5 characteristics of a biography

The Elements of a Biography: How to Write an Interesting Bio

• March 30, 2022

While these books are generally non-fiction, they may include elements of a biography in order to more accurately reflect the nature of the subject’s life and personality, Writing about someone who actually existed, whether it’s a family member, close friend, famous person, or historical figure, involves certain elements. A person’s life story is being told, and the subject’s life needs to be organized in such a way that the reader is interested and engaged. 

Biographies can easily read as boring announcements of only a human’s accomplishments in life, and if you want the bio you write to stand out, you should try to avoid that.

When you’re writing a biography or even a short professional bio, ask yourself what sorts of things you’d like included if someone was writing your biography. 

You would most likely want people to get a feel of who you were as a person, and to be able to understand the way that you felt, what moved and motivated you, and what changes you wanted to see and make in the world.

Do the same thing when you write about someone else. Do the subject the favor of treating them like a real person instead of a stiff and boring character that students will dread having to learn about at school each year. Getting students excited about history, historical figures, and people of interest can inspire them to work hard to make a difference as well.

What Does Biographical Mean?

The term “biographical” is an adjective that means having the characteristics of a biography or constituting a set of personal information or details. For instance,  biographical notes  contain information about a specific person’s life or narrate stories and experiences of that person. Another example is  biographical details . Biographical details include who the person is, what they have become, what they have struggled with, and any other information unique to them.

Keep It Real

Don’t fictionalize the life of the person you are writing about, but remember your sense of humanity when you write, and do what you can to make sure that your subject can be viewed as a real person who existed, rather than just a name on a monument.

It’s a thin line between rumor, speculation, and fact when telling the stories of people, especially people who are long dead and can’t verify or refute it for themselves. Be sure that if you do research and something is speculated, you state that in your writing.

Never claim something is fact when it’s isn’t a known and proven fact. This will cause you to lose credibility as a nonfiction writer.

What to Include in a Biography

When you read or write a biography, most of them have the same basic details of a person’s life. The person’s date of birth, date of death, and the major accomplishments and key events in between those two dates are all important to include in the writing process. These are elements that need to exist within the story of the person to be considered a full biography.

Keep in mind that these are the minimum elements that need to be included. Expanding on these elements and adding meat to the bones of your story will engage readers. 

If you only include important dates and accomplishments, you might as well direct the reader to visit the headstone of the person you are writing about, and they’ll get almost as much information.

Personal details offer a more intimate look into the subject’s life and can help the reader to relate or at least understand some of the decisions made by the person, as well as the influences that played a part in steering the person’s life. 

If the subject had any passions that he or she voiced throughout his or her life, mentioning those in your story of their life will elevate your biography.

Relevant Information

Family members are often mentioned in biography and major details of the person’s career. If the person was known for their accomplishments in their field of work, there is often more content there than a brief career summary.

The result is usually more of a professional bio than a personal one. Basic facts of the person’s education are often mentioned as well. If you are writing a biography about someone, try to remember to write about more than just their job.

Remember that you aren’t writing a resume, and the subject isn’t asking you to help them get a job. You are tasked with writing about the entire life of someone. You are more than your job, so the subject of the biography you are writing should get to be more, as well.

Personal Information

Biographies don’t have to be boring. Personal stories, interesting stories, and funny quips are sometimes used to make the readers identify with the subject. 

When included in a biography, these details give the reader a chance to feel as though the subject was a real person with opinions, feelings, flaws, and a personality, rather than a stuffy person who is significant to history and not much else.

Providing the audience with these lighthearted but not necessarily crucial elements of a biography will make the biography more interesting and appealing.

Narrator and Order

Point of view.

An important element in most biographies is establishing the point of view. You don’t want to write it like a novel and have it written in a first-person point of view. This will result in something that is somewhat fictionalized and something that more closely resembles an autobiography, which is the personal story of a person’s own life.

Biographies should be written in the third person point of view. In third person, someone outside of the story, who has all of the information, is the narrator. 

Try not to be biased. Stick to the basic facts, major events that you have researched, and keep the story interesting but accurate. A biography is not meant to be a fictional adventure, but the subject’s life was significant in some manner, and the details of that can still be interesting.

Chronological Order

Biographies usually begin, well, in the beginning, at the birth of the subject. The first sentence usually includes the basic information that a reader needs to know: who the person is, where the person is from, and when the person was born. A biography that doesn’t include these details but starts at the most important life events can exist, but they aren’t common. You may see this tactic used in a short biography or a brief bio.

Usually, chronological order is the best course of action for a biography. A person’s life begins in childhood, so details of that childhood, even briefly, are necessary before getting to the subject’s adult life.

Describing the subject’s early life to the audience usually means you should research and write about the family they came from, their early education, what kind of student the person was, where they came from, any close bonds they had as children with people. 

As well as their interests and whether or not they pursued the life they ended up with as an adult, or if greatness and accomplishments were thrust upon them by events outside of their control.

As you progress into a subject’s adult life, you should add achievements to the biography. Focus not only on the major achievements as acts but also try to fill the audience in on what the motivation for the achievements was.

For example,  Abraham Lincoln  was the sixteenth President of the United States. That’s a well-known fact. Students learn about him in American grade schools and then over and over until their educational careers are over. In a bio about Lincoln, you may discuss the fact that Lincoln freed the slaves.

While this is true, you need to research deeper into that. Just stating that a person did something doesn’t make it an interesting read. Ask yourself why he freed the slaves.

Do your research, speak to an expert, and search for journals and letters that a subject might have written to describe how they felt to the audience and how they drove the person to do what they did.

Focus on the Impact the Person’s Life Had

After you have gone over the person’s life in the biography, you should share with readers what impact the subject’s life had on the rest of the world, even (sometimes especially) after their death. Many of the important people in history who have biographies written about them are deceased.

When you write a biography, ask yourself why anyone cares what that person accomplished. What did they do for one or two people to make them important enough to have a biography?

For example, many students learn about George Washington. He gave America the sense of hope and patriotism that they needed to declare and then achieve freedom from English rule. 

