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Article Contents

Introduction, 1 installed capacity and application of solar energy worldwide, 2 the role of solar energy in sustainable development, 3 the perspective of solar energy, 4 conclusions, conflict of interest statement.

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Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development

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Ali O M Maka, Jamal M Alabid, Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development, Clean Energy , Volume 6, Issue 3, June 2022, Pages 476–483, https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkac023

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Solar energy is environmentally friendly technology, a great energy supply and one of the most significant renewable and green energy sources. It plays a substantial role in achieving sustainable development energy solutions. Therefore, the massive amount of solar energy attainable daily makes it a very attractive resource for generating electricity. Both technologies, applications of concentrated solar power or solar photovoltaics, are always under continuous development to fulfil our energy needs. Hence, a large installed capacity of solar energy applications worldwide, in the same context, supports the energy sector and meets the employment market to gain sufficient development. This paper highlights solar energy applications and their role in sustainable development and considers renewable energy’s overall employment potential. Thus, it provides insights and analysis on solar energy sustainability, including environmental and economic development. Furthermore, it has identified the contributions of solar energy applications in sustainable development by providing energy needs, creating jobs opportunities and enhancing environmental protection. Finally, the perspective of solar energy technology is drawn up in the application of the energy sector and affords a vision of future development in this domain.

With reference to the recommendations of the UN, the Climate Change Conference, COP26, was held in Glasgow , UK, in 2021. They reached an agreement through the representatives of the 197 countries, where they concurred to move towards reducing dependency on coal and fossil-fuel sources. Furthermore, the conference stated ‘the various opportunities for governments to prioritize health and equity in the international climate movement and sustainable development agenda’. Also, one of the testaments is the necessity to ‘create energy systems that protect and improve climate and health’ [ 1 , 2 ].

The Paris Climate Accords is a worldwide agreement on climate change signed in 2015, which addressed the mitigation of climate change, adaptation and finance. Consequently, the representatives of 196 countries concurred to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions [ 3 ]. The Paris Agreement is essential for present and future generations to attain a more secure and stable environment. In essence, the Paris Agreement has been about safeguarding people from such an uncertain and progressively dangerous environment and ensuring everyone can have the right to live in a healthy, pollutant-free environment without the negative impacts of climate change [ 3 , 4 ].

In recent decades, there has been an increase in demand for cleaner energy resources. Based on that, decision-makers of all countries have drawn up plans that depend on renewable sources through a long-term strategy. Thus, such plans reduce the reliance of dependence on traditional energy sources and substitute traditional energy sources with alternative energy technology. As a result, the global community is starting to shift towards utilizing sustainable energy sources and reducing dependence on traditional fossil fuels as a source of energy [ 5 , 6 ].

In 2015, the UN adopted the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and recognized them as international legislation, which demands a global effort to end poverty, safeguard the environment and guarantee that by 2030, humanity lives in prosperity and peace. Consequently, progress needs to be balanced among economic, social and environmental sustainability models [ 7 ].

Many national and international regulations have been established to control the gas emissions and pollutants that impact the environment [ 8 ]. However, the negative effects of increased carbon in the atmosphere have grown in the last 10 years. Production and use of fossil fuels emit methane (CH 4 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO), which are the most significant contributors to environmental emissions on our planet. Additionally, coal and oil, including gasoline, coal, oil and methane, are commonly used in energy for transport or for generating electricity. Therefore, burning these fossil fuel s is deemed the largest emitter when used for electricity generation, transport, etc. However, these energy resources are considered depleted energy sources being consumed to an unsustainable degree [ 9–11 ].

Energy is an essential need for the existence and growth of human communities. Consequently, the need for energy has increased gradually as human civilization has progressed. Additionally, in the past few decades, the rapid rise of the world’s population and its reliance on technological developments have increased energy demands. Furthermore, green technology sources play an important role in sustainably providing energy supplies, especially in mitigating climate change [ 5 , 6 , 8 ].

Currently, fossil fuels remain dominant and will continue to be the primary source of large-scale energy for the foreseeable future; however, renewable energy should play a vital role in the future of global energy. The global energy system is undergoing a movement towards more sustainable sources of energy [ 12 , 13 ].

Power generation by fossil-fuel resources has peaked, whilst solar energy is predicted to be at the vanguard of energy generation in the near future. Moreover, it is predicted that by 2050, the generation of solar energy will have increased to 48% due to economic and industrial growth [ 13 , 14 ].

In recent years, it has become increasingly obvious that the globe must decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, ideally towards net zero, if we are to fulfil the Paris Agreement’s goal to reduce global temperature increases [ 3 , 4 ]. The net-zero emissions complement the scenario of sustainable development assessment by 2050. According to the agreed scenario of sustainable development, many industrialized economies must achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. However, the net-zero emissions 2050 brought the first detailed International Energy Agency (IEA) modelling of what strategy will be required over the next 10 years to achieve net-zero carbon emissions worldwide by 2050 [ 15–17 ].

The global statistics of greenhouse gas emissions have been identified; in 2019, there was a 1% decrease in CO 2 emissions from the power industry; that figure dropped by 7% in 2020 due to the COVID-19 crisis, thus indicating a drop in coal-fired energy generation that is being squeezed by decreasing energy needs, growth of renewables and the shift away from fossil fuels. As a result, in 2020, the energy industry was expected to generate ~13 Gt CO 2 , representing ~40% of total world energy sector emissions related to CO 2 . The annual electricity generation stepped back to pre-crisis levels by 2021, although due to a changing ‘fuel mix’, the CO 2 emissions in the power sector will grow just a little before remaining roughly steady until 2030 [ 15 ].

Therefore, based on the information mentioned above, the advantages of solar energy technology are a renewable and clean energy source that is plentiful, cheaper costs, less maintenance and environmentally friendly, to name but a few. The significance of this paper is to highlight solar energy applications to ensure sustainable development; thus, it is vital to researchers, engineers and customers alike. The article’s primary aim is to raise public awareness and disseminate the culture of solar energy usage in daily life, since moving forward, it is the best. The scope of this paper is as follows. Section 1 represents a summary of the introduction. Section 2 represents a summary of installed capacity and the application of solar energy worldwide. Section 3 presents the role of solar energy in the sustainable development and employment of renewable energy. Section 4 represents the perspective of solar energy. Finally, Section 5 outlines the conclusions and recommendations for future work.

1.1 Installed capacity of solar energy

The history of solar energy can be traced back to the seventh century when mirrors with solar power were used. In 1893, the photovoltaic (PV) effect was discovered; after many decades, scientists developed this technology for electricity generation [ 18 ]. Based on that, after many years of research and development from scientists worldwide, solar energy technology is classified into two key applications: solar thermal and solar PV.

PV systems convert the Sun’s energy into electricity by utilizing solar panels. These PV devices have quickly become the cheapest option for new electricity generation in numerous world locations due to their ubiquitous deployment. For example, during the period from 2010 to 2018, the cost of generating electricity by solar PV plants decreased by 77%. However, solar PV installed capacity progress expanded 100-fold between 2005 and 2018. Consequently, solar PV has emerged as a key component in the low-carbon sustainable energy system required to provide access to affordable and dependable electricity, assisting in fulfilling the Paris climate agreement and in achieving the 2030 SDG targets [ 19 ].

The installed capacity of solar energy worldwide has been rapidly increased to meet energy demands. The installed capacity of PV technology from 2010 to 2020 increased from 40 334 to 709 674 MW, whereas the installed capacity of concentrated solar power (CSP) applications, which was 1266 MW in 2010, after 10 years had increased to 6479 MW. Therefore, solar PV technology has more deployed installations than CSP applications. So, the stand-alone solar PV and large-scale grid-connected PV plants are widely used worldwide and used in space applications. Fig. 1 represents the installation of solar energy worldwide.

Installation capacity of solar energy worldwide [ 20 ].

1.2 Application of solar energy

Energy can be obtained directly from the Sun—so-called solar energy. Globally, there has been growth in solar energy applications, as it can be used to generate electricity, desalinate water and generate heat, etc. The taxonomy of applications of solar energy is as follows: (i) PVs and (ii) CSP. Fig. 2 details the taxonomy of solar energy applications.

The taxonomy of solar energy applications.

Solar cells are devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity; typical semiconductor materials are utilized to form a PV solar cell device. These materials’ characteristics are based on atoms with four electrons in their outer orbit or shell. Semiconductor materials are from the periodic table’s group ‘IV’ or a mixture of groups ‘IV’ and ‘II’, the latter known as ‘II–VI’ semiconductors [ 21 ]. Additionally, a periodic table mixture of elements from groups ‘III’ and ‘V’ can create ‘III–V’ materials [ 22 ].

PV devices, sometimes called solar cells, are electronic devices that convert sunlight into electrical power. PVs are also one of the rapidly growing renewable-energy technologies of today. It is therefore anticipated to play a significant role in the long-term world electricity-generating mixture moving forward.

Solar PV systems can be incorporated to supply electricity on a commercial level or installed in smaller clusters for mini-grids or individual usage. Utilizing PV modules to power mini-grids is a great way to offer electricity to those who do not live close to power-transmission lines, especially in developing countries with abundant solar energy resources. In the most recent decade, the cost of producing PV modules has dropped drastically, giving them not only accessibility but sometimes making them the least expensive energy form. PV arrays have a 30-year lifetime and come in various shades based on the type of material utilized in their production.

The most typical method for solar PV desalination technology that is used for desalinating sea or salty water is electrodialysis (ED). Therefore, solar PV modules are directly connected to the desalination process. This technique employs the direct-current electricity to remove salt from the sea or salty water.

The technology of PV–thermal (PV–T) comprises conventional solar PV modules coupled with a thermal collector mounted on the rear side of the PV module to pre-heat domestic hot water. Accordingly, this enables a larger portion of the incident solar energy on the collector to be converted into beneficial electrical and thermal energy.

A zero-energy building is a building that is designed for zero net energy emissions and emits no carbon dioxide. Building-integrated PV (BIPV) technology is coupled with solar energy sources and devices in buildings that are utilized to supply energy needs. Thus, building-integrated PVs utilizing thermal energy (BIPV/T) incorporate creative technologies such as solar cooling [ 23 ].

A PV water-pumping system is typically used to pump water in rural, isolated and desert areas. The system consists of PV modules to power a water pump to the location of water need. The water-pumping rate depends on many factors such as pumping head, solar intensity, etc.

A PV-powered cathodic protection (CP) system is designed to supply a CP system to control the corrosion of a metal surface. This technique is based on the impressive current acquired from PV solar energy systems and is utilized for burying pipelines, tanks, concrete structures, etc.

Concentrated PV (CPV) technology uses either the refractive or the reflective concentrators to increase sunlight to PV cells [ 24 , 25 ]. High-efficiency solar cells are usually used, consisting of many layers of semiconductor materials that stack on top of each other. This technology has an efficiency of >47%. In addition, the devices produce electricity and the heat can be used for other purposes [ 26 , 27 ].

For CSP systems, the solar rays are concentrated using mirrors in this application. These rays will heat a fluid, resulting in steam used to power a turbine and generate electricity. Large-scale power stations employ CSP to generate electricity. A field of mirrors typically redirect rays to a tall thin tower in a CSP power station. Thus, numerous large flat heliostats (mirrors) are used to track the Sun and concentrate its light onto a receiver in power tower systems, sometimes known as central receivers. The hot fluid could be utilized right away to produce steam or stored for later usage. Another of the great benefits of a CSP power station is that it may be built with molten salts to store heat and generate electricity outside of daylight hours.

Mirrored dishes are used in dish engine systems to focus and concentrate sunlight onto a receiver. The dish assembly tracks the Sun’s movement to capture as much solar energy as possible. The engine includes thin tubes that work outside the four-piston cylinders and it opens into the cylinders containing hydrogen or helium gas. The pistons are driven by the expanding gas. Finally, the pistons drive an electric generator by turning a crankshaft.

A further water-treatment technique, using reverse osmosis, depends on the solar-thermal and using solar concentrated power through the parabolic trough technique. The desalination employs CSP technology that utilizes hybrid integration and thermal storage allows continuous operation and is a cost-effective solution. Solar thermal can be used for domestic purposes such as a dryer. In some countries or societies, the so-called food dehydration is traditionally used to preserve some food materials such as meats, fruits and vegetables.

Sustainable energy development is defined as the development of the energy sector in terms of energy generating, distributing and utilizing that are based on sustainability rules [ 28 ]. Energy systems will significantly impact the environment in both developed and developing countries. Consequently, the global sustainable energy system must optimize efficiency and reduce emissions [ 29 ].

The sustainable development scenario is built based on the economic perspective. It also examines what activities will be required to meet shared long-term climate benefits, clean air and energy access targets. The short-term details are based on the IEA’s sustainable recovery strategy, which aims to promote economies and employment through developing a cleaner and more reliable energy infrastructure [ 15 ]. In addition, sustainable development includes utilizing renewable-energy applications, smart-grid technologies, energy security, and energy pricing, and having a sound energy policy [ 29 ].

The demand-side response can help meet the flexibility requirements in electricity systems by moving demand over time. As a result, the integration of renewable technologies for helping facilitate the peak demand is reduced, system stability is maintained, and total costs and CO 2 emissions are reduced. The demand-side response is currently used mostly in Europe and North America, where it is primarily aimed at huge commercial and industrial electricity customers [ 15 ].

International standards are an essential component of high-quality infrastructure. Establishing legislative convergence, increasing competition and supporting innovation will allow participants to take part in a global world PV market [ 30 ]. Numerous additional countries might benefit from more actively engaging in developing global solar PV standards. The leading countries in solar PV manufacturing and deployment have embraced global standards for PV systems and highly contributed to clean-energy development. Additional assistance and capacity-building to enhance quality infrastructure in developing economies might also help support wider implementation and compliance with international solar PV standards. Thus, support can bring legal requirements and frameworks into consistency and give additional impetus for the trade of secure and high-quality solar PV products [ 19 ].

Continuous trade-led dissemination of solar PV and other renewable technologies will strengthen the national infrastructure. For instance, off-grid solar energy alternatives, such as stand-alone systems and mini-grids, could be easily deployed to assist healthcare facilities in improving their degree of services and powering portable testing sites and vaccination coolers. In addition to helping in the immediate medical crisis, trade-led solar PV adoption could aid in the improving economy from the COVID-19 outbreak, not least by providing jobs in the renewable-energy sector, which are estimated to reach >40 million by 2050 [ 19 ].

The framework for energy sustainability development, by the application of solar energy, is one way to achieve that goal. With the large availability of solar energy resources for PV and CSP energy applications, we can move towards energy sustainability. Fig. 3 illustrates plans for solar energy sustainability.

Framework for solar energy applications in energy sustainability.

The environmental consideration of such applications, including an aspect of the environmental conditions, operating conditions, etc., have been assessed. It is clean, friendly to the environment and also energy-saving. Moreover, this technology has no removable parts, low maintenance procedures and longevity.

Economic and social development are considered by offering job opportunities to the community and providing cheaper energy options. It can also improve people’s income; in turn, living standards will be enhanced. Therefore, energy is paramount, considered to be the most vital element of human life, society’s progress and economic development.

As efforts are made to increase the energy transition towards sustainable energy systems, it is anticipated that the next decade will see a continued booming of solar energy and all clean-energy technology. Scholars worldwide consider research and innovation to be substantial drivers to enhance the potency of such solar application technology.

2.1 Employment from renewable energy

The employment market has also boomed with the deployment of renewable-energy technology. Renewable-energy technology applications have created >12 million jobs worldwide. The solar PV application came as the pioneer, which created >3 million jobs. At the same time, while the solar thermal applications (solar heating and cooling) created >819 000 jobs, the CSP attained >31 000 jobs [ 20 ].

According to the reports, although top markets such as the USA, the EU and China had the highest investment in renewables jobs, other Asian countries have emerged as players in the solar PV panel manufacturers’ industry [ 31 ].

Solar energy employment has offered more employment than other renewable sources. For example, in the developing countries, there was a growth in employment chances in solar applications that powered ‘micro-enterprises’. Hence, it has been significant in eliminating poverty, which is considered the key goal of sustainable energy development. Therefore, solar energy plays a critical part in fulfilling the sustainability targets for a better plant and environment [ 31 , 32 ]. Fig. 4 illustrates distributions of world renewable-energy employment.

World renewable-energy employment [ 20 ].

The world distribution of PV jobs is disseminated across the continents as follows. There was 70% employment in PV applications available in Asia, while 10% is available in North America, 10% available in South America and 10% availability in Europe. Table 1 details the top 10 countries that have relevant jobs in Asia, North America, South America and Europe.

List of the top 10 countries that created jobs in solar PV applications [ 19 , 33 ]

Solar energy investments can meet energy targets and environmental protection by reducing carbon emissions while having no detrimental influence on the country’s development [ 32 , 34 ]. In countries located in the ‘Sunbelt’, there is huge potential for solar energy, where there is a year-round abundance of solar global horizontal irradiation. Consequently, these countries, including the Middle East, Australia, North Africa, China, the USA and Southern Africa, to name a few, have a lot of potential for solar energy technology. The average yearly solar intensity is >2800 kWh/m 2 and the average daily solar intensity is >7.5 kWh/m 2 . Fig. 5 illustrates the optimum areas for global solar irradiation.

World global solar irradiation map [ 35 ].

The distribution of solar radiation and its intensity are two important factors that influence the efficiency of solar PV technology and these two parameters vary among different countries. Therefore, it is essential to realize that some solar energy is wasted since it is not utilized. On the other hand, solar radiation is abundant in several countries, especially in developing ones, which makes it invaluable [ 36 , 37 ].

Worldwide, the PV industry has benefited recently from globalization, which has allowed huge improvements in economies of scale, while vertical integration has created strong value chains: as manufacturers source materials from an increasing number of suppliers, prices have dropped while quality has been maintained. Furthermore, the worldwide incorporated PV solar device market is growing fast, creating opportunities enabling solar energy firms to benefit from significant government help with underwriting, subsides, beneficial trading licences and training of a competent workforce, while the increased rivalry has reinforced the motivation to continue investing in research and development, both public and private [ 19 , 33 ].

The global outbreak of COVID-19 has impacted ‘cross-border supply chains’ and those investors working in the renewable-energy sector. As a result, more diversity of solar PV supply-chain processes may be required in the future to enhance long-term flexibility versus exogenous shocks [ 19 , 33 ].

It is vital to establish a well-functioning quality infrastructure to expand the distribution of solar PV technologies beyond borders and make it easier for new enterprises to enter solar PV value chains. In addition, a strong quality infrastructure system is a significant instrument for assisting local firms in meeting the demands of trade markets. Furthermore, high-quality infrastructure can help reduce associated risks with the worldwide PV project value chain, such as underperforming, inefficient and failing goods, limiting the development, improvement and export of these technologies. Governments worldwide are, at various levels, creating quality infrastructure, including the usage of metrology i.e. the science of measurement and its application, regulations, testing procedures, accreditation, certification and market monitoring [ 33 , 38 ].

