional data obtained from a broad, representative healthy population sample from Austria to investigate the fit of the GLI lung volumes reference equations. As the GLI equations failed to demonstrate a good fit with our population-based data in normal subjects, a new set of sex-specific reference values was created for lung volumes.

Reference values are indispensable when interpreting lung volumes in clinical practice, using the LLN with TLC and ULN with RV for defining restrictive impairment and hyperinflation respectively [ 13 ]. Until recently, assessments in Austria and Europe relied mostly on the ECSC reference equations for adults, despite several studies having demonstrated inconsistencies between these reference equations, so the update by GLI was highly anticipated [ 14 , 15 , 16 ].

When using the GLI spirometry equations in our population a good fit was observed. We therefore considered our cohort comparable to the Caucasian cohorts used by GLI to create equations for spirometry and lung volumes. While small differences exist especially for females, we consider the equations sufficient for the detection of obstructive anomalies in our cohort [ 17 ]. This is consistent with previous analyses reporting a good fit with the GLI spirometry equations for other European cohorts [ 7 , 18 ]. While some authors still report significant differences [ 19 ], the GLI equations, at least for Caucasian populations, offer consistent cut-offs and improved comparability between cohorts. The large amount of collated data, smoothing out small differences between populations, seems one of the main advantages. Additionally, even ethnic-specific equations created by GLI are available for spirometry. But the accuracy of these compared to globally merged equations was questioned lately [ 20 ].

However, GLI lung volume reference values did not fit well within our cohort. Large differences were observed, with mean Z-scores > 0,5 for TLC, RV and RV/TLC. Also, the percentage under the LLN and over the ULN was lower and higher respectively than expected. The difference was even more pronounced in females including significant differences for IC and ERV. These deviations could lead to an under-detection of restrictive disorders and overdiagnosis of hyperinflation in the Austrian population.

So far there is few data about the performance of the new GLI equations in European cohorts. The number of observations for lung volumes was much lower than for spirometry, and no equations are available for different ethnic backgrounds than Caucasian. A recent study from Belgium found similar results, with the GLI equations underestimating especially the values for RV [ 21 ]. Furthermore, the percentage under the LLN was lower than the expected 5% for TLC. A study in Algerian adults also reported, despite good fitting GLI spirometry values, similar results for RV, RV/TLC and TLC [ 22 ].

One potential explanation for the poor fit of the GLI lung volume equations is that our data were collected recently (starting 2011). Longitudinal studies have shown that populations are getting taller and healthier [ 23 ], with average population lung function increasing [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ], potentially influenced by socioeconomic factors, or reduced occupational or environmental exposure [ 25 , 28 ]. While in literature the impact of these developments in lung function is still discussed, the large size of our cohort might especially contribute to visible differences [ 29 ].

There were less obese and overweight individuals in our cohort compared to GLI. As the significance of weight as predictor of static lung volumes is not yet conclusively understood [ 6 ], we used weight as an predictive variable in an early version of the equations. This only minimally altered the coefficients, and so wasn’t used further (data not shown). While weight seems to have only a small impact on overall lung volume reference equations, the effect of body composition could be more important and may explain some of the differences between cohorts.

Future analyses could investigate and include the effect of body compartments on lung volumes.

Other factors contributing to the need to revisit equations could be changes in methods and equipment. Various studies in patients with obstructive lung diseases have demonstrated significant differences between lung volumes measured by gas dilution methods versus plethysmography, although the situation in healthy individuals is less clear [ 30 ]. Indeed, GLI found statistically significant differences between these two methods in their cohort, but regarded the differences as not clinically relevant, although the majority of their data were derived from plethysmography [ 6 ]. In addition, use of different body plethysmography devices and software could potentially impact the results. For example, in GLI devices manufactured by JAEGER (which we used in our study) measured somewhat higher values than those from other manufacturers, especially for RV [ 6 ]. Recently, authors from COSYCONET demonstrated differences in FRC up to 0.67 L between two manufacturers [ 31 ].

So, while the simplicity of one equation spanning different techniques, equipment, and populations is one argument for the use of the GLI equations, this might not appropriately represent all different populations and methods. It is to be expected that reference values derived directly from the specific examined population would fit that population better than standardised equations – although it is important that for such population-based equations to be useful, the examined population has to be representative of the broad population, as has been shown to be the case with the LEAD cohort [ 8 ] Still, adding more data to the GLI equations, may in the future improve the generalizability and render population based equations obsolete.

In this study the population derived reference equations from LEAD demonstrated a superior fit for all lung volume indices compared to the GLI equations. Lung volumes in our cohort were influenced by sex, age and height. Some studies have included weight as predictive variable for lung function [ 15 , 16 , 32 ], but as with GLI we found only a small influence of weight [ 6 ], and our equations therefore do not need to include this parameter. Importantly, we included obese individuals in our analyses, since reference values should be generalisable to the intended population [ 17 ]. Our newly derived equations might be usable in other European countries with similar population characteristics and equipment. This will have to be analysed in future studies.

Strengths and limitations

Our analyses were conducted according to the ERS/ATS workshop report requirements [ 2 ]. While these published already over 20 years ago, they are still the most recent criteria available. We used strict selection criteria for our healthy cohort, only including never smokers, and excluding those reporting any respiratory symptoms. In addition, the population was distributed over all age groups, although with an overrepresentation of children, adolescents and of females, potentially due to the exclusion of those with a smoking history. We used standardised methods for the measurement of lung volumes, with strict quality control [ 8 ], and to create the reference equations we used the same statistical models as GLI. In particular, the LMS model allows the equations to cover the entire age range, avoiding discrepancies when entering the adult age [ 5 ].