When we search for information about Washington, we find not only his bio and his painted picture, but we also see and learn about the things he influenced, inspired, and the feelings he invoked among the people around him.

When we give a well-rounded look at not only what the person did in their lives, but how they changed the world, even just for those around them, we start to see the bigger picture and appreciate the person more.

Students can go from being bored and obligated to reading sentence after sentence about a boring guy who lived hundreds of years ago to being excited to learn more about the founding fathers. As a writer, it is your job to inspire these feelings for the reader.

When you write a biography, it’s important that you thoroughly research and fact-check everything you are writing about. Everyone knows that Lincoln freed the slaves, but you should still research it to ensure that everything is accurate as far as dates, places, speeches, and motivations go.

Make sure that you are getting your information from reputable resources. If you are interviewing live people, be sure to verify their credentials and use a tape recorder when doing so.

A biography is not an opinion piece or a novel, and there is no room for error, miscalculation, or falsification when you write a biography.

Actor Bio Example

An actor’s bio tells about the details of a specific person with regard to a person’s acting career. Below is an example. ( This example is created to serve as a guide for you and does not describe an actual person .)

Edgar Anderson and his family reside in Washington. He is currently taking up a Business Management course and striving to achieve a balance between schooling and his career. Edgar first experienced acting when he was still a junior high school student in 2015, where he played  Horton  in a Seussical-inspired school theater play. His manager discovered him in 2018 when the former watched him portray the lead role in a play about the history of their school during the school’s Foundation Day.

In 2022, he got his first nomination for best actor at the Oscars. Recently, Edgar has found a new set of hobbies. He enjoys learning karate and foreign languages. Edgar often thanks his family and friends because they have fully supported him in his acting career. He also extends his gratitude to the directors he has worked with and the talent agency that has helped him ascend the ladder of his career.

He dedicates his early success to all who have believed in him over the years. According to Edger, he loves his career even more because of the overflowing love and support he continually receives from his fans and loved ones.

The Importance of a Biography

It is important to include all of the elements of a biography because a biography is the story of a person’s life, and that’s a big undertaking. The subject is often no longer alive and can’t dispute what we write about them, so we have to get the information right and do the best we can when writing.

Students work on writing biographies and research papers about people in school so that they can learn more about the people who helped us get to where we are today in terms of society.

We teach students the skills and elements of a biography so that the practice of telling the story of a person’s life never gets lost. We need to focus on the future, but we cannot do that without understanding the past.

Other people may one day come along and write your bio, and when that happens, you have to hope that the first step they take is to do the research thoroughly so that they can do your story justice. That is what we owe the person we are writing about when we start to search for information about them.

Be respectful of the biography because it is the telling of those who came before us and can serve as a guidebook for the future or even a warning.

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How to Write a Biography

Learn how to write a biography with our comprehensive guide.

Last updated on Dec 8th, 2023

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Table of Contents

How to write a biography can be a fun challenge as you share someone’s life story with readers. You may need to write a biography for a class or decide to write a biography as a personal project. Once you’ve identified the subject of your biography, do your research to learn as much as you can about them. Then, immerse yourself in writing the biography and revising it until it’s best. What I am going to share with you in today’s post is how to write a biography. If you want to know the rules of how to write a biography correctly then this post of ours is essential for you. 

Introduction

While it’s true that most biographies involve people in the public eye, sometimes the subject is less well-known. But most of the time, famous or not, the person we’re talking about has an incredible life. Although your students may have a basic understanding of How to write a biography, you should take some time before putting pen to paper to come up with a very clear definition of biography.

Before knowing how to write a biography, let’s first understand what a biography is. A biography is an account of a person’s life written by someone else. Although there is a genre called fictional biography, by definition biographies are mostly non-fiction. In general, biographies trace the subject’s life from early childhood to the present day or until death if the subject is deceased. 

Biography writing is not limited to describing the bare facts of a person’s life. Instead of just listing basic details about their upbringing, interests, education, work, relationships, and deaths, a well-written biography should also paint a picture of a person’s personality as well as that person’s life experiences.

Tips and Tricks For How To Write a Biography

1. ask the subject’s permission to write a biography.

Here are the first tips on how to write a biography. Before starting your research, make sure you get your subject’s consent to write their biography. Ask them if they’re ready to be the subject. Getting their permission will make writing a biography much easier and ensure that they are open to information about their lives.

If the theme does not allow you to write a bio, you can choose another theme. If you decide to publish a profile without the subject’s permission, you may be subject to legal action from the subject. 

If the topic no longer exists, you don’t need to ask permission to write about them. 

2. Research primary sources on the topic

Primary sources may include books, letters, photographs, diaries, newspaper clippings, magazines, Internet articles, magazines, videos, interviews, existing biographies, or autobiographies on the subject. Find these resources in your local library or online. Read as much as you can about the topic and highlight any important information you come across in your sources. 

You can create research questions to help you focus your research on this topic, such as: 

What do I find interesting about this topic? Why is this topic important to readers? 

3. Conduct interviews with subjects and their relatives

Interviewing people will turn your research into reality: the people you interview will be able to tell you stories you can’t find in history books. Interview the subject as well as people close to them, such as spouses, friends, business associates, family members, co-workers, and friends. Interview in person, over the phone, or via email.

For in-person interviews, record them with a voice recorder or voice recorder on your computer or phone. You may need to interview the subject and others multiple times to get the documents you need.

4. Visit places important to the topic

Whenever you want to know how to write a biography, to understand the history of the subject, spend time in places and areas that are significant to the subject. This may be the subject’s childhood home or neighborhood. You can also visit the subject’s workplace and regular meeting places. 

You may also want to visit areas where the subject made important decisions or breakthroughs in their life. Being physically present in the area can give you an idea of what your subjects may have felt and help you write about their experiences more effectively.

5. Research the time and place of the subject’s life

Contextualize your subject’s life by observing what’s going on around them. Consider the period in which they grew up as well as the history of the places they lived. Study the economics, politics, and culture of their time. See current events happening where they live or work.

When you studying how to write a biography, ask yourself about time and place: 

What were the social norms of this period? 

What happened economically and politically? 

How has the political and social environment influenced this topic?