The perspective is based on a continuous process of technological advancement and learning. Its speed is determined by its deployment, which varies depending on the scenario [ 39 , 40 ]. The expense trends support policy preferences for low-carbon energy sources, particularly in increased energy-alteration scenarios. Emerging technologies are introduced and implemented as quickly as they ever have been before in energy history [ 15 , 33 ].

The CSP stations have been in use since the early 1980s and are currently found all over the world. The CSP power stations in the USA currently produce >800 MW of electricity yearly, which is sufficient to power ~500 000 houses. New CSP heat-transfer fluids being developed can function at ~1288 o C, which is greater than existing fluids, to improve the efficiency of CSP systems and, as a result, to lower the cost of energy generated using this technology. Thus, as a result, CSP is considered to have a bright future, with the ability to offer large-scale renewable energy that can supplement and soon replace traditional electricity-production technologies [ 41 ]. The DESERTEC project has drawn out the possibility of CSP in the Sahara Desert regions. When completed, this investment project will have the world’s biggest energy-generation capacity through the CSP plant, which aims to transport energy from North Africa to Europe [ 42 , 43 ].

The costs of manufacturing materials for PV devices have recently decreased, which is predicted to compensate for the requirements and increase the globe’s electricity demand [ 44 ]. Solar energy is a renewable, clean and environmentally friendly source of energy. Therefore, solar PV application techniques should be widely utilized. Although PV technology has always been under development for a variety of purposes, the fact that PV solar cells convert the radiant energy from the Sun directly into electrical power means it can be applied in space and in terrestrial applications [ 38 , 45 ].

In one way or another, the whole renewable-energy sector has a benefit over other energy industries. A long-term energy development plan needs an energy source that is inexhaustible, virtually accessible and simple to gather. The Sun rises over the horizon every day around the globe and leaves behind ~108–1018 kWh of energy; consequently, it is more than humanity will ever require to fulfil its desire for electricity [ 46 ].

The technology that converts solar radiation into electricity is well known and utilizes PV cells, which are already in use worldwide. In addition, various solar PV technologies are available today, including hybrid solar cells, inorganic solar cells and organic solar cells. So far, solar PV devices made from silicon have led the solar market; however, these PVs have certain drawbacks, such as expenditure of material, time-consuming production, etc. It is important to mention here the operational challenges of solar energy in that it does not work at night, has less output in cloudy weather and does not work in sandstorm conditions. PV battery storage is widely used to reduce the challenges to gain high reliability. Therefore, attempts have been made to find alternative materials to address these constraints. Currently, this domination is challenged by the evolution of the emerging generation of solar PV devices based on perovskite, organic and organic/inorganic hybrid materials.

This paper highlights the significance of sustainable energy development. Solar energy would help steady energy prices and give numerous social, environmental and economic benefits. This has been indicated by solar energy’s contribution to achieving sustainable development through meeting energy demands, creating jobs and protecting the environment. Hence, a paramount critical component of long-term sustainability should be investigated. Based on the current condition of fossil-fuel resources, which are deemed to be depleting energy sources, finding an innovative technique to deploy clean-energy technology is both essential and expected. Notwithstanding, solar energy has yet to reach maturity in development, especially CSP technology. Also, with growing developments in PV systems, there has been a huge rise in demand for PV technology applications all over the globe. Further work needs to be undertaken to develop energy sustainably and consider other clean energy resources. Moreover, a comprehensive experimental and validation process for such applications is required to develop cleaner energy sources to decarbonize our planet.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Predicting Active Solar Power with Machine Learning and Weather Data

• Original Paper
• Published: 04 October 2023
• Volume 5 , article number  15 , ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Swikriti Khadke 1 ,
• Brindha Ramasubramanian 2 ,
• Pranto Paul 1 , 2 ,
• Raghavendra Lawaniya 1 ,
• Suma Dawn 3 ,
• Angana Chakraborty 4 ,
• Biswajit Mandal 5 ,
• Goutam Kumar Dalapati 1 , 2 ,
• Avishek Kumar 1 &
• Seeram Ramakrishna   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8479-8686 2  

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Artificial intelligence (AI) is crucial in optimizing energy consumption, improving renewable energy systems, enhancing efficiency, and enabling sustainability efforts and smart grid management. It facilitates the development of predictive models, like in the study, optimizing renewable energy use and reducing environmental impact. Leveraging AI helps us make informed decisions, reduce waste, and promote sustainable practices across industries for a greener future. The study’s goal was to develop a predicting model for solar photovoltaic (PV) systems that could account for weather unpredictability. To accomplish this goal, we collected data from both the plant inverter and the weather measurement system and used machine learning techniques like linear regression, random forest, principal component analysis, and support vector regression with RBF kernel to examine the data and create a model that can accurately predict the power output. The developed model may be used in any location for preliminary testing and estimating, allowing solar energy to be captured more successfully and consistently in the face of changing weather circumstances. We obtained 0.87 as the highest R 2 value with 0.002 as a mean square error.

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The authors would like to acknowledge the funding A-0000065-99-99 (WBS), Electrode for Green Hydrogen Production/Fuel Cells (Dr. Goutam Kumar Dalapati).

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Swikriti Khadke, Pranto Paul, Raghavendra Lawaniya, Goutam Kumar Dalapati & Avishek Kumar

Center for Nanotechnology & Sustainability, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore, 117575, Singapore

Brindha Ramasubramanian, Pranto Paul, Goutam Kumar Dalapati & Seeram Ramakrishna

Department of Computer Sciences, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, 201309, India

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Haldia Institute of Technology, Haldia, 721657, India

Angana Chakraborty

Department of Chemical Engineering, Haldia Institute of Technology, Haldia, 721657, India

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S.K. and B.R., data analysis; S.K., B.R., S.D., A.C., and B.M., drafting the manuscript; R.L., S.R., A.K., G.K.D., concept, design, data collection, data analysis.

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Khadke, S., Ramasubramanian, B., Paul, P. et al. Predicting Active Solar Power with Machine Learning and Weather Data. Mater Circ Econ 5 , 15 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42824-023-00087-5

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Received : 25 July 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s42824-023-00087-5

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Review article, solar photovoltaic energy optimization and challenges.

• 1 Department of Electrical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan
• 2 Processes, Energy, Environment and Electrical Systems, University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
• 3 Faculty of Electrical and Control Engineering, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gdańsk, Poland
• 4 Department of Materials Technologies, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland

The study paper focuses on solar energy optimization approaches, as well as the obstacles and concerns that come with them. This study discusses the most current advancements in solar power generation devices in order to provide a reference for decision-makers in the field of solar plant construction throughout the world. These technologies are divided into three groups: photovoltaic, thermal, and hybrid (thermal/photovoltaic). As a result, this article begins by outlining the approach that will be employed to undertake this research. Following that, solar energy production methods are researched and their sub-classifications are described in order to establish their resource needs and features. Following that, a detailed conversation is held. Each technology’s environmental and economic performance will be evaluated. Furthermore, a statistical analysis is conducted to emphasize the efficiency and performance of each solar technology, as well as to identify their global rankings in terms of power output. Finally, research trends in the development of solar power plants are presented. The credibility of the Photovoltaic system, types and limitations is the discussion under study system makes use of sun’s energy to generate electricity with the help of varied procedural systems; stand-alone, hybrid or grid charged. Based on this research, it is possible to infer that the primary goals of optimization approaches are to reduce investment, operation and maintenance costs, and emissions in order to improve system dependability. This paper also includes a brief overview of several solar energy optimization problems and issues.

1 Introduction

Global warming is an element in climate change and explicitly refers to the influence of greenhouse gases on the overall surface temperature of the Earth. When describing extreme weather events produced by greenhouse gases; the label “global warming” is appropriate. When characterizing other long-term changes to the planet’s weather patterns, however, climate change is the most appropriate phrase. Opponents of climate change and global warming have noted out how the Earth’s temperature patterns have fluctuated for generations, and that current climatic changes are not as severe as stated, nor are they only the consequence of human activity.

The Earth’s atmosphere is made up of several gases that work as a layer, trapping heat from the sun and blocking it from escaping back into space. Human actions have contributed to rising global temperatures, according to 97% of active climate experts throughout the world. According to climate experts, such negativity arises from a fear of confronting the scale of the harm caused by human actions to the environment. Little fluctuations in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun enable the ice sheets to develop and disappear. Solar radiation levels fluctuate. Such changes have a wide range of consequences in space, the Earth’s atmosphere, and on the Earth’s surface ( Mohamed et al., 2014 ). Upshot changes in solar activity, according to current scientific opinion, have only a little role in the Earth’s temperature. The warming induced by increasing levels of man-made greenhouse gas emissions is several times more than any other factors: Recent changes in solar activity are to blame. In fact, solar energy is a lot more beneficial for human beings. As the modern technological world is getting updated day by day. There is dire need to find a credible energy source in order to ensure a promising ground. In terms of solar energy, the sun is the most major source which can turn into feasible means if it is used to produce photovoltaic energy. Photovoltaic energy can be produced with the help of solar energy and is converted into electricity with the aid of solar photovoltaic panels.

Many activities rely on solar energy. Pumping water is mostly used in agriculture. PV panels and electric batteries are utilized to power the electro-pumps, allowing the irrigation system to be completely self-sufficient. In the construction sector, solar energy is used for air conditioning, water heating, lighting, and refrigeration systems. Desalination of water is another key application of solar energy. Solar energy is utilized to extract low-salt water from saltwater in this technique. Telecommunications is another key sector that makes use of solar energy. Satellites’ electrical demands are met by solar panels installed on their spinning limbs. Solar energy is occasionally utilized as a backup power source for established telecommunications networks. Hydrogen generation and consumption by electrolysis of water is one of the most promising ways to achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Figure 1 shows the typical Photovoltaic system. Solar energy has shown to be the most cost-effective and environmentally friendly option for electrolysis procedures. For power generation, three primary technologies are used, namely thermal, photovoltaic, and hybrid thermal photovoltaic. Numerous nations have already implemented similar systems in their electrical grids, including the United States, Spain, Morocco, India, China, and. Furthermore, in order to select the most appropriate technology for a specific country, a thorough examination and knowledge of the many solar technologies and their underlying challenges is required to assist responsible institutions in making decisions. As a result, a comprehensive assessment of all solar technologies for energy generation is required. As a result, the purpose of this study is to cover several research gaps in the literature, such as the absence of statistical analysis of existing solar power plants throughout the world. Moreover, decision-makers will be able to implement the most appropriate solar power technology for a specific geographic region. The second gap in the literature concerns a recent comprehensive study of solar energy technology for power generation. The third significant research gap is an in-depth comparison of the performance of the three primary solar technologies and their modifications, which, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, has yet to be addressed in any contemporary study.

FIGURE 1 . Photovoltaic system (Flickr).

As a result, the following are the primary additions and innovations of the present article:

• A new summary of the three primary solar methods for generating power.

• Updated solar technology economic and environmental assessments.

• Audit of linear Fresnel reflectors, parabolic trough technology, Parabolic dish collectors, Heliostat field collectors, photovoltaic, and concentrated photovoltaic solar power plants.

• PV-CSP and PVT/CPVT are two hybrid systems for generating thermal solar electricity ( Getie et al., 2020 ).

The layout of this paper is as follows. Section methodology introduces the adopted methodology in this review paper. Section Technologies Overview for Generating Thermal Power describes the three main solar technologies for electricity production. The discussion and comparison of these technologies alongside future trends and evaluation of their environmental and economic aspects are conducted in section Discussions. Section Optimization Method discuses PV Base Hybrid System, PV Based Grid System and PV Based Standalone System. Section Utilization of Solar Photovoltaic Energy discusses application. Section Optimization Issues and Challenges highlight limitations, while Section Conclusion , provides the conclusion of this paper ( Bishoyi and Sudhakar, 2017 ).

2 Methodology

An accurate literature study was undertaken to assess the most recent relevant research and their conclusions in order to investigate solar technologies for power production. These latter have been investigated based on the accepted solar technologies, their working principle, their capabilities, and the environmental difficulties linked with them. Moreover, an analysis of the operating solar-powered power plants has been created. Finally, a comparison of all technologies is offered in terms of their advantages, efficiency, and resource needs. The paper covers an exact literature study to assess the most recent relevant research and their conclusions in directive to solar energy technology for electricity generation built on the solar techniques employed, their operating principles, and their performance. A list of all operational solar-powered power plants has also been established. A comparison of technologies in terms of their advantages, productivity, and reserve needs is presented as well. The review of literature is divided into three parts, the first of which was to gather the most recent information on the four essential technologies used in thermal solar stations ( Zhang et al., 2013 ) as follows:

• Parabolic trough collector (PTC) ( Ouagued et al., 2018 ).

• Linear Fresnel Reflector (LRF) ( Ghodbane et al., 2016 ).

• Heliostat field collector (HFC) ( Eddhibi et al., 2017 ).

• Parabolic dish collector (PDC) ( Chen et al., 2018 ).

Second part splits research into two areas based on the major technology used in solar power plants:

• Fundamentally as Photovoltaic (PV) ( Lokar and Virtic, 2020 ).

• Concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) ( Aqachmar et al., 2020 ).

Third part, the technologies used in hybrid thermal photovoltaic systems are investigated. Including:

• Photovoltaic thermal (PVT) ( Aqachmar et al., 2020 ).

• Concentrated photovoltaic thermal (CPVT) ( Bamisile et al., 2020 ).

Next section shows a detailed literature review in order to shed light on different optimization methods in terms of solar photo- voltaic energy. Furthermore, an overview on utilization of photovoltaic energy is presented. In the last step the cons of optimization methods are discussed in terms of challenges and issues to get a better understanding of debilitated points of this whole phenomenon.

2.1 Technologies Overview for Generating Thermal Power

DNI (Direct Normal Irradiance) is used to turn sunlight into electricity, solar thermal power uses the second principle of thermodynamics. This transition necessitates the use of two heat sources: a cold and a hot source. The heat transfer fluid (HTF) is employed as the hot source and water as the cold source in CSP power plants. Entropy is increased as a result of the natural heat exchange between water and HTF. After that, the HTF is heated using one of four different technologies: parabolic trough collectors, Fresnel reflectors, parabolic dish collectors, or solar power tower ( Alsaffar, 2015 ).

2.1.1 Plants Using PTC Technology

A solar field, a power block, and thermal energy storage (TES) are all parts of the PTC power plant. In the solar field, solar collectors with parabolic troughs and tubes filled with a heat transfer fluid (HTF) are employed. By way of it passes through the tubes, a reflected beam of solar light heats the HTF. The power block must be efficient and trustworthy because it is the core of the PTC system. As a result, Rankine or Hirn cycles are the most often used power blocks ( Zhar et al., 2021 ; Aqachmar et al., 2019 ). PTC power plants are already operational in 98 countries, with 43% in Spain, 7% in India and 17% in the United States. The capacity of these PTC plants between 0.15 MW in France to 2,474.5 MW in Spain ( Solar paces, 2019 ; Boukelia et al., 2017 ). As indicated in Table 1 , the LCOE of PTC power plants ranges from 0.07 to 0.23 USD/KWh, and is heavily impacted by the plant’s position (DNI), size (Capacity in MegaWatts), and TES time. This table covers a number of LCOE optimization studies were carried out for a number of PTC plants in various countries ( Boukelia, et al., 2017 ; Dowling et al., 2017 ; Aly et al., 2019 ; Achkari and El Fadar, 2020 ).

TABLE 1 . Current PTC power plant design optimization simulation research ( Zineb et al., 2021 ).

2.1.2 Heliostat Field Collector or Solar Power Tower

Large mirrors reflect the sun’s energy onto a receiver at the top of a tower in heliostat field collector power plants. Ceramics or any other physical substance that is stable at high temperatures is used to construct the receiver. The heat is subsequently transferred to the HTF, which, in turn, is used to generate electricity, when it reaches a particular temperature, activates the steam generating system. The focused solar radiation must reach the receiver at a rate of 200–1,000 kW/m 2 ( Simsek et al., 2018 ) to produce the required temperature for the procedure. In general, water, melted salt, sodium liquid or air, can be used as the HTF in SPT technology. Economic and technological research on SPT power plants have grown in popularity in recent years. This would include viability and optimization research, which necessitate an assessment of the power plant’s three components: the heliostat field (tower altitude, land-use factor, as well as the quantity, length, and width of separate mirrors (heliostats)), heat energy storing (area for storage, storage extent, storing capacity), and power generation, vessels, temperature levels), ( Chen et al., 2018 ; Simsek et al., 2018 ; Collado and Guallar, 2019 ; Zhuang et al., 2019 ; Awan et al., 2020a ; Agyekum and Velkin, 2020 ; Hakimi et al., 2020 ), and electricity cycle (thermal cycle, fluid transmit, effectiveness, boiler stress, etc.). Awan et al. (2020b) obtained a 35.6% gain when compared to the initial design, full load storage period (TES) required for multi-objective optimization, tower elevation, and SM resulted in a 35.6% increase in energy competence and a 16.9% drop in LCOE. Zhuang et al. (2019) showed a cost-benefit analysis of 100 MW SPT power stations in China utilizing various melted salts and anticipated that the LCOE in China will fall from 0.23 $/kWh in 2017 to 0.10 $/kWh by 2050. In a recent study from Chile looked at the impact of solar extinction on LCOE ( Marzo et al., 2021 ).

2.1.3 Solar Thermal Power Plant With a Linear Fresnel Solar

An absorber, a steam generation system (SGS), a tracking system, and an instrumentation system all employ a collection of Fresnel reflectors built of linear mirrors ( Ghodbane et al., 2019 ). LFR flat mirrors reflect the sun’s straight normal irradiance (or ray radiation) towards absorber surface ( Islam et al., 2018 ). As a result of the strong sun radiation, the water vaporizes. The steam turbine is spun by the evaporated water, which subsequently generator to produce electricity by rotating, thanks to the high pressure. As demonstrated in the study of a 120 MW LFR power plant in the El-Oued region ( Alotaibi et al., 2020 ) (LCOE 14 0, 0382$/kWh; avoided CO 2 14,420, 67 tCO 2 /year) and in India ( Bishoyi and Sudhakar, 2017 ) for countries with significant water stress, Fresnel reflector-based power production technology is a very promising and low-cost technology. However, when compared to other technologies, particularly PTC ( Bellos, 2019 ), in the solar industry, LFR power plants undergo from considerable optical losses. Sanda et al. (2019) gave a thorough review of thermal modeling and visual simulation tools for LFR power plant design. The prices of 50 MW LFR power plants are compared to PTC and SPC power plants in Table 2 with equivalent capacity in India’s diverse climatic zones ( Kumar et al., 2021 ). Several researches on various aspects of LFR power plants, the thermal energy storage system, for example, have been installed to improve the plant’s efficiency. By segregating the TES system from the rest of the system, into numerous modules ( Tascioni et al., 2020 ), established a fresh optimization strategy. This resulted in a 13% improvement in TES efficiency and a 30% reduction in solar field thermal loss. Lopez et al. (2020) were also able to improve the economic and energetic performance of an Iranian power plant by adopting phase change material (PCM) as the storage system.

