research paper about water quality

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Climate Change, Water Quality and Water-Related Challenges: A Review with Focus on Pakistan

Toqeer ahmed.

1 Centre for Climate Research and Development, COMSATS University Islamabad, Park Road, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad 45550, Pakistan; [email protected]

Mohammad Zounemat-Kermani

2 Department of Water Engineering, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman 7616913439, Iran; [email protected]

Miklas Scholz

3 Division of Water Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 118, 22100 Lund, Sweden

4 Department of Civil Engineering Science, School of Civil Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, Kingsway Campus, Aukland Park 2006, Johannesburg PO Box 524, South Africa

5 Civil Engineering Research Group, School of Computing, Science and Engineering, The University of Salford, Newton Building, Peel Park Campus, Salford M5 4WT, UK

Climate variability is heavily impacting human health all around the globe, in particular, on residents of developing countries. Impacts on surface water and groundwater resources and water-related illnesses are increasing, especially under changing climate scenarios such as diversity in rainfall patterns, increasing temperature, flash floods, severe droughts, heatwaves and heavy precipitation. Emerging water-related diseases such as dengue fever and chikungunya are reappearing and impacting on the life of the deprived; as such, the provision of safe water and health care is in great demand in developing countries to combat the spread of infectious diseases. Government, academia and private water bodies are conducting water quality surveys and providing health care facilities, but there is still a need to improve the present strategies concerning water treatment and management, as well as governance. In this review paper, climate change pattern and risks associated with water-related diseases in developing countries, with particular focus on Pakistan, and novel methods for controlling both waterborne and water-related diseases are discussed. This study is important for public health care, particularly in developing countries, for policy makers, and researchers working in the area of climate change, water quality and risk assessment.

1. Introduction

Climate variability involving changes in temperature, rainfall pattern and precipitation is increasing and heavily impacting on water resources, water-related diseases and, subsequently, human health, which is reliant on clean water. Water-related infectious diseases like malaria, dengue fever, chikungunya, along with their causative agents and the mode of transmission of these diseases have been affected by climate variability. Similarly, waterborne diseases like typhoid and cholera are influenced by climate change patterns, and subsequent risks related to these diseases are increasing [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. About five cases of dengue develop into a hemorrhagic fever from 390 million dengue fever infections around the globe [ 5 ]. In order to save people from disaster, it has been suggested that poor and developing countries need to save, grow, invest, and protect poor and vulnerable people from economic crises [ 6 ]. Adaptation strategies related to these changes are important for policy and impact assessments [ 7 ].

Globally, almost all countries are affected by climate change impacts, particularly the developing countries, which are more vulnerable and prone to disasters like extreme floods, droughts, storms and heatwaves. In the last decade, a decline in economic growth has been observed in some developing countries, and people living in these countries are most affected as they do not have the resources to cope with the occurring natural disasters [ 8 , 9 ]. Half of the world’s poor population lives in Sub-Saharan Africa. Significant poverty reductions have been observed in East Asia, especially China and Indonesia, between 2012 and 2013 [ 6 ]. However, developing countries are still suffering from economic problems, especially people living in rural agricultural areas with no access to essential resources in order to gain education [ 6 , 10 ].

Roser and Ortiz-Ospina [ 11 ] reported that people earning less than 3.10 US $/day (less than Pak Rs (PKR). 500) mostly live in countries such as Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Ethiopia. Poor people are more vulnerable to natural disasters. Pakistan is at number 7 in a list of endangered countries, with 70% of its population exposed to natural hazards [ 12 ]. Millions of people in India and Bangladesh are exposed to floods. Due to climate variability, even developed countries like Japan, Hong Kong and Taiwan have been exposed to at least one type of natural hazard in the past few years. The global Climate Risk Index indicates the extent of vulnerability of a country from weather-related events like flooding, drought, heat waves and storms [ 13 ]. A low climate risk index (CRI) value indicates the highest vulnerability as some countries are more prone to frequent disaster. Of the top ten most affected countries by natural disasters, nine were from developing countries with low-middle-income, all except for Thailand ( Table 1 ). Among them, Serbia, Afghanistan and Bosnia and Herzegovina were the most affected [ 14 ]. Pakistan and the Philippines are affected recurrently by catastrophes. They are commonly ranked among the most affected countries. According to CRI 2018, the Philippines are the second most affected country among the top ten climate change-affected countries. The CRI [ 10 ] indicated that Pakistan was at number eight in the list of most affected countries between 1995 and 2014 ( Table 1 ) [ 10 ].

The list of the top 10 countries most affected in the Climate Risk Index (CRI; annual averages; adopted from [ 14 ]) between 1995 and 2014.

More than 2.5 billion individuals (30% of the world’s residents) are at risk of dengue fever, particularly in Southeast Asia, the Americas, and the Western Pacific. According to the UN water report [ 15 ], world water demand will increase by up to 55% by 2050 due to more demand by industry, domestic consumption, food production and electric generation use. Similarly, global demand for food will increase by 60% (100% in the developing countries) by 2050 due to an increase in population [ 15 ]. Stress on sustainable water management will increase due to poverty, unequal distribution of resources, inequitable access to resources and poor management.

The current situation indicates that mitigation and improved adaptation strategies are required to minimize the impacts of climate variability. This study analyzes recent scenarios impacted on by population increase, water-related disasters, water pollution and how to control diseases linked to water. The main objectives of this paper are to analyze climate variability and water-related disasters as well as their impacts on human health. Finally, some key recommendations are made for policy-makers.

2. Methodology and Review

2.1. literature selection.

In this study, the authors assessed peer reviewed research papers, reports and grey literature published after 1979. Websites including google scholar ( https://scholar.google.com.pk ), Web of Knowledge ( http://isiknowledge.com ), ScienceDirect ( http://www.sciencedirect.com ) and Scopus ( https://www.scopus.com ) were searched for relevant literature. More attention has been paid to recent but already well-referenced literature. Relevant literature was selected based predominantly on the following inclusion criteria: (a) peer-reviewed research papers published by impact factor-listed research journals; (b) peer-reviewed scientific reports from world-known publishers; (c) literature was screened by using keywords (climate variability; climate and water quality; waterborne; water-related disease; dengue fever and health impacts; Zika virus; Chikungunya; method for controlling waterborne diseases; temperature and precipitation effects; developing countries; population and water quality; climate change impacts on chemical water quality; water quality in Pakistan; water governance; water management; and water pollution); and (d) preference was given to studies published in English language.

2.2. Climate Variability

Climate variability is a growing concern worldwide [ 16 ]. Climate change deeply impacts on social and natural environments and is one of the major threats to public health [ 17 , 18 ]. The water quality of recreational waterbodies such as coastal waters is considerably affected by extreme weather conditions like storms and typhoons, which increase the contamination of drinking water leading to water-borne diseases [ 19 ].

Changes in climate have varied greatly and influenced water resources, groundwater contamination, health and subsequently human life [ 20 , 21 ]. High uncertainty regarding expected changes in temperature and rainfall in the upcoming years has been reported in some studies [ 22 ]. It has been estimated that the average global temperature for the last hundred years has increased overall by approximately 0.8 °C due to the emission of greenhouse gases, and recent years were announced as the hottest in recent history. Due to the increase in global temperature, changes in precipitation levels have not been uniform in recent decades. As a result, monsoon rainfalls are more likely to happen in humid and sub-humid areas, whereas there will be a decrease in winter and summer rainfalls in coastal and hyper-arid areas. Besides, it has been claimed that sea levels will rise to a range of 1 to 3 mm per year [ 23 , 24 ]. There is also uncertainty about rainfalls with uneven temporal and spatial distribution, and longer dry spells evoking drought conditions [ 25 ].

Indeed, due to human activities, the mean temperature on the surface of the earth has been increasing over the past century [ 26 ]. It has been estimated that hot summer days have also become more extended and regular in some parts of the globe. Increased surface temperature is leading to an increase in evaporation from the oceans and land. Accordingly, there will be an increase in global average precipitation. Some regions also experience droughts due to high evaporation levels and shifting of wind patterns while some parts of the world receive flash floods. However, it is very difficult to differentiate whether an extreme weather event is caused by natural or human influences [ 27 ]. In a study by Levy et al. [ 28 ], the general effects of climate change on water-borne diseases have been investigated. Other studies have focused on specific components of climate change such as the impact of short-term extreme flood events on infectious diseases [ 20 , 29 ].

Global warming causes the temperature to rise and, as a result, low-level glaciers are melting [ 30 ]. About 76 lakes covering an average area of 545 ha in high mountainous regions were studied. Regular monitoring of glaciers was recommended to support water management in the context of climate variability [ 31 ]. Temperature may increase this century by 2%–6 °C, which will particularly impact negatively on water resources in Central Asia which depend commonly on river water for agriculture [ 32 ].

Glaciers are one of the most important sources of water for Asian countries. About 41% of the area of glaciers are vulnerable to climate change in China [ 33 ]. Climate change is linked to an increase in mean temperature [ 23 ] and is the main factor in the melting of glaciers [ 34 ]. This has also led to changes in precipitation pattern, diversity and rate. Since 1900, changes in precipitation patterns amounted to an approximately 2% increase over the land area of the globe [ 35 , 36 ]. Likewise, a correlation between the increase in streamflow and precipitation has been identified [ 37 , 38 , 39 ].

It was reported that roughly 80% of diseases in developing countries such as Pakistan are related to waterborne diseases [ 40 ]. In Pakistan, water quality is being impacted by climate change through temperature and rainfall fluctuations [ 41 ]. A study showed that the maximum temperature has significantly augmented (in over 30% of sites) during the pre-monsoon season annually [ 42 ]. A considerable increase was observed in March. The minimum temperature showed positive trends for the pre-monsoon season at the annual scale. There was a cooling trend in the northern areas during the study period. The maximum temperature increased faster than the minimum temperature in the northern areas during all seasons studied and at annual resolution, while the opposite occurred for the rest of the country (except during the pre-monsoon season). It has been estimated that the highest correlation coefficients between patterns and both minimum and maximum temperatures were observed in the months of the pre-monsoon season [ 43 ].

2.3. Water Pollution, Population and Water Quality

The world population is expanding, with a total of 7.4 billion in 2016, and is expected to increase in the upcoming decades [ 44 ]. The eight most populous countries have a combined population of over 4.054 billion, which is expected to increase to 4.980 billion by 2050 ( Table 2 ). With this increase in population, water resources are under stress, especially in the developing countries.

Eight most populous countries in 2016 and their prospective population by 2050 (adapted from [ 44 , 46 ]).

Water pollution is directly related to population growth and has a direct impact on human health. Population growth and anthropogenic activities heavily influence water resources. The demand for water is augmented along with an increase of population, and ultimately the quality of water resources will be affected [ 45 ]. According to data for the world’s most water-stressed countries [ 46 ], Pakistan is among the most vulnerable, and will become a water-stressed country by 2040 [ 47 , 48 ].

According to Vineis et al. [ 49 ], about 884 million people are living without access to clean drinking water in 2019. Poor quality of water, especially drinking water, increases the chances of waterborne diseases [ 40 ]. About 1.8 million people die every year due to cholera and diarrhea, and 3900 children die every day due to poor water and sanitation conditions [ 50 ]. Similarly, more than one billion people lack access to improved drinking water, particularly those living in Asia [ 51 ]. In developing countries, the population is increasing, and cities will be overpopulated in the next 20 years. Accordingly, demand for improved water resources management, water quality control and enhanced flood and drought management will increase [ 52 ].

As reported by the WHO [ 53 ], half of the world’s population will suffer water stress conditions by 2025. Similarly, along with water shortage, water quality is also negatively affected, so that 1.8 billion people around the world are obliged to consume water contaminated by sewerage for drinking, which practice transfers diseases like cholera, typhoid, dysentery and polio. Empirical studies have already indicated the downside effects on human health of pollution and poor water quality due to the rapid increase in population and urbanization [ 54 ]. Regions or countries facing climate challenges and natural disasters such as drought and floods have also to endure population growth problems, and inevitably anthropogenic activities alter water systems [ 55 ]. A decrease in water resources due to less income and slow development will increase the problems of water quality and health issues. Water availability has been decreasing in all sectors by 7–11% during the last two decades [ 41 ]. Water availability is affected by climate change as well as water governance and management issues. There is a need to increase water storage capacity and installation of water retention wells for groundwater recharge. Groundwater regulations have been approved by all provinces of Pakistan except for Sindh, but implementation of polices in the true sense are lacking. By area, Sindh is the third largest province of Pakistan and by population the second largest. This is important as Karachi city (the former capital) is the largest city of Sindh province. Incentives should be implemented for the general public to obey governmental rules for water saving and fines imposed on violators. The government should implement licensing for the installation of new bore wells and there should be a record of the number of tube and bore wells installed, as no such data exist especially for private bore wells.

Water quality is linked with water availability. Water quality analysis of the major cities of Pakistan has been recently completed by the government. Similarly, other research and development organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGO) are performing water quality analysis especially in rural areas. Bacteriological water quality is often more important than chemical water quality as water resources are contaminated with fecal matter. No data on gastroenteritis have been found in allied hospitals when asked for records of patients suffering from food or waterborne diseases. It is strongly recommended in hospitals that records of people suffering from waterborne diseases are maintained.

2.4. Climate, Water-Related Diseases, and Health Impacts

Climate variability effects climate-sensitive diseases like dengue fever, diarrhea and cholera [ 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 ]. Microclimatic parameters, especially precipitation and temperature, play a key role in spreading waterborne and water-related diseases [ 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 ]. Microbiological, bioinformatics and genomic tools have provided some evidence that El Niño is the main key element in triggering long distance spread of cholera [ 65 ]. Climate change has a direct effect on the reemergence of waterborne infectious diseases such as cholera [ 66 ]. It is expected that diarrhea rates will be aggravated in many developing countries due to changes in climate, but the extent will vary depending on the nature of change, region and local climate [ 67 , 68 ]. A direct relation has been observed between climate-related disasters such as floods, heavy rainfalls and waterborne diseases. Typically, waterborne diseases and zoonotic infections increase after floods and rainfall, and high temperature also supports the growth of waterborne diseases [ 69 ]. There is a correlation between waterborne diseases and wet summer and humid weather. Typhoid is linked to dry weather in Europe [ 70 ]. Climate change could also pose an increased health risk linked to pathogens like Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium and norovirus. Norovirus and Cryptosporidium are less temperature-sensitive and are more resilient than Campylobacter [ 71 ]. Legionella species are ubiquitous in natural settings, share common habitat with human beings and transfer to humans, causing infection on exposure. Rainfall may cause exposure to Legionella infections and lead to the corresponding disease called Legionellosis [ 72 ]. Multiple studies have been devoted to infections related to contaminated water [ 73 ]. Similarly, drought can aggravate the effluent concentration runoff, pH and chemical quality. Contamination of surface water puts treatment plants at risk, leading to poor drinking water quality, which is especially detrimental for the elderly [ 74 ]. Likewise, rainfall and floods may increase waterborne diseases. A study conducted in Vietnam linked the impact of floods to dengue, pink fever, skin problems like dermatitis, and related psychological impacts [ 75 ].

According to the WHO, “Emerging pathogens are defined as pathogens seemed to have existence in a human population for the first time, or previously but are growing in frequency into areas where they have not been reported previously, generally over the last 20 years” [ 76 ]. According to this criterion, 96 genera containing 175 species are considered to be emerging pathogens. Other than common waterborne pathogens, Helminths, Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica , Legionella, Cryptosporidium, H. pylori, E. coli O157 and viruses like norovirus, hepatitis E virus and rotavirus have been confirmed as emerging pathogens that may spread through water [ 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ]. These pathogens spread through changes in climate such as change in rainfall and global weather pattern, and deterioration in the ozone layer along with the destruction associated with UV light [ 54 ]. Different aspects of climate change including rising sea levels, flooding, extreme rainfall and rising temperature have previously been assessed in terms of their transmission and spread of water-borne diseases such as cholera and malaria [ 77 ].

In developing countries like Pakistan, the literacy rate is low, especially in rural areas, and people have no awareness about water quality, waterborne diseases and water pollution. People are using the same water for drinking and agriculture purposes. There is a direct relationship between education, income and awareness about water pollution, waterborne diseases and health impacts. According to a survey, individuals with higher levels of education are well-aware of the consequences of waterborne diseases [ 78 ]. It is worth mentioning that diseases linked to the marine and water ecosystems can be caused by waterborne pathogens, as these microbes are naturally present in different settings.

This literature review shows that there is a research gap in studies that deal with waterborne diseases and climate variability, and, therefore, more research is needed to specifically explore the impacts of climate change on waterborne diseases. Figure 1 represents some of the most important factors regarding climate change-related health impacts on human beings.

Health impacts of climate change (adapted from [ 79 ]).

2.5. Climate Impacts on Chemical Water Quality, Water-Related Diseases, and Health Perspectives

Climate change has significant impacts on chemical water quality when compared to changes in meteorological parameters [ 80 ]. Storm, snowmelt, drought and elevated air temperature have a significant impact on drinking water quality [ 81 ]. For instance, heavy rainfall can increase the turbidity of water resources. Similarly, an imbalance in chemical water quality has been observed due to a rise in temperature [ 82 ]. Chlorine used for decontamination of water may produce more trihalomethanes after reaction with organic acids at high temperature [ 83 ]. As stated earlier, average temperature has been increasing due to global warming, and this can impact on water resources including chemical water quality. Similarly, dissolution of chemicals, especially agriculture waste and fertilizers, can change the quality of water resources. According to Quevauviller and Umezawa [ 84 ], climate change may impact on water chemistry and sea-level rise, so salinization may be affected, which influences the depletion of freshwater and river environments. Different factors like acidification and remobilization of contaminants in sediments due to flooding and an increase in temperature can modify pollutants in water resources, which can affect aquatic life [ 85 ]. A study conducted in the Mekong Delta on climate change impacts on water-related diseases reported that limited work has been done on the relationship of climate change impacts on water quality [ 86 ].