6. Make a timeline of a person’s life

To help you organize your research, create a timeline of a person’s entire life, from birth. Draw a long line on a piece of paper and sketch out as many details about a person’s life as possible. Highlight important events or moments on the timeline. Include important dates, locations, and names. 

If you think about how to write a biography You can also include historical events or moments that affect the topic in the timeline. For example, a conflict or civil war may occur during a person’s lifetime and affect their life.

7. Focus on important events and milestones

Major events can include marriage, birth, or death during a person’s lifetime. They may also achieve milestones like their first successful business venture or their first civil rights march. Highlights key moments in a person’s life so readers clearly understand what’s important to that person and how they influence the world around them.

For example, you might focus on one person’s achievements in the civil rights movement. You could write an entire section about their contributions and participation in major civil rights marches in their hometowns.

8. Cite all sources used in  biography

Most biographies will include information from sources such as books, journal articles, magazines, and interviews. Remember to cite any sources that you directly quote or paraphrase. You can use citations, footnotes, or endnotes. If the biography is for a course, use MLA, APA, or Chicago Style citations according to your instructor’s preference.

9. Reread the biography

Check the biography for spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Circle all punctuation marks in the text to confirm they are correct. Read the text backward to check for spelling and grammar errors. 

Having a biography full of spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors can frustrate readers and lead to poor grades if you submit your work to the class.

10. Show your biography to others to get their feedback

It is a momentous step of how to write a biography. Once you have completed your draft biography, show it to your colleagues, friends, teachers, and mentors to get their feedback. Ask them if they have a good understanding of someone’s life and if the biography is easy to read. Be open to feedback so you can improve the biography and make it error-free. Revise profile based on feedback from others. Don’t be afraid to trim or edit your biography to suit your readers’ needs.

11. Use flashbacks

Flashbacks happen when you move from the present to the past. You can start with the present moment, and then bring in a scene from the person’s past. Or you could have one chapter focusing on the present and one focusing on the past, alternating as you go.

The flashback scene must be as detailed and realistic as the present-day scene. Use your research notes and interviews with subjects to better understand their past to reminisce. 

For example, you can move from a person’s death in the present to reminiscing about their favorite childhood memory.

12. Outline Your Story Chronologically 

This is another important step in how to write a biography is to write an outline that describes your story in chronological order. An outline is a tool that helps you visualize the structure and key elements of your story. This can help you organize your story into chapters and sections. 

You can write your plan in a digital document or draw it with pen and paper. Remember to store your outline in an easily accessible place so you can refer to it throughout the writing process.

What citation style should I use for my biography?

Use MLA, APA, or Chicago Style citations based on your instructor’s preference when citing sources in your biography.

Should I include personal opinions in a biography?

No, a biography should be objective and based on facts. Avoid injecting personal opinions or bias into the narrative.

What’s the difference between a biography and an autobiography?

A biography is written by someone else about a person’s life, while an autobiography is written by the subject themselves about their own life.

Can I write a biography about a living person?

Yes, you can write a biography about a living person with their consent. Ensure you respect their privacy and follow ethical guidelines when writing about them.

Conclusion 

Other than creating a sense of closure, there are no set rules about how a biography ends. An author may want to summarize their main points about the subject of their biography. If the person is still alive, the author can inform the reader about their condition or circumstances. If the person has died, inheritance can be discussed. Authors can also remind readers how they can learn from the biographical subject. Sharing a closing quote or about a person can leave the audience with a point to consider or discuss in more detail.

For further insights into writing and to avoid common mistakes, check out our article on Most Common Mistakes in Writing . Additionally, explore the Best Writing Tools for Writers to enhance your writing skills and discover the tools that can assist you. If you’re looking to improve your typing speed and accuracy, our article on How to Type Faster with Accuracy offers valuable tips.

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• Dec 8th, 2023
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Definition of Biography

A biography is the non- fiction , written history or account of a person’s life. Biographies are intended to give an objective portrayal of a person, written in the third person. Biographers collect information from the subject (if he/she is available), acquaintances of the subject, or in researching other sources such as reference material, experts, records, diaries, interviews, etc. Most biographers intend to present the life story of a person and establish the context of their story for the reader, whether in terms of history and/or the present day. In turn, the reader can be reasonably assured that the information presented about the biographical subject is as true and authentic as possible.

Biographies can be written about a person at any time, no matter if they are living or dead. However, there are limitations to biography as a literary device. Even if the subject is involved in the biographical process, the biographer is restricted in terms of access to the subject’s thoughts or feelings.

Biographical works typically include details of significant events that shape the life of the subject as well as information about their childhood, education, career, and relationships. Occasionally, a biography is made into another form of art such as a film or dramatic production. The musical production of “Hamilton” is an excellent example of a biographical work that has been turned into one of the most popular musical productions in Broadway history.

Common Examples of Biographical Subjects

Most people assume that the subject of a biography must be a person who is famous in some way. However, that’s not always the case. In general, biographical subjects tend to be interesting people who have pioneered something in their field of expertise or done something extraordinary for humanity. In addition, biographical subjects can be people who have experienced something unusual or heartbreaking, committed terrible acts, or who are especially gifted and/or talented.

As a literary device, biography is important because it allows readers to learn about someone’s story and history. This can be enlightening, inspiring, and meaningful in creating connections. Here are some common examples of biographical subjects:

• political leaders
• entrepreneurs
• historical figures
• serial killers
• notorious people
• political activists
• adventurers/explorers
• religious leaders
• military leaders
• cultural figures

Famous Examples of Biographical Works

The readership for biography tends to be those who enjoy learning about a certain person’s life or overall field related to the person. In addition, some readers enjoy the literary form of biography independent of the subject. Some biographical works become well-known due to either the person’s story or the way the work is written, gaining a readership of people who may not otherwise choose to read biography or are unfamiliar with its form.