TABLE 2 . Cost-benefit analysis of CSP technology in Indian climatic regions ( Zineb et al., 2021 ).

2.1.4 Power Plants for Parabolic Dish Collectors

The parabolic dish collector (PDC) is a technique that directs solar energy beams gathered by a dish-shaped concentrator to a receiver at its focal point. Flat and cavity receivers are the two types of receivers. To track the direct normal irradiation, the concentrator uses a two-axis tracker. For optimal use of the obtained focused heat, at the focus point, an electrical generator with a Stirling-Brayton mechanism is placed ( Islam et al., 2019 ). When the ratio of concentrations surpasses 3000 ( Islam et al., 2018 ; Lopez et al., 2020 ), the pressure and temperature in the receiver might reach dangerous levels 200 bar and 700–750°C, respectively.

2.2 Photovoltaic Solar Energy Technologies Are Used to Generate Solar Power

2.2.1 pv technology.

PV technology is frequently used because to its simplicity in power generation. As seen in Figure 2 according to this, China (36%) leads the world in PV installed capacity, followed by the United States (13%), and Japan (11%) ( IEA, 2020 ). China is generating more than 175.01 GigaWatts of PV power, with the United States and Japan 62.2 GigaWatts, 55.5 GigaWatts coming in second and third, respectively.

FIGURE 2 . Installed capacity of PV (MW) ( Zineb et al., 2021 ).

2.2.2 Concentrated PV Technology

Concentrated PV (CPV) cells were developed as a result of scientific advancements in the optical instruments field. The CPV focuses sunbeams onto PV cells with the help of utilizing an optical concentrator, such as a curved mirror or a lens. The solar cells’ efficiency improves as a result of the additional photons focused with the concentrator. Adding a concentrator to a cell, according to the literature, enhances the current generated by the cell and improves the efficiency of the cell operating voltage ( Gonzalez-Longatt, 2005 ; Luque and Hegedus, 2011 ). Appropriate concentration technology selection is critical because the performance of the CPV’s optics has a direct and significant impact on the CPV’s efficiency. As a result, Table 2 provides a detailed summary of various concentration schemes. Two (or more) concentration systems are sometimes combined to improve the efficiency of CPV systems. Figure 3 shows the total electricity generated by different countries utilizing CPV. CPV’s installed power ranges up till 2021 from 114 kW in Japan to 67.68 MW in China region. Concerned nations’ typical CPV output is around 22.43 MW. Moreover, China has half (50%) of the mounted CPV volume, tracked the United States having 21%. High concentrated PV (HCPV) accounts for 81% of installed CPV power plants, while low concentrated PV (LCPV) accounts for 19%. As a result, HCPV generates 93% of the produced electricity, whereas LCPV generates just 7%.

FIGURE 3 . Total Installed CPV worldwide ( Zineb et al., 2021 ).

2.3 Hybrid Solar Thermal Power Generating Technology

Decoupled Photovoltaic and connected PV-CPV/CSP are the two types of hybrid solar power systems. These are systems that combine the two technologies on one worksite. Photovoltaic thermal collector (PVT) or concentrated photovoltaic thermal collector (CPVT) systems are dense or coupled hybrid solar systems that combine CPV/PV and CSP into a sole system are the second type of hybrid solar systems.

2.3.1 Hybrid PV-CSP Technology

PV-CSP hybrid expertise is relatively different topic which has piqued the curiosity of scientists all over the world. By expanding hybrid power plants on large scale, this is especially promising, according to the IEA’s solar thermal energy technology roadmap. The fascinating properties of such a combo, that can enhance system stability, enhance energy quality, cut LCOE, limit heat losses, and increase efficiency of power plant, driving this decision. The strategy for hybrid PV-CSP power plants on a large scale includes a battery energy storage system i-e (BESS) plants in recent research. The expected drop in battery costs may make this option more realistic in future. Several modeling researches dedicated to hybrid decoupled PV/CSP systems are included in Table 3 ( Gaga et al., 2017 ; Ju et al., 2017 ; Moukhtar et al., 2021 ). Conventional PV-thermal hybrid solar systems. A standard photovoltaic module is combined by a thermal accumulator in the PVT solar system to harvest sun energy. Several investigations have been conducted into this ( Hissouf et al., 2020 ).

TABLE 3 . Hybrid PV-CSP technology ( Zineb et al., 2021 ).

PV-thermal hybrid solar systems with concentrated photovoltaic. CPV technology, despite its high conversion ratio, is not without flaws, has serious flaw: excessive PV cell heating. A cooling technique is essential to avoid this. In this case, incorporating a thermal procedure achieve dual goals of freezing the CPV cells while also producing valuable thermal heat. The development of hybrid CPV-thermal technology was sparked by this.

2.3.2 Discussion of Thermal Methods for Energy Generation

Thermal technology for energy generation may be split into four groups, according to the review: solar power tower, parabolic dish collector, parabolic trough collector, linear Fresnel reflector, and the parabolic dip is the most commonly used solar thermal technique, having 64 percent of all CSP installation units in operation. Following that is tower technology, which accounts for 31% of all CSP technology installed globally. On either side, because PDC and LFR are two separate entities, they are relatively new technologies with considerable obstacles to overcome, their contribution to the energy mix are fairly limited. Because the performance of each technology is influenced by a variety of elements such as geographic location and HTF used, selecting one technology over another for a given place should be based on these features. The conclusions of this study revealed the barriers to widespread CSP implementation. PDC, for example, is expensive; PTC has low conversion efficiency; and LFR devices have a restricted operating temperature. Furthermore, the significant both the SGS and the cooling process make use of water is a serious issue with CSP facilities. The focus on resolving these difficulties will improve CSP plant acceptability in the background of the global energy alteration.

2.3.3 Photovoltaic Technology Power Generation Discussion

Photovoltaic technologies for power generation are the focus of the present research. Depending on whether or not a concentrator is used, photovoltaic technology may be divided into two groups. Attempting to provide a simple summary of mounted CPV and PV systems across the world, regardless of the fact that CPV has a higher efficiency than PV, the accumulative capacity of CPV mounted globally is small, according to the statistics presented. The comparatively great prices of Concentrators and trackers for CPV explain this result ( Aqachmar et al., 2020 ) directed a viability evaluation of CPV large scale facilities and provided unique policy solutions for addressing the problem of high CPV device pricing. In addition ( Laarabi et al., 2021b ), looked at the soiling problem. In both Morocco and India, the authors reviewed a large amount of literature on PV soiling measurement methodologies, impacts, and cleaning approaches, further showed that soiling is a much localized process, with the position of the plants having a substantial influence on soiling.

2.4 Discussion of Hybrid Technologies to Produce Electricity

According to the findings of this study, hybrid photovoltaic thermal technology may be classed as either traditional PVT or concentrated PVT. The hybrid PV or CPV achieves a dual goal of cooling the PV cells, so increasing electrical output, and providing usable thermal heat for thermoelectric generators. It is worth noting that hybrid solar technologies, whether coupled or decoupled, are still in their infancy and will require more development before being utilized in large-scale power facilities. This covers, among other things, optimizing optical concentrators, water usage, and investment costs. Next section will cover solar photovoltaic energy system types and solar energy optimization method, issues and challenges ( Laarabi et al., 2021b ).

2.5 Types of Solar Photovoltaic Energy System

Figure 4 shows types of the solar photovoltaic systems which includes the most common configuration - a grid-connected PV system, which is used when customers want can reduce their energy costs, and the grid is accessible for using when the array PV is not generating electricity. A “Utility-Interactive PV System or Grid Tied PV System” is a PV-array without the need of a storage system; it is directly connected to the grid. Solar panels that generate part, if not all, of their power demands during the day while staying linked to the local electrical grid at night are included in these Connected Grid PV Systems. In most connected grid PV schemes, extra or surplus electricity is stored in batteries or sent back into the electrical grid. Solar energy can be utilized to meet some or all energy needs for those with a connected grid PV arrangement in their houses and buildings. Moreover, since this type of PV system is indefinitely linked to the grid, there is no need to calculate solar energy consumption or solar panel sizing, enabling for a variety of options, including a system as limited as 1.0 kiloWh on the tower to dramatically lessen your electricity bills, and a much bigger ground assembled array large enough just to totally eliminate your electricity costs completely. Hybrid PV systems are similar to stand-alone ones. The goal of a hybrid power system is to generate as much energy as possible from renewable sources while meeting load demand. An? AC or DC distribution system, a storing system, filters, converters, and a load management or supervisory system are all possible components of a hybrid system, in addition to energy sources. All of these elements related in a different ways. Depending on the system size, renewable energy sources can be linked to the DC bus. HPS systems can generate power ranging from just few watts for personal usage to very few megawatts for modest community electrification systems. As a result, DC loads are frequently supplied by hybrid systems used for extremely low-power applications. Commonly linked with more than 100 kW of power as well as an AC bus are intended to be a component of the system of massive interconnected networks. Furthermost hybrid systems like a UPS system, can serve as a backup power supply during a blackout due to their ability to store energy ( Georgescu-Roegen, 1979 ; Furkan and Mehmet Emin, 2010 ; Raturi, 2019 ). The word “hybrid” in the solar field refers to a system that employs a combination of solar and batteries and may interact with the power grid. The most cost-effective hybrid system employs a basic hybrid inverter, which includes a solar inverter and a battery inverter/charger, as well as smart controls that determine the most efficient practice of your available energy. PV system, stand-alone are suitable for sequestered rural areas and uses in which other sources of power are troublesome/nonexistent for powering lighting, applications, as well as additional equipment. This is frequently additional cost efficient for installing a solo stand-alone PV system to having local energy provider spread the power cables and lines directly towards the house as part of a grid-connected PV arrangement. A simple PV system is a self-contained solar expertise which produces electricity throughout the day to charge batteries for usage whenever the sun energy is absent at night. Rechargeable batteries are used to storing the electrical energy generated by panels (PV) or an arrangement in a stand-alone small-scale PV system ( Farh et al., 2018 ). The battery allows an independent photovoltaic system to run when the solar panel itself does not generate enough energy, because the size of the battery is proportional to the power previously consumed. The two main types of batteries used to store solar energy are deep cycle batteries and shallow cycle batteries. Batteries are necessary component on which every standalone self sufficient solar power system relies. It also transforms electric energy into chemical energy which then is stored for usage anytime the solar array is not generating electricity. The PV system provides direct electricity to the load during daylight hours, with any extra energy being stored in batteries for later use.

FIGURE 4 . Types of solar photovoltaic systems ( Assadeg et al., 2019 ).

3 Overview of Solar Energy Optimization Method

Solar energy systems emit no noise and produce no pollutants during operation and maintenance. Photovoltaic cell technologies have less environmental dangers than other forms of electric energy sources ( Otero et al., 1998 ). Chemicals used in the manufacture of PV cells, on the other hand, might be discharged into the air, surface water, and groundwater in the production plant, installation site, and disposal or recycling facility. The solar collector storage system may provide energy at temperatures greater than the ambient outside air. A significant quantity of CO 2 is emitted by a PV power plant based on single crystalline silicon technology. There was no pressing necessity for optimizing the energy balance of the production process in the so far very modest PV sector. The analysis of the affecting solar energy system optimization, as well as operational characteristics, is critical aspects in improving power conversion efficiency. The climate has a considerable influence on the solar energy’s reliability systems. As a consequence, optimization tactics are crucial in boosting the solar system’s reliability and efficacy. To accomplish so, strategies for tackling challenging PV system optimization difficulties must be developed.

3.1 Optimization Method for PV Base Hybrid System

3.1.1 hybrid renewable energy system.

Wind turbines, photovoltaic, mini hydro, and/or anything else fossil-fuel-powered producers are all examples of hybrid power systems. Small systems that can power a single home to big systems that can power a colony or an island, these systems come in a variety of sizes. Many isolated locations, especially those in developing countries in which the grid operator is economically and technically non-viable, will benefit from hybrid power systems. In 1978, the first rural hybrid energy system systems, which included solar panels and diesel generators, were built in the United States. Until an electric grid was connected to the hamlet, the power generated by the system was used to power the communal laundry machine, refrigerator, stitching machine, lighting and water drives. Photovoltaic (PV), Micro hydropower (MHP) and tiny wind power bases are routinely used to provide electricity to clients in remote locations, with or without energy storage systems. Varied energy sources have different properties in terms of production, like as seasonal river flows, strong sunlight during the day rather than at night, and high wind speeds in the summer. Commercial PV or wind systems that operate they do not create power 24 h a day, 365 days a year. When PV and wind are combined, the battery bank capacity and fuel requirements (if a conventional generator is utilized as a backup) are reduced, among other benefits. However, in order for a hybrid PV-Wind system to work, the area must have a high potential for both solar and wind energy. Environmental conditions, PV capacity, wind generator capacity, storage device capacity, generating location, and other factors all have a significant impact on the hybrid PV/wind-diesel system’s operation, maintenance, and cost ( Prakash and Khatod, 2016 ).

Extra energy is stored in battery banks, which are then used to power the devices, load when the hybrid system is underpowered. The inverter (DC/AC) must convert to fulfill consumer load demand, the voltage is converted from DC to AC. The battery charger’s output terminal, the storage battery, and the input terminal of the (DC/AC) converter are all linked in equivalent. Because fluctuations in solar radiation and wind velocity have a significant impact on energy generation, hybrid systems must be carefully designed to ensure a consistent power supply to clients in changing climatic conditions. Similarly, to keep system costs low, a detailed design should be conducted.

3.1.2 Photovoltaic System

Solar photovoltaic is the world’s third-largest renewable energy source by installed capacity, after hydro and wind power. Solar panels transform the sun’s solar radiation directly into useful electrical energy ( Figure 5 ). California and the Agua Caliente Solar Project are the world’s largest standalone PV generating installations. The aggregate capacity of both power plants is more than 250 MWP. However, due to the high cost of solar panels, its use is limited to less than 1% of total global energy production. PV energy arrangements are supposed to be unique of the most economical alternatives to encounter rural needs of energy.

FIGURE 5 . Residential grid-tied solar Photovoltaic system diagram ( Wikimedia Commons, 2018 ).

For small communities of up to 100 homes, the economic feasibility has been built a hybrid PV system for decentralized power generation. The ideal mix can be determined using the hybrid PV system optimization approach based on the charge of energy produced, that is justified further by distance angle, tilt, and azimuth angle from the nearest power line. A PV hybrid system’s performance is measured in terms of electricity generation dependability across a wide range of load circumstances. The load and insolation were calculated using statistical methods. The output power of a PV panel is calculated using the equation below.

Where E stands for energy that is in (kWh). r shows solar panel yield which is in (percent). A stands for total covered panel area (m 2 ).

PR stands for performance ratio, a constant for losses (ranges lies between 0.5 and 0.9, showing default value = 0.75). H stands for solar radiation yearly average on slanted panels, and r is the solar panel return, which is computed by dividing one solar panel’s electrical power which is in kWp by its area.

3.1.3 Hydro System

Over the last four decades, global hydroelectric power output has gradually increased by an average of 3% every year. In 2011, hydropower from over 160 nations generated around 16% of global electricity. Water wheels are the forerunners of current turbines, which are used to transform hydraulic power into mechanical power, which is then converted into electrical power using a generator ( Li, 2021 ). Hydroelectric power, unlike solar and wind power that is fluctuating and constantly changing, is subject to a protracted seasonal cycle. The flow of water in rivers and streams fluctuates slowly as the seasons change.

3.1.4 Wind System

The area must have a high potential for wind energy throughout the year in order to operate a hybrid wind energy system successfully and affordably. Wind energy is currently captured utilizing a variety of small and large wind turbines of varying sizes and designs. It is one of the most rapidly increasing sources of alternative energy. It has a longer operational life than solar power and can generate electricity even on gloomy days and at night.

As a result, both wind and solar power systems require energy storage systems to store extra energy and use it when demand exceeds supply ( Zhang and Toudert, 2018 ; Zheng et al., 2018 ; Motahhir et al., 2020 ). The reassuring option, on the other hand, is that people can produce enough energy to satisfy their regular needs by setting up small solar or wind farms. Figure 6 shows the height to wind speed relation.

FIGURE 6 . Relation between Wind system and height ( Liu and Janajreh, 2012 ).

The generating capacity of a wind turbine is one of the most important factors to consider decisive criteria in selecting a certain kind of wind turbine for the chosen location is as an important component of a hybrid wind generators. Whenever feasible, turbine with best regular generating capacity recommended. A simplified technique for predicting yearly wind percentage was provided grounded based on the findings of an 8-year simulation using Wind statistics from five different places, hour by hour. Weibull wind speed distribution on a monthly basis data as input, other model factors such as the energy-to-load ratio, battery-to-load ratio, and others are used. Weibull devised the following equation to compute wind speed:

β = shape factor v = wind speed .

3.2 Optimization method for PV Based Grid System

The efficacy of grid-connected solar power is heavily dependent on the site’s solar irradiation, ambient temperature, load demand, and other factors in geographic area of installation. Identifying the best location and size for solar PV installation is a critical answer for improving radial distribution system performance. The design of the PV system to interface artificial intelligence techniques are used in the radial distribution network necessitates power system network analysis and mathematical modeling. The load flow analysis is performed in MATLAB simulation as shown in Figure 7 in conjunction with the SPSO to identify the placement and capacity of solar PV that will link to the Bahir Dar distribution network. By allowing for fluctuations in power demand over time, PV on-grid system integration is crucial for enhancing network capacity and system dependability. The utility grid is connected to an on-grid solar power system. The primary advantage of such a system is that electricity may be obtained from the utility grid, and when that power is unavailable, the PV system can step in. These on-grid systems might include or exclude battery storage. Batteries, a charge controller, solar modules, and inverters are used in these systems to improve the on-grid electrical system’s stability and offer long-term utilities service for a wide range of loads Electronic converters with high power play an important role in connecting a solar system to the grid by converting DC to AC and power conditioning ( Zakaria et al., 2020 ). A proposal is made for the current status of solar optimization study in a power system. This research looks on modeling approaches, restriction criteria, and optimization techniques. Because it is clean, ecologically friendly, and provides reliable power, the PV module system is full of potential. The effects of stand-alone and grid-installed solar generating on power system link, as well as their link to mandate answer, were researched. For calculating the location and size of solar generators, optimization approaches like as the genomic algorithm and swarm optimization were both introduced around the same time ( Getie et al., 2020 ) used the evolutionary algorithm and a geographical information system to integrate solar power with radial feeders. The genetic algorithm which was used to approximate the magnitude and point of penetration, and geographical information is utilized as data to decide where to install solar panels. As the multi objective function for photovoltaic integration, this study solely analyses real power loss and voltage profile.