Due to the effects of climate change, the salinization of drinking water has introduced problems for low income countries [ 49 ]. For example, salt intrusion and related health issues are common in Bangladesh [ 87 ]. Approximately 20 million people are at risk of hypertension in Bangladesh, which is a major cause of cardiovascular diseases [ 88 , 89 ], since more salt in water can cause hypertension and associated diseases. A study conducted in Bangladesh using an integrated salinity flux model and hydrodynamic model reported that both salinity and intrusion length has increased in the Gorai river due to the sea-level rise [ 90 ]. A similar study investigated the effects of saline contamination in drinking water on human health hazards in Bangladesh [ 91 ]. Another study reported high levels of arsenic in surface water and 2–4 times the amount, in drinking water in Bangladesh, with respect to the average eligible standards [ 92 ]. The problem of salinity and hypertension will be exacerbated in the future among people living in coastal areas due to the high intake of sodium through drinking water [ 93 , 94 ].

In another study conducted in Beijing, China, post-flood water quality was reported to have quality samples unfit for drinking purposes [ 95 ]. Indeed, both floods and drought conditions deteriorate the chemical quality of water, which leads to significant health impacts and high risks for consumers ( Table 3 ).

Potential health impacts of major physico-chemical contaminants in developing countries including Pakistan.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) Climate Change [ 103 ], climate change-related amendment can affect diseases caused by water, which are categorized as waterborne, water-related, water-washed and water-based. The main considerations proposed in AR4 in order to find the relationship between climate change, water quality and water availability are below:

• 1. The linkage between water availability, access to improved water, and health burden due to diarrheal diseases;
• 2. The role of rainfall in waterborne disease outbreaks through water supply;
• 3. The effect of temperature both on chemical and biological water quality; and
• 4. The direct effect of increased temperature on diarrheal diseases.

It has been reported that climate change can affect water-related diseases like malaria, dengue fever, and other infectious diseases. According to Rogers [ 104 ], one-third of the global population lives in places linked to dengue transmission. Similarly, malaria is a rainfall-dependent disease and decreases with reductions in rainfall.

2.6. Elucidation to Diminish Water-Related Issues

Numerous methods and remedies have been used to control mosquito-related diseases, and the best of these is to control the existence of mosquitoes, which involves chemical, biological, environmental management, personal protective measures and physical methods [ 105 ]. Chemical methods include the use of tested and recommended insecticides, e.g., pyrethroids for killing adults and larvae. These should be used under the supervision of experts and trained staff such as a team of entomologists, a vector control supervisor and field staff [ 106 ].

Direct chemical spraying or aerial spraying of chemicals by low flying aircraft (to cover a large area or when there is limited access by vehicles) should be accomplished at the habitats, resting sites and breeding places of the target insects at regular intervals of 2–3 weeks. In-house spraying should also be done in all bedrooms, washrooms, wall corners, etc. For dengue control, man-made habitats should be screened, and Methoperene/Altosid (Briquets) and Diflubenzuron (Dimlin) should be applied.

As reported by Yi et al. [ 107 ], diesel oil is effective in killing larvae and pupae of mosquitoes in small waterbodies, but this can also kill other aquatic animals and is unsustainable. They suggested golden bear oil as an alternative, but this product is only available in the USA. They also suggested various methods to control mosquitoes using mosquito traps, genetically modified male mosquitoes and mosquito counter devices. Furthermore, indoor fogging or space spraying is an effective way to control dengue [ 108 ]. Larvicides should be applied on clean and stagnant water.

Multi-purpose environmental management of marshes, open drains, standing water in open fields, surface water, gardens and waste is required for disease control. Personal protection measures include personal protective clothing, bed nets (long lasting insecticide treated nets and curtains at doors), use of gauze on doors, and insect repellent lotions. Picaridin/Icaradine and N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (also called DEET) are recommended repellents that can be used in emergency cases. Cloth can be treated with permethrin to control mosquitoes, at the recommended dose of 1.25 mg/m 2 after every five washes. Even simple physical methods such as closing doors, especially in the morning and evening, have a positive impact on preventing diseases. Rapid population growth and urbanization, especially encroachments, provide ideal places for breeding of mosquitoes. In the absence of medicine and therapy, it is better to control this growth and breeding of mosquitoes and other vector-spreading microbes [ 109 , 110 , 111 ].

Concerning the environmental consequences of changing climate, more attention is required from experts, authorities and health departments on preventing the spreading of lethal diseases such as dengue and malaria. It is advisable that malaria and dengue control programs should be a part of national health policy with strong resource commitment and implementation. Increasing awareness and educating society is a vital element to cope with spreading of waterborne diseases (e.g., dengue fever). These programs can be started by educational institutions, offices, meetings, community reunions, etc. Besides, cleaning at household level with detergents, insecticides and other surface cleaning agents is highly recommended. Media can also play an important role in enhancing awareness through newspapers, TV programs, talk shows, etc. Likewise, a reduction of breeding sources of mosquitos and the introduction of waste management campaigns are important at community level. Indeed, health protection campaigns should be the top priority.

According to the literature, people in South Africa spent about eight hours daily in fetching water and only 19% treat their water before use. Government subsidies on water treatment chemicals and fuels for boiling water may help in increasing the percentage of people treating their drinking water and reducing waterborne diseases [ 112 ]. Regarding improving water quality, both adaptation and mitigation measures are required. In this respect, infrastructure improvements, reduction of pipe leakage, introduction of advanced water purification systems, and direct supply of clean water are necessary for the provision of safe drinking water [ 82 ]. During periods of flooding, water treatment is of great importance in controlling waterborne diseases [ 113 ]. Other interventions and home water treatments including chlorination and UV treatment [ 114 ]. There is a strong need to establish new sustainable development policies to preserve water. Without inaugurating new policies, around 40% of the world’s population is projected to experience severe water stress by 2050, especially in Africa and Asia, where the population is projected to increase from 7 billion to over 9 billion by 2050 [ 115 ].

3. Pakistan’s Perspective, the Status Quo

3.1. water quality issues.

Based on the long-term CRI, Pakistan was the fifth most affected country in the world during the period between 1999 and 2018 [ 116 ]. Moreover, Pakistan severely suffers from water shortage and lack of clean drinking water [ 85 ]. In general, just 20% of the country’s residents have access to clean potable water, which makes the remaining 80% dependent on polluted and unhealthy drinking water [ 117 , 118 ]. Many empirical studies have been conducted on water quality issues in Pakistan, but some important studies on biological and chemical water quality conducted in different cities across all the provinces of Pakistan have reported on the deterioration of water quality throughout Pakistan and highlighted an increase in waterborne bacterial and other related diseases ( Table 4 ). The lack of access to safe drinking water causes waterborne diseases, which constitute about 33% of all deaths [ 118 ]. Another study reported that between 20% and 40% of all diseases in Pakistan are due to poor quality of water [ 119 ]. This can be explained by deficiencies in waste management, lack of protection of water resources, poor sanitation, adverse anthropogenic activities and lack of social awareness [ 120 ]. A general analysis of water quality data indicates the poor circumstances of water resources in Pakistan ( Table 4 ), highlighting the need for new water treatment policies. Roughly 60 million Pakistani residents are affected by high levels of arsenic in their drinking water [ 121 ]. Rural areas are more vulnerable in terms of access to safe drinking water compared to major cities or the capital city. A study of the Tehsil of Jehlum district found more than 80% contaminated water [ 122 ]. Even water supplied to schools was poor in terms of drinking quality [ 123 ]. It is worth noting that Pakistan mainly relies on the Indus River as one of the main surface water resources. However, climate change has been negatively impacting on the Indus River, which has increased the pressure on sustainable water resources [ 124 ]. A 50% reduction of the flow rate of the Indus River would have a detrimental impact on public health, environmental protection and public finances [ 125 ]. Similar consequences can be envisaged for other developing countries like Ethiopia, where major rivers have faced decreases in both water quality and quantity [ 126 ].

Water quality situation in different provinces of Pakistan and associated impacts on the parameters studied.

Clean and healthy drinking water has a high impact on recreational activities, fisheries, tourism and sports. However, potable water resources can become polluted, which negatively impacts on both economic and health aspects [ 126 ]. According to reports by the Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, a survey was conducted in 23 major cities of Pakistan; four major contaminants prevailed in Pakistan; most contaminants were of bacterial nature (69%). This was followed by arsenic (24%), nitrate (14%) and fluoride (5%) [ 167 ]. According to the report, 69% of sources were contaminated according to the National Standards for Drinking Water Quality. According to a Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) health survey, in 2017 89% of households had access to improved drinking water. This is similar to the 94% figure regarding Punjab province as reported by the Punjab Government [ 168 ]. Efforts have been made by the Punjab Government to provide clean and contaminant-free water. For example, some important projects including the Punjab Saaf Pani (PSP) project, worth 70 billion PKR (1 US $ = 158 PKR), have been launched to provide clean drinking water to poor urban and rural areas. For 2015–2016, 11 billion PKR were allocated for medium-term development goals. The PSP is designed to provide 3 L of clean drinking water per capita as part of the approved plan. The program promotes the installation of filtration plants, new water supply schemes and rehabilitation of existing schemes. Water treatment plants have been installed in Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, Lodhran and Rahimyar to supply safe and clean water to these cities.

Pakistan’s gross domestic product in 2018 was 314.6 billion US $. A project entitled “Changa Pani Programme” was launched to maintain sanitation schemes and provide rural water supply. A total of PKR 1 billion have been allocated for this program. Sustainable operation and maintenance mechanisms of rural water supply schemes are another initiative running in Punjab. Under this scheme, 199 dysfunctional water supply systems have been identified, while an initiative has been taken to rehabilitate 135 rural water supply schemes in Rajanpur, Chakwal, Vehari and DG Khan with the assistance of UNICEF. Similarly, in the 2020–2021 budget, PKR 6 billion were spent on clean drinking water (Punjab Aab-e-Pak Authority) and PKR 3.29 billion on water supply and sanitation [ 169 ]. For KP, 18.6 PKR billion were invested in the water sector [ 170 ]. For Sindh province, PKR 19.3 billion were spent on water supply and sanitation, while PKR 39 billion were invested on water supply and sanitation schemes including 398 projects in 2019–2020. PKR 1.94 billion were spent by Karachi city [ 171 ]. For Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), PKR 700 million were invested on water use charges schemes and PKR 540 million on none-specified water categories. Similarly, GB and Balochistan did not specify water investments, but overall allocations for development work have been recorded. More initiatives and fair use of budgets for clean drinking water and water supply schemes are required in other provinces of Pakistan to fulfill the demand for clean drinking water, and to reduce waterborne diseases.

No specified data have been found on waterborne diseases in hospitals. However, dengue-related data are available, as surveillance teams of public health departments along with the government are monitoring dengue-related cases. It is highly recommended that patients are registered as suffering from, for example, gastroenteritis or shigellosis for proper monitoring at the national level. Typhoid, abdominal cramps and diarrhea are the most common water- and food-related illnesses; the number of patients varies from district to district in each province, but without registration it is very difficult to find and distinguish patients suffering from different specific diseases.

3.2. Water Governance and Sustainability

Water availability and linked water quality are being heavily impacted upon by climate change throughout the world, especially in Pakistan. Changes in rainfall patterns, shifting of seasons, increase in temperature, droughts, heatwaves and storms are affecting water resources. Demand for water is increasing due to an increase in population, urbanization and industrialization. It is important to manage the existing water resources. In order to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6, ensuring availability and sustainable management of water sanitation for all, water governance is essential.

Water governance is concerned with the social, economic, administrative and political organization that influences the use of water and its management. It is important to discuss the management of water, rights to water, service provider roles and allied beneficiaries. Water governance discusses the formulation and implementation of water policies, legislation, the role of institutions, civil society and the general public in relation to provision of services and water usage.

A Pakistani national water policy has been approved in April 2018 and the water act has been implemented in almost all provinces except Sindh Province. Lack of coordination among the institutions as well as capacity building and funding constraints are important challenges to be addressed. Equity and social balance are important in addressing water governance-related issues. There are opportunities to address these issues with, for example, IT-based monitoring systems for dealing with accountability and water theft. Public–private partnerships are important in tackling water-related challenges. A good example is the water metering and pricing program of Bhalwal City in the Sargodha District of Punjab Province, where authorities have successfully implemented 24/7 supply of safe drinking water. Similarly, smart water metering has been installed in one of the sectors, named I-8, of Islamabad for the said initiative. (In Islamabad, different sectors are named alphabetically). International collaboration can help in capacity building and knowledge sharing. Awareness regarding water conservation and strategies to conserve water at all levels is necessary to save water. The inclusion of information on climate change and water conservation in the educational curricula at all levels is recommended. Fines should be imposed on violators and incentives should be given to the general public by the water authorities for water conservation and for following water laws. These kinds of initiative can help in water governance and sustainability in the future.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

This literature review indicates that global warming has led to an increase in the average temperature around the globe, which has been heavily impacting on water resources, especially in Africa and Asia, as agriculture is mostly dependent on river water flow. Several developing Asian countries have already encountered the consequences of water stress. Hence, river water monitoring is an essential requirement, especially due to the impacts of climate change such as glacier melting, rainstorms and droughts.

Increases in population and anthropogenic activities have heavily influenced water resources and increased water pollution. Indeed, various studies have reported that water pollution has increased in the last decades, and consequently water-related diseases influence the health of many citizens in developing countries. The following are important recommendations which can be helpful in coping with the consequences of climate change in terms of water-related challenges:

• Due to the shift in seasons, in some locations as a result of climate variability, new water resources (e.g., melting glaciers) have been emerging. However, there is a need to manage and store water for present and future use. For instance, watershed management with dam systems might alleviate drought and floods.
• Developing effective treatment methods e.g., [ 172 , 173 , 174 ], for addressing the sixth United Nations sustainable development goal, which deals with fecal contamination (69% fecal pollution has been reported in 23 major cities) and provision of safe drinking water to the general public.
• Adaptation strategies such as protection of water resources and watershed management should be adopted to cope with unforeseen situations and to decrease the water-related disease burden.
• Education and social awareness play a major role in confronting and controlling water pollution, waterborne, and water-related diseases, and subsequently in improving human health in developing countries.

These recommendations are also valid for many other countries with similar challenges to Pakistan.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support received from Centre for Climate Research and Development (CCRD), COMSATS University Islamabad, for providing resources and funding the under COMSATS Research Grant Program No. 16-59/CRGP//CIIT/ISB/17/1092.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.A., M.Z.-K. and M.S.; methodology, T.A.; investigation, T.A., M.Z.-K. and M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, T.A; writing—review and editing, M.Z.-K. and M.S.; visualization, T.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Gratefully acknowledge the support received from COMSATS University Islamabad under the grant No. 16-59/CRGP//CIIT/ISB/17/1092.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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• Published: 11 April 2022

Water quality assessment and evaluation of human health risk of drinking water from source to point of use at Thulamela municipality, Limpopo Province

• N. Luvhimbi 1 ,
• T. G. Tshitangano 1 ,
• J. T. Mabunda 1 ,
• F. C. Olaniyi 1 &
• J. N. Edokpayi 2  

Scientific Reports volume  12 , Article number:  6059 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental sciences
• Risk factors

Water quality has been linked to health outcomes across the world. This study evaluated the physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of drinking water supplied by the municipality from source to the point of use at Thulamela municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa; assessed the community practices regarding collection and storage of water and determined the human health risks associated with consumption of the water. Assessment of water quality was carried out on 114 samples. Questionnaires were used to determine the community’s practices of water transportation from source to the point-of-use and storage activities. Many of the households reported constant water supply interruptions and the majority (92.2%) do not treat their water before use. While E. coli and total coliform were not detected in the water samples at source (dam), most of the samples from the street taps and at the point of use (household storage containers) were found to be contaminated with high levels of E. coli and total coliform. The levels of E. coli and total coliform detected during the wet season were higher than the levels detected during the dry season. Trace metals’ levels in the drinking water samples were within permissible range of both the South African National Standards and World Health Organisation. The calculated non-carcinogenic effects using hazard quotient toxicity potential and cumulative hazard index of drinking water through ingestion and dermal pathways were less than unity, implying that consumption of the water could pose no significant non-carcinogenic health risk. Intermittent interruption in municipal water supply and certain water transportation and storage practices by community members increase the risk of water contamination. We recommend a more consistent supply of treated municipal water in Limpopo province and training of residents on hygienic practices of transportation and storage of drinking water from the source to the point of use.

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Introduction

Water is among the major essential resources for the sustenance of humans, agriculture and industry. Social and economic progress are based and sustained upon this pre-eminent resource 1 . Availability and easy access to safe and quality water is a fundamental human right 2 and availability of clean water and sanitation for all has been listed as one of the goals to be achieved by the year 2030 for sustainable development by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) 3 .

The physical, chemical, biological and aesthetic properties of water are the parameters used to describe its quality and determine its capability for a variety of uses including the protection of human health and the aquatic ecosystem. Most of these properties are influenced by constituents that are either dissolved or suspended in water and water quality can be influenced by both natural processes and human activities 4 , 5 . The capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities and acceptable quality of water for sustaining livelihoods of human well-being and socioeconomic growth; as well as ensuring protection against pollution and water related disasters; and for conserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political balance is regarded to as water security 6 .

