problem solving checklist for students

New Designs for School 5 Steps to Teaching Students a Problem-Solving Routine

Jeff Heyck-Williams (He, His, Him) Director of the Two Rivers Learning Institute in Washington, DC

We’ve all had the experience of truly purposeful, authentic learning and know how valuable it is. Educators are taking the best of what we know about learning, student support, effective instruction, and interpersonal skill-building to completely reimagine schools so that students experience that kind of purposeful learning all day, every day.

Students can use the 5 steps in this simple routine to solve problems across the curriculum and throughout their lives.

When I visited a fifth-grade class recently, the students were tackling the following problem:

If there are nine people in a room and every person shakes hands exactly once with each of the other people, how many handshakes will there be? How can you prove your answer is correct using a model or numerical explanation?

There were students on the rug modeling people with Unifix cubes. There were kids at one table vigorously shaking each other’s hand. There were kids at another table writing out a diagram with numbers. At yet another table, students were working on creating a numeric expression. What was common across this class was that all of the students were productively grappling around the problem.

On a different day, I was out at recess with a group of kindergarteners who got into an argument over a vigorous game of tag. Several kids were arguing about who should be “it.” Many of them insisted that they hadn’t been tagged. They all agreed that they had a problem. With the assistance of the teacher they walked through a process of identifying what they knew about the problem and how best to solve it. They grappled with this very real problem to come to a solution that all could agree upon.

Then just last week, I had the pleasure of watching a culminating showcase of learning for our 8th graders. They presented to their families about their project exploring the role that genetics plays in our society. Tackling the problem of how we should or should not regulate gene research and editing in the human population, students explored both the history and scientific concerns about genetics and the ethics of gene editing. Each student developed arguments about how we as a country should proceed in the burgeoning field of human genetics which they took to Capitol Hill to share with legislators. Through the process students read complex text to build their knowledge, identified the underlying issues and questions, and developed unique solutions to this very real problem.

Problem-solving is at the heart of each of these scenarios, and an essential set of skills our students need to develop. They need the abilities to think critically and solve challenging problems without a roadmap to solutions. At Two Rivers Public Charter School in Washington, D.C., we have found that one of the most powerful ways to build these skills in students is through the use of a common set of steps for problem-solving. These steps, when used regularly, become a flexible cognitive routine for students to apply to problems across the curriculum and their lives.

The Problem-Solving Routine

At Two Rivers, we use a fairly simple routine for problem solving that has five basic steps. The power of this structure is that it becomes a routine that students are able to use regularly across multiple contexts. The first three steps are implemented before problem-solving. Students use one step during problem-solving. Finally, they finish with a reflective step after problem-solving.

Problem Solving from Two Rivers Public Charter School

Before Problem-Solving: The KWI

The three steps before problem solving: we call them the K-W-I.

The “K” stands for “know” and requires students to identify what they already know about a problem. The goal in this step of the routine is two-fold. First, the student needs to analyze the problem and identify what is happening within the context of the problem. For example, in the math problem above students identify that they know there are nine people and each person must shake hands with each other person. Second, the student needs to activate their background knowledge about that context or other similar problems. In the case of the handshake problem, students may recognize that this seems like a situation in which they will need to add or multiply.

The “W” stands for “what” a student needs to find out to solve the problem. At this point in the routine the student always must identify the core question that is being asked in a problem or task. However, it may also include other questions that help a student access and understand a problem more deeply. For example, in addition to identifying that they need to determine how many handshakes in the math problem, students may also identify that they need to determine how many handshakes each individual person has or how to organize their work to make sure that they count the handshakes correctly.

The “I” stands for “ideas” and refers to ideas that a student brings to the table to solve a problem effectively. In this portion of the routine, students list the strategies that they will use to solve a problem. In the example from the math class, this step involved all of the different ways that students tackled the problem from Unifix cubes to creating mathematical expressions.

This KWI routine before problem solving sets students up to actively engage in solving problems by ensuring they understand the problem and have some ideas about where to start in solving the problem. Two remaining steps are equally important during and after problem solving.

The power of teaching students to use this routine is that they develop a habit of mind to analyze and tackle problems wherever they find them.

During Problem-Solving: The Metacognitive Moment

The step that occurs during problem solving is a metacognitive moment. We ask students to deliberately pause in their problem-solving and answer the following questions: “Is the path I’m on to solve the problem working?” and “What might I do to either stay on a productive path or readjust my approach to get on a productive path?” At this point in the process, students may hear from other students that have had a breakthrough or they may go back to their KWI to determine if they need to reconsider what they know about the problem. By naming explicitly to students that part of problem-solving is monitoring our thinking and process, we help them become more thoughtful problem solvers.

After Problem-Solving: Evaluating Solutions

As a final step, after students solve the problem, they evaluate both their solutions and the process that they used to arrive at those solutions. They look back to determine if their solution accurately solved the problem, and when time permits they also consider if their path to a solution was efficient and how it compares to other students’ solutions.

The power of teaching students to use this routine is that they develop a habit of mind to analyze and tackle problems wherever they find them. This empowers students to be the problem solvers that we know they can become.

Jeff Heyck-Williams (He, His, Him)

Director of the two rivers learning institute.

Jeff Heyck-Williams is the director of the Two Rivers Learning Institute and a founder of Two Rivers Public Charter School. He has led work around creating school-wide cultures of mathematics, developing assessments of critical thinking and problem-solving, and supporting project-based learning.

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Developing Problem-Solving Skills for Kids | Strategies & Tips

We've made teaching problem-solving skills for kids a whole lot easier! Keep reading and comment below with any other tips you have for your classroom!

Problem-Solving Skills for Kids: The Real Deal

Picture this: You've carefully created an assignment for your class. The step-by-step instructions are crystal clear. During class time, you walk through all the directions, and the response is awesome. Your students are ready! It's finally time for them to start working individually and then... 8 hands shoot up with questions. You hear one student mumble in the distance, "Wait, I don't get this" followed by the dreaded, "What are we supposed to be doing again?"

When I was a new computer science teacher, I would have this exact situation happen. As a result, I would end up scrambling to help each individual student with their problems until half the class period was eaten up. I assumed that in order for my students to learn best, I needed to be there to help answer questions immediately so they could move forward and complete the assignment.

Here's what I wish I had known when I started teaching coding to elementary students - the process of grappling with an assignment's content can be more important than completing the assignment's product. That said, not every student knows how to grapple, or struggle, in order to get to the "aha!" moment and solve a problem independently. The good news is, the ability to creatively solve problems is not a fixed skill. It can be learned by students, nurtured by teachers, and practiced by everyone!

Your students are absolutely capable of navigating and solving problems on their own. Here are some strategies, tips, and resources that can help:

Problem-Solving Skills for Kids: Student Strategies

These are strategies your students can use during independent work time to become creative problem solvers.

1. Go Step-By-Step Through The Problem-Solving Sequence 

Post problem-solving anchor charts and references on your classroom wall or pin them to your Google Classroom - anything to make them accessible to students. When they ask for help, invite them to reference the charts first.

2. Revisit Past Problems

If a student gets stuck, they should ask themself, "Have I ever seen a problem like this before? If so, how did I solve it?" Chances are, your students have tackled something similar already and can recycle the same strategies they used before to solve the problem this time around.

3. Document What Doesn’t Work

Sometimes finding the answer to a problem requires the process of elimination. Have your students attempt to solve a problem at least two different ways before reaching out to you for help. Even better, encourage them write down their "Not-The-Answers" so you can see their thought process when you do step in to support. Cool thing is, you likely won't need to! By attempting to solve a problem in multiple different ways, students will often come across the answer on their own.

4. "3 Before Me"

Let's say your students have gone through the Problem Solving Process, revisited past problems, and documented what doesn't work. Now, they know it's time to ask someone for help. Great! But before you jump into save the day, practice "3 Before Me". This means students need to ask 3 other classmates their question before asking the teacher. By doing this, students practice helpful 21st century skills like collaboration and communication, and can usually find the info they're looking for on the way.

Problem-Solving Skills for Kids: Teacher Tips

These are tips that you, the teacher, can use to support students in developing creative problem-solving skills for kids.