Here are some famous examples of biographical works that are familiar to many readers outside of biography fans:

• Alexander Hamilton (Ron Chernow)
• Prairie Fires: The American Dreams of Laura Ingalls Wilder (Caroline Fraser)
• Steve Jobs (Walter Isaacson)
• Churchill: A Life (Martin Gilbert)
• The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary (Simon Winchester)
• A Beautiful Mind (Sylvia Nasar)
• The Black Rose (Tananarive Due)
• John Adams (David McCullough)
• Into the Wild ( Jon Krakauer )
• John Brown (W.E.B. Du Bois)
• Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo (Hayden Herrera)
• The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (Rebecca Skloot)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (Doris Kearns Goodwin)
• Shirley Jackson : A Rather Haunted Life ( Ruth Franklin)
• the stranger in the Woods: The Extraordinary Story of the Last True Hermit (Michael Finkel)

Difference Between Biography, Autobiography, and Memoir

Biography, autobiography , and memoir are the three main forms used to tell the story of a person’s life. Though there are similarities between these forms, they have distinct differences in terms of the writing, style , and purpose.

A biography is an informational narrative and account of the life history of an individual person, written by someone who is not the subject of the biography. An autobiography is the story of an individual’s life, written by that individual. In general, an autobiography is presented chronologically with a focus on key events in the person’s life. Since the writer is the subject of an autobiography, it’s written in the first person and considered more subjective than objective, like a biography. In addition, autobiographies are often written late in the person’s life to present their life experiences, challenges, achievements, viewpoints, etc., across time.

Memoir refers to a written collection of a person’s significant memories, written by that person. Memoir doesn’t generally include biographical information or chronological events unless it’s relevant to the story being presented. The purpose of memoir is reflection and an intention to share a meaningful story as a means of creating an emotional connection with the reader. Memoirs are often presented in a narrative style that is both entertaining and thought-provoking.

Examples of Biography in Literature

An important subset of biography is literary biography. A literary biography applies biographical study and form to the lives of artists and writers. This poses some complications for writers of literary biographies in that they must balance the representation of the biographical subject, the artist or writer, as well as aspects of the subject’s literary works. This balance can be difficult to achieve in terms of judicious interpretation of biographical elements within an author’s literary work and consideration of the separate spheres of the artist and their art.

Literary biographies of artists and writers are among some of the most interesting biographical works. These biographies can also be very influential for readers, not only in terms of understanding the artist or writer’s personal story but the context of their work or literature as well. Here are some examples of well-known literary biographies:

Example 1:  Savage Beauty: The Life of Edna St. Vincent Millay  (Nancy Milford)

One of the first things Vincent explained to Norma was that there was a certain freedom of language in the Village that mustn’t shock her. It wasn’t vulgar. ‘So we sat darning socks on Waverly Place and practiced the use of profanity as we stitched. Needle in, . Needle out, piss. Needle in, . Needle out, c. Until we were easy with the words.’

This passage reflects the way in which Milford is able to characterize St. Vincent Millay as a person interacting with her sister. Even avid readers of a writer’s work are often unaware of the artist’s private and personal natures, separate from their literature and art. Milford reflects the balance required on the part of a literary biographer of telling the writer’s life story without undermining or interfering with the meaning and understanding of the literature produced by the writer. Though biographical information can provide some influence and context for a writer’s literary subjects, style, and choices , there is a distinction between the fictional world created by a writer and the writer’s “real” world. However, a literary biographer can illuminate the writer’s story so that the reader of both the biography and the biographical subject’s literature finds greater meaning and significance.

Example 2:  The Invisible Woman: The Story of Nelly Ternan and Charles Dickens  (Claire Tomalin)

The season of domestic goodwill and festivity must have posed a problem to all good Victorian family men with more than one family to take care of, particularly when there were two lots of children to receive the demonstrations of paternal love.

Tomalin’s literary biography of Charles Dickens reveals the writer’s extramarital relationship with a woman named Nelly Ternan. Tomalin presents the complications that resulted for Dickens from this relationship in terms of his personal and family life as well as his professional writing and literary work. Revealing information such as an extramarital relationship can influence the way a reader may feel about the subject as a person, and in the case of literary biography it can influence the way readers feel about the subject’s literature as well. Artists and writers who are beloved , such as Charles Dickens, are often idealized by their devoted readers and society itself. However, as Tomalin’s biography of Dickens indicates, artists and writers are complicated and as subject to human failings as anyone else.

Example 3:  Virginia Woolf  (Hermione Lee)

‘A self that goes on changing is a self that goes on living’: so too with the biography of that self. And just as lives don’t stay still, so life-writing can’t be fixed and finalised. Our ideas are shifting about what can be said, our knowledge of human character is changing. The biographer has to pioneer, going ‘ahead of the rest of us, like the miner’s canary, testing the atmosphere , detecting falsity, unreality, and the presence of obsolete conventions’. So, ‘There are some stories which have to be retold by each generation’. She is talking about the story of Shelley, but she could be talking about her own life-story.

In this passage, Lee is able to demonstrate what her biographical subject, Virginia Woolf, felt about biography and a person telling their own or another person’s story. Literary biographies of well-known writers can be especially difficult to navigate in that both the author and biographical subject are writers, but completely separate and different people. As referenced in this passage by Lee, Woolf was aware of the subtleties and fluidity present in a person’s life which can be difficult to judiciously and effectively relay to a reader on the part of a biographer. In addition, Woolf offers insight into the fact that biographers must make choices in terms of what information is presented to the reader and the context in which it is offered, making them a “miner’s canary” as to how history will view and remember the biographical subject.

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What Is a Biography? Definition & 25+ Examples

Have you ever wondered what lies beneath the surface of history’s most influential figures?

Imagine a chance to delve into the intricate tapestry of their lives, unraveling the threads that have woven together the very essence of their character, and unearthing the pivotal moments that shaped their destinies.

Welcome to the enthralling world of biographies, where you are invited to embark on a captivating journey into the lives of the extraordinary. Prepare to be captivated by the compelling tales of human resilience, ingenuity, and ambition that lie at the heart of each biography.

Table of Contents

Defining Biography

A biography is a detailed account of a person’s life, written by someone other than the subject. The term “biography” is derived from two Greek words: “bio,” which means life, and “graphy,” which signifies writing. Thus, a biography is the written history of someone’s life, offering an in-depth look at their experiences, achievements, and challenges.