Although the world’s multitudes have access to water, in numerous places, the available water is seldom safe for human drinking and not obtainable in sufficient quantities to meet basic health needs 7 . The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that about 1.1 billion people globally drink unsafe water and most diarrheal diseases in the world (88%) is attributed to unsafe water, poor sanitation and unhygienic practices. In addition, the water supply sector is facing enormous challenges due to climate change, global warming and urbanization. Insufficient quantity and poor quality of water have serious impact on sustainable development, especially in developing countries 8 .

The quality of water supplied by the municipality is to be measured against the national standards for drinking water developed by the federal governments and other relevant bodies 9 . These standards considered some attributes to be of primary importance to the quality of drinking water, while others are considered to be of secondary importance. Generally, the guidelines for drinking water quality recommend that faecal indicator bacteria (FIB), especially Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) or thermo tolerant coliform (TTC), should not be found in any 100 mL of drinking water sample 8 .

Despite the availability of these standards and guidelines, numerous WHO and United Nations International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF) reports have documented faecal contamination of drinking water sources, including enhanced sources of drinking water like the pipe water, especially in low-income countries 10 . Water-related diseases remain the primary cause of a high mortality rate for children under the age of five years worldwide. These problems are specifically seen in rural areas of developing countries. In addition, emerging contaminants and disinfection by-products have been associated with chronic health problems for people in both developed and developing countries 11 . Efforts by governmental and non-governmental organizations to ensure water security and safety in recent years have failed in many areas due to a lack of sustainability of water supply infrastructures 12 .

Water quality, especially regarding the microbiological content, can be compromised during collection, transport, and home storage. Possible sources of drinking water contamination are open field defecation, animal wastes, economic activities (agricultural, industrial and businesses), wastes from residential areas as well as flooding. Any water source, especially is vulnerable to such contamination 13 . Thus, access to a safe source alone does not ensure the quality of water that is consumed, and a good water source alone does not automatically translate to full health benefits in the absence of improved water storage and sanitation 14 . In developing countries, it has been observed that drinking-water frequently becomes re-contaminated following its collection and during storage in homes 15 .

Previous studies in developing countries have identified a progressive contamination of drinking water samples with E. coli and total coliforms from source to the point of use in the households, especially as a result of using dirty containers for collection and storage processes 16 , 17 , 18 . Also, the type of water treatment method employed at household levels, the type of container used to store drinking water, the number of days of water storage, inadequate knowledge and a lack of personal and domestic hygiene have all been linked with levels of water contamination in households 19 , 20 .

In South Africa, many communities have access to treated water supplied by the government. However, the water is more likely to be piped into individual households in the urban than rural areas. In many rural communities, the water is provided through the street taps and residents have to collect from those taps and transport the water to their households. Also, water supply interruptions are frequently experienced in rural communities, hence, the need for long-term water storage. A previous study of water quality in South Africa reported better quality of water at source than the water samples obtained from the household storage containers, showing that water could be contaminated in the process of transporting it from source to the point of use 21 .

This study was conducted in a rural community at Thulamela Municipality, Limpopo province, South Africa, to describe the community’s drinking water handling practices from source to the point of use in the households and evaluate the quality of the water from source (the reservoir), main distribution systems (street taps), yard connections (household taps) and at the point of use (household storage containers). Water quality assessment was done by assessing the microbial contamination and trace metal concentrations, and the possible health risks due to exposure of humans to the harmful pathogens and trace metals in the drinking water were determined.

The study was conducted at Lufule village in Thulamela municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa. The municipality is situated in the eastern subtropical region of the province. The province is generally hot and humid and it receives much of its rainfall during summer (October–March) 22 . Lufule village is made up of 386 households and a total population of 1, 617 residents 23 . The study area includes Nandoni Dam (main reservoir) which acquires its raw water from Luvuvhu river that flows through Mutoti and Ha-Budeli villages just a few kilometers away from Thohoyandou town. Nandoni dam is where purification process takes place to ensure that the water meets the standards set for drinking water. This dam is the main source of water around the municipality, and it is the one which supplies water to selected areas around the dam, including Lufule village. Water samples for analysis were collected from the dam (D), street taps (ST), household taps (HT) and household storage containers (HSC) (Fig.  1 ).

Map of the study area showing water samples’ collection areas.

Research design

This study adopted a quantitative design comprising of field survey and water analysis.

Field survey

The survey was done to identify the selected households and their shared source of drinking water (street taps). The village was divided into 10 quadrants for sampling purposes. From each quadrant, 6 households were randomly selected where questionnaires were distributed and household water samples were also collected for analysis.

Quantitative data collection

A structured interviewer-administered questionnaire was employed for data collection in the selected households. The population of Lufule village residents aged 15–69 years is 1, 026 (Census, 2011). About 10% of the adult population (~ 103) was selected to complete the questionnaires to represent the entire population. However, a total of 120 questionnaires were distributed, to take care of those which might be lacking vital information and therefore would not qualify to be analysed. Adults between the ages of 18 and 69 years were randomly selected to complete the questionnaire which includes questions concerning demographic and socio-economic statuses of the respondents, water use practices, sanitation, hygiene practices as well as perception of water quality and health. The face validity of the instrument was ensured by experts in the Department of Public Health, University of Venda, who reviewed questionnaire and confirmed that the items measure the concepts of interest relevant to the study 24 . Respondents were given time to go through the questionnaire and the researcher was present to clear any misunderstanding that may arise.

Water sampling

Permission to collect water samples from the reservoir tank at the Nandoni water treatment plant and households was obtained from the plant manager and the households’ heads respectively. Two sampling sites were identified at the dam, from where a water sample each was collected during the dry and the wet season. Similarly, 8 sampling sites were identified from the street and household taps, while 60 sampling sites were targeted for the household storage containers. However, only 39 household sites were accessible for sample collection, due to unavailability of the residents at the times of the researcher’s visit. Thus, water samples were collected from a total of 57 sites. Samples were collected from each of the sites during the dry (12th–20th April, 2019) and wet seasons (9th–12th December, 2019) between the hours of 08h00 and 14h30. A total of 114 samples were collected during the sampling period: 4 from the reservoir, 16 from street taps, 16 from household taps and 78 from households’ storage systems. Water samples were collected in 500 mL sterile polyethylene bottles. After collection, the containers were transported to the laboratory on ice in a cooler box. Each of the samples was tested for physico-chemical parameters, microbial parameters and trace metals’ concentration.

Physicochemical parameters’ analysis

Onsite analysis of temperature, pH, Electrical conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were performed immediately after sampling using a multimeter (model HI “HANNA” instruments), following the standards protocols and methods of American Public Health Association (APHA) 25 . The instrument was calibrated in accordance with the manufacturer’s guideline before taking the measurements. The value of each sample was taken after submerging the probe in the water and held for a couple of minutes to achieve a reliable reading. After measurement of each sample, the probe was rinsed with de-ionized water to avoid cross contamination among different samples.

ICP-OES and ICP-MS analyses of major and trace elements

An inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrophotometer (ICP-OES) was used to analyse the major metals (Calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K) and Magnesium (Mg)) in the water samples while inductively coupled plasma mass spectrophotometer (ICP-MS) was used to analyze the trace metals. The instrument was standardized with a multi-element calibration standard IV for ICP for Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Chromium (Cr), Cadmium (Cd), Arsenic (As), Nickel (Ni), Zinc (Zn), Lead (Pb) and Cobalt (Co) and analytical precision was checked by frequently analysing the standards as well as blanks. ICP multi Standard solution of 1000 ppm for K, Ca, Mg and Na was prepared with NH 4 OAC for analysis to verify the accuracy of the calibration of the instrument and quantification of selected metals before sample analysis, as well as throughout the analysis to monitor drift.

Microbiological water quality analysis

Analysis of microbial parameters was conducted within 6 h of collection as recommended by APHA 25 . Viable Total coliform and E. coli were quantified in each sample using the IDEXX technique approved by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Colilert media was added to 100 mL sample and mixed until dissolved completely. The solution was poured into an IDEXX Quanti-Tray/2000 and sealed using the Quanti-Tray sealer 26 . The samples were incubated at 35 °C for 24 h. Trays were scanned using a fluorescent UV lamp to count fluorescent wells positive for E. coli concentration and counted with the most probable number (MPN) table provided by the manufacturer 27 .

Health risk assessment

Risk assessment have been estimated for ingestion and dermal pathways. Exposure pathway to water for ingestion and dermal routes are calculated using Eqs. ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) below:

where Exp ing : exposure dose through ingestion of water (mg/kg/day); BW: average body weight (70 kg for adults; 15 kg for children); Exp derm : exposure dose through dermal absorption (mg/kg/day); C water : average concentration of the estimated metals in water (μg/L); IR: ingestion rate in this study (2.0 L/day for adults; 1.0 L/day for children); ED: exposure duration (70 years for adults; and 6 years for children);AT: averaging time (25,550 days for an adult; 2190 days for a child); EF: exposure frequency (365 days/year) SA: exposed skin area (18.000 cm 2 for adults; 6600 cm 2 for children); K p : dermal permeability coefficient in water, (cm/h), 0.001 for Cu, Mn, Fe and Cd, while 0.0006 for Zn; 0.002 for Cr and 0.004 for Pb; ET: exposure time (0.58 h/ day for adults; 1 h/day for children) and CF: unit conversion factor (0.001 L/cm 3 ) 28 .

The hazard quotient (HQ) of non-carcinogenic risk by ingestion pathway can be determined by Eq. ( 3 )

where RfD ing is ingestion toxicity reference dose (mg/kg/day). An HQ under 1 is assumed to be safe and taken as significant non-carcinogenic, but HQ value above 1 may indicate a major potential health concern associated with over-exposure of humans to the contaminants 28 .

The total non-carcinogenic risk is represented by hazard index (HI). HI < 1 means the non-carcinogenic risk is acceptable, while HI > 1 indicates the risk is beyond the acceptable level 29 . The HI of a given pollutant through multiple pathways can be calculated by summing the hazard quotients by Eq. ( 4 ) below.

Carcinogenic risks for ingestion pathway is calculated by Eq. ( 5 ). For the selected metals in the study, carcinogenic risk (CR ing ) can be defined as the probability that an individual will develop cancer during his lifetime due to exposure under specific scenarios 30 .

where CRing is carcinogenic risk via ingestion route and SF ing is the carcinogenic slope factor.

Data analysis

Data obtained from the survey were analysed using Microsoft Excel and presented as descriptive statistics in the form of tables and graphs. The experimental data obtained was compared with the South African National Standards (SANS) 31 and Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) 32 guidelines for domestic water use.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The ethical clearance for this study was granted by the University of Venda Health, Safety and Research Ethics’ Committee (SHS/19/PH/14/1104). Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the Department of Water affairs, Limpopo province, Vhembe district Municipality and the selected households. Respondents were duly informed about the study and informed consent was obtained from all of them. The basic ethical principles of voluntary participation, informed consent, anonymity and confidentiality of respondents were duly complied with during data collection, analysis and reporting.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents

A total of 120 questionnaires were distributed but only 115 were completed, making a good response rate of 95%. The socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 1 .

Household water supply

Many households (68.7%) had their primary water source from the municipality piped into their yards, but only 5.2% have the water flowing within their houses. The others have to fetch water at their neighbours’ yards or use the public taps on the streets. When the primary water supply is interrupted (i.e. when there is no water flowing through the pipes within the houses, yards or the public taps due to water rationing activities by the municipality, leakage of water distribution pipes, vandalization of pipes during road maintenance, etc.), the interruption usually lasts between a week or two, during which the respondents resort to other alternative sources. A return trip to the secondary source of water usually takes between 10 and 30 min for more than half of the respondents (53.0%) (Table 2 ).

Water storage and treatment practices at the household

Household water was most frequently stored in plastic buckets (n = 78, 67.8%), but ceramic vessels, metal buckets and other containers are also used for water storage (Fig.  2 ). Most households reported that their drinking water containers were covered (n = 111, 96.5%). More than half (53.9%) of the respondents used cups with handles to collect water from the storage containers whereas 37.4% used cups with no handles. Only 7.8% households reported that they treat their water before use mainly by boiling. Approximately 82.6% of respondent are of the opinion that one cannot get sick from drinking water and only 17.4% knew the risks that come with untreated water, and cited diarrhoea, schistosomiasis, cholera, fever, vomiting, ear infections, malnutrition, rash, flu and malaria as specific illnesses associated with water. Despite these perceptions, the majority (76.5%) were satisfied with their current water source. The few (23.5%) who were not satisfied cited poor quality, uncleanness, cloudiness, bad odour and taste in the water as reasons for their dissatisfaction (Table 3 ).

Examples of household water storage containers, some with lids and others without lids (photo from fieldwork).

Sanitation practices at the household level

More than half of the respondents (67%) use pit toilets, whereas only 26.1% use the flush to septic tank system, most of the toilets (93.9%) have a concrete floor. About 76.5% of households do not have designated place to wash their hands, however, all respondents indicated that they always wash their hands with soap or any of its other alternatives before preparing meals and after using the toilet (Table 4 ).

Water samples analysis

The water samples analyses comprise of microbial analysis, physico-chemical analysis and trace metals' parameters.

Microbial analysis

The samples from the reservoir during dry and wet season had 0 MPN/100 mL of total coliform and E. coli and were within the recommended limits of WHO and SANS for drinking water. During the wet season, seven out of the eight water samples collected from the street taps were contaminated with total coliform, while four of the samples taken from the same source were contaminated with total coliform during the dry season. Water samples from street taps 3 and 7 (ST 3 and ST7) were contaminated with total coliform during both seasons, however, the total coliform counts during the wet season were more than the counts during the dry season. None of the samples was contaminated with E. coli during the dry season, however, 2 samples from the street taps (ST3 & ST6) were found to be contaminated with E. coli during the wet season. Samples from household taps showed a similar trend with the street taps—with all samples being contaminated with total coliform during the wet season. Though 7 of the 8 samples taken from the household taps were contaminated with total coliform during the dry season, the samples from the same sources showed a higher level of total coliform in the wet season, with almost all the samples showing contamination at maximum detection levels of more than 2000 MPN/100 mL, except one sample (HT8) which showed a higher level of contamination with total coliform during the dry compared with the wet season. Only one sample (HT4) was found to be contaminated with E. coli during both dry and wet season. This shows that total coliform contamination levels are higher during the wet season than the dry season (Table 5 ).

Water samples from household storage containers (HSC) showed a higher level of total coliform during the wet season than the dry season and more samples were contaminated with E. coli during the wet season also (Table 6 ). A higher level of contamination was recorded for the HSCs compared to the street and household taps.

Physico-chemical analysis

In the reservoir samples, the pH value ranged from 8.37 to 8.45, EC ranged between 183 and 259 µS/cm whereas TDS varied between 118 and 168 mg/L. Similarly, in the street tap samples, pH value ranged from 7.28 and 9.33, EC ranged between 26 and 867 µS/cm whereas TDS varied between 16 and 562 mg/L (Fig.  3 ).

EC and TDS levels for the street taps and reservoir samples.

In the household taps, pH value ranged from 7.70–9.98, EC range between 28–895 µS/cm and TDS varied between 18 and 572 mg/L (Fig.  4 ).

EC and TDS levels for household taps.

In household storage container samples, the pH value ranges from 7.67–9.77, EC ranged between 19–903 µS/cm and TDS values ranged from 12–1148 mg/L (Fig.  5 ).

EC and TDS levels for household storage container samples.

Analysis of cations and trace metals in water

To detect the cations’ and trace metals’ concentrations in the water samples, representative samples from each of the sources were selected for analysis. The concentration of Calcium ranged between 2.14 and 31.65 mg/L, Potassium concentration ranged from 0.14 to 1.85 mg/L, Magnesium concentration varied from 1.32 to 16.59 mg/L, Sodium ranged from 0.18 to 12.96 mg/L (Table 7 ).

Trace metals’ analysis

The minimum and maximum concentrations of trace metals (Al, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As and Pb) present in water samples from selected street taps, household taps and household storage containers are presented in Table 8 .

Hazard quotient (HQ) and carcinogenic risk assessment

Table 9 presents the exposure dosage and hazard quotient (HQ) for ingestion and dermal pathway for metals. The HQ ing and HQ derm for all analyzed trace metals in both children and adults were less than one unit, indicating that there are no potential non-carcinogenic health risks associated with consumption of the water. Table 10 presents the total Hazard Quotient and Health risk index (HI) for trace metals in the water samples, showing that residents of the study area are not susceptible to non-cancer risks due to exposure to trace metals in drinking water. Table 11 presents the cancer risk associated with the levels of Ni, As and Pb in the drinking water samples. The table shows that only the maximum levels of lead had the highest chance of cancer risks for both adults and children.

This study provides information about the quality of drinking water in a selected rural community of Thulamela municipality of Limpopo province, South Africa, taking into consideration the physicochemical, microbiological and trace metals’ parameters of the treated water supplied to the village by the government, through the municipality. Many participants in the study have their primary source of water piped into their yards, while very few have water in their houses. This implies that getting water for household use would involve collecting the water from the yard and then into the storage containers. Those who do not have the taps in their yards have to collect water from the neighbours’ yards or the street taps. This observation is not restricted to the study area, as a similar situation has been observed in other rural communities of Limpopo Province 21 . This need to pass water through multiple containers before the point of use increases the risk of contamination.