FIGURE 7 . PV based hybrid system MATLAB schematics ( Gonzalez-Longatt, 2005 ).

3.3 Optimization method for PV Based Stand Alone System

A stand-alone PV system should always be able to provide power to the load or energy consumption. The suggested technique, based on using hourly energy analysis, a curl (statistics) for battery bank (power, Wh), PV- array (space, m 2 ) proportions that satisfy the demand at all periods may be created. Since the solar power supply capacity varies, the battery store should be huge enough to provide enough power regardless of the number of cycles (discharge/charge) that the battery has to go concluded. This means that the solar grid will be backed up at sunset to meet the charging until more solar energy is available to start another charging cycle. Solar radiation, array size of PV, and storage volume are used to determine the efficiency of a PV system that is not connected to the grid. As a consequence, the scale of freestanding PV systems is essential to their dependability. Instinctive, analytical sizing methods and numerical are three types of sizing methods. Because it works with intuitive knowledge (without the use of cognitive processes), the first category of algorithms is highly imprecise and unreliable, and the risk of the end result being inaccurate is fairly high. The second is more precise, but accurate modeling requires series of solar radiation for a long term. There are ways in the third category that utilizes equations to describe the size of PV arrangement displaying as a result of dependability that is the focus of this study: boosting the output power of PV modules while lowering the system life cycle cost. Since most of the solar energy arrives in a straight line, solar panels or solar installations that point directly at the sun accumulate more energy by being perpendicular to the straight line between the panel and the sun. During the day, solar panels should face the earth’s equator (southern northern hemisphere or northern southern hemisphere) to capture as much solar energy as possible. The challenges and limitations of autonomous solutions to optimize the size of photovoltaic installations are highlighted to solve the problems of inaccurate parameter assumptions and poor demand performance evaluation of photovoltaic systems, which often lead to high material and installation costs. Along the same route, a new adaptation method was also proposed to improve the ability of photovoltaic generators to provide power to remote areas with pumping storage. Their research results show that zero power outages can be achieved at low energy costs, but the system does not use all the solar energy available in the area. Photovoltaic systems analysis refers to the concept of daily battery status to improve reliability while minimizing the possibility of power outages, excess energy, and cost constraints. However, priority must be given to strict compliance with the load profile. Another optimization strategy involves three steps. The first step is to calculate the photovoltaic power generation capacity connected to the grid with the help of 1-year solar energy data. It is believed that peak sunlight, ambient temperature, and cable and dust losses will affect the output energy of photovoltaic networks.

The quantity of stored energy, PV array output energy, load energy demand, battery efficiency, and inverter efficiency are used to compute the daily status of the battery storage in the second stage. In the third step, the chance of load loss is assessed, and the system cost is approximated using the costs of the PV array, batteries, and other components ( Lund and Mathiesen, 2009 ). On the other hand, the system cost equation is only partially derived and needs to be solved intuitively. The system simulation can be adapted to reduce the battery when the size of the solar photovoltaic device is not limited (very large). Since the solar photovoltaic device is huge, the system simulation can be repeated after determining the minimum battery size, but this time it is the smallest solar photovoltaic device. The size of the battery makes the battery sensitive to deep discharge when using this method and the size of the photovoltaic installation makes the system too large to be economically feasible. Therefore, the capacity of the battery pack can be increased, and each size can be simulated to find the smallest array. You can repeat this process to create a curve of the battery and PV array size pair, as shown in the results and discussion section. The accuracy of this method is determined by the simulation data, which includes both environmental parameters (such as sunlight exposure and ambient temperature) and loads. Therefore, hourly data obtained from reliable models such as those used in this study can guarantee availability and synchronization of exposure to solar radiation. To develop energy balances over time while taking into account real energy requirements for an energy efficient house as well as real radiation and ambient temperature data, a PV single system with dependencies on ambient temperature and other important factors was used in conjunction with inverter converter performance data. To ensure continuous functioning, the simulations first established a direct relationship between the area of the PV array and the capacity of the battery bank. One extreme of the connection is a high area of PV panels paired with a small battery capacity, resulting in low PV array effectiveness and a low battery consumption index. A small PV array, on the other hand, is the polar opposite. The tilt angle optimization approach was developed as a new optimization tool. Because of climatic and environmental conditions that fluctuate throughout the year, such as seasonal fluctuations, this optimization approach is focused at calculating effective tilt angles at various periods of the year. When compared to tracking systems, this strategy enhances collection efficiency while incurring no additional costs. Averaging the values of the solar geometry parameters for each mean solar day was used to do the calculations. The incident solar irradiances on a tilted surface, which include direct, diffuse, and reflected solar irradiances, may be expressed as a function of the global irradiance I on a horizontal surface by

The notion of the optimal periodical inclination angle was used to carry out this optimization, which allows for maximum incidence on the panels while simultaneously maximizing the use of the household’s actual energy usage. The inclination angle should be changed seven times per year, according to the computation of solar radiation for sloping surfaces using different solar geometry factors and incoming solar radiation, although total apparent power overestimates the load demand by 18%. On the other hand, these adjustments result in higher panel output and PV station reliability. The analysis of random load fluctuation demonstrates that the load profile must be followed notwithstanding the constraints. A power shortfall in the plant might occur from even slight increases in load demand.

3.3.1 Utilization of Solar Photovoltaic Energy

Photovoltaic systems power entire towns in distant places of the world. In the United States and Europe, a few utility companies operate “solar farms” to generate power ( Majidi et al., 2017 ). Photovoltaic cells have other industrial applications as well. These are often low-power applications in regions where regular electricity sources are cumbersome. Some emergency roadside phones use solar cells to charge their batteries. Some of the common applications are listed below.

3.3.2 Duffel Bags

The thin-film solar panels mounted on the outside of the backpack generate up to 4 W of power, which is enough to charge mobile phones, cameras and other electrical appliances while walking. External solar cells can also be added to briefcases and handbags. Students, hikers, and campers who need to keep their electronics charged while travelling or when they arrive at their destination would appreciate these backpacks.

3.3.3 Paint

Rather of utilizing standard silicon solar cells, polymers soaked in a solvent form “paint” or coat that may be put to any surface, include buildings, workplaces, and vehicles. It is low-cost and versatile. Instead of bulky solar photovoltaic panels, a solar paint employs thin-film nanoparticles as solar conductors rather than silicon. When small solar cells are placed to the surfaces of structure which confront the sun, they silently create pure, green power.

3.3.4 Solar Transportation

Photovoltaic (PV)-powered transportation is a novel technique to make the most of the sun’s energy. Solar energy can be used to power trains, subways, buses, airplanes, vehicles and even roads, and solar transportation is rapidly becoming a leading choice for renewable energy. A solar-powered aircraft has just completed a round-the-world voyage over the Pacific Ocean, capturing huge waves in unforgettable images. On the other hand, solar buses are helping China reduce its carbon footprint while ensuring efficient public transportation in densely populated areas such as Beijing. In the end, solar cars began to appear in racing competitions around the world, especially in Australia, where the solar spirit model aroused great interest. With these and other improvements, there is no doubt that solar energy is transforming the global transportation sector.

3.3.5 Refrigerators for Vaccines

As the entire world is experiencing the effects of the Corona Virus. Vaccine refrigerators are now required in all hospitals and clinics. There is no guarantee of 24-h electricity in developing countries, there is often no electrical infrastructure. Solar-powered vaccination coolers have been developed by private companies for use by healthcare workers in rural areas may provide crucial medication to individuals in need, according to Charlie Gay, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Solar Energy Technologies Office. This technical solution has been saving lives for more than four decades.

3.3.6 Cell Phone Charger

After a few hours of ultraviolet radiation, the mobile phone USB charger can fully charge the mobile phone. These tablet-sized solar panels can power GPS trackers, tablets and even computers. They can be attached to backpacks and used to extract solar energy while walking, making them ideal for leisure activities ( Ming et al., 2017 ).

3.3.7 Solar Textile

Solar garments are a sort of solar textile that can be used for a variety of purposes. To generate useable solar power, solar cells are weaved into textile strands. According to Hicks, one variation, developed with faster than light (FTL) Solar, might remain erected like a camp to supply both electricity and shelter. Considering military service, safety missions, respite efforts, leisure activities, medical centers, and even makeshift housing as options. Solar fabric is the ideal answer for everywhere that need flexible and convenient solar power. According to Gay, roofs are one of hundreds of places somewhere solar panels create energy. We expect to see many more sites where solar technology is used to offer unconstrained, low-cost electricity as costs decrease and energy output rises.

3.3.8 Solar Water Pumps

Solar water pumps are used to promote water for irrigation, gardening, household use, drinking and other related purposes. These devices are suitable for areas where there is no electricity or limited power supply. The precisely crafted modules of the system are impact resistant and can withstand harsh weather conditions such as storms, rain, and dust.

3.3.9 Solar Tents

The solar tent is just a larger solar backpack. The built-in photovoltaic cells in the tent store solar energy throughout the day and are then used to illuminate the tent at night, as well as small electrical appliances such as charging or power electronics and radiators. The United States military uses a variant that can generate up to 2 kW of electricity during day.

3.3.10 Solar Buildings Technologies

Passive cooling and heating systems rely on the building’s design to satisfy specified thermal demand objectives with little or no mechanical support. Active heating systems use mechanical aid to provide hot water for space heating, while passive heating and cooling systems rely on the building’s architecture to satisfy set thermal demand objectives. Solar building technique is widely used in Pakistan ( Li and Zheng, 2019 ). However, there are no construction laws in place in the country that allow solar building systems installation.

3.3.11 Street Lights

Solar energy is increasingly being used to power streetlights around the world. The sun charges the batteries throughout the day, which power the light-emitting diodes (LEDs) that illuminate the streets at night. Smart sensors are being installed in streetlights in San Diego, which might direct motorists to open parking spots and assist first responders in an emergency. The combination of internet-connected sensors and solar-powered lamps saves both time and money ( Indra Gandhi et al., 2018 ).

3.3.12 Solar Ovens

Solar ovens, sometimes called solar cookers, use the sun’s energy to prepare food. Solar cookers either are parabolic or square shapes covered with a reflecting substance that focuses the amount of solar radiation into the box, warming the food equally. To assist focus the sun’s beams, the top lid is commonly made of glass. They are healthy to live with and are commonly employed in developing countries to reduce air pollution produced by fuel burning.

3.4 Optimization Issues

Solar energy confronts significant obstacles that might stymie its rapid expansion. These impediments can be characterized in terms of technology, politics, economics, and dependability. The adjustment of these issues, on the other hand, reduces the drawbacks and improves the solar energy system’s reliability. As a result, greater solar energy optimization can help to alleviate production uncertainty. PV power technology is being heavily invested in to improve efficiency and economic feasibility.

3.4.1 Extra Investment

Inverters and storage batteries must be purchased separately from PV cells. For use on the power grid, inverters convert direct current to alternating current. Storage batteries are important in on-grid connections for giving continuous power of electric power. On the other side, this higher spending could provide a solution to the PV cells’ intermittent problems ( Dong et al., 2019 ).

3.4.2 Issues With Intermittency

Solar energy and photovoltaic cells, like all other renewable energy sources, are prone to outages. It implies that it is not always available for power conversion, such as at night or when the weather is gloomy or damp. As a result, PV cells are unlikely to meet all of an electric power system’s demands.

3.4.3 Easily Broken

Solar PV has no upkeep or operating costs, it is vulnerable to damage due to its fragility. To protect your investment, there is a solution in the form of additional insurance.

3.4.4 Expensive

PV system market costs remain exorbitant and beyond of reach for many households. The higher production costs of non-conventional energy sources, combined with the availability of cheaper fossil fuel alternatives, entice customers and generate market rivalry for non-renewable technology ( Lagouir et al., 2019 ). The lack of economic models to support renewable energy technology prohibits small-scale PV systems from being scaled up to large-scale or commercial facilities. Subsidies are distributed more effectively to traditional fuel sources, giving them an unfair advantage over nonconventional sources. Governments must stimulate the market for PV technologies in order to reap the most advantage from renewable applications in the government market, government-driven market, and loan and cash market. PV plant input requirements, like as land and water, impede the installation of PV capacity.

3.4.5 Low Productivity Level in Future

In the near future, the technology will face another severe threat when the panels put during the early stages of the energy boom reach the end of their anticipated lifetime and are finally thrown in landfills. When the life duration of these panels reaches roughly 25 years, as indicated by the manufacturer, their productivity begins to decline. Recycling solar panels is a logical alternative for addressing the predicted worldwide PV waste, since retired PV panels may be reconditioned and redeployed. Recycling not only provides an effective method of recovering valuable elements from solar waste, but it also contributes to a better environment by using less energy to recover raw materials. The research and development work concerning solar PV recycling has already begun in countries such as Japan, the United States, India, Australia, and Europe.

3.4.6 Lack of Trained Professionals

The scarcity of trained personnel to teach, operate, and maintain non-conventional energy infrastructure, particularly in rural regions, has a detrimental impact on people’s desire to adopt these technologies. Geographic location is also important, because PV systems are only practical in certain places, and they face competition from alternative technologies that are better suited to the specific topography. Adopters are often concerned about systems failing during the rainy season and avoid purchasing PV systems owing to a lack of understanding. The absence of information between the supply and adopter sides further impedes the technology’s uptake. Because the generation and consuming sites are far apart, poor grid connection raises transportation costs and transmission losses. As a result, the majority of investors are hesitant to invest in technology.

3.4.7 Environmental Disadvantages

Due to various preliminary case studies, there is little understanding of the environmental and economic advantages of PV recycling technology. Although element recovery is advantageous, the energy required to collect valuable metals from discarded PV panels is greater than that required to gather, dismantle, and retrieve the modules. Although recycling operations are not viable, the cost of recycling PV panels is minimal ( Maulik and Das, 2018 ) According to research, the profit earned from selling the recycled material of copper indium gallium selenite solar panels (CIGS) is greater than the recovery price. However, the earned amount for c-Si and p-Si solar modules is less than the cost of solar panels. Despite the financial benefits of reselling recovered items and the environmental benefits of recycling, businesses prefer landfill disposal to recycling due to the lower initial cost of dumping.

4 Optimization Challenges

Table 4 shows the summary of different approaches which are used for optimization techniques and method. Non-conventional energy sources have been an important aspect of study and development among scholars since the early 20th century. Despite the remarkable technologies that have evolved in recent decades, the majority of developing countries have delayed the shift to renewable energy sources. Fossil fuels have boosted CO 2 emissions and contributed to global warming. Because of numerous types of hurdles, the majority of nations have exhibited reluctance to adopt renewable technologies. Based on the existing market, policy implementation is critical, which includes energy auctions, integration of PV technologies with non-conventional energy sources, and timely completion of PV projects. By allowing users to purchase or lease a portion of the shared PV system, community-shared solar projects aid in the creation of financial arrangements and the alleviation of financial constraints. These business models, in turn, contribute to the development of a PV system in the residential market, the stabilization of power prices, and the reduction of power bills. To reap the full benefits of an energy transition, policies must be strengthened through mobilizing financial investment, economic diversification, and information exchange. PV system market costs remain exorbitant and beyond of reach for many households. The lack of economic models to support renewable energy technology prohibits small-scale PV systems from being scaled up to large-scale or commercial facilities.

TABLE 4 . Summary of approach optimization technique and methods ( Li et al., 2016 ).

4.1 RES Optimization Challenges

To enhance efficiency, there is a significant investment in renewable energy technologies. The cost of producing renewable energy continues to plummet in 2017, according to an IRENA (2018) . The development and deployment of renewable energy technologies necessitate policies and expenditures that have not been thoroughly assessed. As a result, power quality is a metric that assesses a system’s capacity to offer users with continuous access to their electronic devices. Any irregularity or breakdown in the power grid that obstructs or interrupts electrical equipment’s operation indicates a lack of power quality or reliability. Renewable energy sources will save costs in both transmission and production. The most prevalent disadvantage of employing RESs is that they represent a constant challenge because to their fluctuating existence, which is entirely dependent on climate fluctuation and may result in load refusal in some places ( Maulik and Das, 2018 ). The power production of RESs has substantially grown as a consequence of the deployment of various optimization technologies in response to growing energy demand and improved performance. The entire power producing capacity has increased by about 9% since 2016 ( Zakaria et al., 2020 ). According to the reference, renewable energy accounted for 70% of net additions to global power capacity in 2017 ( Raturi, 2019 ). The key causes for this were the improved cost competitiveness of solar PV panels and wind turbine technology, as well as the availability of performance optimization technologies. Furthermore, the increased usage of renewable energy raises awareness of the need of energy efficiency and quality in power generation and distribution. The biggest disadvantage of adopting renewable resources is that they are intermittent nonetheless, one of the key advantages is the system reliability demonstrated by the operational parameters. Power generated from renewable sources will soon be less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuels. General, the development of RESs has resolved various difficulties-optimization-in reducing energy costs, reducing costs, net and other optimizations related to costs, such as reducing life cycle costs (LCC). The optimal size and capacity of the trees is determined by providing the required reliability in terms of power supply, operating costs, and grid power and greenhouse gas emissions.

4.2 Energy Optimization Challenges

The uncertainty of how much of the sun’s rays it will get is an issue for solar PV because the weather might change at any time. As a result, determining how much energy to store for future use would be challenging. While power is still required, sunlight is rare during the night. Solar energy has significant obstacles that might limit its fast expansion. Technology, politics, economics, and reliability are the four areas that these hurdles fall into. On the other side, addressing these problems decreases the disadvantages and improves the solar energy system’s dependability. The researchers are also given information on the most recent developments in intelligent optimization in solar energy applications, as well as important research topics. Since the goal of optimization is to maximize benefits while reducing costs, it is critical to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the systems under consideration. In this setting, academics have begun to explore and propose strategies and models to maximize advantages while minimizing drawbacks. To overcome difficulties related to the design, operation, and process of renewable systems, several researches combine traditional optimization techniques with newer heuristic approaches ( Zhao T. et al., 2017 ; Zhao Zy. et al., 2017 ; Allam et al., 2018 ; Eajal et al., 2017 ). PV systems require precise and reliable performance data in order to precisely assess power output and capacity in current operating circumstances. The formulation of effective operational and control choices is aided by this dependable data. On the other hand, by examining the numerous aspects that impact performance and exploring potential ways to increase the power plant’s performance, the optimization and efficiency of a solar system may be improved. PV cells have a number of problems, including a halt in power output when the panel is not exposed to sunlight and a poor efficiency. This might result in the system’s original investment criteria not being met. As a result, solar energy storage devices have been proposed as a means of compensating for the lack of light and smoothing out power output. This technology is dependent on batteries, which are frequently bulky, huge, and heavy, take up a lot of space, and require maintenance or even replacement on a regular basis ( Li et al., 2016 ).