Biographies typically focus on the life of notable individuals, such as historical figures or celebrities, and provide a comprehensive view of their personal and professional journey.

Biographers, the authors of these works, aim to offer an accurate, well-researched portrayal of their subjects by studying various sources and conducting interviews if possible. This thorough research and attention to detail ensure that the resulting narrative is both informative and engaging.

Biographies are a subgenre of non-fiction literature, as they chronicle the lives of real people. However, not all life stories fall under the category of biography.

Autobiographies and memoirs, for instance, focus on the author’s own experiences and are written from a first-person perspective. While autobiographies aim to present an overarching narrative of the author’s life, memoirs tend to focus on specific incidents or periods.

When crafting a biography, it is essential for the biographer to maintain a neutral tone, avoiding any judgment or personal bias. This objectivity allows readers to form their opinions based on the presented facts, gaining a broader understanding of the subject.

Elements of a Biography

A well-crafted biography contains several key elements that provide a comprehensive picture of the subject’s life. These elements help readers gain a deeper understanding of the subject while fostering an emotional connection. Below are some essential aspects of a biography:

Personal and Family Background

The personal and family background section of a biography provides an essential foundation for understanding the subject’s journey and the factors that shaped their life. By exploring the subject’s early years, readers gain insight into the environment and experiences that influenced their character, values, and aspirations.

This section typically begins with an overview of the subject’s birthplace, family origins, and cultural heritage. It delves into the family dynamics, including descriptions of the subject’s parents, siblings, and extended family, shedding light on the relationships that played a crucial role in their development.

The personal and family background section also addresses significant life events, challenges, and milestones that occurred during the subject’s upbringing. These formative experiences may include pivotal moments, such as moving to a new city, attending a particular school, or encountering a mentor who had a lasting impact on their life.

Education and Career

The education and career section of a biography is crucial for understanding the intellectual and professional development of the subject. By tracing the subject’s academic journey and career progression, readers gain a clearer picture of the knowledge, skills, and experiences that shaped their path and contributed to their success.

This section begins by outlining the subject’s educational background, including the schools they attended, the degrees or qualifications they obtained, and any specialized training they received. It also highlights the subject’s academic achievements, such as scholarships, awards, or distinctions, and any influential mentors or teachers who played a significant role in their intellectual growth.

The education and career section also delves into the subject’s professional life, chronicling their work history, job titles, and key responsibilities. It explores the subject’s career trajectory, examining how they transitioned between roles or industries and the factors that influenced their choices.

Major Events and Turning Points

The major events and turning points section of a biography delves into the pivotal moments and experiences that significantly influenced the subject’s life, shaping their character, values, and destiny.

By exploring these transformative events, readers gain a deeper understanding of the forces and circumstances that drove the subject’s actions and choices, as well as the challenges and triumphs they faced along the way.

This section encompasses a wide range of events, which could include personal milestones, such as marriage, the birth of children, or the loss of a loved one.

These personal events often provide insights into the subject’s emotional landscape and reveal the support systems, relationships, and personal values that sustained them through difficult times or propelled them to greater heights.

Influences and Inspirations

The influences and inspirations section of a biography delves into the individuals, ideas, and events that had a profound impact on the subject’s beliefs, values, and aspirations.

By understanding the forces that shaped the subject’s worldview, readers gain a deeper appreciation for the motivations driving their actions and decisions, as well as the creative and intellectual foundations upon which their accomplishments were built.

This section often begins by identifying the key figures who played a significant role in the subject’s life, such as family members, mentors, peers, or historical figures they admired.

It explores the nature of these relationships and how they shaped the subject’s perspectives, values, and ambitions. These influential individuals can provide valuable insights into the subject’s personal growth and development, revealing the sources of inspiration and guidance that fueled their journey.

The influences and inspirations section also delves into the ideas and philosophies that resonated with the subject and shaped their worldview. This could include an exploration of the subject’s religious, political, or philosophical beliefs, as well as the books, theories, or artistic movements that inspired them.

This section examines the events, both personal and historical, that impacted the subject’s life and inspired their actions. These could include moments of personal transformation, such as a life-altering experience or an epiphany, or broader societal events, such as wars, social movements, or technological innovations.

Contributions and Impact

The contributions and impact section of a biography is pivotal in conveying the subject’s lasting significance, both in their chosen profession and beyond. By detailing their achievements, innovations, and legacies, this section helps readers grasp the extent of the subject’s influence and the ways in which their work has shaped the world around them.

This section begins by highlighting the subject’s key accomplishments within their profession, such as breakthroughs, discoveries, or innovative techniques they developed. It delves into the processes and challenges they faced along the way, providing valuable insights into their creativity, determination, and problem-solving abilities.

The contributions and impact section also explores the subject’s broader influence on society, culture, or the world at large. This could include their involvement in social or political movements, their philanthropic endeavors, or their role as a cultural icon.

In addition to discussing the subject’s immediate impact, this section also considers their lasting legacy, exploring how their work has continued to inspire and shape subsequent generations.

This could involve examining the subject’s influence on their successors, the institutions or organizations they helped establish, or the enduring relevance of their ideas and achievements in contemporary society.

Personal Traits and Characteristics

The personal traits and characteristics section of a biography brings the subject to life, offering readers an intimate glimpse into their personality, qualities, and views.

This section often begins by outlining the subject’s defining personality traits, such as their temperament, values, and passions. By exploring these attributes, readers gain insight into the subject’s character and the motivations driving their actions and decisions.

These qualities could include their perseverance, curiosity, empathy, or sense of humor, which may help explain their achievements, relationships, and outlook on life.

The personal traits and characteristics section also delves into the subject’s views and beliefs, offering a window into their thoughts and opinions on various topics. This could include their perspectives on politics, religion, culture, or social issues, providing readers with a clearer understanding of the context in which they operated and the factors that shaped their worldview.

Anecdotes and personal stories play a crucial role in illustrating the subject’s personality and characteristics, as they offer concrete examples of their behavior, actions, or interactions with others.

Quotes and first-hand accounts from the subject or those who knew them well can also be invaluable in portraying their personal traits and characteristics. These accounts offer unique insights into the subject’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences, allowing readers to see the world through their eyes and better understand their character.