1. Ask Open Ended Questions

When a student asks for help, it can be tempting to give them the answer they're looking for so you can both move on. But what this actually does is prevent the student from developing the skills needed to solve the problem on their own. Instead of giving answers, try using open-ended questions and prompts. Here are some examples:

2. Encourage Grappling

Grappling  is everything a student might do when faced with a problem that does not have a clear solution. As explained in this article from Edutopia , this doesn't just mean perseverance! Grappling is more than that - it includes critical thinking, asking questions, observing evidence, asking more questions, forming hypotheses, and constructing a deep understanding of an issue.

There are lots of ways to provide opportunities for grappling. Anything that includes the Engineering Design Process is a good one! Examples include:

• Engineering or Art Projects
• Design-thinking challenges
• Computer science projects
• Science experiments

3. Emphasize Process Over Product

For elementary students, reflecting on the process of solving a problem helps them develop a growth mindset . Getting an answer "wrong" doesn't need to be a bad thing! What matters most are the steps they took to get there and how they might change their approach next time. As a teacher, you can support students in learning this reflection process.

4. Model The Strategies Yourself! 

As creative problem-solving skills for kids are being learned, there will likely be moments where they are frustrated or unsure. Here are some easy ways you can model what creative problem-solving looks and sounds like.

• Ask clarifying questions if you don't understand something
• Admit when don't know the correct answer
• Talk through multiple possible outcomes for different situations 
• Verbalize how you’re feeling when you find a problem

Practicing these strategies with your students will help create a learning environment where grappling, failing, and growing is celebrated!

Problem-Solving Skill for Kids

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Teaching problem solving.

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Tips and Techniques

Expert vs. novice problem solvers, communicate.

• Have students  identify specific problems, difficulties, or confusions . Don’t waste time working through problems that students already understand.
• If students are unable to articulate their concerns, determine where they are having trouble by  asking them to identify the specific concepts or principles associated with the problem.
• In a one-on-one tutoring session, ask the student to  work his/her problem out loud . This slows down the thinking process, making it more accurate and allowing you to access understanding.
• When working with larger groups you can ask students to provide a written “two-column solution.” Have students write up their solution to a problem by putting all their calculations in one column and all of their reasoning (in complete sentences) in the other column. This helps them to think critically about their own problem solving and helps you to more easily identify where they may be having problems. Two-Column Solution (Math) Two-Column Solution (Physics)

Encourage Independence

• Model the problem solving process rather than just giving students the answer. As you work through the problem, consider how a novice might struggle with the concepts and make your thinking clear
• Have students work through problems on their own. Ask directing questions or give helpful suggestions, but  provide only minimal assistance and only when needed to overcome obstacles.
• Don’t fear  group work ! Students can frequently help each other, and talking about a problem helps them think more critically about the steps needed to solve the problem. Additionally, group work helps students realize that problems often have multiple solution strategies, some that might be more effective than others

Be sensitive

• Frequently, when working problems, students are unsure of themselves. This lack of confidence may hamper their learning. It is important to recognize this when students come to us for help, and to give each student some feeling of mastery. Do this by providing  positive reinforcement to let students know when they have mastered a new concept or skill.

Encourage Thoroughness and Patience

• Try to communicate that  the process is more important than the answer so that the student learns that it is OK to not have an instant solution. This is learned through your acceptance of his/her pace of doing things, through your refusal to let anxiety pressure you into giving the right answer, and through your example of problem solving through a step-by step process.

Experts (teachers) in a particular field are often so fluent in solving problems from that field that they can find it difficult to articulate the problem solving principles and strategies they use to novices (students) in their field because these principles and strategies are second nature to the expert. To teach students problem solving skills,  a teacher should be aware of principles and strategies of good problem solving in his or her discipline .

The mathematician George Polya captured the problem solving principles and strategies he used in his discipline in the book  How to Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method (Princeton University Press, 1957). The book includes  a summary of Polya’s problem solving heuristic as well as advice on the teaching of problem solving.

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Free IEP Goal Bank With More Than 110 Goals

All the goals you need, when you need them.

There are as many IEP goals as there are students. But the longer you teach special education, the more you’ll find yourself searching for just the right reading comprehension goal for a student with a learning disability or a behavior goal for a kid who has ADHD. That’s where an IEP goal bank, also known as a goal database, comes in.

IEP Goals 101

IEP goals should be specific enough to be implemented by anyone who reads them. They should address aspects of the general curriculum but at the student’s functional level. And the goals should be actionable and measurable.

The goals should also include the accuracy and number of trials that the student needs to complete to show mastery. The accuracy and number of trials will depend on the student’s ability, strengths, and skills. (Typical accuracy and trials are 80% 4-out-of-5 trials.)

Finally, the goals should include the level of support the student needs. Should they be demonstrating the skill independently, or do they need a few prompts or maximum support? Build that into the goal too.

So, a finished goal might be: When given a pile of coins (all one type), Jaime will count the coins and find the total with no more than two prompts with 70% accuracy in 3 out of 5 trials.

IEP Goals for Your Database

A lot of thought goes into each IEP goal, so here are more than 100 goals that every special education teacher should have in their bank.

Reading Comprehension IEP Goal Bank

Reading comprehension is a skill that many students struggle with it. Choose a goal that helps students reach the next level of reading comprehension so they can understand and enjoy what they read.

• When given a story at their reading level, [STUDENT] will use a storyboard or story map to outline the story’s main elements.
• When given a nonfiction text at their reading level, [STUDENT] will select and use the appropriate graphic organizer to identify key information.
• When given a paragraph at their reading level, [STUDENT] will apply the RAP strategy ( R eading a single paragraph, A sking oneself to define the main idea and supporting details, P utting the information into the reader’s language).

• When given a passage at their reading level, [STUDENT] will use an outline strategy to summarize the content or retell the story.
• When given a text at their reading level, [STUDENT] will read and demonstrate literal knowledge by answering five literal questions.
• [STUDENT] will demonstrate understanding of text using total communication (AAC devices, PECS, verbalization, sign language) to answer five literal questions about the text.
• When presented with a passage at their reading level, [STUDENT] will use context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words.
• When given a passage at their instructional level, [STUDENT] will make a prediction and read to confirm or adjust their prediction with information from the text.
• When given a text at their reading level, [STUDENT] will identify the main idea and two supporting details.

• Given a sentence, [STUDENT] will combine background knowledge with information from the text to infer the author’s meaning.
• Given a passage at their reading level, [STUDENT] will answer five inferential questions.
• After reading a passage with visual supports (e.g., highlighting), [STUDENT] will answer literal questions with minimal assistance.
• After reading a passage at their reading level, [STUDENT] will identify the author’s purpose for writing.
• Given a list of author’s purposes and a text, [STUDENT] will select the correct author’s purpose for writing.

Math IEP Goal Bank

Students may be working on numeracy or word problems. Whatever their focus, choose a math goal that helps them progress.

• [STUDENT] will identify a one- or two-digit number (verbally, pointing, written).
• [STUDENT] will rote-count from 1 to 25 (or higher).
• [STUDENT] will skip-count by 2, 3, 5, 10 to 50 (verbal or written).

• Given 10 addition problems, [STUDENT] will independently add single-digit numbers with (or without) regrouping.
• [STUDENT] will independently subtract a single-digit number from a double-digit number with (or without) regrouping.
• Given 10 subtraction problems, [STUDENT] will independently subtract double-digit numbers from double-digit numbers with (or without) regrouping.
• [STUDENT] will independently tell time to the half hour (or quarter hour, etc.) on an analog clock (verbal or written).
• [STUDENT] will independently identify the next dollar amount when given a price, determine how much is needed to make a purchase, and count out the necessary amount using school money.
• Given a quarter, dime, nickel, and penny, [STUDENT] will identify the coin and value.
• Given a random amount of coins (all one type or mixed), [STUDENT] will independently count the coins.

• When given two-digit (or three- or four-digit) numbers, [STUDENT] will round to the nearest tens (or hundreds or thousands).
• Given two numbers (pictures, groups of items), [STUDENT] will determine which number is greater than/less than/equal to by selecting or drawing the appropriate symbol.
• Given data and a graph (bar, pie), [STUDENT] will complete the graph to display the data.
• Given a graph (bar, pie, line), [STUDENT] will answer three questions about the data.
• [STUDENT] will identify the numerator and denominator in a fraction.
• When given a picture of a shape divided into parts, [STUDENT] will color the correct number of sections to represent the fraction given.