5 Conclusion

For policymakers all throughout the world, this document presented an in-depth review and relative analysis of solar technology for clean power generation.

According to the research results, there are two types of technologies: complex technologies, such as PTC, PV and STP, with a total installed capacity of 7,828.5 MW and an efficiency of 10–16%, LCEO is $0.1–0.24/kwh, which has broad prospects in terms of environmental impact and technical efficiency. There are also technologies that, although having a 390 MW installed capacity, look to be promising in terms of environmental implications and technological efficiency. Furthermore, CPVT and CPV, they have yet to be utilized in large-scale power facilities since they are still in the early stages of development. Nonetheless, Scientists from several nations are leading the charge in CPV and CPVT research. The use of solar energy to improve energy efficiency has been a concern due to the dynamic nature of solar energy, solar PV material, design, and challenging computation of optimization difficulties. As a result, this review looks into solar energy optimization in depth. The optimization techniques have shown excellent results in solar PV applications in terms of size, power production and capacity demand. Additionally, the enhancements to reduce operational expenses and power damages while also increasing peak power integration and controllability. The paper also looked at the primary roadblocks to solar PV optimization, emphasizing the importance of modern computers and objective function ( Qiu et al., 2019 ).

Author Contributions

AS, and AH, suggested the idea of this work, wrote the manuscript and made final improvement, whereas SC and PM provided help with alignment of the paper, proof reading, editing, improvement of the article. AI and MM provided the financial assistance.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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FPC Flat plate collector

CPV Concentrated photovoltaic

GaAs Gallium Arsenide

CPC Compound parabolic collector

GIS Geographic information system

HCPV High Concentrated photovoltaic

MWh Megawatt hour

LCPV Low Concentrated photovoltaic

CIGS Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells

LFR Linear Fresnel reflector

IEA International Energy Agency

HTF Heat transfer fluid

HFC Heliostat Field Collector

CdTe Cadmium telluride

BESS Battery Energy Storage System

MHP Micro hydropower

CSP Concentrated solar power

PTSTPP Parabolic Trough Solar Thermal Power Plant

PV Photovoltaic

ANN Artificial neural network

PVT Photovoltaic thermal collectors

CPVT Concentrated photovoltaic thermal collectors

SAM Solar advisor model

SBS Spectral beam splitting

SCR Solar Central Receiver

SGS Steam Generation System

TES Thermal energy storage

LCOE Levelized cost of electricity ($/kWh)

NREL National renewable energy laboratory

STP Standard temperature and pressure

PDC Parabolic dish collector

Keywords: photovoltaic, hybrid system, stand-alone system, grid system, energy, solar energy, renewable, clean energy optimization methods

Citation: Soomar AM, Hakeem A, Messaoudi M, Musznicki P, Iqbal A and Czapp S (2022) Solar Photovoltaic Energy Optimization and Challenges. Front. Energy Res. 10:879985. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2022.879985

Received: 20 February 2022; Accepted: 24 March 2022; Published: 30 May 2022.

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Copyright © 2022 Soomar, Hakeem, Messaoudi, Musznicki, Iqbal and Czapp. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Arsalan Muhammad Soomar, [email protected] , [email protected]

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Solar Photovoltaic System to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals

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Recent advances in solar photovoltaic materials and systems for energy storage applications: a review

• Modupeola Dada   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9227-197X 1 &
• Patricia Popoola 1  

Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences volume  12 , Article number:  66 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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In recent years, solar photovoltaic technology has experienced significant advances in both materials and systems, leading to improvements in efficiency, cost, and energy storage capacity. These advances have made solar photovoltaic technology a more viable option for renewable energy generation and energy storage. However, intermittent is a major limitation of solar energy, and energy storage systems are the preferred solution to these challenges where electric power generation is applicable. Hence, the type of energy storage system depends on the technology used for electrical generation. Furthermore, the growing need for renewable energy sources and the necessity for long-term energy solutions have fueled research into novel materials for solar photovoltaic systems. Researchers have concentrated on increasing the efficiency of solar cells by creating novel materials that can collect and convert sunlight into power.

Main body of the abstract

This study provides an overview of the recent research and development of materials for solar photovoltaic devices. The use of renewable energy sources, such as solar power, is becoming increasingly important to address the growing energy demand and mitigate the impact of climate change. Hence, the development of materials with superior properties, such as higher efficiency, lower cost, and improved durability, can significantly enhance the performance of solar panels and enable the creation of new, more efficient photovoltaic devices. This review discusses recent progress in the field of materials for solar photovoltaic devices. The challenges and opportunities associated with these materials are also explored, including scalability, stability, and economic feasibility.

The development of novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices holds great potential to revolutionize the field of renewable energy. With ongoing research and technological advancements, scientists and engineers have been able to design materials with superior properties such as higher efficiency, lower cost, and improved durability. These materials can be used to enhance the performance of existing solar panels and enable the creation of new, more efficient photovoltaic devices. The adoption of these materials could have significant implications for the transition toward a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy system. However, there are still challenges to be addressed, such as scalability, stability, potential environmental effects, and economic feasibility, before these materials can be widely implemented. Nonetheless, the progress made in this field is promising and continued reports on the research and development of materials for solar photovoltaic devices are crucial for achieving a sustainable future. The adoption of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices could lead to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy system, but further research and development are needed to overcome current limitations and enable large-scale implementation.

1 Background

Energy and environmental problems are at the top of the list of challenges in the world, attributed to the need to replace the combustion exhaust of fossil fuels, which has resulted in environmental contamination and the greenhouse effect as opposed to renewable energy sources [ 1 ]. This replacement will be achieved while keeping pace with the increasing consumption of energy resulting from an increase in population and rising demand from developing countries since the use of non-renewable energy sources would not meet the energy demand because they are an exhaustible and limited source of energy [ 2 ]. Thus, the search for clean and sustainable renewable energy resources has become an urgent priority. Researchers regard solar energy as one of the alternative sustainable energy resources that is low-cost, non-exhaustible, and abundantly available, giving solid and increasing output efficiencies compared to other sources of energy solutions and energy sources of renewable energy [ 3 ]. The sun radiates at 3.8 1023 kW, intercepting the Earth at 1.8 1014 kW, while the remaining energy is scattered, reflected, and taken in by clouds [ 4 ]. 1.7 × 1022 J of the energy from the sun in 1.5 days is equal to the energy produced from three trillion barrels of oil reserves on Earth [ 5 ]. The total annual energy used by the world in 1 year is 4 s.6 × 1020 J, and the sun provides this energy in 1 h [ 5 ]. The solar photovoltaic (SPV) industry heavily depends on solar radiation distribution and intensity. Solar radiation amounts to 3.8 million EJ/year, which is approximately 10,000 times more than the current energy needs [ 6 ]. Solar energy is used whether in solar thermal applications where solar energy is the source of heat or indirectly as a source of electricity in concentrated solar power plants, photo-assisted fuel cells, generating electricity in SPVs, hydrocarbons from CO 2 reduction, and fuels such as hydrogen [ 7 ].

Each technology harvests sunlight rays and converts them into different end forms. For instance, solar energy can be naturally converted into solar fuel through the process of photosynthesis. Also, through photosynthesis, plants store energy from the sun, where protons and electrons are produced, which can be further metabolized to produce H 2 and CH 4. Thus, 11% of solar energy is utilized in the natural photosynthesis of biomass [ 8 ]. Photovoltaics convert photons into electrons to get electrical energy, while in solar thermal applications, the photons are absorbed and their energy is converted into tangible heat [ 9 ]. This heat is used to heat a working fluid that can be directly collected and used for space and water heating [ 10 ].

However, the energy converted may be too low for consumption, and production efficiency can be improved by producing fuel from water and carbon dioxide through artificial bio-inspired nanoscale assemblies, connecting natural photosynthetic pathways in novel configurations, and using genetic engineering to facilitate biomass production [ 11 ]. One of the major challenges for photovoltaic (PV) systems remains matching intermittent energy production with dynamic power demand [ 12 , 13 ]. A solution to this challenge is to add a storage element to these intermittent power sources [ 14 , 15 ].

Furthermore, intermittent sources like SPV are allowed to address timely load demands and add flexibility to storage devices like batteries [ 16 , 17 ]. Nonetheless, compared with the photosynthesis process, which has conversion efficiencies of 5–10%, photovoltaic cells have better solar conversion efficiencies of approximately 22.5% [ 6 , 18 ]. There are other technologies used for enhancing the efficiency of PV systems encountered by temperature changes, which include floating tracking concentrating cooling systems (FTCC), hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems (PV/T) cooled by water spraying, hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermoelectric (PV/TE) systems cooled by a heat sink, hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems cooled by forced water circulation, improving the performance of solar panels through the use of phase change materials, and solar panels with water immersion cooling techniques [ 19 , 20 ]. SPV panels with transparent covering (photonic crystal cooling), hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems (PV/T) having forced air circulation, and SPV panels with thermoelectric cooling [ 21 ]

This review discusses the latest advancements in the field of novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices, including emerging technologies such as perovskite solar cells. It evaluates the efficiency and durability of different generations of materials in solar photovoltaic devices and compares them with traditional materials. It investigates the scalability and cost-effectiveness of producing novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices and identifies the key challenges and opportunities associated with the development and implementation of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, such as stability, toxicity, and economic feasibility. Hence, proposing strategies to overcome current limitations and promote the large-scale implementation of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, including manufacturing processes and material characterization techniques, while assessing the potential environmental impact of using novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, including the sustainability and carbon footprint of the production process.

2 Main text

2.1 solar photovoltaic systems.

Solar energy is used in two different ways: one through the solar thermal route using solar collectors, heaters, dryers, etc., and the other through the solar electricity route using SPV, as shown in Fig.  1 . A SPV system consists of arrays and combinations of PV panels, a charge controller for direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC); (DC to DC), a DC-to-AC inverter, a power meter, a breaker, and a battery or an array of batteries depending on the size of the system [ 22 , 23 ].

Schematic diagram of the solar photovoltaic systems

This technology converts sunlight directly into electricity, with no interface for conversion. It is pollutant-free during operation, rugged and simple in design, diminishes global warming issues, is modular, has a lower operational cost, offers minimal maintenance, can generate power from microwatts to megawatts, and has the highest power density compared to the other renewable energy technologies [ 24 , 25 ]. A high rate of 100 megawatts (MW) of capacity installed per day in 2013 has been used to illustrate the rise in research interest in PV systems, with a record of 177 gigawatts (GW) of overall PV capacity taking place in 2015 [ 26 , 27 ]. However, according to Nadia et al. [ 19 ], solar photovoltaic systems have considerable limitations, including high prices as compared to fossil fuel energy resources, low efficiency, and intermittent operation. Hence, the solar tracker systems shown in Fig.  2 were designed to mitigate some of these challenges by keeping the solar devices at the optimal angle to track the sun’s position for maximum power production.

Solar tracking systems

Various environmental pressures and characteristics, such as angle of photon incidence, panel orientation, photovoltaic module conductivity, the material of solar cells, and time to measure the direction of the sun, can all impact the output of solar panel cells; therefore, before using tracker systems, a large number of measurement results are necessary [ 29 ]. There are active and passive tracking systems. Active tracking systems move the solar panel toward the sun using motors and gear trains, while passive tracking systems rely on a low-boiling-point compressed gas fluid through canisters generated by solar heat [ 30 ]. The disadvantages of passive solar tracking systems are their reliance on weather conditions and the selection of the right gas and glass to develop an efficient passive solar tracking system since the glass absorption levels depend on the color, strength, and chemical properties of the glass. While active solar is high maintenance and reduces power output if the panel is not directly under the sun [ 31 ]. There are also single- and double-axis solar trackers and closed- and open-loop solar trackers. Some trackers use electro-optical units, while others use microprocessor units [ 32 ]. However, the initial cost and running cost of the tracking system, coupled with the cost of energy generated by a PV tracking system, are greater than the cost of energy generated by a fixed system, making their tracking system’s economic advantages unclear. Thus, most recent research on tracking systems has concentrated solely on the optimization of tracking technologies, with little attention devoted to all other critical elements influencing cost and efficiency, PV cell materials, temperature, solar radiation levels, transport, auxiliary equipment, and storage techniques [ 6 ]. Hence, the future outlook on tracking systems includes developing innovative ways for tracking the sun cost-effectively and efficiently. Jamroen et al. [ 32 ] proposed the design and execution of a low-cost dual-axis solar tracking system based on digital logic design and pseudo-azimuthal mounting systems. Their findings reveal that the suggested tracking system improves electrical energy efficiency by 44.89% on average with power costs of 0.2 $/kWh and 0.3 $/kWh, which is relatively low when compared to other tracking methods. Chowdhury et al. [ 35 ], on an 8-bit microcontroller architecture, developed a stand-alone low-cost yet high-precision dual-axis closed-loop sun-tracking system based on the sun position algorithm. Their simulation results showed a very high prediction rate and a very low mean square error, which was concluded to be better than neutral and fuzzy network principles as photovoltaic energy sources.

2.1.1 Photovoltaic energy sources

Photovoltaic energy sources are used as grid-connected systems and stand-alone systems. Their applications include battery charging, water pumping, home power supplies, refrigeration, street lighting, swimming pools, hybrid vehicles, heating systems, telecommunications, satellite power systems, military space, and hydrogen production [ 28 , 29 ]. SPV and storage systems are classified into grid-tied or grid-direct PV systems, off-grid PV systems, and grid/hybrid or grid interaction systems with energy storage [ 30 , 31 ]. The grid-tied solar PV system does not have a battery bank for storage, but a grid-tied inverter is used to convert the DC generated into AC; hence, power can be generated and utilized only during the daytime, which may also be a limiting factor [ 31 , 32 ]. However, the disadvantage of only using the system during the day can be overcome by using a battery bank to store the generated power during the daytime, but this new setup will eventually increase the cost of the system [ 6 , 34 ]. Hence, just using this system during the day makes the grid-tied SPV system very cost-effective, simple to design, easily manageable, and requires less maintenance. Furthermore, solar panels mostly produce more electricity than is required by the loads. Hence, this excess electricity can be given back to the grid instead of being stored in batteries [ 35 , 36 ].

The off-grid PV system, on the other hand, uses a battery for the storage of the generated electricity during the daytime, which can be used in the future or during any emergency. This is beneficial when the load cannot be easily connected to the grid [ 37 , 38 ]. This system not only gives sufficient energy to a household, but it can also power places that are far away from the grid; hence, these systems use more components and are comparatively more expensive than grid-direct systems. Grid-connected PV systems run in parallel and are linked to the electric utility grid [ 39 , 40 ]. The power conditioning unit (PCU) or inverter is the main component of grid-connected PV systems, converting the DC power produced by the PV array into AC power that meets the voltage and power quality requirements of the utility grid for either direct use of appliances or sending to the utility grid to earn feed-in tariff compensation [ 41 , 42 ]. Grid-connected PV systems without backup energy storage (ES) are environmentally friendly, while systems with backup ES are usually interconnected with the utility grid [ 43 , 44 ].

Essential characteristics of PV technology are the operating range of 1 kW up to 300 MW, which can be used as fuel on residential, commercial, and utility scales. The efficiency of PV cells is about 12–16% for crystalline silicon, 11–14% for thin film, and 6–7% for organic cells [ 44 ]. There is no direct environmental impact due to the lack of CO 2 , CO, and NO x emissions. These systems have low operating and maintenance costs. The few drawbacks are higher installation costs, fluctuating output power due to the variation in weather patterns, and the need for mechanical and electronic tracking devices and backup storage for maximum efficiency. Installation costs can vary from 600 to 1300 USD/kW, while operation and maintenance annual costs vary from 0.004 and 0.07 USD/kWh (ac) for utility-scale generation and grid-connected residential systems, respectively [ 21 ].

3 Solar photovoltaic materials

Solar photovoltaic materials shown in Fig.  3 , when exposed to light, absorb the light and transform the energy of the light photons into electrical energy. Commercially available photovoltaic systems are based on inorganic materials, which require costly and energy-intensive processing techniques.

Schematic diagram of the solar photovoltaic materials

Moreover, some of those materials, like CdTe, are toxic and have a limited natural abundance. These problems are preventable by using organic photovoltaics. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of organic-based photovoltaic cells is still far below that of solely inorganic-based photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic devices usually employ semiconductor materials to generate energy, with silicon-based solar cells being the most popular. Photovoltaic (PV) cells or modules made of crystalline silicon (c-Si), whether single-crystalline (sc-Si) or multi-crystalline (c-Si) (mcSi). PV modules, which are fundamental components, can function in harsh outdoor environments and deliver high energy density to electronic loads. These are the most common forms of solar cells, accounting for over 90% of the PV industry. PV modules must have an efficiency of at least 14%, a price of less than 0.4 USD/Wp, and a service life of at least 15 years [ 22 ]. Now, wafer-based crystalline silicon technologies have best satisfied the criteria because of their high efficiency, cheap cost, and extended service life, and they are projected to dominate future PV power generation due to the abundance of materials. The greatest known energy conversion efficiency for research on crystalline silicon PV cells is 25%, although ordinary industrial cells are restricted to 15–18%. Optimizing these cells is a hard undertaking; hence, novel solutions to break past the efficiency barrier of 25% are wafer-slicing technologies and equipment for ultrathin (50 m) wafer technologies, and equipment for direct slicing ultrathin wafers with negligible kerf loss, solar cell and module manufacturing technologies and equipment based on ultrathin wafers. High-quality polycrystalline ingot technologies that outperform monocrystalline cells, contact-forming processes, and materials that are less expensive than screen-printed and burned silver paste are used. To reduce overall PV system costs, low-concentration, and high-efficiency module technologies are used [ 22 , 23 ].

Crystalline silicon solar cells are spectrally selective absorbers that are semiconductor devices. The percentage of incident solar irradiance absorbed by the cell is the absorption factor of a PV cell. Under operational settings, this absorption factor is one of the key criteria controlling cell temperature. The absorption factor may be calculated experimentally using reflection and transmission data. According to Santbergen et al. [ 23 ], using a two-dimensional (2D) computational model that agrees with experimental results, the AM1.5 absorption factor of a typical encapsulated c-Si photovoltaic cell can reach 90.5%. The existence of an appropriate steepness texture at the front of the c-Si wafer was used to obtain such a high absorption factor. As a result, by limiting reflecting losses over the solar spectrum, c-Si cell AM1.5 absorption may potentially be improved to 93.0%. Notably, there is widespread use of c-Si bifacial PV devices compared to their monofacial counterparts due to their potential to achieve a higher annual energy yield. Factors that promote these devices are the bifacial PV performance measurement method/standard for indoor characterization and comprehensive simulation models for outdoor performance characterization [ 24 ]. Non-commercial 3D tools such as PC3D, an open-source numerical analysis program for simulating the internal operation of silicon solar cells, have been reported to provide accurate simulation results that are only ≈1.7% different from their commercial counterparts [ 25 ]. In recent studies, Sun et al. [ 27 ] studied the high-efficiency silicon heterojunction solar cells, which were reported to be the next generation of crystalline silicon cells. The authors reported that increasing the efficiency limits can be achieved by increasing the short-circuit current while maintaining its high open-circuit voltage, and for mass production, there should be minimal consumption of indium and silver. Ibarra et al. [ 6 ] stated that high water quality is now commonplace for crystalline silicon ( c -Si)-based solar cells, meaning that the cell's efficiency potential is largely dictated by the effectiveness of its carrier-selective contacts based on highly doped-silicon, which can introduce negative side effects such as parasitic absorption. According to Chee et al. [ 37 ], carrier-selective crystalline silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells have already achieved remarkable lab-scale efficiencies, with SiOx/heavily doped polycrystalline silicon (n + -/p + -poly-Si) creating the most attractive polysilicon-on-oxide (POLO) junctions.