Types of Biographies

Biographies come in various forms and styles, each presenting unique perspectives on the lives of individuals. Some of the most common types of biographies are discussed in the following sub-sections.

Historical Fiction Biography

Historical fiction biographies artfully weave together factual information with imaginative elements, creating a vibrant tapestry of the past. By staying true to the core of a historical figure’s life and accomplishments, these works offer a unique window into their world while granting authors the creative freedom to delve deeper into their emotions, relationships, and personal struggles.

Such biographies strike a delicate balance, ensuring that the essence of the individual remains intact while allowing for fictional embellishments to bring their story to life. This captivating blend of fact and fiction serves to humanize these iconic figures, making their experiences more relatable and engaging for readers who embark on a journey through the pages of history.

Here are several examples of notable historical fiction biographies:

• “Wolf Hall” by Hilary Mantel (2009)
• “The Paris Wife” by Paula McLain (2011)
• “Girl with a Pearl Earring” by Tracy Chevalier (1999)
• “The Other Boleyn Girl” by Philippa Gregory (2001)
• “Loving Frank” by Nancy Horan (2007)

Academic Biography

Academic biographies stand as meticulously researched and carefully crafted scholarly works, dedicated to presenting an accurate and comprehensive account of a subject’s life.

Authored by experts or researchers well-versed in their field, these biographies adhere to rigorous standards of accuracy, sourcing, and objectivity. They delve into the intricacies of a person’s life, achievements, and impact, scrutinizing every aspect with scholarly precision.

Intended for an educated audience, academic biographies serve as valuable resources for those seeking a deeper understanding of the subject’s contributions and influence. By placing the individual within the broader context of their time, these works illuminate the complex web of factors that shaped their lives and legacies.

While academic biographies may not always carry the same narrative flair as their fictional counterparts, their commitment to factual integrity and thorough analysis make them indispensable resources for scholars, students, and enthusiasts alike

Here are several examples of notable academic biographies:

• “Einstein: His Life and Universe” by Walter Isaacson (2007)
• “Steve Jobs” by Walter Isaacson (2011)
• “John Adams” by David McCullough (2001)
• “Alexander the Great” by Robin Lane Fox (1973)
• “Marie Curie: A Life” by Susan Quinn (1995)

Authorized Biographies

Authorized biographies offer a unique perspective on the lives of their subjects, as they are written with the explicit consent and, often, active participation of the individual in question.

This collaboration between the biographer and the subject can lead to a more accurate, detailed, and intimate portrayal of the person’s life, as the author is granted access to a wealth of personal information, documents, and anecdotes that might otherwise be inaccessible.

When working on an authorized biography, the biographer is typically given permission to access personal documents, such as letters, diaries, and photographs, which can provide invaluable insights into the subject’s thoughts, emotions, and experiences.

This primary source material allows the biographer to construct a narrative that is grounded in fact and captures the essence of the individual’s life and personality.

Here are several examples of notable authorized biographies:

• “Mandela: The Authorized Biography” by Anthony Sampson (1999)
• “Marilyn Monroe: The Biography” by Donald Spoto (1993)
• “Joni Mitchell: In Her Own Words” by Malka Marom (2014)
• “The Snowball: Warren Buffett and the Business of Life” by Alice Schroeder (2008)
• “Notorious RBG: The Life and Times of Ruth Bader Ginsburg” by Irin Carmon and Shana Knizhnik (2015)

Fictionalized Academic Biography

Fictionalized academic biographies merge the best of both worlds, combining the rigorous research and scholarly integrity of academic biographies with the engaging storytelling of historical fiction.

Authors of these works expertly navigate the delicate balance between maintaining factual accuracy and venturing into the realm of imagination.

This approach allows them to explore the subject’s personal life, relationships, and the broader historical context in a compelling manner, while ensuring the narrative remains firmly rooted in well-researched facts.

Here are several examples of notable fictionalized academic biographies:

• “The Women” by T.C. Boyle (2009)
• “Z: A Novel of Zelda Fitzgerald” by Therese Anne Fowler (2013)
• “The Marriage of Opposites” by Alice Hoffman (2015)
• “Vanessa and Her Sister” by Priya Parmar (2014)
• “The Last Days of Night” by Graham Moore (2016)

Prophetic Biography

Prophetic biographies delve into the rich and profound narratives of religious figures or prophets, meticulously weaving together insights from sacred texts, religious traditions, and historical accounts.

By providing a comprehensive portrayal of the individual’s life, teachings, and impact on society, these biographies serve as an invaluable resource for understanding the pivotal role these figures played in shaping the course of religious history and the lives of the faithful.

Here are several examples of notable prophetic biographies:

• “Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources” by Martin Lings (1983)
• “The Life of Moses” by F.B. Meyer (1893)
• “The Life of the Buddha: According to the Pali Canon” by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (1972)
• “The Quest of the Historical Jesus” by Albert Schweitzer (1906)
• “The Lives of the Saints” by Alban Butler (1756)

Biography Development Process

A biography is a comprehensive written account of an individual’s life, and the development process involves several essential components to ensure the biography’s accuracy and readability.

A biographer’s primary responsibility is to conduct extensive research in order to gather a comprehensive array of facts about the subject. This meticulous process involves reviewing various documents and sources that shed light on the individual’s life and experiences, as well as the historical context in which they lived.

Key documents, such as birth and death certificates, provide essential information about the subject’s origins and family background. Personal correspondence, letters, and diaries offer invaluable insights into the subject’s thoughts, emotions, relationships, and experiences. News articles, on the other hand, can reveal public perceptions of the subject, as well as their impact on society and culture.

Archives often serve as treasure troves of information for biographers, as they contain a wealth of primary sources that can help illuminate the subject’s life and times. These archives may include collections of personal papers, photographs, audio recordings, and other materials that offer first-hand accounts of the individual’s experiences or shed light on their accomplishments and impact.

Consulting relevant books and articles is another crucial aspect of a biographer’s research process, as these secondary sources provide context, analysis, and interpretation of the subject’s life and work.