Residents of the study area, just like residents of other settlements in Thulamela Municipality 21 , store their drinking water in plastic buckets, ceramic vessels, jerry cans and other containers. Almost all the respondents (96.5%) claim that their water storage vessels are covered and that their drinking water usually stays for less than a week in the storage containers (87.8%). Covering of water storage containers reduces the risk of water contamination from dust or other airborne particles. However, intermittent interruption of municipal water supply lasting for a week or more in the study area and the consequent use of alternative sources of water predispose the residents to various health risks as intermittent interruption in water supply has been linked to higher chances of contamination in the distribution systems, compared with continuous supply; in addition, the alternative sources of water may not be of a good quality as the treated municipal water 33 , 34 , yet, more than half of the respondents in this study (53%) use water directly from source without any form of treatment. This is because many residents in rural communities of Limpopo province believe that the water they drink is of good quality and thus do not need any further treatment 21 . The few who treat their water before drinking mostly use the boiling method. While boiling and other home-based interventions like solar disinfection of water have been reported to improve the quality of drinking water; drinking vessels, like cups, have also been implicated in water re-contamination of treated water at the point of use 16 and most respondents (91.3%) in this study admittedly use cups to collect water from the storage containers. The risk of contamination is even increased when cups without handles are used, where there is a higher chance that the water collector would touch the water in the container with his/her fingers. The Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that containers for drinking water should be fitted with a small opening with a cover or a spigot, through which water can be collected while the container remains closed, without dipping any potentially contaminated object into the container 35 . However, it is noteworthy that all the respondents claim to always wash their hands with soap (or its equivalents) and water after using the toilets, a constant practice of hand washing after using the toilet has been associated with a reduced risk of water contamination with E. coli 19 .

Treated water from the dam tested negative for both total coliform and E. coli hence complied with regulatory standards of SANS 31 and WHO 8 . The results could probably be due to the use of chlorine as a disinfectant in the treatment plant. Using disinfectants, pathogenic bacteria from the water can be killed and water made safe for the user. Similar studies have also reported that treated water in urban water treatment plants contains no total coliforms and E. coli 36 . In contrast, treated water sources in rural areas have been reported to have considerable levels of total coliform and E. coli 37 . The reason alluded to this include lack of disinfectant, no residual chlorine in the treated water, high prevalence of open defecation and unhygienic practices in proximity to water sources 38 .

From the water samples collected from the street taps, 62.5% were found to be contaminated with total coliform during the dry season, while the percentage rose to 87.5% during the wet season. The street tap which is about 13 km from the reservoir recorded high levels of total coliform ranging from 1.0 -2000 MPN/100 mL with most of the sites exceeding the WHO guidelines of 10 MPN/100 mL 8 . In both seasons, all the samples tested negative for E. coli , this complies with the WHO guideline of 0 MPN/100 mL. While the water leaving the treatment plant met bacteriological standards, the detection of coliform bacteria in the distribution lines suggest that the water is contaminated in the distribution networks. This could be due to the adherence of bacteria onto biofilms or accidental point source contamination by broken pipes, installation and repair works 39 . Furthermore, the water samples from households’ storage containers were contaminated by total coliform (73% and 85%) and E. coli (10.4% and 13.2%) during the dry and wet season, respectively. Microbiological contamination of household water stored in containers could be due to unhygienic practices occurring between the collection point and the point-of-use 40 , 41 .

Generally, higher levels of contamination were recorded in the wet season than in the dry season. The wet season in Thulamela Municipality is often characterized with increased temperature which could lead to favourable condition for microbial growth. Also, the treatment plant usually makes use of the same amount of chlorine for water purification during both seasons, even though influent water would be of a higher turbidity during the wet season, hence reducing the levels of residual chlorine 42 .

The pH of the analyzed samples from the study area ranged from 7.15 to 9.92. Most of the samples were within the values recommended by SANS (5 to 9.7) and comparable to results from previous similar studies 31 , 43 . Also, the electrical conductivity of all water samples from this study ranged from 28 µS/cm to 903 µS/cm which complied with the recommended value of SANS: < 1700 µS/cm 31 . The presence of dissolved solids such as calcium, chloride, and magnesium in water samples is responsible for its electrical conductivity 44 .

Total dissolved solids are the inorganic salts and small amounts of organic substance, which are present as solution in water 45 . Water has the ability to dissolve a wide range of inorganic and some organic minerals or salts such as potassium, calcium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides, magnesium, sulphates, etc. These minerals produced unwanted taste and colour in water 46 . A high TDS value indicates that water is highly mineralised. The recommended TDS value set for drinking water quality is ≤ 1200 mg/L 31 . In this study, the TDS values ranged from 18 mg/L to 572 mg/L. Hence, the TDS of all the household’s storage samples complied with the guidelines and consistent with previous studies 47 .

The analysis of magnesium (1.32 to 16.59 mg/L) and calcium (2.14 to 31.65 mg/L) concentrations showed that they were within the permissible range recommended for drinking water by SANS 31 and WHO 8 . All living organisms depend on magnesium in all types of cells, body tissues and organs for variety of functions while calcium is very important for human cell physiology and bones. Similar studies in Ethiopia and Turkey also showed acceptable levels of these metals in drinking water 46 , 48 . Likewise, the levels of potassium (0.14 to 1.85 mg/L) and sodium (0.18 to 12.96 mg/L) were within the permissible limit of WHO and SANS and may not cause health related problems. Sodium is essential in humans for the regulation of body fluid and electrolytes, and for proper functioning of the nerves and muscles, however, excessive sodium in the body can increase the risk of developing a high blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases and kidney damage 49 , 50 . Potassium is very important for protein synthesis and carbohydrate metabolism, thus, it is very important for normal growth and body building in humans, but, excessive quantity of potassium in the body (hyperkalemia) is characterized with irritability, decreased urine production and cardiac arrest 51 .

Metals like copper (Cu), cobalt (Co) and zinc (Zn) are essential requirements for normal body growth and functions of living organisms, however, in high concentrations, they are considered highly toxic for human and aquatic life 42 . Elevated trace metal(loids) concentrations could deteriorate water quality and pose significant health risks to the public due to their toxicity, persistence, and bio accumulative nature 52 . In this study, the concentrations of Manganese, Cobalt, Nickel and Copper all complied with the recommended concentration by SANS for domestic water use.

Aluminum concentration in the drinking water samples ranged from 1.25—13.46 µg/L. All analysed samples complied with the recommended concentration of ≤ 300 µg/L for domestic water use 31 . The recorded levels of Al in water from this study should not pose any health risk. At a high concentration, aluminium affects the nervous system, and it is linked to several diseases, such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases 53 . Iron (Fe) is an essential element for human health, required for the production of protein haemoglobin, which carries oxygen from our lungs to the other parts of the body. Insufficient or excess levels of iron can have negative effect on body functions 54 . The recommended concentration of iron in drinking water is ≤ 2000 µg/L 31 . In this study, the concentration of iron in the samples ranged from 0.96 to 73.53 µg/L. Similar results were reported by Jamshaid et al. in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province 55 . A high concentration of Fe in water can give water a metallic taste, even though it is still safe to drink 56 .

The levels of Pb, As and Zn were in the range of 0.02–0.57 µg/L, 0.02–0.17 µg/L, and 2.54–194.96 µg/L, respectively whereas Cr was not detected in the samples collected. The levels recorded complied with the SANS 31 and WHO 8 guidelines for drinking water. Similar results were reported by Mohod and Dhote 57 . Lead is not desirable in drinking water because it is carcinogenic and can cause growth impairment in children 41 . Inorganic arsenic is a confirmed carcinogen and is the most significant chemical contaminant in drinking-water globally 44 . Zinc deficiency can cause loss of appetite, decreased sense of taste and smell, slow wound healing and skin sores 58 . Cr is desirable at low concentration but can be harmful if present in elevated levels.

The hazard quotient (HQ) takes into consideration the oral toxicity reference dose for a trace metal that humans can be exposed to 59 . Health related risk associated with the exposure through ingestion depends on the weight, age and volume of water consumed by an individual. HQ ing and HQ derm for all analyzed trace metals in both children and adults were less than one unit (Table 9 ), indicating that there are no potential non-carcinogenic health risks associated with the consumption of the water from the study area either by children or adults. The calculated average cumulative health risk index (HI) for children and adult was 3.88E-02 and 1.78E-02, respectively. HQ across metals serve as a conservative assessment tool to estimate high-end risk rather than low end-risk in order to protect the public. This served as a screen value to determine whether there is major significant health risk 60 . The results in this study signifies that the population of the investigated area are not susceptible to non-cancer risks due to exposure to trace metals in drinking water. Similar observation has been reported by Bamuwamye et al. after investigating human health risk assessment of trace metals in Kampala (Uganda) drinking water 61 . It should be noted that the hazard index values for children were higher than that of adult, suggesting that children were more susceptible to non-carcinogenic risk from the trace metals.

Drinking water with trace metals such as Pb, As, Cr and Cd could potentially enhance the risk of cancer in human beings 62 , 63 . Long term exposure to low amounts of toxic metals might, consequently, result in many types of cancers. Using As, Ni and Pb carcinogens, the total exposure risks of the residents in Table 11 . For trace metals, an acceptable carcinogenic risk value of less than 1 × 10 −6 is considered as insignificant and the cancer risk can be neglected; while an acceptable carcinogenic risk value of above 1 × 10 –4 is considered as harmful and the cancer risk is worrisome. Amongst the studied trace metals, only the maximum levels of lead for both adults and children had the highest chance of cancer risks (1.93E−03 and 4.46E−03) while Arsenic and Nickel have no chance of cancer risk with values of 3.34E−06; 7.72E−06 and 2.24E−05; 5.18E−05, in both adults and children respectively. The only cancer risk to residents of the studied area could be from the cumulative ingestion of lead in their drinking water. The levels of Pb recorded in this study complied to the SANS guideline value for safe drinking water. While the levels of Pb from the dam and the street pipes were relatively low, higher levels where recorded at household taps and storage containers and this may be due to the kind of storage containers and pipes used in those households. Generally, the water supply is of low Pb levels which should not pose any health risk to the consumers. However, the residents in rural areas should be properly educated on the kind of materials to be used for safe storage of water which should not pose an additional health burden. The likelihood of cancer risk was only associated with the consumption of the highest levels of Pb reported for a life time for adults (set at 70 years) and 6 years for children. Consistent consumption of water from the same source throughout an adult’s lifetime is unlikely as residents in those communities may change their locations at some points, hence reducing the possible risk associated with consistent exposure to the same levels of Pb.

Conclusions

The study shows that as distance increases from the treatment reservoir to distribution points, the cross-contamination rate also increases, therefore, good hygienic practices is required while transporting, storing and using water. Unhygienic handling practices at any point between collection and use contribute to the deterioration of drinking water quality.

The physicochemical, bacteriological quality and trace metals’ concentration of water samples from treated source, street taps and household storage containers were majorly within the permissible range of both WHO and SANS drinking water standards. HQ for both children and adults were less than unity, showing that the drinking water poses less significance health threat to both children and adults. Amongst the studied trace metals, only the maximum level of lead for both adults and children has the highest chance of cancer risks.

We recommend that appropriate measures should be taken to maintain residual free chlorine at the distribution points, supply of municipal treated water should be more consistent in all the rural communities of Thulamela municipality, Limpopo province and residents should be trained on hygienic practices of transportation and storage of drinking water from the source to the point of use.

Data availability

The datasets used and analysed during the current study are available from the first author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

American Public Health Association

Centres for Disease Control and Prevention

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry

Electrical conductivity

Health risk index

Hazard quotient

Household storage containers

Household taps

Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrophotometer

Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrophotometer

Most probable number

South African National Standards

Street taps

Total Dissolved Solids

United Nations General Assembly

United Nations International Children Emergency Fund

United States Environmental Protection Agency

World Health Organization

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the University of Venda Health, Safety and Research Ethics’ Committee, the Department of Water affairs, Limpopo province and Vhembe district Municipality for granting the permission to conduct this study. We also thank all the respondents from the selected households in Lufule community.

The study was funded by the Research and Publication Committee of the University of Venda (Grant number: SHS/19/PH/14/1104).

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L.N. and J.N.E. conceptualized the study, L.N. collected and analysed the data, T.G.T., J.T. M., and J.N.E. supervised the data collection and analysis. F.C.O. drafted the original manuscript, J.N.E. reviewed and edited the original manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript.

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Luvhimbi, N., Tshitangano, T.G., Mabunda, J.T. et al. Water quality assessment and evaluation of human health risk of drinking water from source to point of use at Thulamela municipality, Limpopo Province. Sci Rep 12 , 6059 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10092-4

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Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index (WQI) under GIS framework

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Groundwater is an important source for drinking water supply in hard rock terrain of Bundelkhand massif particularly in District Mahoba, Uttar Pradesh, India. An attempt has been made in this work to understand the suitability of groundwater for human consumption. The parameters like pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, alkalinity , total hardness, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, sulfate, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, copper, manganese, silver, zinc, iron and nickel were analysed to estimate the groundwater quality. The water quality index (WQI) has been applied to categorize the water quality viz: excellent, good, poor, etc. which is quite useful to infer the quality of water to the people and policy makers in the concerned area. The WQI in the study area ranges from 4.75 to 115.93. The overall WQI in the study area indicates that the groundwater is safe and potable except few localized pockets in Charkhari and Jaitpur Blocks. The Hill-Piper Trilinear diagram reveals that the groundwater of the study area falls under Na + -Cl − , mixed Ca 2+ -Mg 2+ -Cl − and Ca 2+ - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) types. The granite-gneiss contains orthoclase feldspar and biotite minerals which after weathering yields bicarbonate and chloride rich groundwater. The correlation matrix has been created and analysed to observe their significant impetus on the assessment of groundwater quality. The current study suggests that the groundwater of the area under deteriorated water quality needs treatment before consumption and also to be protected from the perils of geogenic/anthropogenic contamination.

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Introduction

In India, there has been a tremendous increase in the demand for groundwater due to rapid growth of population, accelerated pace of industrialization and urbanization (Yisa and Jimoh 2010 ). The availability and quality of groundwater are badly affected at an alarming rate due to anthropogenic activities viz. overexploitation and improper waste disposal (industrial, domestic and agricultural) to groundwater reservoirs (Panda and Sinha 1991; Kavitha et al. 2019a , 2019b ). Consequently, human health is seriously threatened by the prevailing agricultural practices particularly in relation to excessive application of fertilizers; unsanitary conditions and disposal of sewage into groundwater (Panigrahi et al. 2012 ). The groundwater quality also varies with depth of water, seasonal changes, leached dissolved salts and sub-surface environment (Gebrehiwot et al. 2011 ). According to the World Health Organization (WHO 2017 ), about 80% of all the diseases in human beings are water-borne. Once the groundwater is contaminated, it is difficult to ensure its restoration and proper quality by preventing the pollutants from the source. It, therefore, becomes imperative to monitor the quality of groundwater regularly, and to device ways and means to protect it from contamination. The quality of groundwater is deciphered using various physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water (Diersing and Nancy 2009 ; Panneerselvam et al. 2020a ). It is a measure of health and hygiene of groundwater concerning the need and purpose of human consumption (Johnson et al. 1997 ; Panneerselvam et al. 2020b ).

In recent years, the assessment and monitoring of groundwater quality on a regular basis is being carried out using Geographic Information System (GIS) technique added with the IDW interpolation method and has proved itself as a powerful tool for evaluating and analysing spatial information of water resources (Aravindan et al. 2010 ; Shankar et al. 2010 , 2011a , b ; Venkateswaran et al. 2012 ; Selvam et al. 2013b; Magesh and Elango 2019 ; Balamurugan et al. 2020b ; Soujanya Kamble et al. 2020 ). It is an economically feasible and time-efficient technique for transforming huge data sets to generate various spatial distribution maps and projections revealing trends, associations and sources of contaminants/pollutants. In this work, GIS technique has been used for spatial evaluation of various groundwater quality parameters.

In this study, the physicochemical properties of forty-three groundwater samples collected from wells and hand pumps were determined and compared with international standards of WHO for drinking and domestic uses based on Water Quality Index (WQI). The WQI was first developed by Horton ( 1965 ) based on weighted arithmetical calculation. A number of researchers (Brown et al. 1972 ; GEMS UNEP 2007; Kavitha and Elangovan 2010 ; Alobaidy et al. 2010 ; Shankar and Kawo 2019 ; Bawoke and Anteneh 2020 developed various WQI models based on weighing and rating of different water quality parameters which is derived by the weighted arithmetic method. The WQI is a dimensionless number with values ranking between 0 and 100. The WQI is a unique digital rating expression that expresses overall water quality status viz. excellent, good, poor, etc. at a certain space and time based on various water quality parameters. Thus, the WQI is being used as an important tool to compare the quality of groundwater and their management (Jagadeeswari and Ramesh 2012 ) in a particular region; and is helpful for selecting appropriate economically feasible treatment process to cope up with the concerned quality issues. It depicts the composite impact of different water quality parameters and communicates water quality information to the public and legislative policy-makers to shape strong policy and implement the water quality programs (Kalavathy et al. 2011 ) by the government.

Mineral intractions strongly influence groundwater hydrochemistry in aquifers and disintegration of minerals from various source rocks (Cerar and Urbanc 2013 ; Modibo Sidibé et al. 2019 ). Hydrochemistry of the analysed samples indicates that the mean abundance of major cations is present in order of Na ++  > Ca 2+  > Mg 2+  > K + while major anions in order of \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\)  >  \({\text{NO}}_{3}^{ - }\)  > Cl −  >  \({\text{SO}}_{4}^{2 - }\)  > F − . The study shows that the sodium is dominant alkali while calcium and magnesium are the dominant alkaline earth metal leached in the aquafer due to rock water interaction affecting the quality of groundwater. Sodium in aquafer is derived from the weathering of halite and silicate minerals such as feldspar (Khan et al. 2014 ; Mostafa et al. 2017 ). The critical evaluation of Hill-Piper Trilinear diagram reflects Na + -Cl − , mixed Ca 2+ -Mg 2+ -Cl − , Ca 2+ - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) , mixed Ca 2+ -Na + - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) , Na + - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) and Ca 2+ -Cl − type hydro-chemical facies in decreasing order of dominance. The Hydro-chemical characterization of groundwater reveals that the nature of aquifer is controlled by type of water, source and level of contamination (Aghazadeh et al. 2017 ; Brhane 2018 ). Hence, in order to keep the health of any aquaculture system, particularly an aquifer system at an optimal level, certain water quality indicators or parameters must be regularly monitored and controlled. Therefore, the objective of the study is to calculate the WQI of groundwater in order to assess its suitability for human consumption using the GIS interpolation technique and statistical approach in the study area.