As a result, industry trends will shift away from p-Si passivated emitter and rear polysilicon (PERPoly) designs and toward TOPCon architectures. Costals et al. [ 38 ] described how vanadium oxide films provide excellent surface passivation with effective lifetime values of up to 800 s and solar cells with efficiencies greater than 18%, shedding light on the possibilities of transition metal oxides deposited using the atomic layer deposition technique. To solve the challenge of realizing a high aspect ratio (AR) of the metal fingers in a bifacial (BF) copper-plated crystalline silicon solar cell, Han et al. [ 31 ] created a new type of hybrid-shaped Cu finger device, electromagnetically fabricated in a 2-step deposition BF plating process, which shows a front-side efficiency of 22.1% and a BF factor of 0.99. Finally, using a grading technique to increase the efficiency of c-Si solar cells, Pham et al. [ 32 ] attained a conversion efficiency of 22%.

Other materials currently in use are low-cost solar cells based on hybrid polymer semiconductor materials containing a light-harvesting material, which absorbs photons with energy equal to or greater than the energy of the band gap ( E g). This leads to the creation of excitons (bound electron–hole pairs) ranging from 5 to 15 nm in most organic semiconductors, which diffuse in the material and may either undergo dissociation to the separate charge carriers or recombination with the emission of energy [ 32 ]. To improve the dissociation of excitons and enhance the efficiency of the PV cell, the photoactive material is combined with a strong acceptor of electrons of high electron affinity. Then, the separated electrons and holes migrate through different materials in the internal electric field generated across the device and are accommodated by the appropriate collecting electrodes. Organic particle–polymer (PCBM-P3HT) solar cells’ conversion efficiencies are much lower than those obtained for semiconductor devices [ 6 ]. Recent research on hybrid cells discusses performance analysis and the parameter optimization of hybrid PV cells [ 34 , 35 ], while porous organic polymer cells have received current research attention for drug delivery and biomedical applications [ 36 , 37 , 38 ].

Thin films (TF) only represent 10% of the global PV market. However, researchers around the world are exploring other options to produce electricity more efficiently using solar cells; hence, R&D for developing new materials is currently going on. A strategic approach to tuning absorbance, grain size rearrangement, conductivity, morphology, topography, and stoichiometric compositions for absorber layer solar cell applications is the incorporation of foreign dopants in the CdSe host lattice. Chasta et al. [ 18 ] using the thermal-evaporation approach, thin films of CdSe:Cu alloys with 1%, 3%, and 5% Cu contents were grown and annealed at 350 °C. Because of their efficiency, simplicity of manufacturing, and low cost, hybrid organic–inorganic halides are regarded as excellent materials when utilized as the absorber layer in perovskite solar cells (PSCs). According to Marí-Guaita et al. [ 39 ], its lower efficiency using MASnI3 as an absorber is more stable, which could be improved by enhancing the bandgap alignment of MaSnI3 [ 39 ]. Tarbi et al. [ 40 ] stated that the physical parameters of the absorption coefficients are more related to the variation of pressure than the temperature variation and deformation of a double-junction solar cell (Jsc) equal to 47.03 mA/cm 2 , and this results in a shift from maximum current density to low voltages while retaining its maximum value of 36.03 mW/m 2 . According to Chaudhry et al. [ 49 ], improving the optical absorption and current density in an active layer, under the standard AM-1.5 solar spectra, is achieved through the inclusion of semiconductor nanoparticles (NPs). The efficiencies were raised by 10% for the aluminum nanoparticles (NPs) design and by 21% and 30% for solar cells with and without anti-reflective thin film coating, respectively. In another study, Al- and Cu-doped ZnO nanostructured films were deposited using a sputtering technique, and doping resulted in enhanced conductivity as well as improved mobility in Al–ZnO and Cu–ZnO films in comparison with pure ZnO films, resulting in efficiencies of 0.492% and 0.559% for Al–ZnO- and Cu–ZnO-based solar cells, respectively.

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) shown in Fig.  4 are an alternative concept to present-day p–n junction photovoltaic devices for optoelectronics applications. DSC is made up of a cathode, a photoactive layer, an electrolyte, and an anode [ 53 ]. The functional layers for flexible DSC, notably the electrodes that also serve as active layer substrates, must be flexible. In contrast to typical systems in which the semiconductor performs both light absorption and charge carrier transport, light is absorbed by a sensitizer attached to the surface of a wide-band semiconductor in this system [ 54 ]. The dye sensitizer absorbs incoming sunlight and uses the energy to initiate a vectorial electron transfer process. Around 10% of overall solar-to-current conversion efficiencies (IPCE) have been achieved [ 55 ]. However, DSC has no practical conversion efficiency breakthrough and suffers from low mechanical stability and problematic sealing, but enhancing the properties of the sensitizers, metal oxide/semiconductor film, substrate, redox electrolyte, and counter electrode (CE) accelerates DSC applications [ 56 ].

Schematic diagram of the dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC)

The N3 dye was reported to be stable as a pure solid in the air up to 280 °C, where decarboxylation occurs. It lasts 108 redox cycles under long-term light with no obvious loss of function. Metal oxides, such as TiO 2 , SnO 2 , ZnO 2 , In 2 O 3 , CeO 3 , and NbO 3 , have been employed as photoanodes to investigate materials for effective photoanodes [ 57 ]. Hence, the breakthrough in DSC was the use of a high-surface-area nanoporous TiO 2 layer, and the outstanding stability is the very rapid deactivation of its excited state via charge injection into the TiO 2 , which occurs in the femtosecond time domain [ 58 ].

TiO 2 became the preferred semiconductor because of its low cost, non-toxicity, and abundance. Although the N3/N3 + pair exhibits reversible electrochemical activity in various organic solvents, showing that the lifespan of N3 + is at least several seconds under these conditions, the oxidized form of N3 + , the dye created by electron injection, is significantly less stable [ 59 ]. However, when maintained in the oxidized state, the dye degrades through the loss of sulfur. To avoid this undesirable side reaction, regeneration of the N3 in the photovoltaic cell should occur quickly, i.e., within nanoseconds or microseconds [ 60 ]. Cell failure may occur due to the circumstances of the dye renewal. Recent advances in the field of sensitizers for these devices have resulted in dyes that absorb over the visible spectrum, resulting in better efficiencies. The DSC may be based on a huge internal interface prepared in a simple laboratory environment without strict demands on the purity of the materials or the absence of a built-in electric field. DSC offers low production costs and, interestingly, much lower investment costs compared with conventional PV technologies. It offers flexibility, lightweight, and design opportunities, such as transparency and multicolor options (building integration, consumer products, etc.). There is feedstock availability to reach the terawatt scale, and there is also a short energy payback time (< 1 year), where the enhanced performance is under real outdoor conditions, which are relatively better than competitors at diffuse light and higher temperatures [ 61 ].

In high-efficiency DSCs, ruthenium (Ru) complex dyes and organic solvent-based electrolytes such as N719, N3, and black dye are commonly utilized. Ru dyes, on the other hand, are costly and require a complicated chemical method. Its products, such as ruthenium oxide (RuO 4 ), are also very poisonous and volatile. Organic solvents are also poisonous, ecologically dangerous, and explosive, and their low surface tension can cause leakage difficulties [ 48 , 50 , 52 ]. Hence, organic solvents and Ru-based complex dyes may need to be replaced to realize low-cost, biocompatible, and environmentally benign devices. Water and natural dyes derived from plants could be excellent alternatives, according to Kim et al. [ 56 ]. Yadav et al. [ 60 ] assembled TiO 2  nanorod (NR)-based hibiscus dye with different counter electrodes such as carbon, graphite, and gold. The authors measured efficiencies of 0.07%, 0.10%, and 0.23%, respectively. The key to the breakthrough for DSCs in 1991 was the use of a mesoporous TiO 2 electrode with a high internal surface area to support the monolayer of a sensitizer and the increase in surface area by using mesoporous electrodes [ 42 ]. The standard DSC dye was tris (2,2′-bipyridyl-4,4′-carboxylate) ruthenium (II) (N3 dye), and the carboxylate group in the dye attaches the semiconductor oxide substrate by chemisorption; hence, when the photon is absorbed, the excited state of the dye molecule will relax by electron injection to the semiconductor conduction band. Since 1993, the photovoltaic performance of N3 dye has been irreplaceable by other dye complexes [ 42 ]. Bandara et al. [ 43 ] mentioned that recent developments comprising textile DSCs are being looked at for their sustainability, flexibility, pliability, and lightweight properties, as well as the possibility of using large-scale industrial manufacturing methods (e.g., weaving and screen printing) [ 62 ].

A conducting polymer such as pyrrole was electrochemically polymerized on a porous nanocrystalline TiO 2 electrode, which was sensitized by N3 dye. Polypyrrole successfully worked as a whole transport layer, connecting dye molecules anchored on TiO2 to the counter electrode. Conducting polyaniline has also been used in solid-state solar cells sensitized with methylene blue.

Light-emitting diodes based on halide perovskites have limited practical uses [ 63 ]. Additional drawbacks of the technique include a lack of knowledge of the influence of the electric field on mobile ions present in perovskite materials, a drop in external quantum efficiency at high current density, and limited device lifetimes [ 63 , 64 ]. Nonetheless, the technology has advanced rapidly in recent years, and it can currently provide external quantum efficiencies of more than 21%, equivalent to silicon solar cells [ 64 ]. Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) were created in the same way as other SPV materials like organic photovoltaics, dye-sensitized solar cells, and vacuum-processed PVs such as CdTe and CIGSOne. PSCs have a high open-circuit voltage (VOC), which distinguishes them from all other photovoltaics (PVs). The loss in VOC induced by non-radiative recombination in the case of PSCs is significantly low, even as low as that reported for vacuum-processed Si. By enhancing the high open-circuit voltage VOC, all-inorganic and tin-based perovskites have the potential to exceed the Shockley–Queisser (S–Q) limitations [ 65 ]. Luo et al. [ 80 ] used a (FAPbI 3 )0.95(MAPbBr 3 )0.05 perovskite to produce a VOC of 1.11 V and an efficiency of 21.73% using a new fluorinated iron (III) porphine dopant for PTAA. Unlike Wu et al. [ 81 ], who achieved a 1.59 eV hybrid perovskite, the Jen group obtained a VOC of 1.21 V and a high efficiency of 22.31%.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have demonstrated a significant potential for enhancing polymer material characteristics. CNTs have better electrical and thermal conductivity, they are highly stiff, robust, and tough. Combining CNTs with brittle materials allows one to convey some of the CNTs' appealing mechanical qualities to the resultant composites, making CNT a good choice for reinforcement in polymeric materials. Zhu et al. [ 109 ] used carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with single walls to strengthen the epoxy Epon 862 matrix. The molecular dynamics method is used to investigate three periodic systems: a long CNT-reinforced Epon 862 composite, a short CNT-reinforced Epon 862 composite, and the Epon 862 matrix itself. The stress–strain relationships and elastic Young's moduli along the longitudinal direction (parallel to CNT) are simulated, and the results are compared to those obtained using the rule-of-mixture. Their findings reveal that when longitudinal strain rises, the Young's modulus of CNT increases whereas that of the Epon 862 composite or matrix drops. Furthermore, a long CNT may significantly increase the Epon 862 composite's Young's modulus (approximately 10 times stiffer), which is consistent with the prediction based on the rule-of-mixture at low strain level. Even a short CNT can improve the Young's modulus of the Epon 862 composite, with a 20% increase when compared to the Epon 862 matrix. Sui et al. [ 110 ] made CNT/NR composites after CNTs were treated in an acid bath and then ball-milled using HRH bonding methods. The thermal properties, vulcanization properties, and mechanical properties of CNT/NR composites were studied. When compared to CB, the absorption of CNTs into NR was quicker and consumed less energy. CNT/NR composites' over-curing reversion was reduced. The dispersion of CNTs in the rubber matrix and the interaction between CNTs and the matrix enhanced after acid treatment and ball milling. When compared to plain NR and CB/NR composites, the addition of treated CNTs improved the performance of the CNT/reinforced NR composites. Medupin et al. [ 111 ] used multi-walled carbon nanotube (WMCNT) reinforced natural rubber (NR) polymer nanocomposite (PNC) for prosthetic foot applications. On an open two-roll mill, the components were mixed according to the ASTM D-3182 standard during vulcanization. The nanocomposites (NCs) were cured in an electrically heated hydraulic press for 10 min at a temperature of 1502 °C and a pressure of 0.2 MPa. Mechanical testing found that NR/ MWCNT-3 had the maximum tensile and dynamic loading capability (449.79 MPa). It also had better filler dispersion, which increased crystallinity and cross-linking. The newly created prosthetic material is also said to have better wear resistance than conventional prosthetic materials as shown in Fig.  5 . The developed nanocomposite from MWCNTs for reinforced natural rubber is suited for the construction of the anthropomorphic prosthetic foot.

Wear rate of the carbon nanotube composites

4 Efficiency, stability, and scalability of solar photovoltaic materials

4.1 economic feasibility.

The economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic devices refers to their cost-effectiveness compared to other sources of energy. In the past, solar panels were relatively expensive, and their high cost made them less attractive to many consumers. However, in recent years, the cost of solar panels has dropped significantly, making them much more affordable. Recent advances in SPV technologies have driven this cost reduction in manufacturing technology and economies of scale. Additionally, many governments around the world offer incentives and subsidies to encourage the use of renewable energy sources like solar power, further increasing their economic feasibility. Angmo et al. [ 77 ] prepared polymer solar cell modules directly on thin flexible barrier polyethylene terephthalate foil, which is a cost-effective alternative to ITO-based devices with potential applications in information, communications, and mobile technology (ICT) where low humidity (50%) and lower temperatures (65 °C) are expected and operational lifetimes over one year are estimated.

4.2 PV device efficiencies

Several procedures are required to generate electricity from PVs. Strongly bonded holes and electron pairs, known as photo-produced excitons, are formed by incoming light and separated at the interface between the donor and acceptor. Materials with a greater electron affinity take electrons, while materials with a low electronization potential admit holes. The produced electrons and holes are then carried through the p-type and n-type material phases, respectively, toward both electrodes, resulting in an external photocurrent flow. Hence, the efficiency of power conversion in organic solar cells is determined by the combination of the following steps: dissociation of electron–hole pairs at the p-n interface; exciton formation following incoming solar light absorption; charge collection at the electrodes; and transport of electrons and holes to both electrodes. The first-generation solar cell has a recorded performance of around 15–20%, as displayed in Fig.  6 . The second-generation solar cell is made of amorphous silicon, CdTe, and CIGS and has a 4–15% efficiency. Because second-generation technologies do not rely on silicon wafers, they are less expensive than first-generation technologies.

Solar photovoltaic materials and their efficiencies

Hence, first-generation solar cells have higher reported efficiencies than thin-film solar cells, but they are more expensive due to the use of pure silicon in the production process. Thin-film solar cells, on the other hand, use less material, take less time, and are less expensive. Solar cells of the first generation are non-toxic and bountiful in nature. Second-generation solar cells have a lower per-watt price and efficiency when compared to other technologies. Organic materials and polymers are used in the third-generation solar cell. As compared to other varieties, the third-generation solar cell is more efficient and less expensive. The process for producing third-generation cells is simple and unique, but it has yet to be verified. The third-generation new kind of solar cell technology, the perovskite solar cell, has a record efficiency of more than 25% [ 78 ]. Nevertheless, UV light, oxygen, and moisture can all contribute to the poor stability of polycrystalline perovskite materials, the most pressing issue that must be addressed before the application of perovskite photovoltaic technology is the long-term stability of PSCs [ 79 ].

4.3 Stability of photovoltaics

The stability of solar photovoltaic devices refers to their ability to maintain their efficiency and reliability over time. In the past, solar panels had a reputation for being unreliable due to their sensitivity to weather and the environment. However, modern solar panels are much more stable and durable than earlier versions. They can withstand extreme temperatures and harsh weather conditions, making them suitable for use in a wide range of environments. Additionally, advances in solar panel technology have made them more efficient, which means they produce more energy for longer periods. However, increasing the long-term stability of perovskite solar cells is currently one of the most crucial concerns. According to Lee et al. [ 94 ], nanoscale metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with chemically, moistly, and thermally stable nanostructures have better PSCs’ stability as well as higher device performance, which has increased the interest of the perovskite photovoltaic community in recent times. This can be attributed to MOF’s flexible structure, considerable pore volume, high surface area, high concentration of active metal sites, controllable topology, and tuneable pore diameters [ 81 ]. MOFs are used to improve device stability in applications such as gas separation and storage, optoelectronics, and catalysis devices [ 67 , 82 , 83 ]. Furthermore, to improve operational stability in hybrid perovskite solar cells, a thorough understanding of photodegradation and thermal degradation processes is required [ 84 ]. Additionally, interfacial engineering with hydrophobic materials, or the 2D/3D concept, has significantly improved long-term stability.

4.4 Scalability of photovoltaics

Furthermore, the ability of solar photovoltaic devices to meet rising energy demands is referred to as their scalability. Solar panels can be installed on a wide range of structures, from homes to commercial and industrial structures. They can also be scaled up for utility-scale power generation, allowing solar energy to power entire communities. Furthermore, advancements in solar panel manufacturing have increased their efficiency, allowing them to be more scalable in terms of the amount of energy they can produce from a given surface area. The challenges for scaling up perovskite solar cells include developing scalable deposition strategies for the uniform coating of all device layers over large-area substrates, including the perovskite photoactive layer, electron-transport layer (ETL), hole-transport layer (HTL), and electrodes. Other challenges include developing procedures for fabrication and achieving better control of film formation across the device stack at large scales by improving the precursor chemistry to match the processing methods. Nonetheless, despite the challenges, in 2019, a stable solid-state perovskite solar cell with a certified power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 25.2% was recorded [ 75 ]. Although small-area cells are extremely efficient, scaling-up technology is required for commercialization. Scalable Technologies is now focused on high-efficiency module production and large-area perovskite coating, where dimethyl sulfoxide or N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF), which are perovskite precursor solutions used for spin coating and scalable depositions, may not be feasible due to sluggish evaporation and significant interactions with Lewis acid precursors. For producing a homogeneous perovskite coating over a large area substrate, Park [ 87 ] suggested using acetonitrile or 2-methoxyethanol solvents, while Li et al. [ 89 ] mentioned blade coating, meniscus coating, slot-die coating, spray coating, screen-printing, inkjet printing, and electrodeposition as scalable solution deposition processes for perovskite development. Altinkaya et al. [ 90 ] reported that tin oxide (SnO 2 ) is a scalable alternative to mesoporous titanium dioxide (TiO 2 )/compact TiO 2 stacks as electron-selective layers (ESLs) due to its wide bandgap, high carrier mobility, high optical transmission, decent chemical stability, and suitable band alignment with perovskites.