• [STUDENT] will solve one-step word problems using addition and subtraction (or multiplication and division).
• [STUDENT] will independently solve 15 multiplication facts (up to 9).
• Given a fact-fluency tracker, [STUDENT] will track mastery of multiplication facts up to 12.
• Given a problem-solving checklist, [STUDENT] will use the checklist to solve a one-step or two-step word problem.

Writing IEP Goal Bank

Here are writing IEP goals for organization, fluency, and editing.

• Given a topic, [STUDENT] will write a sentence that accurately addresses the topic.
• Given a word bank, [STUDENT] will select the appropriate words to complete a sentence or paragraph about a topic.
• [STUDENT] will use a keyword outline to write a paragraph with at least [number of] sentences, including an introduction/topic sentence and conclusion sentence.

• [STUDENT] will dictate a response to a question and use talk-to-text to communicate at least three sentences about a topic.
• [STUDENT] will write a three-paragraph essay about a topic that includes a clear introductory sentence, main idea, supporting details, and conclusion.
• [STUDENT] will select and use the appropriate graphic organizers to organize ideas in response to a writing topic.

• When given a paragraph to revise, [STUDENT] will add transitional words and phrases to connect ideas in sentences (or paragraphs).
• When given a prompt, [STUDENT] will maintain writing for [amount of time] as measured by observation and student writing output.

Behavior IEP Goal Bank

Everything we see in school is behavior, from working to engaging in class to maintaining self-control and managing emotions. If a student has an IEP for ADHD, an emotional disability, autism, or other categories, they may be working on behavior goals to improve their ability to succeed in school.

• Given a self-monitoring checklist, [STUDENT] will demonstrate self-regulation during [# of sessions] across [# of months].

• Given a token board, [STUDENT] will follow class rules to earn [# of tokens] for each 30-minute period in special and general education settings.
• Given a self-regulation strategy (e.g., zones of regulation), [STUDENT] will identify when they are moving from green to red, and apply a self-regulation strategy to maintain their self-regulation.
• Given support and a visual model, [STUDENT] will implement an organizational system for their locker/desk/backpack/binder.

• Given scripts and reminders, [STUDENT] will manage frustration and disruptions to their routine during classroom activities.
• Given a social story, [STUDENT] will be able to adjust to new routines and procedures in the classroom.
• By the end of the IEP, [STUDENT] will manage conflicts, independent of teacher support, 4 out of 5 occurrences over a ___ time period.
• Given a work assignment, [STUDENT] will initiate work tasks as measured by observation and work completion.
• Given a work assignment, [STUDENT] will complete work tasks as measured by observation and work completion.
• Given a token board and visual or rules, [STUDENT] will follow rules and earn tokens throughout the total school environment.

Social Skills IEP Goal Bank

Social skills may not seem academic, but how students engage with others can be an important outcome for students who have deficits in this area. Here are goals that can support their progression in forming relationships with peers and adults.

• During unstructured class time, [STUDENT] will engage in respectful conversation with peers (maintain personal space, use respectful voice).
• During unstructured class time or play time (e.g., recess), [STUDENT] will engage with peers (participate, share, follow rules, take turns) for > 10 minutes with minimal adult prompting.

• During a preferred activity, [STUDENT] will invite a peer to join in during recess.
• During a preferred activity, [STUDENT] will engage in appropriate conversation (ask appropriate questions, respond to questions, take turns) for > five turns.
• When frustrated or involved in a conflict, [STUDENT] will resolve the conflict without aggression, but will apply a problem-solving strategy (walk away, tell a teacher).
• [STUDENT] will demonstrate five back-and-forth exchanges with peers during structured play activities.

• [STUDENT] will engage in appropriate turn-taking with peers in classroom discussion.
• [STUDENT] will decrease inappropriate verbal comments to once per day (or week) or less as measured by teacher observation and behavior checklist.
• Given a pre-activity checklist, [STUDENT] will identify one peer they would like to engage with and how they are going to engage (e.g., ask a question, invite to play).

Social-Emotional Skills Goal Bank

Identifying and managing feelings is another important school outcome for students who have deficits in this area. Here are goals that help students advance in social-emotional skills.

• [STUDENT] will work cooperatively with peers in small-group settings (e.g., share materials, engage in conversation, accept others’ ideas).

• [STUDENT] will identify appropriate social rules and expectations for various social situations.
• [STUDENT] will refrain from interrupting others.
• [STUDENT] will identify emotions presented in picture form.

• [STUDENT] will engage in communication with others by asking questions when provided with the opportunities.
• [STUDENT] will increase or maintain conversation about a preferred or nonpreferred topic.
• Given a strategy and visual prompts, [STUDENT] will identify the signs of anxiety and apply a strategy to address feelings of anxiety in real and simulated situations.
• Given a picture scale, [STUDENT] will identify the level of anxiety they are feeling.

Executive Functioning Goal Bank

Executive functioning skills are skills like planning, working memory, attention, problem-solving, mental flexibility, and self-regulation that help kids be successful in school. Students with poor executive functioning have a hard time with time management, organization, getting started with or finishing work, and connecting past experiences with current actions. (Know any kids like this?)

• Given visual cues, [STUDENT] will implement an organizational system for organizing their backpack (locker, binder).
• Given a task and a list of materials, [STUDENT] will gather the needed items to complete the task.

• [STUDENT] will arrive at class with necessary materials (paper, pen, computer).
• [STUDENT] will use a checklist (visual schedule) to independently complete classwork.
• [STUDENT] will respond appropriately to oral commands.
• [STUDENT] will ask for clarification and further explanation when needed.
• [STUDENT] will request desired objects or instructional materials and equipment using [picture prompts, sign language, AAC device, etc.].

• [STUDENT] will express needs, wants, and feelings using [picture prompts, sign language, verbalization, etc.].
• [STUDENT] will create a daily visual schedule (or checklist or to-do list) and complete it.
• By the end of the IEP, [STUDENT] will demonstrate the ability to follow multiple-step directions (two or three steps) with minimal (1 or 2) adult prompts.
• By the end of the IEP, [STUDENT] will refer to their checklist for task completion to finish assigned work.

Self-Advocacy IEP Goal Bank

Self-advocacy goals are for skills from decision-making to goal attainment, asking for help, and self-advocacy. These are important skills that students need to develop, especially as they transition into independent living, college, and career.

• [STUDENT] will effectively communicate their needs and preferences in the classroom by [raising their hand, writing a note].
• [STUDENT] will use a communication notebook to write questions and concerns to the teacher one time per week.
• [STUDENT] will identify a goal, create a list of steps to achieve the goal, and work through the steps.
• Given a task that involves a choice (e.g., the school lunch menu, a list of books) [STUDENT] will select between the options available.
• Given a challenging situation to solve, [STUDENT] will define the problem and come up with two possible solutions.
• [STUDENT] will create a list of three personal strengths and three areas for improvement.
• [STUDENT] will actively participate in the development of their IEP goals and accommodations.
• [STUDENT] will identify one IEP goal and three objectives to support that goal.
• When faced with an academic challenge, [STUDENT] will seek assistance by raising their hand or using the classroom procedure for seeking help.
• [STUDENT] will advocate for accommodations and/or modifications in the classroom using an appropriate time, tone of voice, and language.
• [STUDENT] will demonstrate understanding of their learning preferences using a checklist, verbal communication, or another method of communication.
• [STUDENT] will engage in positive self-talk daily with and without teacher support.
• By the end of the IEP, [STUDENT] will learn and apply two self-advocacy strategies.
• By the end of the IEP, [STUDENT] will demonstrate the ability to ask for help when needed.
• By the end of the IEP, [STUDENT] will identify and communicate two environmental requirements (e.g., “I need a movement break”).
• By the end of the IEP, [STUDENT] will engage in three conferences and/or meetings where the student will communicate their educational needs.
• [STUDENT] will explain and advocate for testing accommodations through the classroom teacher, testing center, school counselor, etc.
• [STUDENT] will reflect on their academic progress and will determine which accommodations are supporting their learning.