Mahoba district is the south-western district of Uttar Pradesh which is adjacent to the state of Madhya Pradesh in south and Hamirpur (UP) in the north. The study area falls under the survey of India (SOI) toposheets no. 54O and 63C lies between latitude N25°01′30″ to N25°39′40″ and longitude E79°15′00″ to E80°10′30″ and covers an area of approximately 2933.59 km 2 . River Dhasan separates the district Mahoba from Jhansi in the west. A certainpart of Jhansi and Banda district has been merged in newly constructed Mahoba district in 1995 (bifurcated from Hamirpur). Mahoba district consists of three tehsils Kulpahar, Charkhari, Mahoba and four blocks Panwari, Jaitpur, Charkhari, Kabrai (Fig.  1 a). Kabrai is the biggest block fromaerial coverage as well as population point of view. Jaitpur is the smallest block from aerial coverage and Charkhari from population point of view. The study area experiences a typical subtropical climate punctuated by long and intense summer, with distinct seasons. The area receives an average annual precipitation of 864 mm mainly from the south-west monsoon. The temperature of the coldest month (January) is 8.3°C while the temperature of the hottest month (May) shoots upto 47.5°C. The entire area under investigation is characterised by highly jointed/fractured Bundelkhand granite (Archean age) with thin soil cover. Physiographically , the area is characterised by Bundelkhand massif terrain and is marked by the occurrence of solitary or clustered hillocks and intervening low relief with undulating plains. Two major physiographic units are: (1) Southern part having high relief with hillocks- This is south of 20°25′ N latitude & maximum altitude is 340 mamsl, reserved forest. Granitoids and intervening pegmatitic veins and numbers of quartz veins are observed. (2) Northern part relatively low relief with lower hillocks- In between 25°25′N and 25°39′N latitude and maximum altitude is 310 mamsl. The area in and around Panwari is mainly covered with thick alluvium, and hard rock is encountered only below 35 mbgl, coverage with seasonal forest. Pedi plain, pediment inselberg and buried pediplains are present.

a Study area map depicting the sampling sites. b Geological map of study area

Geological and hydrogeological set-up

The granite, particularly leucogranite, older and younger alluvium consisting of clay, silt, sand and gravel mainly comprises the study area. The geological set-up of the study area indicates that the most dominant lithology is leucogranite covering mainly central and eastern part while recent alluvium covers the northern part (Fig.  1 b). At places, few patches of pink granite have also been recorded which appears enclosed in leucogranite or adjacent to its outcrop.The occurrence of groundwater is highly uncertain and unpredictable in this hilly and rugged terrain as it does not allow percolation and storages underground. The presence of porosity depends on the intensity of weathering and rock fracture which is responsible for groundwater occurrence, its quantity and flow mostly in permeable zones of weathered rock formations and under secondary porosity in the deep fractured zone. Groundwater recharge in the study area is triggered by the depth of overburden 7 m (Jaitpur-Kulpahar area) to 35 m (parts of Mahoba Tahsil and Charkhari block) as well as the intensity of weathering.

Materials and methods

The groundwater samples were collected during pre-monsoon (June 2016) period from the study area according to standard procedures of the American Public Health Association (APHA, 2017). The sampling locations were marked with the help of global positioning system (GPS) as shown in the Fig.  1 a. Samples were collected from the location through hand pump (depth: approx. 40 m) and dug wells (depth: 8–30 m ) as shown in Fig.  2 a–t. The collecting bottles (High-Density Polythene, HDPE) of one-litre capacity each were sterilized under the aseptic condition to avoid unpredictable contamination and subsequent changes in the characteristics of groundwater. Water samples were filtered using Whatman 42 filter paper (pore size 2.5 μm) prior to collection in the bottle. The sample was kept in the ice-box (portable) and brought to NABL accredited (ISO 17,025: 2017) laboratory of Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), Lucknow and Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP, India. The samples were stored in a chemical laboratory at temperature 4–5 °C. The samples for metallic parameters were added 2 ml elemental grade nitric acid to obtain the pH 2–3 after acidification. The samples were pre-filtered in the laboratory to carry out the analysis. In the present study, a total of 20 groundwater quality parameters of forty-three samples were analysed as per test standard methods (APHA 2017) in the laboratory except for unstable parameters viz. hydrogen ion concentration (pH), electrical conductivity (EC) and total dissolved solids (TDS) which are determined by portable device (pH-meter, EC-meter and TDS-meter) in situ. Alkalinity (AK), Total hardness (TH), calcium (Ca 2+ ), magnesium (Mg 2+ ), bicarbonate ( \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) ) and chloride (Cl − ) were analysed using volumetric titrations; sodium (Na + ) and potassium (K + ) were analysed using systronics flame photometer model 129; nitrate ( \({\text{NO}}_{3}^{ - }\) ), fluoride (F − ), sulfate ( \({\text{SO}}_{4}^{2 - }\) ), were analysed using shimadzu 1800 spectrophotometer. Prior to analysis of the heavy metals viz. copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), silver (Ag), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni); the groundwater samples were acidified with 1:1 nitric acid and concentrated ten times. The samples were subjected to analysis using Shimadzu 6701 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) on flame mode with hollow cathode lamps of metal under analysis. The concentration of metal is displayed on the monitor. The standards of the metallic parameters were prepared from National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) certified (Certified Reference Materials) CRM as per NABL guidelines of 17,025:2017.

a – b Spatial distribution map of pH and EC. c – h Spatial distribution map of TDS, AK, TH, Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ and Na + . i – n : spatial distribution map of K + , \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) , \({\text{SO}}_{4}^{2 - }\) , Cl − , F − and \({\text{NO}}_{3}^{ - }\) . o – t Spatial distribution map of Cu, Mn, Ag, Zn, Fe and Ni

The quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) procedure of the data has been considered during the study. Approximately half of the volume (500 ml) of samples were specially separated and checked in the laboratory to ensure QA/QC mechanisms. The accuracy of the chemical analysis has been validated by charge balance errors and samples < 5% error were considered.

The inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation technique used in this study is now-adays an effective tool for spatial interpolation of groundwater quality parameters leading to the generation of spatial distribution maps (Magesh et al. 2013 ; Kawo and Shankar 2018 ; Balamurugan et al. 2020b ; Sarfo and Shankar 2020 ). The weights were assigned to various parameters at each location based on distance and were calculated, taking into consideration the closest specified locations. The distribution of each groundwater quality parameter has been demarcated in different zones on spatial distribution map viz. acceptable/desirable and permissible limits according to BIS (2012, 2015) and WHO ( 2017 ) for drinking purpose. The statistical analysis and correlation matrix of the analysed groundwater quality parameters have been laid down as shown in Tables 1 and 2 , respectively.

The water quality index (WQI)

The WQI has been determined using the drinking water quality standard recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO 2017 ). The Water Quality Index has been calculated using the weighted arithmetic method, which was originally proposed by Horton ( 1965 ) and developed by Brown et al. ( 1972 ). The weighted arithmetic water quality index (WQI) is represented in the following way:

where n  = number of variables or parameters, W i  = unit weight for the i th parameter, Q i  = quality rating (sub-index) of the i th water quality parameter.

The unit weight ( W i ) of the various water quality parameters are inversely proportional to the recommended standards for the corresponding parameters.

where, W i  = unit weight for the i th parameter, S n  = standard value for i th parameters, K  = proportional constant,

The value of K has been considered ‘1′ here and is calculated using the mentioned equation below:

According to Brown et al. ( 1972 ), the value of quality rating or sub-index ( Q i ) is calculated using the equation as given below:

where V o = observed value of i th parameter at a given sampling site, V i = ideal value of i th parameter in pure water, S n = standard permissible value of i th parameter.

All the ideal values (V i ) are taken as zero for drinking water except pH and dissolved oxygen (Tripathy and Sahu 2005 ). In case of pH, the ideal value is 7.0 (for natural/pure water) while the permissible value is 8.5 (for polluted water). Similarly, for dissolved oxygen, the ideal value is 14.6 mg/L while the standard permissible value for drinking water is 5 mg/L. Therefore, the quality rating for pH and Dissolved Oxygen are calculated from the equations respectively as shown below:

where, V pH  = observed value of pH, V do  = observed value of dissolved oxygen.

If, Q i  = 0 implies complete absence of contaminants while 0 < Q i  < 100 implies that, the contaminants are within the prescribed standard. When Q i  > 100 implies that, the contaminants are above the standards.

The classification of water quality, based on its water quality index (WQI) after Brown et al. ( 1972 ); Chatterjee and Raziuddin ( 2002 ) and Shankar and Kawo ( 2019 ) have been considered here in this study for further reference which is mentioned in Table 3 .

Result and discussion

Groundwater quality parameters.

In this study based on the selected parameters as discussed above the groundwater quality maps have been prepared with the help of ArcGIS software 10.1 as shown in Fig.  2 a–t. In the following lines, the various parameters considered in the study are being discussed: The Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS 2012, 2015) and World Health Organization (WHO 2017 ) of drinking water standards have been considered as a reference in this study.

Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

It is an important indicator for assessing the quality and pollution of any aquifer system as it is closely related to other chemical constituents of water. The presence of hydrogen ion concentration is measured in terms of pH range. Water, in its pure form shows a neutral pH which indicates hydrogen ion concentration. In the present study, the range of pH varies between 6.81 (minimum) to 8.32 (maximum) which is within the acceptable limit (6.5–8.5, avg: 7.81) indicating the alkaline nature of groundwater (ideal range of pH for human consumption: 6.5–8.5).

Electrical conductivity (EC)

In fact, it is a measure of the ability of any substance or solution to conduct electrical current through the water. EC is directly proportional to the dissolved material in a water sample. The desirable limit of EC for drinking purpose is 750 µS/cm. In this study, the electrical conductivity varies between 286 and 1162 µS/cm. High EC at some sites suggests the mixing of sewage in groundwater as these sites are near dense urbanization.

Total dissolved solids (TDS)

The weight of residue expresses it after a water sample is evaporated to dry state. It includes calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride and sulfate. In the present study, it ranges between 280 to 879 mg/l (< 500 mg/l TDS for potable water as per BIS.). The agricultural practices, residential runoff, leaching of soil causing contamination and point source water pollution discharge from industrial or sewage treatment plants are the primary sources for TDS (Boyd 2000 ).

Alkalinity (AK)

It is a measure of the carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide ions present in water. The desirable limit of alkalinity in potable water is 200 mg/l, above which the taste of water becomes unpleasant. In the study area, the alkalinity ranges between 50 to 452 mg/l, which is within the permissible limit (600 mg/l).

Total hardness (TH)

It is the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in the water. Water moving through soil and rock dissolves naturally occurring minerals and carries them into the groundwater as it is a great solvent for calcium and magnesium. In this study, hardness ranges between 70 to 592 mg/l, which is within the permissible limits (600 mg/l). The high concentration of TH in groundwater may cause heart disease and kidney stone in human beings.

Calcium (Ca 2+ )

It enters into the aquifer system from the leaching of calcium bearing minerals. In the study area, the calcium concentration ranges from 12 to 112 mg/l and is within the permissible limit (200 mg/l). The lesser concentration of Ca 2+ in the groundwater satisfies the chemical weathering and dissolution of fluorite, consequently resulting in an increase of fluoride concentration.

Magnesium (Mg 2+ )

It is an important parameter responsible for the hardness of the water. In the study area, the concentration ranges between 2.4 to 120 mg/l and is present in little excess of the permissible limit (100 mg/l).

Sodium (Na + )

It is a highly reactive alkali metal. It is present in most of the groundwater. Many rocks and soils contain sodium compounds, which easily dissolves to liberate sodium in groundwater. In the study area, it ranges from 48.71 to 244.4 mg/l. The high concentration of Na + indicates weathering of rock-forming minerals i.e., silicate minerals (alkali feldspars) and/or dissolution of soil salts present therein due to evaporation (Stallard and Edmond 1983 ). In the aquifers, the high Na + concentration in groundwater may be related to the mechanism of cation exchange (Kangjoo Kim and Seong-Taekyun 2005).

Potassium (K + )

It is present in many minerals and most of the rocks. Many of these rocks are relatively soluble and releases potassium, the concentration of which increases with time in groundwater. In this study, it varies between 0.87 to 2.7 mg/l.

Bicarbonate ( \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) )

It is produced by the reaction of carbon dioxide with water on carbonate rocks viz. limestone and dolomite. The carbon-dioxide present in the soil reacts with the rock-forming minerals is responsible for the presence of bicarbonate, producing an alkaline environment in the groundwater. In the study area it varies between 36.61 to 536.95 mg/l and is within the permissible limit of 600 mg/l.

Sulfate ( \({\text{SO}}_{4}^{2 - }\) )

It is dissolved and leached from rocks containing gypsum, iron sulfides, and other sulfur bearing compounds. In the present study, it ranges between the 2.23 to 75.17 mg/l, which is well within the acceptable limit of 200 mg/l.

Chloride (Cl − )

In the present study the Cl − ranges between 70.92 to 276.59 mg/l which exceed the permissible limit (250 mg/l). The higher value of chlorine in groundwater makes it hazardous to human health (Pius et al. 2012 ; Sadat-Noori et al. 2014 ).

Fluoride (F − )

In groundwater fluoride is geogenic in nature. It is the lightest halogen, and one of the most reactive elements (Kaminsky et al. 1990 ). It usually occurs either in trace amounts or as a major ion with high concentration (Gaciri and Davies 1993 ; Apambire et al. 1997 ; Fantong et al. 2010 ). The groundwater contains fluorides released from various fluoride-bearing minerals mainly as a result of groundwater-host rock interaction. The study area comprising granite, granitic gneiss etc. is commonly found to contain fluorite (CaF 2 ) as an accessory mineral (Ozsvath 2006 ; Saxena and Ahmed 2003 ) which plays a significant role in controlling the geochemistry of fluoride (Deshmukh et al. 1995 ). In addition to fluorite it is also abundant in other rock-forming minerals like apatite, micas, amphiboles, and clay minerals (Karro and Uppin 2013 ; Narsimha and Sudarshan 2013 ; Naseem et al. 2010 ; Jha et al. 2010 ; Rafique et al. 2009 ; Carrillo-Rivera et al. 2002 ). In the present study, the fluoride concentration ranges from 0.11 to 3.91 mg/l. The concentration of fluoride exceeds the permissible limit (1.5 mg/l) in about 25% of the groundwater samples.

Nitrate ( \({\text{NO}}_{3}^{ - }\) )

Nitrate is naturally occurring ions and is a significant component in the nitrogen cycle. However, nitrate ion in groundwater is undesirable as it causes Methaemoglobinaemia in infants less than 6 months of age (Egereonu and Nwachukwu 2005 ). In general, its higher concentration causes health hazards if present beyond the permissible limit, 45 mg/l (Kumar et al. 2012 , 2014 ). In the study area, its concentration ranges from 86.95 to 210.4 mg/l. It is in excess of the permissible limits throughout the study area. The higher values of nitrate in potable water increases the chances of gastric ulcer/cancer, and other health hazards to infants and pregnant women (Rao 2006 ) also birth malformations and hypertension (Majumdar and Gupta 2000 ). The area under study is granite-gneiss terrain where the atmospheric nitrogen is fixed and added to the soil as ammonia through lightning storms, bacteria present in soil and root of plants. Further, animal wastes, plants and animals remain also undergo ammonification in the soil producing ammonia which undergoes nitrification/ammonia oxidation by Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter bacteria to form nitrate (Rivett et al. 2008 ; Galloway et al. 2004). Granitic rocks contain nitrogen concentrations up to 250 mg Nkg −1 with ammonium partitioned into the orthoclase feldspar to a greater extent than muscovite or biotite (Boyd et al. 1993 ). Geologic nitrogen (nitrogen contained in bedrock) contribute to the ecosystem with nitrogen saturation (more nitrogen available than required by biota) leading to leaching of nitrogen and consequently elevating nitrate concentrations in groundwater (Dahlgren 1994 ; Holloway et al. 1998 ). Nitrogen released through weathering has a greater impact on soil and water quality. Also, denitrification is significant in modifying the level to which nitrogen released through weathering of bedrock influencing the supply of nitrate in groundwater (McCray et al. 2005 ).

Copper (Cu)

It is a naturally occurring metal in rock, soil, plants, animals, and groundwater in very less concentration. The concentration of Cu may get enriched into the groundwater through quarrying and mining activities, farming practices, manufacturing operations and municipal or industrial waste released. Cu gets into drinking water either by contaminating of well water or corrosion of copper pipes in case of water is acidic. In this study, it ranges between 0 and 0.0078 mg/l, which is within the permissible limit (0.05 mg/l).