Finally, the scalability, stability, and economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic devices have all improved significantly in recent years. Advances in technology and manufacturing have made solar panels more efficient and affordable, while incentives and subsidies have encouraged their use. As a result, solar energy is becoming an increasingly popular source of renewable energy capable of meeting growing energy demands sustainably and reliably.

5 Environmental effects of solar photovoltaics

PV systems are recognized as clean and long-term energy sources. Although PV systems may generate little pollution while in operation, the environmental effects of such systems observed from manufacture through disposal must not be disregarded. The environmental problems of PV systems include the generation of hazardous chemicals, the pollution of water resources, and the emission of air pollutants during the production process, and the impact of PV installations on land utilization. According to Tawalbeh et al. [ 68 ], by improving PV design, recycling solar cell materials to reduce GHG emissions by up to 42%, creating novel materials with improved properties, improving cell lifespans, avoiding hazardous components, recycling, and making careful site selection, the negative environmental impacts of PV systems may be considerably reduced. These mitigation actions will reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, restrict solid waste accumulation, and save essential water resources. PV systems have a carbon footprint of 14–73 CO 2 -eq/kWh, which is 10 to 53 orders of magnitude lower than the emissions observed from oil burning (742 CO2-eq/kWh from oil). The carbon footprint of the PV system might be lowered by using novel production materials. When compared to traditional solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), Smith et al. [ 69 ] proposed the use of these novel material combinations leads to a reduction in embodied materials and toxicological impact, but a higher electrical energy consumption during manufacturing. Their findings provide support for the drive to reduce the operating temperatures of SOFCs using unique material designs, resulting in a lower overall environmental impact due to the lower operational energy from the constituents of the selected material. Blanco et al. [ 70 ] reported that thin-film silicon and dye-sensitized cells lead the way in terms of total environmental impact, followed by thin-film chalcogenide, organic, and silicon. Chetyrkina et al. [ 71 ] analyzed the constituents of perovskite cells for their environmental hazards: lead, tin, or bismuth iodide on the one hand, and methylammonium, formamidinium, or cesium iodide on the other. The authors stated that bismuth iodide was the least hazardous in the first round of cell testing. Cesium and formamidinium iodides were less harmful to cells than methylammonium iodide. This study argued that their reports show that perovskite cells will fully phase out silicon-based cells since the former is not as toxic as the latter [ 72 ].

6 Summary and outlook

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have been reported to exhibit covalent bond-supported crystallinity as well as capture and mass transport characteristics [ 90 ]. Organic semiconductors are gaining popularity in research, and materials for organic electronics are currently intensively researched for other purposes, such as organic photovoltaics, large-area devices, and thin-film transistors, benefiting from the emergence of non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs) and the organic light-emitting diode (OLED) [ 91 ]. There have also been reports of issues arising from applications such as displays on flexible substrates, OLED lighting, huge area displays, and printable or solution processible greater area solar cells. Inorganic halide templates in carbon nanotubes of 1.2 nm, which are currently the smallest halide perovskite structures, have been reported to function as solar cells [ 92 ]. While other research has developed strategies to increase the durability of perovskites by using computer models based on density functional theory (DFT) to determine which molecules would be best at bridging the perovskite layer and the charge transport layers since the interface between the perovskite layer and the next layers is a critical location of vulnerability in perovskite solar cells. The results showed that inverted perovskite solar cells containing 1,3-bis(diphenylphosphine)propane, or DPPP, had the best performance because the cell's total power conversion efficiency remained high for around 3,500 h [ 93 ].

There are also environmental problems with PV systems, from production through installation and disposal [ 94 ]. Moreso, because perovskites are unstable, they must be protected with transparent polymers. Perovskite decomposes into chemicals that may pose environmental and human health hazards when this protection deteriorates [ 95 ]. Hence, PV solar systems have a carbon footprint of 14–73 g CO 2 -eq/kWh, which is lower than gas (607.6 CO 2 -eq/kWh), oil (742.1 CO 2 -eq/kWh), and coal-fired (975.3 g CO 2 -eq/kWh) power plants. New materials and/or recycled silicon material can reduce GHG emissions by up to 50% [ 96 ]. Floating PV systems and self-cleaning installations offer the benefit of using less water during the cleaning process. Except during installation, the PV modules have little noise and visual impact [ 97 ]. The life cycle analysis revealed that PV systems cannot be considered zero-emission technology due to the potential environmental effects imposed by land use, air quality, water use, the inclusion of hazardous materials, and possible noise/visual pollution; however, these effects can be mitigated by novel technologies such as hybrid power systems and/or floating PV systems [ 98 , 99 , 100 ]. Overall, future materials for solar photovoltaic devices must balance efficiency, cost, durability, toxicity, availability, and integration to provide a sustainable and cost-effective source of renewable energy [ 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 ].

7 Conclusion

Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic (PV) materials and systems have resulted in considerable efficiency, cost, and durability improvements. PV has become a more realistic choice for a wide range of applications, including power production, water pumping, and space exploration, as a result of these advancements. The creation of high-efficiency crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells has been one of the most significant recent developments in PV technology. C-Si solar cells can currently convert more than 20% of the sun's energy into electricity.

This is a huge advance over early c-Si solar cells, which could only convert roughly 10% of the sun's energy into power. The creation of thin-film solar cells is another significant recent advancement in PV technology. Thin-film solar cells are constructed from substantially thinner materials than c-Si solar cells. As a result, they are lighter and less expensive to produce. Thin-film solar cells are also more flexible than c-Si solar cells, allowing them to be used in a broader range of applications. In addition to advancements in PV materials, substantial advancements in PV systems have occurred. PV systems today feature a number of components that aid in efficiency, durability, and dependability.

Solar trackers, inverters, and batteries are among the components. PV has become a more realistic choice for a wide range of applications due to advancements in PV materials and systems. PV is currently used to power homes and businesses, as well as to pump water and power satellites and other spacecraft. PV technology is expected to become more commonly employed in the future as it improves.

Other recent advances in solar PV materials and systems include the development of new materials, such as perovskites, that have the potential to achieve even higher efficiencies than c-Si solar cells, the development of new manufacturing processes that can lower the cost of PV modules, and the development of new PV applications, such as solar-powered cars and homes. These advancements make solar PV a more appealing alternative for a broader range of applications. As the cost of PV continues to fall, solar PV is anticipated to become the major form of renewable energy in the future.

Availability of data and material

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

• Solar photovoltaic

Photovoltaic

Floating tracking concentrating cooling system

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal system

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermoelectric

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal

Direct current

Alternating current

Power conditioning unit

• Energy storage

Two-dimensional

Three-dimensional)

Silicon heterojunction

Polysilicon-on-oxide

Perovskite solar cells

Open-circuit voltage

Junction solar cell

Nanoparticles

Dye-sensitized solar cells

Counter electrode

Shockley–Queisser

Information and communications and mobile technology

Ultraviolet

Metal–organic frameworks

Electron-transport layer

Hole-transport layer

Power conversion efficiency

N-dimethylformamide

Electron-selective layers

Solid oxide fuel cells

Covalent organic frameworks

Non-fullerene acceptors

Organic light-emitting diode

Density functional theory

1,3 Bis(diphenylphosphino)propane

Greenhouse gas

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Dada, M., Popoola, P. Recent advances in solar photovoltaic materials and systems for energy storage applications: a review. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci 12 , 66 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43088-023-00405-5

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• Published: 27 March 2024

Design and simulation of 4 kW solar power-based hybrid EV charging station

• Priyanshu Singla 1 ,
• Shakuntla Boora 1 ,
• Poonam Singhal 1 ,
• Nitin Mittal 2 ,
• Vikas Mittal 3 &
• Fikreselam Gared 4  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  7336 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Electric vehicles (EVs) have become an attractive alternative to IC engine cars due to the increased interest in lowering the consumption of fossil fuels and pollution. This paper presents the design and simulation of a 4 kW solar power-based hybrid EV charging station. With the increasing demand for electric vehicles and the strain they pose on the electrical grid, particularly at fast and superfast charging stations, the development of sustainable and efficient charging infrastructure is crucial. The proposed hybrid charging station integrates solar power and battery energy storage to provide uninterrupted power for EVs, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and minimizing grid overload. The system operates using a three-stage charging strategy, with the PV array, battery bank, and grid electricity ensuring continuous power supply for EVs. Additionally, the system can export surplus solar energy to the grid, reducing the load demand. The paper also discusses the use of MPPT techniques, PV cell modeling, and charge controller algorithms to optimize the performance of the hybrid charging station.

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Introduction

The need for fuels is great in the current situation, and their consumption rises. These fuels’ usage in automobiles caused a significant quantity of CO 2 petrol to evaporate. The environment’s response to carbon dioxide gas varies greatly. The biggest difficulty is reducing CO 2 , and an eco-friendly car, sometimes known as an electric vehicle (EV), can help. In the age of e-mobility, consumers are being encouraged to switch quickly to EVs, but widespread adoption of EVs into the electrical grid, particularly at fast and superfast charging stations, could put a significant strain on the stability and dependability of the grid, with peak demand overload, voltage sag, and power gaps being the main problems 1 . For overcoming these problems Renewable energy and battery energy storage (BESS) are good options to replace traditional charging stations with hybrid charging stations which provide uninterrupted power for electric vehicles. Solar photovoltaic systems involve the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity without affecting the environment. In recent years, it has been observed that the use of electric vehicles in the market has increased and charging these vehicles has become a difficult task for passengers. Photovoltaic plants have also become cheaper in recent years and have proven to be an effective way of generating electricity 2 .

The power converter must be between source and load. Therefore, the use of renewable energy and battery bank power has increased 3 . The main purpose of this project is to charge electric vehicles using BES and solar power. Solar PV panels and battery energy storage systems (BES) create charging stations that power EVs. AC grids are used when the battery of the solar power plant runs out or when weather conditions are not appropriate.

In addition, charging stations can facilitate active/reactive power transfer between battery and grid, as well as vehicle. During the day, the photovoltaic array produces enough electricity to charge the battery of an electric car. When the sun is at its peak, the PV array not only charges the EV battery but also feeds back additional energy into the single-phase grid system. When the sun is not shining or the sky is dark, the EV battery will be charged by the battery bank and grid also. The Perturb & Observe (P&O) algorithm based MPPT controller used in the closed loop of this project to provide peak power at constant voltage and a bidirectional buck/boost converter with inverter connected to single phase AC grid was designed using MATLAB simulation.

The combination of solar power and EV charging is crucial to reducing our reliance on fossil fuels. Electricity comes from many sources and it is important that the electric car be powered by renewable energy. Electric cars are becoming very popular, and we expect almost everyone who owns a solar panel to have a solar charging station in their home in the next few years. Grid-connected PV arrays offer optimal EV charging by synchronizing with daily energy demand profiles. Surplus photovoltaic generation during peak solar hours seamlessly integrates into the utility grid, enabling net metering benefits even during car usage. Upon returning home, the accumulated credit offsets electric vehicle charging through bidirectional power flow, effectively leveraging home-generated solar for EV transportation.

Literature review

Patel 4 has stated that the intermittent nature of the PV output power makes it weather-dependent. In a fast-charging station powered by renewable energy, the battery storage is therefore paired with a grid-tied PV system to offer an ongoing supply for on-site charging of electric vehicles. In order to support the high charging rates needed for connecting a significant number of EVs to the grid, fast charging stations based on renewable energy should be affordable, effective, and dependable.

Tan 5 has suggested a better design in which the charge controller is implemented using a buck converter acting as a DC-DC converter. The Perturb and Observe (P&O) MPPT algorithm keeps track of the photovoltaic panel’s maximum output. The lithium-ion battery is charged by the battery charge controller in three stages. MPPT buck charging, constant voltage absorption charging, and floating charge stage are the three charging phases.

Due of their simplicity, perturbation and observation approaches are employed. The approach has the benefit of just requiring two sensors and a straightforward circuit. By raising the voltage of a tiny PV array and tracking the power change, the algorithm was developed. The peak power point is caused by the disturbance if P is positive, and the operating point has shifted away from the peak point if P is negative. Perturbation must thus resume at its peak 6 .

de Oliveria 7 claims that mismatching of phenomena, such as PSC, that PV arrays frequently experience, may be resolved using the particle swarm optimization (PSO) based MPPT approach. Since use of the MPPT techniques is taken to determine the dc-bus reference in order to ensure proper grid-tied inverter Operation, the effectiveness of PSO based MPPT technique is highlighted and compared with the P&O MPPT technique.

In contrast to traditional algorithms like the P&O algorithm or the IC method, the fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is one of the majority of algorithms that guarantees adequate performance MPPT in a variety of conditions, according to the author’s study 8 . After modelling the PV cell with the DC/DC converter and load, the suggested technique uses inputs to FLC to monitor the MPP, and its produced outputs are obtained as data files. Sixty-six percent of the stored data is used for training, while the remaining data is used for model testing. To represent the FLC, the structure of an artificial neural network (ANN) is specified. The backpropagation algorithm-based ANN training uses the data acquired from the FLC. The least mean square between the ANN and FLC models is calculated using this approach to identify the ideal parameters.

A voltage inverter is used to convert the direct current from the boost converter’s output to alternating current 9 . Here, the pulse width modulation (PWM) technique and the d-q frame control approach are utilised side by side to regulate the amount of current injected into the grid synchronous reference frame. Additionally, the inverter’s output needs to be coordinated with the grid. As a result, a Phase Locked Loop (PLL) approach is used to match the network’s frequency and phase. It is also advisable to employ an LC filter and transformer to create galvanic isolation and eliminate high frequency harmonics after the inverter.

Solar energy is converted by a photovoltaic array into DC voltage and current, which are controlled by a DC–DC boost converter that monitors P&O maximum power. The three-phase inverter uses an algorithm to track the location of the greatest field power before converting the DC voltage to AC for grid interface or local load power. A bandpass filter eliminates harmonics from the inverter’s output, and control circuits enable MPPT control, synchronization, and switching. A delta star transformer boosts output voltage and circulates zero sequences before connecting to the grid 10 .

MPPT controllers can be designed to work with any one of the methods for detecting the maximum power point. There are numerous techniques to track the maximum power point and selection of MPPT for any specific task depends upon several factors such as complexity of implementation. overall cost, response time, ability of the algorithm to detect the local and global maximum power point etc. Some methods to track the maximum power point are Perturb and observe (Hill climbing method), Incremental conductance method (IC), Fractional open-circuit Voltage (FOCV), Fractional short-circuit current (FSCC), Fuzzy Logic control, Neural Network, Sliding mode control (SMC), Robust unified control algorithm (RUCA), Particle swarm optimization technique (PSO), Grey-wolf optimization technique (GWO), Intelligent monkey king evolution (IMKE). The work done by various researchers is briefed in Table 1 .

All the techniques have their own advantages and disadvantages. When we consider the practical scenario for a photovoltaic (PV) generation system (PGS) the occurrence of partially shaded condition is quite common and selection of MPPT technique is very important. Conventional MPPT techniques fails in tracking maximum power point, under partially shaded condition due to presence of the multiple peaks. Conventional MPPT techniques works well in uniformly shaded condition, which has a single maximum power point in the P–V curve. The inability of conventional MPPT algorithm to track the MPP during partially shaded condition is due to the fact that these algorithms are using “hill-climbing” principle for moving to the next operating point in the direction of power increase. If the P–V curve is having multiple peaks conventional MPPT algorithm may track only local MPP. In order to overcome this need to use artificial intelligence techniques such as PSO, IMKE, GWO, etc.

Photo-voltaic cell modelling

The equivalent circuit of a solar cell may be represented by an electrical circuit. When describing a PV cell, two variables are frequently used. These are the short-circuit current (I sc ) and the open-circuit voltage (V oc ). In data sheet for the module, the PV module manufacturers provide these characteristics.

PV cell equivalent circuit representation

Figure  1 represents the equivalent circuit of the PV cell. It consists of a current source which depicts the light generated current, a diode and a resistance connected in shunt across it. The array parallel resistance is denoted by R sh , and R s which is the array series resistance. I pv is the current produced by the incident light and it is directly proportional to the sun’s irradiance. I and V are the array’s output current and voltage.

PV cell equivalent circuit.

The basic equations governing the I–V characteristics of PV cell are:

Characteristics of PV array under un-shaded condition

In un-shaded condition, the sunlight or solar insolation is uniform for all the PV modules in a PV array, so all the modules produce equal voltages. Photovoltaic cells have non-linear characteristics. The performance of PV cells as well as the output power is directly dependent on the change in the operating conditions (temperature & solar insolation). Figures  2 and 3 show the effect of change in the temperature and solar insolation on photovoltaic’s output current, voltage, and power.

( a ) Effect of temperature, ( b ) solar irradiance on I–V curves.

( a ) Effect of temperature, ( b ) solar irradiance on P–V curves.

MPPT and battery charge controller technique

The PV characteristics of the PGS is nonlinear and highly influenced by solar insolation and temperature changes as shown in Figs. 2 and 3 . This results in finding a reliable and efficient technique to adjust the photo-voltaic generating system operating point so that production of energy is maximized; it is indeed a challenging task. There exists only one terminal voltage for the PV array to operate with, for obtaining maximum power i.e. achieving the increased array efficiency. DC–DC SMPS converters plays very important role in MPPT tracking processes. As illustrated in Fig.  4 , the DC-DC converters’ input terminals are linked to the output of the PV array, and the voltage of the array is controlled by varying the converter’s duty cycle while keeping the voltage at the maximum power.

Block diagram of MPPT.

P&O (Perturb & Observe)

The Perturb & Observe (P&O) method is regarded as one of the most straightforward approaches of tracking Maximum Power Points. This is as a result of the processing time being relatively short. The phrase “hill-climbing” is another name for it. As the P–V curve’s peaks and troughs with regard to the maximum power point determine how it operates.