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College Minor: Everything You Need to Know

14 fascinating teacher interview questions for principals, tips for success if you have a master’s degree and can’t find a job, 14 ways young teachers can get that professional look, which teacher supplies are worth the splurge, 8 business books every teacher should read, conditional admission: everything you need to know, college majors: everything you need to know, 7 things principals can do to make a teacher observation valuable, 3 easy teacher outfits to tackle parent-teacher conferences, strategies and methods to teach students problem solving and critical thinking skills.

The ability to problem solve and think critically are two of the most important skills that PreK-12 students can learn. Why? Because students need these skills to succeed in their academics and in life in general. It allows them to find a solution to issues and complex situations that are thrown there way, even if this is the first time they are faced with the predicament.

Okay, we know that these are essential skills that are also difficult to master. So how can we teach our students problem solve and think critically? I am glad you asked. In this piece will list and discuss strategies and methods that you can use to teach your students to do just that.

• Direct Analogy Method

A method of problem-solving in which a problem is compared to similar problems in nature or other settings, providing solutions that could potentially be applied.

• Attribute Listing

A technique used to encourage creative thinking in which the parts of a subject, problem, or task are listed, and then ways to change those component parts are examined.

• Attribute Modifying

A technique used to encourage creative thinking in which the parts of a subject, problem, or task are listed, and then options for changing or improving each part are considered.

• Attribute Transferring

A technique used to encourage creative thinking in which the parts of a subject, problem or task listed and then the problem solver uses analogies to other contexts to generate and consider potential solutions.

• Morphological Synthesis

A technique used to encourage creative problem solving which extends on attribute transferring. A matrix is created, listing concrete attributes along the x-axis, and the ideas from a second attribute along with the y-axis, yielding a long list of idea combinations.

SCAMPER stands for Substitute, Combine, Adapt, Modify-Magnify-Minify, Put to other uses, and Reverse or Rearrange. It is an idea checklist for solving design problems.

• Direct Analogy

A problem-solving technique in which an individual is asked to consider the ways problems of this type are solved in nature.

• Personal Analogy

A problem-solving technique in which an individual is challenged to become part of the problem to view it from a new perspective and identify possible solutions.

• Fantasy Analogy

A problem-solving process in which participants are asked to consider outlandish, fantastic or bizarre solutions which may lead to original and ground-breaking ideas.

• Symbolic Analogy

A problem-solving technique in which participants are challenged to generate a two-word phrase related to the design problem being considered and that appears self-contradictory. The process of brainstorming this phrase can stimulate design ideas.

• Implementation Charting

An activity in which problem solvers are asked to identify the next steps to implement their creative ideas. This step follows the idea generation stage and the narrowing of ideas to one or more feasible solutions. The process helps participants to view implementation as a viable next step.

• Thinking Skills

Skills aimed at aiding students to be critical, logical, and evaluative thinkers. They include analysis, comparison, classification, synthesis, generalization, discrimination, inference, planning, predicting, and identifying cause-effect relationships.

Can you think of any additional problems solving techniques that teachers use to improve their student’s problem-solving skills?

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Math Problem Solving Resources and Strategies

Teaching students to read and understand word problems is one of the most difficult challenges math teachers face. Many of these word problems are multi-step…and often times not grade appropriate. What’s a teacher to do?!? Here’s some math problem solving resources that have been game changers for me when helping my students learn to be great math problem solvers.

First off, we ditched CUBES and other similar strategies. If you use this and it has worked excellently for you, then keep on keepin’ on! No judgement here! I’ve had many, many students who were able to follow the steps but were not able to think deeply about the problems. We now spend more time working to deeply understand problems and less time on acronyms.

If you are wanting explicit steps to guide the problem-solving process, you can check out this awesome resource from Brittany at Mix and Math. I love that it comes in a bookmark form! This makes it easy for students to keep track of where they are in the process. You can check out her blog on supporting students in problem solving here ! We loosely follow this process, but I never make students work strictly through the steps.

Problem Solving without an Acronym – Read, Read, Read

When faced with a challenging word problem…or any word problem for that matter, I train students to read the problem more than once. For the first read, we put our pencils down. This helps students who like to just start circling things or who like to pull numbers and guess at operations. We just read! Then we reword and tell back the problem in our own words. This might sound something like this:

“There were 14 bags of candy. Each bag of candy had 35 pieces of candy in it. The candy will be split evenly among 9 students. How much candy will each student get?”

After reading the problem we might paraphrase by saying, “Okay, we know we have several bags of candy that each have a certain amount of candy in them. Then we are going to take all the candy and share it with 9 students.”

Next, we will read the problem a second time with our pencil in hand. As we read, we circle or underline important information. I am not specific on whether students circle or underline. This is just to help us pay attention to the special information. Here is what I am specific about: students MAY NOT just circle numbers. So, for instance we wouldn’t circle just 14, we would circle 14 bags of candy. The number 14 means nothing by itself, we need to know what we have 14 of and what that means in the story.

Focus on the Action

After reading a second time and identifying the important information, we will begin to discuss the action or actions happening in the story. This will help us determine the number of steps we think the problem has. The most important question we ask ourselves is “Do we have the total?” This guides our thinking in almost every word problem we solve! For this question, we do not currently have the total, so we know we will either need to add or multiply to find the total amount of candy we are starting with. Once we know the total, we know the candy is being split, shared, or divided between students.

Click the link to grab the printable version of this “ Do I have the total” Anchor Chart.

As we begin to solve, we eliminate answer choices along the way, especially trick answers! So, for instance, we would immediately get rid of 490 since that is the total amount of candy, not how much candy each student gets. I do not provide students with explicit written out steps we follow when solving word problems. The goal is to practice this process enough that many students can execute this type of thinking when working on their own.

• We read problems more than once to help us really understand what is happening.
• We think about the actions of the story and whether we have the total or if we need the total.
• We eliminate wrong or unreasonable answer choices as we work

Rachel at Chalk and Coffee also has a fabulous anchor chart for this! She uses the acronym FAST to teach her students problem solving strategies: identify the Facts, take Action (what’s your plan?), Solve and show your work, Think if your answer is reasonable or not. This is a great acronym that still focuses on understanding!

Lastly, y’all know I love all things Lead4ward! Sometimes students are just plain stuck! And that’s okay! Getting stuck is an important part of problem solving. Productive struggle is my favorite! Lead4ward has some great resources for helping students get “unstuck!”

These questions help students guide themselves out of being stuck! Or help you as the teacher with what to ask students to help them get unstuck, without having to take away the power of productive struggle.

Click the link to download the black and white version of these Problem Solving posters . (Other versions available for Will Teach for Tacos math members )

Problem of the Day freebie (editable pptx) Problem of the day freebie (pdf) Word problem sort (editable pptx)

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Some students may need support to learn effective problem-solving skills. This resource can assist students to think of and evaluate options to a problem or situation. 

You can encourage and support students to use this tool to:

- come up with two options

- write the pros and cons of each option, and

- implement the option they think is best. 

In high school settings, some students may respond better to a short conversation. For these students, you can use the first page of the guide as a prompt sheet to facilitate talking through a problem. Short notes in a workbook of a student’s choosing as a reminder of decisions made may also be helpful.

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This resource can be used to support students to think of and evaluate options to a problem or situation. It includes a template for students to consider and compare two potential solutions.

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Problem-Solving Strategies – A Quick Checklist

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Free High School Problem Solving Material

In need of a resource for teaching problem solving to your high schoolers? Look no further, download our free high school problem solving material. This free resource will help your students to use the problem solving steps, identify the size of their problem, and ultimately increase their problem solving independence!

How to Teach Problem Solving to Your High School Students

You can successfully teach problems solving with the help of Everyday Speech’s free problem solving material! This material focuses ‘The Problem Scale’, a problem solving skill that teaches students to determine the size of their problem in order to successfully solve it on their own or with the help of an adult!

Lesson Plan – Using Your Free Problem Solving Material

1. review the problem solving steps.

Before using our free problem solving material, start with reviewing the 5 steps to solving a problem. Students will create new thinking pathways when they practice the series of steps to successfully solve a problem. These steps serve as a mental checklist students can use to solve most problems independently. The problem solving steps include; identifying the problem, deciding if you need help based on the size of the problem, brainstorming multiple solutions, choosing the best solution, and deciding if the problem is solved.