By delving into the existing scholarship and engaging with the works of other researchers, biographers can solidify their understanding of the individual and the historical circumstances in which they lived.

Interviewing people who knew the subject personally is a vital component of a biographer’s research process, as it allows them to access unique insights, personal stories, and firsthand accounts of the individual’s life.

Friends, family members, co-workers, and colleagues can all offer valuable perspectives on the subject’s character, relationships, achievements, and challenges, thereby enriching the biographer’s understanding of their life and experiences.

While subjective anecdotes offer a more intimate glimpse into the subject’s personality and personal life, it is essential for biographers to balance these accounts with factual research.

By corroborating and contextualizing personal stories with objective information gleaned from primary and secondary sources, biographers can ensure that their portrayal of the individual’s life remains accurate and well-rounded.

This process of balancing subjective anecdotes with factual research also allows biographers to present a more nuanced and comprehensive view of their subject. By weaving together personal stories with historical context, biographers can create a richer and more engaging narrative that captures the complexity and multifaceted nature of the individual’s life.

In addition, by considering various perspectives and sources of information, biographers can address potential biases or discrepancies in their account, resulting in a more reliable and credible portrayal of the subject.

This careful attention to detail and commitment to accuracy not only enhances the quality of the biography but also helps establish trust between the biographer and their readers.

Chronological Narration

Organizing a biography in a chronological manner is a highly effective approach, as it allows readers to follow the subject’s life events in a logical and coherent sequence.

By presenting the information in a linear fashion, the biographer enables readers to trace the subject’s journey from their early years to their later accomplishments, making it easier to understand the context and progression of their life.

To effectively arrange a chronological narrative, the biographer should begin by highlighting significant milestones and accomplishments in the subject’s life. These key events serve as anchor points in the story, helping to structure the narrative and maintain the reader’s interest.

By focusing on these pivotal moments, the biographer can illustrate the subject’s growth, development, and achievements over time, providing a clear and engaging overview of their life’s trajectory.

Contextualization

Contextualizing the subject within their historical and cultural framework is a crucial aspect of biographical writing, as it enables readers to gain a deeper understanding of the individual’s life, choices, and significance.

Embedding the subject within their historical context involves examining the political, social, and economic landscape of the time. This includes exploring major events, trends, and issues that affected the subject’s life and decisions, such as wars, social movements, technological advancements, or cultural shifts.

Additionally, considering the subject’s cultural context is essential for understanding their beliefs, values, and creative expression. This involves examining the artistic, intellectual, and philosophical currents of the time, which may have influenced the subject’s work, ideas, or relationships.

Moreover, contextualizing the subject within their historical and cultural framework can help to humanize them, revealing the complexities, contradictions, and struggles that are often inherent in the human experience.

This approach offers readers a more nuanced and empathetic understanding of the subject, allowing them to see the person as a product of their time and circumstances, rather than as an isolated figure.

Famous Biographies and Biographers

The life of samuel johnson, ll.d. by james boswell (1791).

“The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.” is a biography of the English writer and literary critic Samuel Johnson, written by his friend and contemporary James Boswell. Published in 1791, it is often considered one of the greatest biographies in the English language and a pioneering work in the development of modern biography as a literary genre.

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) was a prominent figure in 18th-century English literature, known for his wide-ranging knowledge, wit, and moral authority. He is best remembered for his dictionary, “A Dictionary of the English Language,” published in 1755, which became the standard English dictionary for over a century. He was also a prolific essayist, poet, and critic.

James Boswell (1740-1795) was a Scottish lawyer, diarist, and author who became friends with Johnson in 1763. Over the course of their friendship, Boswell made detailed notes of their conversations and observations, which he later used as the basis for his biography.

“The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.” is a comprehensive and vivid portrait of Johnson’s life, character, and work. Boswell covers Johnson’s early years, education, and struggles with poverty and illness, as well as his rise to prominence as a writer and his involvement in the vibrant literary circles of 18th-century London.

The biography also delves into Johnson’s friendships and relationships, including his long association with Hester Thrale, a prominent society hostess, and writer.

What sets Boswell’s biography apart is his skill in capturing Johnson’s personality, wit, and conversation. By presenting Johnson’s thoughts and opinions on a wide range of topics, as well as anecdotes and reminiscences from those who knew him, Boswell creates a vivid and engaging portrait of his subject.

The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (2010)

“The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks” is a non-fiction book written by Rebecca Skloot, published in 2010. The book tells the story of Henrietta Lacks, an African American woman whose cancer cells were taken without her knowledge or consent during a biopsy in 1951. These cells, known as HeLa cells, became the first immortal human cell line, reproducing indefinitely under laboratory conditions.

HeLa cells have been used extensively in medical research, contributing to significant scientific breakthroughs, such as the development of the polio vaccine, gene mapping, and cancer research.

Henrietta Lacks was a young mother of five when she was diagnosed with an aggressive form of cervical cancer at the age of 31. She received treatment at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, where a sample of her cancerous tissue was taken without her knowledge. Henrietta passed away in 1951, but her cells continued to live on, revolutionizing medical research.

Rebecca Skloot spent more than a decade researching Henrietta Lacks’ life and the scientific history of HeLa cells. Skloot also interviewed Lacks’ surviving family members, who were unaware of Henrietta’s contribution to science until the 1970s.

The book explores the ethical issues surrounding the use of human tissue in research, the question of consent, and the lack of compensation for the Lacks family.

Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow (2004)

“Alexander Hamilton” is a comprehensive biography of the American Founding Father Alexander Hamilton, written by historian and biographer Ron Chernow. Published in 2004, the book provides an in-depth look into Hamilton’s life, from his humble beginnings in the West Indies to his significant contributions as a statesman, economist, and influential figure in early American history.

Chernow’s biography delves into Hamilton’s early life as an orphan in the Caribbean, his immigration to the American colonies, and his education. It also explores his involvement in the American Revolutionary War, where he served as an aide to General George Washington and later as an artillery officer.

The book details Hamilton’s role in the development of the United States Constitution and his work as the first Secretary of the Treasury under President Washington, where he was instrumental in establishing the nation’s financial system.