P&O employs the sensors to detect the current and voltage of the solar PV array, as seen in Fig.  5 . We can determine whether to raise or decrease the duty cycle using the MPPT method. deciding whether to increase or decrease the converter’s duty cycle in order to maximize power, we must compare the current measured power to the prior measured power. In order to maximize power, the boost converter’s duty cycle (D) is reduced if the input voltage is higher than the previous value. Reduce the duty cycle (D) if the input voltage is higher than the previous value to get closer to the MPP. The (P&O) then raises the duty cycle to monitor the maximum power point if the input voltage was lower than previously recorded and the input power was higher. Additionally, if D, or the perturbation, is sufficiently great, the oscillation will be endless and it will never reach its maximum power point. Without altering the physical characteristics of the solar panel, the P&O approach makes solar PV module calculations and design simpler.

Flow chart of P&O algorithm.

Battery charge controller

The lithium-ion battery charge controller was created to charge the battery in three stages. Three-stage charging consists of a trickle charging phase, constant voltage charging, and constant current charging. The first stage of constant current charging is also known as the bulk charging phase, and in this case, the charging current is at MPPT. The battery gets charged to its rated capacity at this stage. In the second step of constant voltage charging, sometimes referred to as the absorption charging phase, the battery is charged with a constant voltage; MPPT is not allowed at this stage. The final stage of floating charging simply keeps the state of charge (SoC) at 100% once the battery is fully charged. This prevents the battery from gassing and overheating from an unregulated overcharge to more than 100% Current.

A schematic of the battery charge controller is shown in Fig.  6 . The charge controller measures the battery’s SoC and tension. If the SoC battery is below 100% in the first case, the charger enters the constant voltage or constant current charging phase; if not, it enters the floating stage, where the duty cycle D(K) is zero. According to the battery voltage level, the second scenario chooses either the bulk MPPT charging or constant voltage charging phase. If the battery voltage is below a constant set voltage value, the charger switches to the MPPT constant current phase of bulk charging; if not, it disables the MPPT and switches to the constant voltage absorption charging stage.

Battery charge controller flow chart.

System modeling

We utilized PVsyst for in-depth research, measurement, and data analysis of the photovoltaic system before utilizing MATLAB to follow the suggested approach to create a 4 kW PV-Powered charging station for EVs. Temperature: 25.3°C on average every year. Latitude/Longitude: 28.37° N/77.32° E.

The PVsyst report displays the latitude, longitude, altitude (205 m above sea level), and azimuth of the x-ray axis based on the data input into the PVsyst program, and the y axis shows the height of the sun. These locations allow us to determine the course of the sun. The image below shows that it will produce more energy during the summer (June) than during the winter (December). The average yearly solar radiation and midday temperature are shown in Table 2 . The chart below shows how global radiation, solar radiation distribution, wind speed, and temperature change with the seasons. By examining the chart below, we can observe that each column in each month has the greatest pricing in (May, June, July, and August). An average of 250.7 kW/m 2 is the annual worldwide radiation, which is 3264.4 kW/m 2 . Month denotes a 25.3 °C temperature.

Matlab implementation of the block

Photovoltaic modules, electric vehicle charging stations (EVCS), battery banks, controllers, converters, connectors, cables, and mounting structures are the primary parts utilized in the described design. Block diagram for Matlab simulation and the flow chart of hybrid charging station is shown in Figs.  7 and 8 respectively.

Matlab implementation block of hybrid charging station.

Flow chart of hybrid charging station.

Mathematical calculations for power generation

Total power consumption demands by load:

Here, 1.3 is the factor loss in the system.

Suppose we are charging per day 10 vehicles then

Size of PV panel:

Suppose we will take here 5 h per day of panel generation factor.

Battery sizing of lithium-ion battery:

PVsyst report result with yearly generation and losses

PVsyst report has been analyzed (Fig.  9 ) for given parameters and geo location on the basis of given inputs PVsyst report represents the Annual generation report with losses and generation factor of 3.96 and yearly generation of 7.6 MW.

PVsyst report result. (PVsyst 7.3 is a PC software package for the study, sizing and data analysis of complete PV systems).

Annual generation of 4 kW solar plant at give location is 7635.3 kW/year.

Simulation results

Eldora solar panels of 250W is used for simulation purpose. Electrical data sheet of SPR-E20-250 is shown in Table 3 . 4 kW PV system configuration has 4 strings in parallel with 4 panels in each string. Simulation model consist separate blocks such as MPPT, battery bank, bidirectional buck/boost converter, grid tied inverter and EVs stand as shown in Fig.  10 .

Hybrid charging station simulink model.

Simulation block runs in five different modes, these modes are as follows:

Mode 1 (battery bank charging by PV System).

Mode 2 (EVs charging by PV system).

Mode 3 (EVs charging by grid when PV power is not enough).

Mode 4 (EVs charging from battery bank when grid and PV system both are not available).

Mode 5 (PV system feed power to grid).

4 kW PV system MPPT/charge controller waveforms

In Fig.  11 a, the power production by PV grid is shown at 1000 W/m 2 and 25 °C. The initial ripple is due to start of PV-panels and PI-controller. In Fig.  11 b, The PV current is shown that reaches at constant value of 70 A for maximum power output after 0.5 s. Figure  11 c shows the constant voltage of 54 V across DC bus to charge EV’s battery of 48 V.

( a ) Variation of MPPT track power ( b ) MPPT current and ( c ) MPPT voltage w.r.t time at 25 °C, 1000 Wb IR.

MODE 1 (battery bank charging by PV system)

In Fig.  12 , The EV’s charging SoC, current and voltage are representing in mode 1 operation when PV system charging the EV’s as load currently constant voltage of 54 V across DC bus is applied to charging the EV’s and graph represents the increment in battery’s SoC and Voltage and Charging current is constant.

( a ) Variation of battery SoC, ( b ) current and ( c ) voltage w.r.t time at 25 °C, 1000 Wb IR.

MODE 2 (EVS charging by PV system)

In Fig.  13 , the EV’s charging SoC, current and voltage are representing in mode 2 operation.

( a ) Variation of EV’s battery SoC, ( b ) current and ( c ) voltage w.r.t time at 25 °C, 1000 Wb IR.

MODE 3 (EVS charging by grid when PV power is not enough)

Figure  14 represents the mode 3 operation when EV’s are charging during night or rainy season when PV power is not enough to charge the EV’s. During this situation EV’s takes charging through AC grid which have a bidirectional inverter and bidirectional buck-boost converter.

MODE 4 (EVS charging from battery bank when grid and PV system both are not available)

In Fig.  15 , Mode 4 operation graphs represent the charging condition of EV’s through Battery bank. This operation works in long power cut fault. When PV system and AC grid both are not available at same time so EV’s are charging through battery bank which have power backup.

( a )Variation of EV’s battery SoC, ( b ) current and ( c ) voltage in mode 4 operation.

MODE 5 (PV system feed power to grid)

When the charging station have no load as EV’s and Battery bank is also full charged this time PV system generate power and feed to the grid which also helps in earning and balancing the grid load during peak hours. The graph of Voltage and current feed to the AC grid are shown in Fig.  16 .

( a ) Variation of voltage and ( b ) current graph w.r.t time at 25 °C, 1000 Wb IR.

The simulation results of the 5 different modes of operation for the EV charging station have been validated through the use of MATLAB and PVsyst. The modes include:

Mode 1: battery bank charging by PV system.

Mode 2: EVs charging by PV system.

Mode 3: EVs charging by grid when PV power is not enough.

Mode 4: EVs charging from battery bank when grid and PV System both are not available.

Mode 5: PV system feed power to grid.

The simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the hybrid charging station in providing uninterrupted power for EVs. The three-stage charge controller, buck converter, grid-tied inverter circuit, and MPPT P&O tracking algorithm have been shown to be entirely replicable. The system is capable of charging 10–12 EVs with 48 V 30 Ah lithium-ion batteries, and it can export surplus solar energy to the grid, reducing the load demand. Additionally, the simulation results show the operation of the charging station in different scenarios, such as during the night or rainy season when PV power is not enough, and during long power cuts when both the grid and PV system are unavailable.

The simulation results validate the effectiveness of the hybrid charging station in addressing the challenges associated with grid stability and EV charging, and contribute to the advancement of sustainable transportation infrastructure and renewable energy integration. The system’s ability to integrate solar power and battery energy storage to provide uninterrupted power for EVs is a significant step towards reducing reliance on fossil fuels and minimizing grid overload.

Simulink modelling of a charging controller and a detailed hybrid charging station is provided. The three-stage charge controller, buck converter, grid-tied inverter circuit, and MPPT P&O tracking algorithm are all discussed in detail and are entirely replicable. By keeping track of the maximum output from the 4 kW PV field energy source and regulating the charge using a three-stage charging strategy, the 4 kW PV-based charging station is capable of charging 10–12 EVs with 48 V 30 Ah lithium-ion batteries.

The system was first created in PVsyst. Following the selection of software and devices using parameters from PVsyst in Simulink, results in the form of voltage, power, current, and state of charge, among other metrics, have been extracted into graphs for all significant devices. The filtering process could be optimized, but the overall result is satisfactory. The research contributes to the advancement of sustainable transportation infrastructure and renewable energy integration, addressing the challenges associated with grid stability and EV charging.

Data availability

Data may be available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.

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Priyanshu Singla, Shakuntla Boora & Poonam Singhal

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Priyanshu Singla: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—original draft. Shakuntla Boora: Investigation, Writing—review & editing, Software, Supervision. Poonam Singhal: Validation, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. Nitin Mittal: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing. Vikas Mittal: Writing—review & editing. Fikreselam Gared: Writing—review & editing.

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Singla, P., Boora, S., Singhal, P. et al. Design and simulation of 4 kW solar power-based hybrid EV charging station. Sci Rep 14 , 7336 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56833-5

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Researchers take major step toward developing next-generation solar cells

A technician installs solar panels on the roof of the building which houses the University of Colorado Center for Innovation and Creativity in Boulder.  (Credit: Glenn Asakawa/University of Colorado)  

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The solar energy world is ready for a revolution. Scientists are racing to develop a new type of solar cell using materials that can convert electricity more efficiently than today’s panels. 

In a new paper published February 26 in the journal Nature Energy, a CU Boulder researcher and his international collaborators unveiled an innovative method to manufacture the new solar cells, known as perovskite cells, an achievement critical for the commercialization of what many consider the next generation of solar technology.

Today, nearly all solar panels are made from silicon, which boast an efficiency of 22%. This means silicon panels can only convert about one-fifth of the sun’s energy into electricity, because the material absorbs only a limited proportion of sunlight’s wavelengths. Producing silicon is also expensive and energy intensive.

Enter perovskite. The synthetic semiconducting material has the potential to convert substantially more solar power than silicon at a lower production cost.

Michael McGehee

“Perovskites might be a game changer,” said Michael McGehee , a professor in the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and fellow with CU Boulder’s Renewable & Sustainable Energy Institute. 

Scientists have been testing perovskite solar cells by stacking them on top of traditional silicon cells to make tandem cells. Layering the two materials, each absorbing a different part of the sun’s spectrum, can potentially increase the panels’ efficiency by over 50%.

“We're still seeing rapid electrification, with more cars running off electricity. We’re hoping to retire more coal plants and eventually get rid of natural gas plants,” said McGehee.  “If you believe that we're going to have a fully renewable future, then you're planning for the wind and solar markets to expand by at least five to ten- fold from where it is today.” 

To get there, he said, the industry must improve the efficiency of solar cells.

But a major challenge in making them from perovskite at a commercial scale is the process of coating the semiconductor onto the glass plates which are the building blocks of panels. Currently, the coating process has to take place in a small box filled with non-reactive gas, such as nitrogen, to prevent the perovskites from reacting with oxygen, which decreases their performance.  

“This is fine at the research stage. But when you start coating large pieces of glass, it gets harder and harder to do this in a nitrogen filled box,” McGehee said. 

McGehee and his collaborators set off to find a way to prevent that damaging reaction with the air. They found that adding dimethylammonium formate, or DMAFo, to the perovskite solution before coating could prevent the materials from oxidizing. This discovery enables coating to take place outside the small box, in ambient air. Experiments showed that perovskite cells made with the DMAFo additive can achieve an efficiency of nearly 25% on their own, comparable to the current efficiency record for perovskite cells of 26%. 

The additive also improved the cells’ stability. 

Commercial silicon panels can typically maintain at least 80% of their performance after 25 years, losing about 1% of efficiency per year. Perovskite cells, however, are more reactive and degrade faster in the air. The new study showed that the perovskite cell made with DMAFo retained 90% of its efficiency after the researchers exposed them to LED light that mimicked sunlight for 700 hours. In contrast, cells made in the air without DMAFo degraded quickly after only 300 hours. 

While this is a very encouraging result, there are 8,000 hours in one year, he noted. So longer tests are needed to determine how these cells hold up overtime. 

“It’s too early to say that they are as stable as silicon panels, but we're on a good trajectory toward that,” McGehee said. 

The study brings perovskite solar cells one step closer to commercialization. At the same time, McGehee’s team is actively developing tandem cells with a real-world efficiency of over 30% that have the same operational lifetime as silicon panels. 

McGehee leads a U.S. academic–industry partnership called Tandems for Efficient and Advanced Modules using Ultrastable Perovskites (TEAMUP). Together with researchers from three other universities, two companies and a national laboratory, the consortium received $9 million funding from the U.S. Department of Energy last year to develop stable tandem perovskites that can feasibly be used in the real world and are commercially viable. The goal is to create tandem more efficient than conventional silicon panels and equally stable over a 25-year period. 

With higher efficiency and potentially lower price tags, these tandem cells could have broader applications than existing silicon panels, including potential installation on the roofs of electric vehicles. They could add 15 to 25 miles of range per day to a car left out in the sun, enough to cover many people’s daily commutes. Drones and sailboats could also be powered by such panels.  

After a decade of research in perovskites, engineers have built perovskite cells that are as efficient as silicon cells, which were invented 70 years ago, McGehee said. “We are taking perovskites to the finish line.  If tandems work out well, they certainly have the potential to dominate the market and become the next generation of solar cells,” he said. 

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Researchers take major step toward developing next-generation solar cells

The solar energy world is ready for a revolution. Scientists are racing to develop a new type of solar cell using materials that can convert electricity more efficiently than today's panels.

In a new paper published February 26 in the journal Nature Energy , a University of Colorado Boulder researcher and his international collaborators unveiled an innovative method to manufacture the new solar cells, known as perovskite cells, an achievement critical for the commercialization of what many consider the next generation of solar technology.

Today, nearly all solar panels are made from silicon, which boast an efficiency of 22%. This means silicon panels can only convert about one-fifth of the sun's energy into electricity, because the material absorbs only a limited proportion of sunlight's wavelengths. Producing silicon is also expensive and energy intensive.

Enter perovskite. The synthetic semiconducting material has the potential to convert substantially more solar power than silicon at a lower production cost.

"Perovskites might be a game changer," said Michael McGehee, a professor in the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and fellow with CU Boulder's Renewable & Sustainable Energy Institute.

Scientists have been testing perovskite solar cells by stacking them on top of traditional silicon cells to make tandem cells. Layering the two materials, each absorbing a different part of the sun's spectrum, can potentially increase the panels' efficiency by over 50%.

"We're still seeing rapid electrification, with more cars running off electricity. We're hoping to retire more coal plants and eventually get rid of natural gas plants," said McGehee. "If you believe that we're going to have a fully renewable future, then you're planning for the wind and solar markets to expand by at least five to ten- fold from where it is today."

To get there, he said, the industry must improve the efficiency of solar cells.

But a major challenge in making them from perovskite at a commercial scale is the process of coating the semiconductor onto the glass plates which are the building blocks of panels. Currently, the coating process has to take place in a small box filled with non-reactive gas, such as nitrogen, to prevent the perovskites from reacting with oxygen, which decreases their performance.

"This is fine at the research stage. But when you start coating large pieces of glass, it gets harder and harder to do this in a nitrogen filled box," McGehee said.

McGehee and his collaborators set off to find a way to prevent that damaging reaction with the air. They found that adding dimethylammonium formate, or DMAFo, to the perovskite solution before coating could prevent the materials from oxidizing. This discovery enables coating to take place outside the small box, in ambient air. Experiments showed that perovskite cells made with the DMAFo additive can achieve an efficiency of nearly 25% on their own, comparable to the current efficiency record for perovskite cells of 26%.

The additive also improved the cells' stability.

Commercial silicon panels can typically maintain at least 80% of their performance after 25 years, losing about 1% of efficiency per year. Perovskite cells, however, are more reactive and degrade faster in the air. The new study showed that the perovskite cell made with DMAFo retained 90% of its efficiency after the researchers exposed them to LED light that mimicked sunlight for 700 hours. In contrast, cells made in the air without DMAFo degraded quickly after only 300 hours.

While this is a very encouraging result, there are 8,000 hours in one year, he noted. So longer tests are needed to determine how these cells hold up overtime.

"It's too early to say that they are as stable as silicon panels, but we're on a good trajectory toward that," McGehee said.

The study brings perovskite solar cells one step closer to commercialization. At the same time, McGehee's team is actively developing tandem cells with a real-world efficiency of over 30% that have the same operational lifetime as silicon panels.

McGehee leads a U.S. academic-industry partnership called Tandems for Efficient and Advanced Modules using Ultrastable Perovskites (TEAMUP). Together with researchers from three other universities, two companies and a national laboratory, the consortium received $9 million funding from the U.S. Department of Energy last year to develop stable tandem perovskites that can feasibly be used in the real world and are commercially viable. The goal is to create tandem more efficient than conventional silicon panels and equally stable over a 25-year period.

With higher efficiency and potentially lower price tags, these tandem cells could have broader applications than existing silicon panels, including potential installation on the roofs of electric vehicles. They could add 15 to 25 miles of range per day to a car left out in the sun, enough to cover many people's daily commutes. Drones and sailboats could also be powered by such panels.

After a decade of research in perovskites, engineers have built perovskite cells that are as efficient as silicon cells, which were invented 70 years ago, McGehee said. "We are taking perovskites to the finish line. If tandems work out well, they certainly have the potential to dominate the market and become the next generation of solar cells," he said.

• Solar Energy
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• Energy and Resources
• Energy and the Environment
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• Solar panel

Story Source:

Materials provided by University of Colorado at Boulder . Original written by Yvaine Ye. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Hongguang Meng, Kaitian Mao, Fengchun Cai, Kai Zhang, Shaojie Yuan, Tieqiang Li, Fangfang Cao, Zhenhuang Su, Zhengjie Zhu, Xingyu Feng, Wei Peng, Jiahang Xu, Yan Gao, Weiwei Chen, Chuanxiao Xiao, Xiaojun Wu, Michael D. McGehee, Jixian Xu. Inhibition of halide oxidation and deprotonation of organic cations with dimethylammonium formate for air-processed p–i–n perovskite solar cells . Nature Energy , 2024; DOI: 10.1038/s41560-024-01471-4

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