2. Introduce The Problem Scale

Everyday Speech’s free resource will help your students to work through step 2 of the problem solving steps; deciding if you need help based on the size of the problem. Our free material will help you to teach your learners that the way we respond to a problem and go about solving it depends on the size of it. The Problem Scale breaks problems up by very small, small, medium, big, and very big. When students are able to identify the size of their problem, they can more successfully solve smaller problems independently or ask for help when faced with larger problems.

3. Download, Print, Post, & Send Home the Free High School Problem Solving Material

The Problem Scale Goal Poster is an excellent tool to serve as a visual reminder for students when they are solving problems! Download, print and post this Problem Scale poster in your learning space and send this poster home with your students for them to continue strengthening their problem solving skills!

Sample High School Problem Solving Video:

This sample video below is a great enhancement to this problem solving lesson! Everyday Speech provides real life scenarios as age appropriate actors model new skills. We offer a 30 day free trial for all of our social skills materials!

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Responsible Decision Making: An Introductory Guide

Responsible decision-making is the fifth core competency taught in SEL .

We can define responsible decision-making as the ability to make choices that affect you positively in your physical, intellectual, social, and emotional bodies. Responsible decisions are based on social morals, ethics, and safety. They also involve awareness of the impact of your choice on yourself, your goals, relationships, and others around you.

More concisely, responsible decision-making means making responsible choices that benefit you and your community. Responsible decisions are socially and ethically appropriate and take into account the effects on others.

Why It’s Important to Make Responsible Decisions

Our youth make critical decisions every day. Each decision students make has consequences that can affect their entire lives.

Responsible decision-making isn’t just about avoiding negative consequences. SEL’s responsible decision-making model teaches students self-awareness and how to consider family and friends, their community, and their world.

It teaches them how to recognize and validate their emotions, as well as how to manage them appropriately. Responsible decision-making involves critical thinking and self-discipline. It also means knowing how to extrapolate the effects of that decision on others. This process helps students learn relationship skills, empathy , and how to communicate effectively.

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The Benefits of Responsible Decision-Making: What the Research Shows

Students who participated in SEL programs saw an increase of 11 percentile points in their academic performance. Up to 24% of those students improved their social behaviors, resulting in lower stress levels, and 22% fewer students had conduct problems.

The Positive Action program , in addition to SEL, can result in a: 62% reduction in violence, a 51% reduction in bullying, and a 46 – 73% reduction in the use of illicit substances. The program also saw a decrease in absenteeism, disciplinary referrals, and suspensions.

Scores in reading and math also improved, showing that positive decision-making has an impact both in and outside the classroom.

All of these benefits last beyond the school years and help reduce poverty and improve economic mobility.

The Responsible Decision-Making Model

At the center of teaching students how to make better choices is the responsible decision-making model. It shows five steps to making responsible decisions by providing this problem-solving, decision-making checklist:

• Identify the problem.
• Analyze the situation.
• Brainstorm solutions and solve the problem.
• Consider ethical responsibility.
• Evaluate and reflect.

These guidelines can help walk your students through the sometimes complicated process of making responsible decisions. Through the use of workbooks, discussions about decisions in popular media, role-playing, and decision-making exercises, your students will become open-minded and confident in their choices.

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Reliability and Validity of a Checklist to Evaluate Student Performance in a Problem-Based Learning Group

Francine d. salinitri.

a Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan

Alison M. Lobkovich

b Harper University Hospital, Detroit, Michigan

Brian L. Crabtree

c Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, Georgia

Sheila M. Wilhelm

Objective. To validate a problem-based learning (PBL) evaluation checklist to assess individual Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) students’ performance in a group.

Methods. In 2013, a performance checklist was developed and standardized. To evaluate the reliability and discriminant validity of the checklist, pharmacy students’ evaluation scores from 2015-2016 were assessed along with overall program grade point averages (GPA), and scores on knowledge and problem-solving examinations. Predictive analysis software was used to analyze the data.

Results. Seventy facilitators generated 1506 evaluation reports for 191 (90 third-year and 101 second-year) students over eight PBL cases. The mean (SD) total score was 40.6 (2.5) for P3s and 39.1 (2.7) for P2s out of a possible 44.2 points. Students’ scores improved each semester. Interrater reliability based on intraclass correlation coefficient for all cases was 0.67. Internal reliability as determined by Cronbach alpha was >0.7 for all binary checklist items across all cases. Discriminant validity assessed using Pearson correlation coefficient showed that the total score from the checklist did not correlate with knowledge or problem-solving examination scores.

Conclusion. This unique PBL checklist proved to be a reliable and valid tool to assess student performance in small group sessions in a PharmD curriculum.

INTRODUCTION

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a common pedagogy used in higher education, specifically in health care professions’ education. 1,2 The majority of Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) programs report using PBL within their curricula. 3 Problem-based learning is the student-directed pedagogy that most closely mimics clinical practice in a classroom setting. Skills developed through PBL include problem-solving, critical-thinking, clinical-reasoning, self-directed learning, collaborative practice, flexible knowledge, and intrinsic motivation. 4-6 In order to acquire these skills, the PBL process should be authentically implemented using small, collaborative groups of students guided by a trained facilitator. 7 The stimulus for group learning is an ill-structured, complex, open-ended problem, such as a realistic patient case. 4

At Wayne State University (WSU), we integrated PBL within our pharmacotherapy modules in 2006. In 2014, we separated PBL from the modules to create a PBL four-course series called Pharmacotherapeutic Problem Solving, which spans the second- and third-professional (P2 and P3) years. Problem-based learning in a pharmacy curriculum offers a student-directed approach to learning pathophysiology, pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, and pharmacotherapeutics within the context of a patient case. The content learned in the PBL courses is unique but complimentary to the content of the concurrently delivered didactic pharmacotherapeutic module courses. The framework for the PBL courses was developed by aligning PBL skills with specific program-level ability-based outcomes.

Assessment of knowledge acquired from PBL experiences has been extensively described in the literature. In pharmacy education literature, the use of written case-based examinations at the end of the PBL process 8-10 or as a pre- and post-test assessment of knowledge 11,12 have been reported. In addition to summative examinations, weekly, written, patient-care plan submissions have been evaluated using a tick-box rubric. 8 Others report using Likert scale rubrics to assess written submissions encompassing the entire PBL process, including the development of facts, hypotheses, and learning questions, as well as drug-related problems and their resolution. 13 In the medical literature, students’ written patient summary statements have been assessed using rubrics based on Likert-scale ratings. 14

A variety of assessment tools evaluating skills developed by students during PBL have also been described. Summative evaluations of PBL skills have been reported using objective structured clinical examinations (OSCEs) 15-17 or problem-solving written examinations. 9 Peer evaluations of performance within PBL sessions have been used, 8,9,18,19 as have student self-evaluations. 9,11,20 The literature that exists surrounding facilitator evaluation of student performance within a small group is limited. Ross and colleagues report on the use of a facilitator evaluation that encompasses PBL skills, such as participation, cooperation, and communication skills. 9 Romero and colleagues describe the use of verbal feedback for students’ performance with a PBL group. 10 Sim and colleagues discuss and evaluate the use of a five-point Likert-scale facilitator evaluation instrument. 21 This tool assessed participation and communication skills, cooperation or team-building skills, comprehension or reasoning skills, and knowledge or information-gathering skills. Facilitators were surveyed, and 88% agreed that the tool was easy to use (n=34). Interrater reliability was assessed using an intraclass correlation coefficient that indicated overall consistency among facilitators’ scores with some strict (4 of 34) or indiscriminant (8 of 34) graders. 21

Over the past decade at WSU, we used facilitator-graded Likert scales to evaluate student performance within the small group setting. Each facilitator evaluated the members of their group, which consisted of 8 to 9 students. Anecdotally, we observed that facilitators did not discriminate between students’ performance using this assessment tool, leading to inflated evaluation scores. In order to address the high facilitator scores, we instituted tally sheets within the sessions, which were used by both the facilitator and two student members of the group to determine the quantity and quality of comments made by each student. The facilitator was asked to use these tally sheets to inform their Likert scale-based rating of each student in the group. However, feedback from facilitators and students regarding the tally sheets indicated that they inhibited the students’ ability to participate and the facilitators’ ability to coach the group. In addition, student scores still appeared to be inflated.