Manganese (Mn)

It occurs naturally in groundwater, especially in an anaerobic environment. The concentrations of Mn in groundwater is dependent upon rainfall chemistry, aquifer lithology, geochemical environment, groundwater flow paths and residence time, etc. which may vary significantly in space and time. It may be released by the leaching of the overlying soils and minerals in underlying rocks as well as from the minerals of the aquifer itself in groundwater. In the present study, manganese ranges between 0.005 and 0.221 mg/l, which is within the permissible limit (0.3 mg/l).

It naturally occurs usually in the form of insoluble and immobile oxides, sulfides and some salts. It is rarely present in groundwater, surface water and drinking water at concentrations above 5 µg/litre (WHO 2017 ). In the present study, the silver ranges between 0.000 and 0.021 mg/l, which is within the permissible limit (0.1 mg/l).

Though it occurs in significant quantities in rocks, groundwater seldom contains zinc above 0.1 mg/l. In the present study, the groundwater shows the negligible concentration of Zn (0.0136 mg/l) which is well within the acceptable limit (5 mg/l).

The most common sources of iron in groundwater is weathering of iron-bearing minerals and rocks. The iron occurs naturally in the reduced Fe 2+ state in the aquifer, but its dissolution increases its concentration in groundwater. Iron in this state is soluble and generally does not create any health hazard. If Fe 2+ state is oxidised to Fe 3+ state in contact with atmospheric oxygen or by the action of iron-related bacteria which forms insoluble hydroxides in groundwater. So, the concentration of iron in groundwater is often higher than those measured in surface water. In the present study, the iron ranges between 0.0994 and 0.4018 mg/l, which is within of the permissible limit 1.0 mg/l (BIS 2015).

Nickel (Ni)

The primary source of nickel in groundwater is from the dissolution of nickel ore bearing rocks. The source of nickel in drinking water is leaching from metals in contact such as water supply pipes and fittings. Ni usually occurs in the divalent state, but oxidation states of  +  1,  + 3, or  + 4 may also exist in nature. In the study area, it ranges between 0 and 0.0408 mg/l, and it crosses the permissible limit (0.02 mg/l).

Statistical analysis, correlation matrix and relative weightage

The relative weightage, general statistical analysis and correlation matrix of groundwater quality parameters are tabulated in Tables 4 , 1 and 2 , respectively. The correlation matrix of various 20 groundwater quality parameters, including 6 heavy metals was created and has been analysed using MS Excel 2016 Table 2 . Out of these, eight parameters viz. TDS, EC, Na + , Alkalinity, TH, Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) are significantly correlated, reflecting more than 0.50 correlation value. Further, TDS vs EC, Na + vs Alkalinity, TH as CaCO 3 − vs Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ , \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) vs Alkalinity and Na + indicates most relevant correlation having a significant impetus on the overall assessment of the quality of groundwater than any other major radicals and physical parameters. However, the majority of quality parameters are positively correlated with each other. A critical analysis of the correlation matrix for the heavy metals indicates that Cu is positively correlated with EC, TDS, Na + , K + , Cl − and \({\text{NO}}_{3}^{ - }\) . Similarly, Mn is positively correlated with pH, EC, TDS and Cu. While, Ag is positively correlated with pH, Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , K + , TH, Cl − , \({\text{NO}}_{3}^{ - }\) and Mn. Further, Fe is positively correlated with TDS, Mg 2+ , Na + , TH, \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) , \({\text{SO}}_{4}^{2 - }\) , \({\text{NO}}_{3}^{ - }\) , Cu and Ag. Similarly, Ni is positively correlated with pH, EC, TDS, Ca 2+ , K + , \({\text{NO}}_{3}^{ - }\) and Mn.

The higher concentration of Ni, Fe and Mn may trigger the presence of other heavy metals viz. Pb, Cd and Cr which are very sensitive and significant heavy metal and needs to be observed carefully in future for groundwater quality in the study area. The presence of Fe, \({\text{SO}}_{4}^{2 - }\) and \({\text{NO}}_{3}^{ - }\) may trigger the presence of Cd (Chaurasia et al. 2018 ).

Spatial distribution pattern

The spatial distribution pattern of the contour maps of the groundwater quality parameters have been generated as represented in Fig.  2 a–t. The spatial distribution pattern of the pH indicates that the central part along NW–SE across the district with some scattered small patches throughout indicating the presence of alkaline groundwater (Fig.  2 a). In acidic water, fluoride is adsorbed on a clay surface, while in alkaline water, fluoride is desorbed from solid phases; therefore, alkaline pH is more favourable for fluoride dissolution, (Keshavarzi et al. 2010 ; Rafique et al. 2009 ; Saxena and Ahmed 2003 ; Rao 2009 ; Ravindra and Garg 2007 ; Vikas et al. 2009 ). The southern portion of the district in Kabrai Block is having high TDS (> 750 mg/l) in groundwater (Fig.  2 c) due to poor fluxing and highly weathered rock formations. Similarly, EC is mainly highest (> 900 mg/l) in the southern part with small scattered patches in central and NE part of the district (Fig.  2 b). This is in consonance with the higher TDS (significant positive correlation with EC) as evidenced by the correlation matrix of the quality parameters (Table 2 ). The alkalinity map clearly and significantly indicates that it is highest in the central part surrounded by gradually decreasing alkalinity outwards (Fig.  2 d). The bicarbonates trigger the alkalinity in groundwater (Adams et al. 2001 ). The quality of groundwater in a major portion of the study area is alkaline in nature, indicating that the dissolved carbonates are predominantly in the form of bicarbonates. A positive correlation is observed between the alkalinity of groundwater and fluoride (Table 2 ), consequently releasing fluoride in the groundwater. The spatial distribution map of Ca 2+ suggests varying concentration within permissible limit throughout the study area (Fig.  2 f) due to the presence of alkali feldspar in granite. Similarly, Mg 2+ is also distributed unevenly but falls within permissible limit with an exception in NE part of the district (Fig.  2 g). The spatial distribution pattern of TH reflects that the study area is characterized by moderately hard groundwater.

Figure  2 e The Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ ions present in the groundwater are possibly derived from leaching of calcium and magnesium bearing rock-formations in the study area. The fluoride in groundwater shows a negative correlation with Ca 2+ , indicating the high value of fluoride in groundwater in association with low Ca 2+ content. The correlation matrix clearly marks a significant positive correlation among Na + , alkalinity and TDS, which is being reflected from their respective spatial distribution maps (Fig.  2 c, d and h). Na + is highest in the central part (with small patches in the eastern part and insignificantly in the western part) which is in conformity with the alkalinity and TDS spatial distribution patterns. Although, the presence of K + is insignificant and its lower concentration within the permissible limit is covering a major portion of the district due to poor weathering of orthoclase. Its distribution pattern indicates conformity more or less with the TDS and Na + (Fig.  2 c, h, and i). \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) is an important quality parameter showing significant positive correlation (> 0.50) with alkalinity and Na + (Table 2 ) which is also reflected in the spatial distribution pattern of these parameters (Fig.  2 d, h, j). Although sulphate ( \({\text{SO}}_{4}^{2 - }\) ) is an important quality parameter. It is present within the permissible limit in the study.

area (Fig.  2 k). Chloride is slightly in excess in a larger patch, particularly in SE-part of the study area which may cause a health hazard. It is revealed from the spatial distribution map of chloride (Fig.  2 l). This is due to poor fluxing and presence of halite mineral. Fluoride (F − ) is an important quality parameter, especially with respect to the study area where it is present noticeably in scattered patches throughout the district. It is observed that mainly in NE part, the central part and SE part of the district the concentration of fluoride is in excess (2.82 mg/l to 3.91 mg/l) of permissible limit 1.5 mg/l (Fig.  2 m). The higher concentration (> 3.0 mg/l) of fluoride may lead to skeletal fluorosis (Raju et al 2009 ). Several factors viz. temperature, pH, presence or absence of complexing or precipitating ions and colloids, the solubility of fluorine bearing minerals (biotite and apatite), anion exchange capacity of the aquifer (OH − with F − ), size and type of geological formations traversed by groundwater and the contact time during which water remains in contact with the formation are responsible for fluoride concentration in groundwater (Apambire et al. 1997 ). The lithology of fractured rock reveals that it contains more fluoride bearing minerals than massive rocks (Pandey et al. 2016 ). Nitrate (NO 3 − ) in groundwater is mainly anthropogenic in nature which could be due to leaching from waste disposal, sanitary landfills, over-application of inorganic nitrate fertilizer or improper manure management practice (Chapman 1996 ). In this study, it is observed that nitrate is in excess of the permissible limits with varying degree of concentration throughout the district, causing health hazard (Fig.  2 n). The area under study is granite-gneiss terrain where the atmospheric nitrogen is fixed and added to the soil as ammonia through lightning storms, bacteria present in soil and plants roots. Further, animal wastes, plants and animals remain also undergo ammonification in the soil producing ammonia which undergoes nitrification. The high values of nitrate in groundwater samples in the area may be due to unlined septic tanks and unplanned sewerage system that contaminates to the phreatic aquifer (Hei et al. 2020 ). Proper monitoring and concerned regulated effort are consistently required to get the assessment of nitrate impact on human health.

As far as heavy metals concentration in groundwater is concerned, Cu does not mark its noticeable presence (Fig.  2 o). Another, naturally occurring quality parameter is Mn which shows its presence within the permissible limit (Fig.  2 p). Silver and Zinc do not show any remarkable presence in the study area (Fig.  2 q and r). The study reveals a higher concentration of iron in groundwater in the Eastern part of the district due to secondary porosity and where ferrous (Fe 2+ ) ion usually occurs below the water table. The Fe 2+ after converting into Ferric (Fe 3+ ) state, becomes harmful and precipitated. This condition can be avoided naturally by raising the water table through groundwater recharging the affected area (Fig.  2 s). Nickel shows its remarkable presence in smaller patches in different areas (Fig.  2 t) due to the presence of heavy minerals like rutile and apatite.

Water quality index

The water quality index (WQI) map has been prepared using ArcGIS 10.1 on the basis of the selectively chosen quality parameters to decipher the various quality classes viz. excellent, good, poor, very poor and unsuitable at each hydro-station for drinking purpose (Tables 3 and 5 ; Fig.  3 ). The WQI Map of the study area indicates that major portion is having excellent (0–25) quality of groundwater while very poor (75–100) to unsuitable (> 100) quality is prevailing in small pockets in SW part (Fig.  3 ). The map clearly indicates that the quality of groundwater in Panwari Block belongs to excellent to good categories as for as potability for human consumption is concerned.

Water quality index map of the study area, District Mahoba

There is gradual variation in groundwater quality from very poor to excellent at the central part and outwards in the Charkhari Block. There is no noticeable change in the quality of groundwater except in the SW part of the Kabari Block. In the Jaitpur block, there is a significant.

variation in the quality class and the SW part (Nanwara, Ajnar and Khama) is characterized by poor, very poor and unsuitable categories (Fig.  3 ). Remaining part of the block falls under good to excellent groundwater quality. Overall, the quality of groundwater belongs to the excellent category in a major portion of the study area and is suitable for drinking as well as domestic uses.

Hydro-chemical facies

The major ions analysed are unevenly distributed and have been plotted on a Hill-Piper Trilinear diagram (Fig.  4 ). This diagram is comprised of two triangles at the base and one diamond shape at the top to represent the major significant cations and anions responsible for the nature of groundwater (Balamurugan et al. 2020a ). The piper diagram is used to categorize groundwater into various six types such as Ca 2+ - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) type, Na + -Cl − type, mixed Ca 2+ -Mg 2+ -Cl − type, Ca 2+ -Na + - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) type, Na + - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) type and Ca 2+ -Cl − type. A critical evaluation of the diagram reflects that 32.56% of the samples fall under Na + -Cl − type, 30.23% of the samples under mixed Ca 2+ -Mg 2+ -Cl − type, 16.28% of the samples under Ca 2+ - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) type, 13.95% of the samples under mixed Ca 2+ -Na + - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) type, 4.65% of the samples under Na + - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) type and 2.33% of the samples under Ca 2+ -Cl − type. Further, the observation reveals that the samples are distributed mainly into Na + -Cl − type, mixed Ca 2+ -Mg 2+ -Cl − type and Ca 2+ - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) type reflecting higher concentration of sodium and calcium bearing salt/mineral. Hydrochemistry of the analysed samples indicate that the major cations are present in order Na +  > Ca 2+  > Mg 2+  > K + of mean abundance while anions are present in the mean abundance order of \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\)  >  \({\text{NO}}_{3}^{ - }\)  > Cl −  >  \({\text{SO}}_{4}^{2 - }\)  > F − (Table 1 ). This reveals that sodium, chloride and bicarbonate dominate the ionic concentration in the groundwater due to action of weathering of minerals like halite and dolomite as well as ion exchange process.

Types of groundwater

The outcome of the present research in the hard rock area of the Bundelkhand region of India reveals that the groundwater has been deteriorated due to both geogenic and anthropogenic activities.

The study area is comprised mainly of granite and alkali granite, specifically in extreme southern which is responsible for leaching of fluoride in groundwater.

The thickness of overburden (loose soil and weathered rock) in the northern part of the study area is negligible. Therefore, there is a poor fluxing of groundwater which in turn triggers the concentration of TDS, fluoride and bicarbonate in groundwater.

Anthropogenic activities like unlined septic tanks and unplanned sewerage system have triggered the nitrate concentration in groundwater, particularly in the central and northern part of the study area. The rest of the area is safe and has potable groundwater. In addition, the area under study is granite-gneiss terrain where the atmospheric nitrogen is fixed and added to the soil as ammonia through natural lightning, bacteria present in soil and plants roots. Further, ammonification of animal wastes, plants and animal remains produces ammonia which undergoes nitrification.

Hydro-chemical facies reveal that the nature of groundwater is Na + -Cl − , mixed Ca 2+ -Mg 2+ -Cl − and Ca 2+ - \({\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }\) type in the study area.

The high value of WQI has been found, which is due to the higher values of chloride, fluoride, nitrate, manganese, iron, and nickel in the groundwater, which warrants immediate attention.

On the basis of WOI, it is concluded that the groundwater is safe and potable in the study area except for localized pockets in Jaitpur and Charkhari Blocks.

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Acknowledgements

Our thanks go to Central Groundwater Board (CGWB), Lucknow, NR, Region and Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi for their valuable support during the chemical analysis of groundwater samples.

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Ram, A., Tiwari, S.K., Pandey, H.K. et al. Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index (WQI) under GIS framework. Appl Water Sci 11 , 46 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01376-7

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Water quality index for assessment of drinking groundwater purpose case study: area surrounding Ismailia Canal, Egypt

• Hend Samir Atta   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5529-0664 1 ,
• Maha Abdel-Salam Omar 1 &
• Ahmed Mohamed Tawfik 2  

Journal of Engineering and Applied Science volume  69 , Article number:  83 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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The dramatic increase of different human activities around and along Ismailia Canal threats the groundwater system. The assessment of groundwater suitability for drinking purpose is needed for groundwater sustainability as a main second source for drinking. The Water Quality Index (WQI) is an approach to identify and assess the drinking groundwater quality suitability.

The analyses are based on Pearson correlation to build the relationship matrix between 20 variables (electrical conductivity (Ec), pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), chloride (Cl), carbonate (CO 3 ), sulphate (SO 4 ), bicarbonate (HCO 3 ), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and aluminium (Al). Very strong correlation is found at [Ec with Na, SO 4 ] and [Mg with Cl]; strong correlation is found at [TDS with Na, Cl], [Na with Cl, SO 4 ], [K with SO 4 ], [Mg with SO 4 ] and [Cl with SO 4 ], [Fe with Al], [Pb with Al]. The water type is Na–Cl in the southern area due to salinity of the Miocene aquifer and Mg–HCO 3 water type in the northern area due to seepage from Ismailia Canal and excess of irrigation water.

The WQI classification for drinking water quality is assigned with excellent and good groundwater classes between km 10 to km 60, km 80 to km 95 and the adjacent areas around Ismailia Canal. While the rest of WQI classification for drinking water quality is assigned with poor, very poor, undesirable and unfit limits which are assigned between km 67 to km 73 and from km 95 to km 128 along Ismailia Canal.

Introduction

Nowadays, groundwater has become an important source of water in Egypt. Water crises and quality are serious concerns in a lot of countries, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where water scarcity is widespread, and water quality assessment has received minimal attention [ 3 , 9 ]. So, it is important to assess the quality of water to be used, especially for drinking purposes.

Poor hydrogeological conditions have been encountered causing adverse impacts on threatening the adjacent groundwater aquifer under the Ismailia Canal. The groundwater quality degradation is due to rapid urban development, industrialization, and unwise water use of agricultural water, either groundwater or surface water.

As groundwater quality is affected by several factors, an appropriate study of groundwater aquifers characteristics is an essential step to state a supportable utilization of groundwater resources for future development and requirements [ 11 , 12 ]. It is important that hydrogeochemical information is obtained for the region to help improving the groundwater management practices (sustainability and protection from deterioration) [ 17 ].

Many researchers have paid great attention to groundwater studies. In the current study area, the hydrogeology and physio-hydrochemistry of groundwater in the current study area had been previously discussed by El Fayoumy [ 15 ] and classified the water to NaCl type; Khalil et al. [ 27 ] stated that water had high concentration of Na, Ca, Mg, and K. Geriesh et al. [ 21 ] detected and monitored a waterlogging problem at the Wadi El Tumilate basin, which increased salinity in the area. Singh [ 34 ] studied the problem of salinization on crop yield. Awad et al. [ 7 ] revealed that the groundwater salinity ranges between 303 ppm and 16,638 ppm, increasing northward in the area.

Various statistical concepts were used to understand the water quality parameters [ 24 , 28 , 35 ].