The main limitation of our analyses is the single centre aspect of our lung function testing. The comparison of measurements done in another site showed only very small, not clinically relevant differences. Still a systemic bias can’t be ruled out, as only the device and software of one manufacturer was used. This also limits generalisability to other equipment and software. Furthermore, our cohort included no individuals aged < 6 years and > 80 years, so we recommend the use of our equations only between the ages of 6 and 80 years. Ethnicity wasn’t documented, as participants of the LEAD study, corresponding to the Austrian population, were predominantly of European ancestry. The Austrian population is known to consist just a very minor part of subjects different than Caucasian ancestry, so ethnicity wasn’t considered in the initial study design. Therefore the reference values are only applicable to similar Caucasian populations. We used strict exclusion criteria, but still subjects with physiologically abnormal lung function measurements or undiagnosed respiratory disease could have been present in the analysed cohort.

In our cohort the GLI lung volume reference equations demonstrated a poor fit for RV, RV/TLC and TLC, especially in females. We therefore developed a new set of Austrian reference equations for static lung volumes that, unlike most reference values, can be applied to both children and adults, from the ages of 6 to 80 years.

Availability of data and materials

The reference equations generated and analysed during the current study are available in Table 5 . Look-up tables are provided in the online supplement.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Sanja Stanojevic and Brendan Cooper from the GLI network for their support and assistance in developing the reference equations

The Austrian LEAD Study is supported by the Ludwig Boltzmann Society, the Municipal Department of Health and Environment of Vienna, the Federal State Governmental Department of Health of Lower Austria, and unrestricted scientific grants from AstraZeneca, Böhringer Ingelheim, Chiesi Pharma, Glaxo Smith Kline and Menarini Pharma. None of the supporting parties had any participation in the data, nor did they contribute to the design or the content of the present manuscript.

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Tobias Mraz, Shervin Asgari, Ahmad Karimi, Marie-Kathrin Breyer, Sylvia Hartl, Owat Sunanta, Alina Ofenheimer, Otto C. Burghuber, Caspar Schiffers, Emiel F. M. Wouters & Robab Breyer-Kohansal

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Contributions

Contributions to conception and design: TM, MKB, BL, SH, OB, AZ, EW, RBK.  Data analysis: TM, SA, OS, AO, AK.  Interpretation of data: TM, CS, EW, RBK.  Drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content: All authors.  Gave final approval of the version to be published: All authors.  Take responsibility for the integrity of the data and accuracy of the data analysis: All authors.

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1..

 Mean predicted lung volumes males

Additional file 2.

 Mean predicted lung volumes females

Additional file 3.

 LEAD Lookup tables lung volumes submitted

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Mraz, T., Asgari, S., Karimi, A. et al. Updated reference values for static lung volumes from a healthy population in Austria. Respir Res 25 , 155 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-024-02782-6

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Science At Play: Make Your Own Lung Model

• Kaila Ringgard
• April 30, 2020

The lungs are respiratory organs that are vital to the breathing process and necessary to acquire life-giving oxygen. Learn how your lungs work by using simple materials from around your house to build a model lung.  Your family and friends are bound to be amazed by this awesome model and your knowledge of how lungs work! 

Materials to Collect

• Clear plastic drink bottle (A Gatorade bottle is a good size)
• Two balloons
• Tape (masking tape or duct tape)  

Build/Make Your Own/Try it Out

• Take one balloon and put it inside the bottle. Then fold the bottom of the balloon around the rim of the bottle so the balloon hangs from the top. Wrap tape around the top if the balloon doesn’t seem snug around the bottle opening. You don’t want any air escaping, so make sure it is nice and tight! 

• Using the balloon half with the knot, stretch the open end over the bottom of the bottle. Again, this should be a tight fit. Use tape to secure if necessary.
• Gently pull down on the balloon from the knot. This should cause air to flow into the balloons within your lung model.
• Release the balloon with the knot and watch as the air is expelled from your lung model.

What is the Science? 

This model is showing us how our lungs work! The balloon at the bottom works like your diaphragm—a strong muscle that expands and contracts to cause your lungs to fill with air and then empty out again. The movement of the balloon matches your breathing – when you breathe in, your lungs fill with air just like the balloon inside the bottle did. That’s because the diaphragm expanded making room for air inside the lung. When you breathe out, your diaphragm contracts (or squeezes in) pushing all the air out of your lungs.

The same thing happened in your model! When you pulled down on the knot, the balloon inflated slightly and when let go the balloon deflated! Inside your body, you have two lungs that work together, and the diaphragm is below them. Air goes in and out of both of your lungs at the same time. This model just represents one lung.

  Ask Your Young Scientists

• Put your hand on your stomach. What do you notice? When you breathe in you should feel your stomach expand. Why do you think your stomach expands when you breathe in? 
• What are some things you can do to keep your lungs healthy?
• Try doing the experiment with a larger bottle and larger balloons. Does it change how the inside balloon reacts? 
• Try pushing the membrane (the balloon) in. What happens to the balloon inside the bottle?

More to Explore

We want to see what you try at home. Share your creation with us on social media by using the #ScienceAtPlay and tagging @CTScienceCenter.

Kaila Ringgard is a Public Programs Educator at the Connecticut Science Center. She holds a degree from University of Massachusetts Amherst in Geology and Liberal Sciences. In her role at the Science Center, she creates and performs demonstrations for visitors that highlight many different fields in science and STEM careers. She is also responsible for taking care of the many reptiles and insects we have onsite, including our butterflies. You can usually find her in our galleries wearing a tie-dye lab coat with fun experiments and often an interesting animal you can meet.

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