At WSU, we employ a multi-modal assessment of student learning and performance within the PBL course series using four types of assessments that occur multiple times throughout the semester ( Figure 1 ). One of the assessments requires students to develop individual patient care plans for each of the four cases during the self-directed learning process. These care plans are graded by the case writers, who are content experts. The plans are submitted and graded electronically using rubrics. To maintain the student-driven authenticity of the PBL pedagogy, rubrics for providing students with general feedback regarding their individual patient care plans were developed rather than providing students with content-specific answers. Instead, content-specific answers for the plans are discussed and consensus is reached within the small group during subsequent facilitated sessions. In addition, midterm and final examinations assessing pharmacotherapeutic and disease state knowledge acquisition are administered, each of which covered two patient cases. Written problem-solving examinations were administered with the midterm and final knowledge-based assessments. During the problem-solving examination, the students were presented with a patient case involving a disease state that had not been formally taught within the curriculum. The students were provided with selected primary, secondary, and tertiary resources regarding the disease state. The students individually completed the steps they would ordinarily complete with their group: identifying facts from the case, developing related hypotheses and learning questions, answering those learning questions using the provided resources, critiquing the provided resources, and developing an answer to the problem in the case through responding to a variety of question formats (eg, multiple choice, multiple answer, short answer, matching, essay).

Wayne State University Problem-Based Learning (PBL) Course Series Assessment Blueprint for the P2 and P3 2015-16 Year

We developed a fourth type of assessment, which is a novel checklist-based tool for facilitators to use within the small-group sessions to evaluate student performance ( Appendix 1 ). The tool was developed to evaluate the following course objectives, which were derived from the Center for the Advancement of Pharmacy Education 2013 Educational Outcomes 22 : differentiate relevant patient characteristics; generate hypotheses or learning questions; discuss clinical and scientific principles of the disease state; discuss clinical and scientific principles of the pharmacotherapies; identify drug-related problems (DRPs) through a systematic evaluation process; formulate a patient-specific, literature-supported patient plan to resolve DRPs; employ an effective strategy to identify relevant scientific literature and resources; and evaluate the scientific literature to formulate a solution to the problem. Facilitators used the tool over the span of three group sessions, at the end of which they also provided a global assessment of student professionalism and performance. The tool was completed for each patient case (four times) over the course of the semester for each student. The checklist was developed as a unique tool to assess problem-solving skills. We hypothesized that this binary checklist was a reliable and internally valid tool to measure student performance within a PBL small group. In addition, we hypothesized that the facilitator checklist provided discriminant validity for student performance and, therefore, would be weakly correlated with other measures of performance including PBL-course knowledge-based and problem-solving examinations, and program grade point average (GPA). The goal of this study was to evaluate the reliability and discriminant validity of the checklist evaluation tool for assessing pharmacy students’ performance within a small-group PBL environment.

A standardized facilitator evaluation checklist for the assessment of student performance in a PBL small group was developed in 2013. The checklist is provided in Appendix 1 . The PBL planning committee developed a list of eight course objectives derived from the CAPE 2013 Educational Outcomes 22 and WSU’s program ability-based outcomes. For each objective, the committee identified tasks and skills that would measure achievement of the objective. Through this process, there were 52 items identified for the checklist. Based on our curricular experience with previous facilitator evaluation forms that used Likert scales, and the concern for associated grade inflation, we chose to employ a binary checklist approach where a facilitator would give each student a check mark for each item that was demonstrated in one of the three facilitated group sessions. By using a checklist approach, we hoped to achieve a more objective measure of observed student performance within a small-group PBL experience. Students only received the check mark on the first instance that they demonstrated a specific task. Subsequent instances were taken into account by the facilitator in the global evaluation questions that applied to all three sessions. This global assessment allowed the facilitator to differentiate students who consistently engaged in the PBL process from those who did not. The specific questions used are found in the Overall Professional Performance and Global Assessment sections of Appendix 1 .

Once the checklist was finalized and the PBL committee had reviewed all of the items and agreed on the final language of the checklist, the Angoff Method for Standard Setting was used to determine the weighting of each item on the checklist. 23 In order to employ this process, we identified 10 judges 24 who were familiar with our program and who work with and hire our graduates. These judges were pharmacy practice and pharmaceutical sciences faculty members and included PBL committee members, volunteer preceptors, and area pharmacy administrators from a variety of practice settings. The judges were provided with the checklist and asked to determine what percent of the time a minimally competent pharmacy student at the end of their third professional year would achieve each task. A minimally competent student was defined as someone who would be able to perform with a passing score of 70% within our program. The estimates for each item provided by the judges were then averaged, and those averages were used to determine the weighted score for each item.

The checklist was used for one academic year to assess both P2 and P3 students. The PBL planning committee then evaluated the checklist based on student scores and facilitator feedback and determined that some items were very similar and could be combined. Other items were assessed elsewhere in the course and were eliminated from the checklist. The revised checklist measured 37 items and eight objectives and has been used since fall 2015.

In order to determine the reliability and discriminant validity of the evaluation checklist, we performed a retrospective analysis of facilitator evaluations of P2 and P3 students from the 2015-2016 academic year. Data reports were generated and compiled from E*VALUE (MedHub, Minneapolis, MN) as well as from reports of student program GPAs and knowledge and problem-solving examination performance in each PBL course. Other data included in the database was student year (P2 or P3), PBL group assignment, facilitator assignment, and facilitator type. The facilitators responsible for evaluating student performance were volunteers, first-year pharmacy residents, and Pharmaceutical Science and Pharmacy Practice faculty at WSU. The facilitators were trained for facilitation and evaluation through a structured training program, which has been described elsewhere. 25 All data were de-identified and numerically coded. This study was approved by the WSU Institutional Review Board as a Quality Improvement project.

Descriptive statistics were used to describe our student population and mean evaluation scores. Student t test was used to determine the similarity between standardized judges’ scores on the checklist items versus scores achieved by the students during their PBL sessions. Interrater reliability of all facilitator checklist assessments during the 2015-2016 academic year for P2 and P3 students was assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Cronbach alpha was used to assess the reliability of the items within the checklist for each case for P2 and P3 courses. A conventional cut-off of 0.7 or higher was defined as reliable. 26 Discriminant validity of the checklist was assessed using the Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC). The PCC was used to assess correlation between facilitator evaluation scores, overall program GPA, knowledge examination scores, and problem-solving examination scores. A p value ≤ .05 (two-tailed) was considered significant. The PCC was also used to assess correlation between items on the checklist that were achieved by <80% of students. A PCC of less than 0.3 was considered weakly correlated, while 0.3-0.49 was considered moderately correlated, and greater than or equal to 0.5 was considered strongly correlated. 27 The IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, Armonk, NY) predictive analytics software was used for statistical analyses.

In 2015-2016, P2 and P3 students enrolled in WSU’s PBL courses completed 16 cases. These courses enrolled 191 students, which were divided into 24 groups and facilitated by 70 facilitators who generated 1506 evaluation reports ( Figure 1 ). The mean checklist score for the P2 class over eight evaluations was 39.1 (SD=2.7) out of 44.2 possible points that students could achieve for their performance during the small group PBL sessions. The mean checklist score for the P3 class was 40.6 (SD=2.5). Both P2 and P3 mean evaluation scores improved over the course of each semester for the majority of cases ( Figure 2 ).

Mean Problem-Based Learning Checklist Performance Scores Out of a Maximum of 44.2 Points for Each Case for Both P2 and P3 Classes

The ICC as a measure of interrater reliability was 0.67 (95% CI=0.57-0.73) for all P2 and P3 checklist scores. Cronbach alpha as a measure of internal reliability of the checklist was computed for each of the 16 cases and ranged from 0.57 to 0.72 for P2 cases and 0.60 to 0.77 for P3 cases ( Table 1 ). When checklist item number 47 ( Appendix 1 ), “What overall grade on a scale of 0-100% would you give this student?” was omitted from the analysis, the Cronbach alpha increased from 0.79 to 0.92 for P2 cases and from 0.79 to 0.95 for P3 cases.