Armanuos et al. [ 4 ] studied the groundwater quality using WQI in the Western Nile Delta, Egypt. They had generated the spatial distribution map of different parameters of water quality. The results of the computed WQI showed that 45.37% and 66.66% of groundwater wells falls into good categories according to WHO and Egypt standards respectively.

Eltarabily et al. [ 19 ] investigate the hydrochemical characteristics of the groundwater at El-Khanka in the eastern Nile Delta to discuss the possibility of groundwater use for agricultural purposes. They used Pearson correlation to deduce the relationship between 13 chemical variables used in their analysis. They concluded that the groundwater is suitable for irrigation use in El-Qalubia Governorate.

The basic goal of WQI is to convert and integrate large numbers of complicated datasets of the physio-hydrochemistry elements with the hydrogeological parameters (which have sensitive effect on the groundwater system) into quantitative and qualitative water quality data, thus contributing to a better understanding and enhancing the evaluation of water quality [ 38 ]. The WQI is calculated by performing a series of computations to convert several values from physicochemical element data into a single value which reflects the water quality level's validity for drinking [ 16 ].

Based on the physicochemical properties of the groundwater, it should be appraised for various uses. One can determine whether groundwater is suitable for use or unsafe based on the maximum allowable concentration, which can be local or international. The type of the material surrounding the groundwater or dissolving from the aquifer matrix is usually reflected in the physicochemical parameters of the groundwater. These metrics are critical in determining groundwater quality and are regarded as a useful tool for determining groundwater chemistry and primary control mechanisms [ 18 ].

The objective of this research is to assess suitability of groundwater quality of the study area around Ismailia Canal for drinking purpose and generating WQI map to help decision-makers and local authorities to use the created WQI map for groundwater in order to avoid the contamination of groundwater and to facilitate in selection safely future development areas around Ismailia Canal.

Description of study area

The study area lies between latitudes 30° 00′ and 31° 00′ North and longitude 31° 00′ and 32° 30′ East. It is bounded by the Nile River in the west, in the east there is the Suez Canal, in the south, there is the Cairo-Ismailia Desert road, and in the north, there are Sharqia and Ismailia Governorates as shown in Fig. 1 . Ismailia Canal passes through the study area. It is considered as the main water resource for the whole Eastern Nile Delta and its fringes. Its intake is driven from the Nile River at Shoubra El Kheima, and its outlet at the Suez Canal. At the intake of the canal, there are large industrial areas, which include the activities of the north Cairo power plant, Amyeria drinking water plant, petroleum companies, Abu Zabaal fertilizer and chemical company, and Egyptian company of Alum. Ismailia Canal has many sources of pollution, which potentially affects and deteriorates the water quality of the canal [ 22 ].

Map of the study area and location of groundwater wells

The topography plays an important role in the direction of groundwater. The ground level in the study area is characterized by a small slope northern Ismailia Canal. It drops gently from around 18 m in the south close to El-Qanater El-Khairia to 2 amsl northward. While southern Ismailia Canal, it is characterized by moderate to high slope. The topography rises from 10 m to more than 200 m in the south direction.

Geology and hydrogeology

The sequence of deposits rocks of wells was investigated through the study of hydrogeological cross-section A-A′ and B-B′ located in Fig. 2 a, b [ 32 ]. Section B-B′ shows that the study area represents two main aquifers that can be distinguished into the Oligocene aquifer (southern portion of the study area) and the Quaternary aquifer (northern portion of the study area). The Oligocene aquifer dominates the area of Cairo-Suez aquifer foothills. The Quaternary occupies the majority of the Eastern Nile Delta. It consists of Pleistocene sand and gravel. It is overlain by Holocene clay. The aquifer is semi-confined (old flood plain) and is phreatic at fringes areas in the southern portion of eastern Nile Delta fringes. The Quaternary aquifer thickness varies from 300 m (northern of the study area) to 0 at the boundary of the Miocene aquifer (south of the study area). The hydraulic conductivity ranges from 60 m/day to 100 m/day [ 8 ]. The transmissivity varies between 10,000 and 20,000 m 2 /day.

a Geology map of the study area. b Hydrogeological cross-section of the aquifer system (A-A′) and geological cross-section for East of Delta (B-B′)

Groundwater recharge and discharge

The main source of recharge into the aquifer under the study area is the excess drainage surplus (0.5–1.1 mm/day) [ 29 ], in addition to the seepage from irrigation system including Damietta branch and Ismailia Canal.

Groundwater and its movements

In the current research, it was possible to attempt drawing sub-local contour maps for groundwater level with its movement as shown in Fig. 3 . Figure 3 shows the main direction of groundwater flow from south to north. The groundwater levels vary between 5 m and 13 m (above mean sea level). The sensitive areas are affected by (1) the excess drainage surplus from the surface water reclaimed areas which located at low lying areas; (2) the seepage from the Ismailia Canal bed due to the interaction between it and the adjacent groundwater system, and (3) misuse of the irrigation water of the new communities and other issues. Accordingly, a secondary movement was established in a radial direction that is encountered as a source point at the low-lying area (Mullak, Shabab, and Manaief). Groundwater movement acts as a sink at lower groundwater areas (the northern areas of Ismailia Canal located between km 80 to km 90) due to the excessive groundwater extraction. The groundwater level reaches 2 m (AMSL). The groundwater levels range between + 15 m (AMSL) (southern portion of Ismailia Canal and study area near the boundary between the quaternary and Miocene aquifers).

Groundwater flow direction map in the study area (2019)

The assessment of groundwater suitability for drinking purposes is needed and become imperative based on (1) the integration between the effective environmental hydrogeological factors (the selected 9 trace elements Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb, Co, Cr, Cd, Al) and 11 physio-chemical parameters (major elements of the anions and cations pH, EC, TDS, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, CO 3 , SO 4 , HCO 3 ); (2) evaluation of WQI for drinking water according to WHO [ 36 ] and drinking Egyptian standards limit [ 14 ]; (3) GIS is used as a very helpful tool for mapping the thematic maps to allocate the spatial distribution for some of hydrochemical parameters with reference standards.

The groundwater quality for drinking water suitability is assessed by collecting 53 water samples from an observation well network covering the area of study, as seen in Fig. 1 . The samples were collected after 10 min of pumping and stored in properly washed 2 L of polyethylene bottles in iceboxes until the analyses were finished. The samples for trace elements were acidified with nitric acid to prevent the precipitation of trace elements. They were analyzed by the standard method in the Central Lab of Quality Monitoring according to American Public Health Association [ 2 ].

The water quality index is used as it provides a single number (a grade) that expresses overall water quality at a certain location based on several water quality parameters. It is calculated from different water parameters to evaluate the water quality in the area and its potential for drinking purposes [ 13 , 25 , 31 , 33 ]. Horton [ 23 ] has first used the concept of WQI, which was further developed by many scholars.

The first step of the factor analysis is applying the correlation matrix to measure the degree of the relationship and strength between linearly chemical parameters, using “Pearson correlation matrix” through an excel sheet. The analyses are mainly based on the data from 53 wells for physio-chemical parameters for the major elements and trace elements. Accordingly, it classified the index of correlation into three classes: 95 to 99.9% (very strong correlation); 85 to 94.9% (strong correlation), 70 to 84.9% (moderately), < 70% (weak or negative).

Equation ( 1 ) [ 4 ] is used to calculate WQI for the effective 20 selected parameters of groundwater quality.

In which Q i is the ith quality rating and is given by equation ( 2 ) [ 4 ], W i is the i th relative weight of the parameter i and is given by Eq. ( 3 ) [ 4 ].

Where C i is the i th concentration of water quality parameter and S i is the i th drinking water quality standard according to the guidelines of WHO [ 36 ] and Egypt drinking water standards [ 14 ] in milligram per liter.

Where W i is the relative weight, w i is the weight of i th parameter and n is the number of chemical parameters. The weight of each parameter was assigned ( w i ) according to their relative importance relevant to the water quality as shown in Table 2 , which were figured out from the matrix correlation (Pearson correlation, Table 1 ). Accordingly, it was possible assigning the index for weight ( w i ). Max weight 5 was assigned to very strong effective parameter for EC, K, Na, Mg, and Cl; weight 4 was assigned to a strong effective parameter as TDS, SO 4 ; 3 for a moderate effective parameter as Ca; and weight 2 was assigned to a weak effective parameter like pH, HCO 3, CO 3 , Fe, Cr, Cu, Co, Cd, Pb, Zn, Mn, and Al. Equation ( 2 ) was calculated based on the concertation of the collected samples from representative 53 wells and guidelines of WHO [ 36 ] and Egypt drinking water standards [ 14 ] in milligram per liter. This led to calculation of the relative weight for the weight ( W i ) by equation ( 3 ) of the selected 20 elements (see Table 2 ). Finally, Eq. ( 1 ) is the summation of WQI both the physio-chemical and environmental parameters for each well eventually.

The spatial analysis module GIS software was integrated to generate a map that includes information relating to water quality and its distribution over the study area.

Results and discussion

The basic statistics of groundwater chemistry and permissible limits WHO were presented in Table 3 . It summarized the minimum, maximum, average, med. for all selected 20 parameters and well percentage relevant to the permissible limits for each one; the pH values of groundwater samples ranged from 7.1 to 8.5 with an average value of 7.78 which indicated that the groundwater was alkaline. While TDS ranged from 263 to 5765 mg/l with an average value of 1276 mg/l. Sodium represented the dominant cation in the analyzed groundwater samples as it varied between 31 and 1242 mg/l, with an average value of 270 mg/l. Moreover, sulfate was the most dominant anion which had a broad range (between 12 and 1108 mg/l), with an average value of 184 mg/l. This high sulfate concentration was due to the seepage from excess irrigation water and the dissolution processes of sulfate minerals of soil composition which are rich in the aquifer. Magnesium ranged between 11 and 243 mg/l, with an average value of 43 mg/l. The presence of magnesium normally increased the alkalinity of the soil and groundwater [ 10 , 37 ]. Calcium ranged between 12 and 714 mg/l with a mean value of 119 mg/l. For all the collected groundwater samples, calcium concentration is higher than magnesium. This can be explained by the abundance of carbonate minerals that compose the water-bearing formations as well as ion exchange processes and the precipitation of calcite in the aquifer. Chloride content for groundwater samples varies between 18 and 2662 mg/l with an average value of 423 mg/l. Carbonate was not detected in groundwater, while bicarbonate ranged from 85 to 500 mg/l. Figures 5 , 6 , and 7 were drawn to show the extent of variation between the samples in each well.

Piper diagram [ 30 ] was used to identify the groundwater type in the study area as shown in Fig. 4 . According to the prevailing cations and anions in groundwater samples Na–Cl water type in the southern area due to salinity of the Miocene aquifer, Mg–HCO 3 water type in the northern area due to seepage from Ismailia Canal and excess of irrigation water and there is an interference zone which has a mixed water type between marine water from south and fresh water from north.

Piper trilinear diagram for the groundwater samples

Concentration of selected physio-chemical parameters

Concentration of major elements

Concentration of trace element

Concentration for 20 elements by percentage of wells (relevant to their limits of WHO for each element)

a , b WQI aerial distribution for drinking groundwater suitability for WHO ( a ) and Egyptian standards ( b )

Atta, et al. [ 5 ] revealed that the abundance of Fe, Mn, and Zn in the groundwater is due to geogenic aspects, not pollution sources. Khalil et al. [ 26 ] and Awad et al. [ 6 ] revealed that the source of groundwater in the area is greatly affected by freshwater seepage from canals and excess irrigation water which all agreed with the study.

Table 3 and Fig. 8 showed that 100% of wells for EC were assigned at desirable limits. 43.79% of wells for TDS were assigned at the desirable limit and 27.05% of them at the undesirable limits. While pH, 81.25% were assigned at the desirable limit. The percentage of wells for the aerial distribution of cations concentration assigned at desirable limits ranged between 64.6% for K, 85.45% for Mg, 68.73% for Na, and 70.8% for Ca. While the percentage of wells for the aerial distribution of cations concentration assigned at the undesirable limits ranged between 8.3% for Mg, 31.27% for Na, 14.6% for K, and 16.7% for Ca.

The percentage of wells for the aerial distribution of anions concentration assigned at desirable limits ranged between 72.9% for Cl, 66.7% for HCO 3 , and 79.2% for SO 4 . While the percentage of wells for the aerial distribution of anions concentration assigned at the undesirable limit ranged between 4.2% for Cl, 0% for HCO 3 , and 20.8% for SO 4 as shown in Table 3 and Fig. 8 .

Table 3 and Fig. 8 presented the aerial distribution concentration for 8 sensitive trace elements. The percentage of wells assigned at desirable limits ranged between 100% for (Zn, Cr, and Co), 86% for Fe, 27.3% for Mn, 77.4% for Cd, 27.2% for Pb, and 96% for Al, while the percentage of wells assigned at undesirable limits ranged between 0% for (Fe, Zn, Cr, and Co), 50% for Mn, 13.6% for Cd, 36.4% for Pb, and 4% for Al.

Figure 8 summarizes the results of the concentration for the selected 20 elements (11 physio-hydrochemical characteristics, and 9 sensitive environmental trace elements) by %wells relevant to the limits of WHO for each element.

The water quality index is one of the most important methods to observe groundwater pollution (Alam and Pathak, 2010) [ 1 ] which agreed with the results. It was calculated by using the compared different standard limits of drinking water quality recommended by WHO (2008) and Egyptian Standards (2007). Two values for WQI were calculated and drawn according to these two standards. It was classified into six classes relevant to the drinking groundwater quality classes: excelled water (WQI < 25 mg/l), good water (25–50 mg/l), poor water (50–75 mg/l), very poor water (75–100 mg/l), undesirable water (100–150 mg/l), and unfit water for drinking water (> 150 mg/l) as shown in Fig. 9 a, b. Figure 9 a (WHO classification) indicated that in the most parts of the study area, the good water class was dominant and reached to 35.8%, 28.8% was excellent water; 7.5% were poor water, 11.3% very poor water quality, and 13.3% were unfit water for drinking water. Similarly, for Egyptian Standard classification via WQI, the study area was divided into six classes: Fig. 9 b indicated that 35.8% of groundwater was categorized as excellent water quality, 34% as good water quality, 9.4% as poor water, 5.7% as very poor water, 1.9% as undesirable water and 13.3% as unfit water quality. This assessment was compared to Embaby et al. [ 20 ], who used WQI in the assessment of groundwater quality in El-Salhia Plain East Nile Delta. The study showed that 70% of the analyzed groundwater samples fall in the good class, and the remainder (30%), which were situated in the middle of the plain, was a poor class which mostly agreed with the study.

Conclusions and recommendation

This research studied the groundwater quality assessment for drinking using WQI and concluded that most of observation wells are located within desirable and max. allowable limits.

The groundwater in the study area is alkaline. TDS in groundwater ranged from 263 to 5765 mg/l, with a mean value of 1277 mg/l. Sodium and chloride are the main cation and anion constituents.

The water type is Na–Cl in the southern area due to salinity of the Miocene aquifer, Mg–HCO 3 water type in the northern area due to seepage from Ismailia Canal and excess of irrigation water and there is an interference zone which has a mixed water type between marine water from south and fresh water from north.

The WQI relevant to WHO limits indicated that 23% of wells were located in excellent water quality class that could be used for drinking, irrigation and industrial uses, 38% of wells were located in good water quality class that could be used for domestic, irrigation, and industrial uses, 11% of wells were located in poor water quality class that could be used for irrigation and industrial uses, 8% of wells were located in very poor water quality class that could be used for irrigation, 6% of wells were located in unsuitable water quality class which is restricted for irrigation use and 15% of wells were located in unfit water quality which will require proper treatment before use.

The WQI relevant to Egyptian standard limits indicated that 25% of wells were located in excellent water quality class that could be used for drinking, irrigation, and industrial uses, 43% of wells were located in good water quality class that could be used for domestic, irrigation, and industrial uses, 8% of wells were located in poor water quality class that could be used for irrigation and industrial uses, 6% of wells were located in very poor water quality class that could be used in irrigation, 6% of wells were located in unsuitable water quality class which is restricted for irrigation use and 13% of wells were located in unfit water quality which will require proper treatment before use.

The percentage of wells located at unfit water for drinking were assigned in the Miocene aquifer, and north of Ismailia Canal between km 67 to km 73 and from km 95 to km 128.

It is highly recommended to study the water quality of the Ismailia Canal which may affect the groundwater quality. It is recommended to study the water quality in detail between km 67 to 73 and from km 95 to km 128 as the WQI is unfit in this region and needs more investigations in this region. A full environmental impact assessment should be applied for any future development projects to maximize and sustain the groundwater as a second resource under the area of Ismailia Canal.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available because they are part of a PhD thesis and not finished yet but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

World Health Organization

• Water Quality Index

Electrical conductivity

Total dissolved solids

Bicarbonate

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Atta, H.S., Omar, M.AS. & Tawfik, A.M. Water quality index for assessment of drinking groundwater purpose case study: area surrounding Ismailia Canal, Egypt. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 69 , 83 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s44147-022-00138-9

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Drinking water quality assessment and its effects on residents health in Wondo genet campus, Ethiopia

• Yirdaw Meride 1 &
• Bamlaku Ayenew 1  

Environmental Systems Research volume  5 , Article number:  1 ( 2016 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Water is a vital resource for human survival. Safe drinking water is a basic need for good health, and it is also a basic right of humans. The aim of this study was to analysis drinking water quality and its effect on communities residents of Wondo Genet.