Internal Reliability Scores for a Checklist Used to Evaluate P2 and P3 Students’ Performance on Problem-based Learning Cases

To assess the internal validity of the performance checklist, items achieved less frequently by students were analyzed as a subset of the checklist. All items achieved by fewer than 80% of students were positively correlated with one another. Within the P2 class, 13 checklist items that were achieved by fewer than 80% of students resulted in 78 pairwise correlations, and 73 of the 78 correlations were significant ( p ≤.05). Within these 73 significant correlations, there were 56 pairwise comparisons that were moderately or strongly correlated (PCC >0.3) ( Table 2 ). Within the P3 class, five checklist items were achieved by fewer than 80% of students, resulting in 10 pairwise correlations, all of which were significantly correlated ( p ≤.05). Nine of the 10 pairwise correlations were moderately or strongly correlated (PCC >0.3) ( Table 3 ).

Checklist Item Internal Correlation for P2 Student Performance in Small Group Sessions a

Checklist Item Internal Correlation for P3 Student Performance in Small Group Sessions a

The PBL checklist evaluation scores from facilitators on students’ performance in small group session were compared with other measures of performance within the PBL courses (knowledge and problem-solving examination scores) and overall program performance as measured by program GPA to assess discriminant validity of the checklist. With regard to P2 student performance, checklist evaluation scores for only three of the eight cases correlated significantly, albeit weakly (PCC <0.3), with student performance on the knowledge examinations. These included case 4 of the fall semester and cases 1 and 2 of the winter semester ( Table 4 ). None of the evaluation scores during the fall or winter semester were significantly correlated with student performance on the problem-solving examinations. When correlated with overall program GPA, the evaluation scores for only two of the eight cases were significantly correlated (case 1 and case 2 of the winter semester, PCC <0.3) ( Table 5 ).

P2 and P3 Students’ Evaluation Scores on Eight Cases During 2015-2016 Academic Year vs Performance on Knowledge and Problem-Solving Examinations a

P2 and P3 Evaluation Scores vs Overall Program Grade Point Average

With regard to P3 student performance, evaluation scores from two of the eight cases (cases 2 and 3 of the winter semester) were significantly but weakly correlated (PCC <0.3) with student performance on the knowledge examinations. Weak correlations (PCC <0.3) were found between the problem-solving examinations and evaluation scores from cases 1, 2, and 3 of the winter semester ( Table 4 ). Lastly, students’ overall program GPA was weakly correlated (PCC <0.3) with checklist evaluation scores from case 3 of the fall semester and cases 2 and 3 of the winter semester ( Table 5 ).

Assessment of skills gained during the PBL process is necessary to determine whether educational outcomes have been met. The standards for effective and efficient performance evaluation within a PBL small group are not well described or studied. Our results describe the assessment of the reliability and validity of a checklist-based tool that can be used for the evaluation of student performance within a PBL small group in a pharmacy curriculum.

In small group PBL sessions, facilitators use the checklist to evaluate students’ performance by indicating whether or not each task was performed at least once. Students could achieve a maximum total of 44.2 points over the three facilitated group sessions. Mean checklist evaluation scores were higher in the P3 class compared with the P2 class. This may have been because the P3 students had had an additional year of content knowledge and experience within the PBL process and were more familiar with the expected performance items on the checklist. Mean evaluation scores for both P2 and P3 students generally increased over the course of each semester ( Figure 2 ). Within the P2 course, there was a dip in mean score from fall case 2 to fall case 3. This may have been because of the narrow scope of the case content, which did not provide enough opportunities for all of the students within the group to share information and achieve the specific items on the checklist. For example, therapies for the case disease state were limited thus, some students may not have had the opportunity to discuss clinical and scientific principles of the pharmacotherapies.

Interestingly, the first case in both the fall and winter semesters resulted in the lowest scores of the year, as though performance reset to a baseline level with the start of each new semester of PBL. Why the knowledge gains made during the previous semester were not retained is unclear. We identified three factors that occur within a PBL course that could potentially lead to lower mean scores for the first case of each semester. These include: the group working with a new facilitator, students being exposed to new pharmacotherapeutic topics, and the timing of facilitator training. Within the PBL courses at WSU, facilitator rotation occurs each semester after case 2. In addition, the pharmacotherapeutic modules from which the case topics are drawn run half the semester, meaning students are exposed to new pharmacotherapeutic topics after case 2. If these were the causes of the dip in performance, we would expect an additional dip in performance after case 2; however, this was not evident in the results. We suspect that the timing of facilitator training, which is provided at the start of each semester, may have resulted in facilitators more stringently evaluating student performance immediately following this training (ie, the first case of each semester).

The interrater reliability of the performance checklist was close to the traditional cut off for ICC of 0.7 (ICC 0.67). We calculated the total ICC based on all available checklist items for both P2 and P3 student performance. Because student performance should improve over time in the PBL course series, an ICC of less than 0.7 is expected. Internal reliability of the checklist using Cronbach alpha was also assessed for each case in both the P2 and P3 PBL courses. The internal reliability of this checklist was determined to be well above the desired threshold of 0.7 for all cases when checklist item number 47, “What overall grade on a scale of 0-100% would you give this student?” was omitted from the analysis. This was the exact result expected as this item was not a binary checklist item, but rather a qualitative assessment. It was included to allow facilitators to differentiate consistency of students’ overall participation and performance for each case. Two cases (P2 winter case 4 and P3 winter case 7) had atypically low Cronbach alpha results (0.57 and 0.60, respectively). These results may be explained by cases that did not provide new topics and, therefore, did not stimulate in-depth exploration. Thus, students discussed topics at more superficial levels resulting in inconsistency in the achievement of items on the checklist.

To assess the internal validity of the checklist, we evaluated whether the performance checklist was able to differentiate performance among students by assessing correlation between items. Items achieved by fewer students (less than 80%) were analyzed. In both the P2 and P3 courses, more than 75% of the items that were achieved by less than 80% of students were either moderately or strongly correlated with one another, illustrating that stronger performers tended to achieve these items. Of the items identified, 10 of the 13 items that were achieved by fewer than 80% of P2 students were predicted to be performed by 80% or fewer students based on the judges’ standard setting scores. Among P3 students, the five items that were achieved by fewer than 80% of students were a subset of those same items identified in the P2 class. This indicates that students’ PBL skills continue to develop while moving through the PBL course series from the P2 to the P3 year. We explored potential explanations for why P3 students did not fully achieve the five identified items. For the items regarding the pathophysiology of the disease state, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters, and drug cost and pharmacoeconomic considerations, we identified that lack of case complexity (ie, fewer medications and drug related problems included in the case) did not afford multiple students the opportunity to address these issues in their group discussion. We have since reviewed PBL cases across the course series with the goal of increasing their complexity to allow ample opportunities for students to share their knowledge within the group setting in these subject areas. The lack of achievement of the items regarding sharing and defending literature search terms and strategies, and discussing the limitations and sources of bias of supporting literature may have been due to time constraints within the group setting, and the subsequent lack of prompting from the facilitator. Therefore, we have developed modified PBL courses for P3 students that emphasize critical evaluation, application, and synthesis of supporting literature.

The performance checklist was intended to measure students’ problem-solving skills during each PBL session. Checklist scores were compared against knowledge-based and problem-solving examinations, and program GPA to assess discriminant validity of the checklist. As hypothesized, our results indicated that the checklist scores were weakly correlated or not correlated with knowledge-based examinations, problem-solving examinations, or program GPA. The problem-solving examinations were developed with the intent of evaluating students’ problem-solving skills gained through the small group PBL experience. However, the examinations were individual, written examinations that did not afford the students the opportunity to demonstrate the skills assessed using the checklist. Potentially, a performance-based examination would provide opportunities for summative evaluation of these types of skills. To clarify, our P2 and P3 classes were two different groups of students rather than the same cohort of students followed from their second to third year in pharmacy school. In future research, we may consider evaluating the same group of students as they move through their P2 and P3 years, which would allow us to control for potential confounding variables that inevitably occur between two different classes of students.

To our knowledge, this is the first checklist-based instrument that has demonstrated reliability and discriminant validity in evaluating student performance in a small group PBL environment. Results of this study support that our checklist to evaluate student performance within a PBL small group has the potential to be generalized for use across any pharmacy PBL curriculum. The checklist demonstrated interrater reliability among a variety of facilitators including pharmaceutical science faculty members, pharmacy practice faculty members, volunteer adjunct faculty members from various practice settings, and pharmacy residents. Variations that do exist between facilitators could be addressed through continued improvements in standardizing facilitator training. Results of the Cronbach alpha could also be generalized to other programs to help identify cases that require improvement in order to enhance the PBL experience. For instance, the cases identified as having low alpha scores were replaced with disease state topics that had more complexity. Finally, this checklist differentiates student performance and offers pharmacy programs a mechanism for evaluating skills that are not routinely assessed through conventional examination-based assessments.

Appendix 1.

Problem Based Learning (PBL) Facilitator Checklist to Evaluate Student Performance within Small Group Sessions. Each Checklist Item Represents Possible Tasks that a Student Could Perform in a Session.

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Problem Solving Activity

A question checklist

This question checklist is a simple but effective problem solving activity. It’s straightforward to use and easy to adapt to any specific circumstance.

Using a set of structured questions encourages both broad and deep analysis of your situation or problem. The questions themselves may be simple, but when used as part of the checklist, they become a powerful management tool.

This tool uses a question hierarchy (see our article Best Management Tool Ever? A Good Question for more advice on how to build and use good management questions).

In this hierarchy, “what” broadly states the situation or problem although “why” is arguably the most powerful question you can ask. Asking “why” forces you to consider the significance of the problem and thus the nature of your response.

It can be especially valuable when applied as part of the well known problem solving technique, 5 Whys . The repeated asking of “why”? can enable deep analysis of problems, essential for getting to root causes.

Next you should use “how”, “where”, “who” and “when”. These questions are designed to both deepen and broaden analysis.

When combined into a question checklist, they become both a tool for analysing and solving problems, and the basis for an action plan.

The table below shows the structure of the question checklist, and includes some examples of more detailed, follow-up questions. It’s easy to develop a checklist to suit your own situation but don’t just use the question checklist for problem solving. You could also use it for routine situation analysis or to consider how you might deal with opportunities.

Problem solving activity – the question checklist tool

Using The Question Checklist Tool

Use the question checklist to build a set of questions for the problem or opportunity you’re investigating.

• Spend some time thinking about the checklist yourself, before briefing your team. You may find it useful to read our “T-break” article: Career Builder: Building Your Own Education for some tips on sharing knowledge in the workplace.
• Schedule one or more meetings with your team, to generate ideas about the problem or situation.
• Starting with the “what” questions, discuss all the responses and agree a common understanding of the situation or problem. Flip chart the feedback.
• Spend as much time as you need asking “why”?
• Repeat the activity for each of the primary questions. This may be easier in small groups or teams, for more complex situation.
• What next – decide before the team session what you intend to do next, subject to what is discovered in the analysis and feedback. End with actions to be completed, either in summary, or in preparation for any subsequent meeting. Ensure these are SMART – specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, time-bounded.

You’ll find a really interesting application of the idea of using checklists in this article on the BBC website: Dr Atul Gawande’s checklist for saving lives .

If checklists can make such a difference in life critical activities such as surgery, what benefit can they make to how we manage?

The eighth problem solving step

• Tool 1: When you don’t know what to do
• Tool 2: Defining questions for problem solving
• Tool 3: Finding the right problems to solve
• Tool 4: Problem solving check-list
• Tool 4a: Using the question check-list with your team
• Tool 5: Problem analysis in 4 steps
• Tool 5a: Using 4 Step problem analysis with your team
• Tool 6: Questions that create possibilities
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• Tool 6b: Putting creativity to work – 5 alternate questions
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• Tool 7: Evaluating alternatives
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• Tool 9: The 5 Whys technique

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>> return to the problem solving hub, looking for more problem solving resources.

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Helping Elementary Students Develop Conflict Resolution Skills

These tools help kids practice techniques that foster communication, understanding, and social success in the classroom.

In the classic children’s book Caps for Sale , a salesman walks around town to sell the many hats he wears upon his head. It’s no wonder that teachers gravitate toward reading this story because the main character wears just as many hats as we do. One of those hats is conflict resolution specialist. When I put on this hat, I like to rely on a couple of tools: the Honest Expression Sheet and the Peace Path. Not only have these tools helped me better understand how to navigate conflict resolution, but also they’ve helped my students become more empathetic and independent in communication and problem-solving. 

Honest Expression Sheet

The Honest Expression Sheet is a communication tool that provides sentence starters and structure in order to guide students in navigating conflict. This tool was developed by Joe Brummer, a speaker, author, and trainer with over a decade of experience in trauma-informed restorative justice. It focuses on using “I” statements to communicate observations, feelings, and needs. The idea of “I” statements was introduced in the 1960s by psychologist Thomas Gordon as a way to help children communicate their emotions during play. According to Boston University, “An ‘I’ message can help you communicate your concerns, feelings, and needs without blaming others or sounding threatening. It helps you get your point across without causing the listener to shut down.” 

There are four steps to using the Honest Expression Sheet: 

• State the noticing. 
• State the feeling.
• State what is needed.
• State what you’d like to see from the other person.

Here’s a quick scenario of how this tool might be used:

“When I heard you say that you didn’t want to sit with me at lunch, I felt lonely because I need friendship. Would you be willing to sit with me tomorrow?”

For the last step, it’s helpful for students to name the behavior they want to see, instead of the behavior they want to stop. In the scenario above, the student said, “Would you be willing to sit with me tomorrow?” instead of “Would you be willing to stop ignoring me?” Sometimes, students may have difficulty thinking about what they should ask the other student to do. 

This sentence expresses some choices I like to give students to think about: “Would you be willing to apologize, give me some space, or use kind words?”

I make sure that both students go through the steps of the Honest Expression Sheet to ensure that both perspectives are heard.

The Honest Expression Sheet can also be used to communicate pleasant feelings, whether that be teacher to student or student to student. Here is an example of how a teacher might communicate in this way with a student: 

“When I saw you hold the door open for me, I felt respected. Thank you!”

I notice that when I use the Honest Expression Sheet to help students communicate in this way, it promotes the continuation of these behaviors. This type of powerful positive feedback is called behavior-specific praise or descriptive praise . When teachers provide frequent, behavior-specific praise , several aspects improve, including classroom climate, student learning outcomes, and relationships between teachers and students. 

For best results, try giving this type of praise using the child’s name.

In order for this tool to be most effective, you can keep a copy of the Honest Expression Sheet up in the classroom so that kids can use it as needed. 

The Peace Path is a communication tool developed by Playworks that also encourages students to use “I” statements and see each other’s perspectives. Disagreements or conflict at recess can get in the way of play. The Peace Path provides educators with a tool that helps to positively shape play environments. 

In this four-step activity, students take turns sharing their feelings, repeating the other student’s feelings, sharing their needs, repeating the other student’s needs, and sharing how they know that the conflict has been resolved. Some schools even opt to paint the steps of the Peace Path on the playground or in hallways so that the students can physically walk through the steps. A video example of teachers modeling how to use the Peace Path explains the process clearly and helps students understand the concept. 

Final Tips for Success

Teach students how to use these tools. I like to read a picture book with a problem, such as The Recess Queen , by Alexis O'Neill, and have students act out how the characters could have used the Honest Expression Sheet or Peace Path. I find that students have more success when they practice with fictional characters before trying it with their own problems. 

Build student vocabulary. When students have a richer vocabulary and can use the most precise word to describe their feelings , not only are they able to clearly communicate, but by labeling feelings accurately (referred to as emotional granularity ), people can also regulate their emotions. 

Use a gradual release of responsibility. I recommend acting as a coach to guide your students when using these tools. After students have had some practice using these tools successfully, you may choose to oversee the interaction but only interject if needed. Eventually, students will be able to independently recognize when they could use these tools and implement them on their own! 

Make these tools your own. You can differentiate them for different grades, English language learners, or however you see fit. My grade-level team revised the Honest Expression Sheet so that our diverse group of learners can see themselves reflected in the images.

Remind students that they’ll each get a turn to speak. Before using the Honest Expression Sheet or Peace Path, both parties should commit to not interrupting the other.

At the end of using the Honest Expression Sheet or Peace Path, I like to restate the plan and what the students agreed to. Then I ask, “Do we feel like the problem has been solved, or is there something else we need to discuss?” 

Teachers and students are most successful when we have the tools we need. Consider adding these to your tool belt, and I’m sure you’ll find them to be necessary accessories to the many hats you wear.