The mean turbidity value obtained for Wondo Genet Campus is (0.98 NTU), and the average temperature was approximately 28.49 °C. The mean total dissolved solids concentration was found to be 118.19 mg/l, and EC value in Wondo Genet Campus was 192.14 μS/cm. The chloride mean value of this drinking water was 53.7 mg/l, and concentration of sulfate mean value was 0.33 mg/l. In the study areas magnesium ranges from 10.42–17.05 mg/l and the mean value of magnesium in water is 13.67 mg/l. The concentration of calcium ranges from 2.16–7.31 mg/l with an average value of 5.0 mg/l. In study areas, an average value of sodium was 31.23 mg/1and potassium is with an average value of 23.14 mg/1. Water samples collected from Wondo Genet Campus were analyzed for total coliform bacteria and ranged from 1 to 4/100 ml with an average value of 0.78 colony/100 ml.

On the basis of findings, it was concluded that drinking water of the study areas was that all physico–chemical parameters. All the Campus drinking water sampling sites were consistent with World Health Organization standard for drinking water (WHO).

Safe drinking water is a basic need for good health, and it is also a basic right of humans. Fresh water is already a limiting resource in many parts of the world. In the next century, it will become even more limiting due to increased population, urbanization, and climate change (Jackson et al. 2001 ).

Drinking water quality is a relative term that relates the composition of water with effects of natural processes and human activities. Deterioration of drinking water quality arises from introduction of chemical compounds into the water supply system through leaks and cross connection (Napacho and Manyele 2010 ).

Access to safe drinking water and sanitation is a global concern. However, developing countries, like Ethiopia, have suffered from a lack of access to safe drinking water from improved sources and to adequate sanitation services (WHO 2006 ). As a result, people are still dependent on unprotected water sources such as rivers, streams, springs and hand dug wells. Since these sources are open, they are highly susceptible to flood and birds, animals and human contamination (Messeret 2012 ).

The quality of water is affected by an increase in anthropogenic activities and any pollution either physical or chemical causes changes to the quality of the receiving water body (Aremu et al. 2011 ). Chemical contaminants occur in drinking water throughout the world which could possibly threaten human health. In addition, most sources are found near gullies where open field defecation is common and flood-washed wastes affect the quality of water (Messeret 2012 ).

The World Health Organization estimated that up to 80 % of all sicknesses and diseases in the world are caused by inadequate sanitation, polluted water or unavailability of water (WHO 1997 ). A review of 28 studies carried out by the World Bank gives the evidence that incidence of certain water borne, water washed, and water based and water sanitation associated diseases are related to the quality and quantity of water and sanitation available to users (Abebe 1986 ).

In Ethiopia over 60 % of the communicable diseases are due to poor environmental health conditions arising from unsafe and inadequate water supply and poor hygienic and sanitation practices (MOH 2011 ). About 80 % of the rural and 20 % of urban population have no access to safe water. Three-fourth of the health problems of children in the country are communicable diseases arising from the environment, specially water and sanitation. Forty-six percent of less than 5 years mortality is due to diarrhea in which water related diseases occupy a high proportion. The Ministry of Health, Ethiopia estimated 6000 children die each day from diarrhea and dehydration (MOH 2011 ).

There is no study that was conducted to prove the quality water in Wondo Genet Campus. Therefore, this study is conducted at Wondo Genet Campus to check drinking water quality and to suggest appropriate water treated mechanism.

Results and discussions

The turbidity of water depends on the quantity of solid matter present in the suspended state. It is a measure of light emitting properties of water and the test is used to indicate the quality of waste discharge with respect to colloidal matter. The mean turbidity value obtained for Wondo Genet Campus (0.98 NTU) is lower than the WHO recommended value of 5.00 NTU.

Temperature

The average temperature of water samples of the study area was 28.49 °C and in the range of 28–29 °C. Temperature in this study was found within permissible limit of WHO (30 °C). Ezeribe et al. ( 2012 ) reports similar result (29 °C) of well water in Nigeria.

Total dissolved solids (TDS)

Water has the ability to dissolve a wide range of inorganic and some organic minerals or salts such as potassium, calcium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides, magnesium, sulfates etc. These minerals produced un-wanted taste and diluted color in appearance of water. This is the important parameter for the use of water. The water with high TDS value indicates that water is highly mineralized. Desirable limit for TDS is 500 mg/l and maximum limit is 1000 mg/l which prescribed for drinking purpose. The concentration of TDS in present study was observed in the range of 114.7 and 121.2 mg/l. The mean total dissolved solids concentration in Wondo Genet campus was found to be 118.19 mg/l, and it is within the limit of WHO standards. Similar value was reported by Soylak et al. ( 2001 ), drinking water of turkey. High values of TDS in ground water are generally not harmful to human beings, but high concentration of these may affect persons who are suffering from kidney and heart diseases. Water containing high solid may cause laxative or constipation effects. According to Sasikaran et al. ( 2012 ).

Electrical conductivity (EC)

Pure water is not a good conductor of electric current rather’s a good insulator. Increase in ions concentration enhances the electrical conductivity of water. Generally, the amount of dissolved solids in water determines the electrical conductivity. Electrical conductivity (EC) actually measures the ionic process of a solution that enables it to transmit current. According to WHO standards, EC value should not exceeded 400 μS/cm. The current investigation indicated that EC value was 179.3–20 μS/cm with an average value of 192.14 μS/cm. Similar value was reported by Soylak et al. ( 2001 ) drinking water of turkey. These results clearly indicate that water in the study area was not considerably ionized and has the lower level of ionic concentration activity due to small dissolve solids (Table 1 ).

PH of water

PH is an important parameter in evaluating the acid–base balance of water. It is also the indicator of acidic or alkaline condition of water status. WHO has recommended maximum permissible limit of pH from 6.5 to 8.5. The current investigation ranges were 6.52–6.83 which are in the range of WHO standards. The overall result indicates that the Wondo Genet College water source is within the desirable and suitable range. Basically, the pH is determined by the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which forms carbonic acid in water. Present investigation was similar with reports made by other researchers’ study (Edimeh et al. 2011 ; Aremu et al. 2011 ).

Chloride (Cl)

Chloride is mainly obtained from the dissolution of salts of hydrochloric acid as table salt (NaCl), NaCO 2 and added through industrial waste, sewage, sea water etc. Surface water bodies often have low concentration of chlorides as compare to ground water. It has key importance for metabolism activity in human body and other main physiological processes. High chloride concentration damages metallic pipes and structure, as well as harms growing plants. According to WHO standards, concentration of chloride should not exceed 250 mg/l. In the study areas, the chloride value ranges from 3–4.4 mg/l in Wondo Genet Campus, and the mean value of this drinking water was 3.7 mg/l. Similar value was reported by Soylak et al. ( 2001 ) drinking water of Turkey.

Sulfate mainly is derived from the dissolution of salts of sulfuric acid and abundantly found in almost all water bodies. High concentration of sulfate may be due to oxidation of pyrite and mine drainage etc. Sulfate concentration in natural water ranges from a few to a several 100 mg/liter, but no major negative impact of sulfate on human health is reported. The WHO has established 250 mg/l as the highest desirable limit of sulfate in drinking water. In study area, concentration of sulfate ranges from 0–3 mg/l in Wondo Genet Campus, and the mean value of SO 4 was 0.33 mg/l. The results exhibit that concentration of sulfate in Wondo Genet campus was lower than the standard limit and it may not be harmful for human health.

Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium is the 8th most abundant element on earth crust and natural constituent of water. It is an essential for proper functioning of living organisms and found in minerals like dolomite, magnetite etc. Human body contains about 25 g of magnesium (60 % in bones and 40 % in muscles and tissues). According to WHO standards, the permissible range of magnesium in water should be 50 mg/l. In the study areas magnesium was ranges from 10.42 to 17.05 mg/l in Wondo Genet Campus and the mean value of magnesium in water is 13.67 mg/l. Similar value was reported by Soylak et al. ( 2001 ) drinking water of Turkey. The results exhibit that concentration of magnesium in Wondo Genet College was lower than the standard limit of WHO.

Calcium (Ca)

Calcium is 5th most abundant element on the earth crust and is very important for human cell physiology and bones. About 95 % of calcium in human body stored in bones and teeth. The high deficiency of calcium in humans may caused rickets, poor blood clotting, bones fracture etc. and the exceeding limit of calcium produced cardiovascular diseases. According to WHO ( 2011 ) standards, its permissible range in drinking water is 75 mg/l. In the study areas, results show that the concentration of calcium ranges from 2.16 to 7.31 mg/l in Wondo Genet campus with an average value of 5.08 mg/l.

Sodium (Na)

Sodium is a silver white metallic element and found in less quantity in water. Proper quantity of sodium in human body prevents many fatal diseases like kidney damages, hypertension, headache etc. In most of the countries, majority of water supply bears less than 20 mg/l, while in some countries the sodium quantity in water exceeded from 250 mg/l (WHO 1984 ). According to WHO standards, concentration of sodium in drinking water is 200 mg/1. In the study areas, the finding shows that sodium concentration ranges from 28.54 to 34.19 mg/1 at Wondo Genet campus with an average value of 31.23.

Potassium (k)

Potassium is silver white alkali which is highly reactive with water. Potassium is necessary for living organism functioning hence found in all human and animal tissues particularly in plants cells. The total potassium amount in human body lies between 110 and 140 g. It is vital for human body functions like heart protection, regulation of blood pressure, protein dissolution, muscle contraction, nerve stimulus etc. Potassium is deficient in rare but may led to depression, muscle weakness, heart rhythm disorder etc. According to WHO standards the permissible limit of potassium is 12 mg/1. Results show that the concentration of potassium in study areas ranges from 20.83 to 27.51 mg/1. Wondo Genet College with an average value of 23.14 mg/1. Present investigation was similar with reports made by other researchers’ study (Edimeh et al. 2011 ; Aremu et al. 2011 ). These results did not meet the WHO standards and may become diseases associated from potassium extreme surpassed.

Nitrate (NO 3 )

Nitrate one of the most important diseases causing parameters of water quality particularly blue baby syndrome in infants. The sources of nitrate are nitrogen cycle, industrial waste, nitrogenous fertilizers etc. The WHO allows maximum permissible limit of nitrate 5 mg/l in drinking water. In study areas, results more clear that the concentration of nitrate ranges from 1.42 to 4.97 mg/l in Wondo Genet campus with an average value of 2.67 mg/l. These results indicate that the quantity of nitrate in the study site is acceptable in Wondo Genet campus (Table 2 ).

Bacterial contamination

The total coliform group has been selected as the primary indicator bacteria for the presence of disease causing organisms in drinking water. It is a primary indicator of suitability of water for consumption. If large numbers of coliforms are found in water, there is a high probability that other pathogenic bacteria or organisms exist. The WHO and Ethiopian drinking water guidelines require the absence of total coliform in public drinking water supplies.

In this study, all sampling sites were not detected of faecal coliform bacteria. Figure  1 shows the mean values of total coliform bacteria in drinking water collected from the study area. All drinking water samples collected from Wondo Genet Campus were analyzed for total coliform bacteria and ranged from 1 to 4/100 ml with an average value of 0.78 colony/100 ml. In Wondo Genet College, the starting point of drinking water sources (Dam1), the second (Dam2) and Dam3 samples showed the presence of total coliform bacteria (Fig.  1 ). According to WHO ( 2011 ) risk associated in Wondo Genet campus drinking water is low risk (1–10 count/100 ml).

The mean values of total coliform bacteria in drinking water

According to the study all water sampling sites in Wondo Genet campus were meet world health organization standards and Ethiopia drinking water guideline. Figure  2 indicated that mean value of the study sites were under the limit of WHO standards.

Comparison of water quality parameters of drinking water of Wondo Genet campus with WHO and Ethiopia standards

Effect of water quality for residence health’s

Diseases related to contamination of drinking-water constitute a major burden on human health. Interventions to improve the quality of drinking-water provide significant benefits to health. Water is essential to sustain life, and a satisfactory (adequate, safe and accessible) supply must be available to all (Ayenew 2004 ).

Improving access to safe drinking-water can result in tangible benefits to health. Every effort should be made to achieve a drinking-water quality as safe as practicable. The great majority of evident water-related health problems are the result of microbial (bacteriological, viral, protozoan or other biological) contamination (Ayenew 2004 ).

Excessive amount of physical, chemical and biological parameters accumulated in drinking water sources, leads to affect human health. As discussed in the result, all Wondo Genet drinking water sources are under limit of WHO and Ethiopian guideline standards. Therefore, the present study was found the drinking water safe and no residence health impacts.

On the basis of findings, it was concluded that drinking water of the study areas was that all physico–chemical parameters in all the College drinking water sampling sites, and they were consistent with World Health Organization standard for drinking water (WHO). The samples were analyzed for intended water quality parameters following internationally recognized and well established analytical techniques.

It is evident that all the values of sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), chloride (Cl), SO 4 , and NO 3 fall under the permissible limit and there were no toxicity problem. Water samples showed no extreme variations in the concentrations of cations and anions. In addition, bacteriological determination of water from College drinking water sources was carried out to be sure if the water was safe for drinking and other domestic application. The study revealed that all the College water sampling sites were not contained fecal coliforms except the three water sampling sites had total coliforms.

The study was conducted in Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources campus, which is located in north eastern direction from the town of Hawassa and about 263 km south of Addis Ababa (Fig.  3 ). It lies between 38°37′ and 38°42′ East longitude and 7°02′ and 7°07′ north latitude. Landscape of the study area varies with an altitude ranging between 1600 and 2580 meters above sea level. Landscape of the study area varies with an altitude ranging between 1600 and 2580 meters above sea level.

Map of study area

The study area is categorized under Dega (cold) agro-ecological zone at the upper part and Woina Dega (temperate) agro-ecological zone at the lower part of the area. The rainfall distribution of the study area is bi-modal, where short rain falls during spring and the major rain comes in summer and stays for the first two months of the autumn season. The annual temperature and rainfall range from 17 to 19 °C and from 700 to 1400 mm, respectively (Wondo Genet office of Agriculture 2011).

Methodology

Water samples were taken at ten locations of Wondo Genet campus drinking water sources. Three water samples were taken at each water caching locations. Ten (10) water samples were collected from different locations of the Wondo Genet campus. Sampling sites for water were selected purposely which represents the entire water bodies.

Instead of this study small dam indicates the starting point of Wondo Genet campus drinking water sources rather than large dams constructed for other purpose. Taps were operated or run for at least 5 min prior to sampling to ensure collection of a representative sample (temperature and electrical conductivity were monitored to verify this). Each sample’s physico–chemical properties of water were measured in the field using portable meters (electrical conductivity, pH and temperature) at the time of sampling. Water samples were placed in clean containers provided by the analytical laboratory (glass and acid-washed polyethylene for heavy metals) and immediately placed on ice. Nitric acid was used to preserve samples for metals analysis.

Analysis of water samples

Determination of ph.

The pH of the water samples was determined using the Hanna microprocessor pH meter. It was standardized with a buffer solution of pH range between 4 and 9.

Measurement of temperature

This was carried out at the site of sample collection using a mobile thermometer. This was done by dipping the thermometer into the sample and recording the stable reading.

Determination of conductivity

This was done using a Jenway conductivity meter. The probe was dipped into the container of the samples until a stable reading will be obtained and recorded.

Determination of total dissolved solids (TDS)

This was measured using Gravimetric Method: A portion of water was filtered out and 10 ml of the filtrate measured into a pre-weighed evaporating dish. Filtrate water samples were dried in an oven at a temperature of 103 to 105 °C for \(2\frac{1}{2}\)  h. The dish was transferred into a desiccators and allowed cool to room temperature and were weighed.

In this formula, A stands for the weight of the evaporating dish + filtrate, and B stands for the weight of the evaporating dish on its own Mahmud et al. ( 2014 ).

Chemical analysis

Chloride concentration was determined using titrimetric methods. The chloride content was determined by argentometric method. The samples were titrated with standard silver nitrate using potassium chromate indicator. Calcium ions concentrations were determined using EDTA titrimetric method. Sulphate ions concentration was determined using colorimetric method.

Microorganism analysis

In the membrane filtration method, a 100 ml water sample was vacuumed through a filter using a small hand pump. After filtration, the bacteria remain on the filter paper was placed in a Petri dish with a nutrient solution (also known as culture media, broth or agar). The Petri dishes were placed in an incubator at a specific temperature and time which can vary according the type of indicator bacteria and culture media (e.g. total coliforms were incubated at 35 °C and fecal coliforms were incubated at 44.5 °C with some types of culture media). After incubation, the bacteria colonies were seen with the naked eye or using a magnifying glass. The size and color of the colonies depends on the type of bacteria and culture media were used.

Statically analysis

All data generated was analyzed statistically by calculating the mean and compare the mean value with the acceptable standards. Data collected was statistically analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 20).

Abbreviations

ethylene dinitrilo tetra acetic acid

Minstor of Health

nephelometric turbidity units

total dissolved solid

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Authors’ contributions

YM: participated in designing the research idea, field data collection, data analysis, interpretation and report writing; BA: participated in field data collection, interpretation and report writing. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Authors’ information

Yirdaw Meride: Lecturer at Hawassa University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources. He teaches and undertakes research on solid waste, carbon sequestration and water quality. He has published three articles mainly in international journals. Bamlaku Ayenew: Lecturer at Hawassa University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources. He teaches and undertakes research on Natural Resource Economics. He has published three article with previous author and other colleagues.

Acknowledgements

Hawassa University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources provided financial support for field data collection and water laboratory analysis. The authors thank anonymous reviewers for constructive comments.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Meride, Y., Ayenew, B. Drinking water quality assessment and its effects on residents health in Wondo genet campus, Ethiopia. Environ Syst Res 5 , 1 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-016-0053-6

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Received : 01 September 2015

Accepted : 06 January 2016

Published : 21 January 2016

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-016-0053-6

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