“Alexander Hamilton” also examines Hamilton’s personal life, including his relationships, marriage, and infamous extramarital affair, as well as his longstanding political rivalries with figures such as Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Aaron Burr. The biography concludes with the story of Hamilton’s tragic death in a duel with Burr in 1804.

It received critical acclaim and won several awards, including the George Washington Book Prize. The biography also inspired Lin-Manuel Miranda to create the hit Broadway musical “Hamilton,” which premiered in 2015 and went on to achieve widespread popularity and numerous accolades, further solidifying Alexander Hamilton’s place in popular culture and history.

Notable Biographies in Different Fields

Science and technology.

Biographies in the field of science and technology offer fascinating insights into the lives and minds of extraordinary individuals who have made significant advancements in their respective fields.

These biographies often provide an in-depth look at the personal and professional lives of scientists, inventors, engineers, and other innovators, highlighting their discoveries, inventions, and contributions to human knowledge and progress.

Arts and Literature

Biographies of artists, actors, and writers often provide captivating and inspiring accounts of the lives of these creative individuals. By examining their personal and professional journeys, these biographies allow readers to gain a deeper understanding of the inspirations, motivations, and challenges that have shaped their subjects’ artistic achievements.

These biographies often delve into the early lives of their subjects, exploring formative experiences that may have influenced their creative paths. They also examine the artistic processes and the development of the subjects’ distinctive styles, providing valuable insights into their creative methodologies, influences, and inspirations.

Sports and Athletics

Biographies of athletes provide riveting accounts of the lives and careers of remarkable individuals who have achieved greatness in the world of sports. These stories often serve as powerful sources of inspiration, showcasing the dedication, perseverance, and triumphs of athletes who have overcome obstacles and pushed the boundaries of human potential.

These biographies delve into the formative experiences of their subjects, exploring how early influences, innate talent, and personal motivations led them to pursue athletic excellence. They also provide insights into the rigorous training regimens, discipline, and sacrifices that athletes make to achieve their goals, highlighting the incredible determination and work ethic that underpin their success.

Additionally, biographies of athletes often touch on the personal challenges and setbacks these individuals have faced, such as injuries, controversies, or personal struggles.

Historical Figures

Biographies of historical figures offer a unique window into the lives, personalities, and experiences of individuals who have left lasting impacts on the world. By delving into the stories of these influential people, readers can gain a deeper understanding of the political, social, and cultural contexts that shaped their actions and decisions, as well as the lasting legacies they left behind.

These biographies often provide richly detailed accounts of their subjects’ lives, including their upbringing, education, relationships, and personal struggles. By exploring the complex facets of these individuals, biographies help to humanize historical figures, providing a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of their motivations, beliefs, and actions.

In addition to personal narratives, biographies of historical figures often weave together broader historical contexts and events. This allows readers to gain valuable insights into the social, political, and cultural forces that influenced their subjects’ lives and decisions.

Writing a Compelling Biography

A captivating biography requires more than just a simple retelling of a person’s life events. It delves into their personal experiences, relationships, and accomplishments, while maintaining an objective and authentic approach.

Being Objective and Authentic

An essential aspect of a well-written biography is its objectivity. The narrative should portray the real person, depicting their experiences and beliefs accurately.

While it can be tempting to embellish facts or minimize flaws, striving for authenticity is crucial in presenting a credible account. This involves thorough research and verification of facts, even when they contradict the author’s initial assumptions.

Authenticity also extends to the respectful portrayal of a subject’s relationships and exploration of their inner world, while avoiding speculation or gossip.

Balancing Personal and Public Life

When writing a biography, one must strike a balance between the subject’s personal and public life. This includes weaving together stories from their childhood, personal relationships, and major life events that may have shaped their character. The integration of both personal and public aspects contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of their vita.

However, careful consideration must be given to privacy concerns, and it is important to determine which aspects of the individual’s life are appropriate to disclose. Ultimately, the reader should gain insight into the person’s journey without feeling intrusive.

Creating Engaging Storylines

Just as in a novel, a great biography should feature engaging storylines that keep readers interested. This can be achieved by organizing the narrative around important events, challenges, and accomplishments that are relevant and compelling. To maintain a smooth flow, strategically transitioning between these key moments helps maintain reader interest.

The use of different perspectives, anecdotes, and historical context can also enhance the storyline. Paint vivid pictures of the settings, allowing readers to immerse themselves in the subject’s world. Furthermore, showcasing the subject’s resilience, growth, and impact, can contribute to a powerful and memorable biography.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can biographies be fictional or purely factual.

Biographies usually aim to present an accurate and factual representation of someone’s life. However, some authors might take creative liberties and incorporate fictionalized elements for dramatic or storytelling purposes.

It is crucial for readers to be aware of the author’s intentions and approach when reading such biographical works.

Can biographies be biased?

Biographies, like any form of writing, can be subject to biases depending on the author’s perspective, beliefs, or intentions.

It is essential for readers to critically evaluate biographies by considering factors such as the author’s credentials, potential biases, and the sources used in the research process.

By comparing multiple biographies on the same subject or cross-referencing with other sources, readers can develop a more comprehensive and balanced understanding of the individual’s life and achievements.

Are biographies always based on famous or historical figures?

While biographies often focus on famous or historical figures, they can also be written about lesser-known individuals with compelling stories or unique experiences.

These “everyday” biographies can provide valuable insights into the lives of ordinary people and the challenges they face, offering a broader understanding of the human experience and fostering empathy and connection among readers.

Are there any ethical considerations when writing a biography?

Yes, ethical considerations play a significant role in writing biographies.

Biographers must respect the privacy and dignity of their subjects, particularly when dealing with sensitive or personal information. They should also strive for accuracy and fairness, avoiding sensationalism or misrepresentation of facts.

Additionally, biographers should acknowledge and address any potential biases or conflicts of interest that may affect their portrayal of the subject.

Biographies offer us unparalleled access to the lives and legacies of remarkable individuals, spanning diverse genres and approaches.

From historical fiction to academic rigor, prophetic accounts to fictionalized narratives, biographies captivate our imagination and enrich our understanding of the human experience. These literary gems remind us that behind every great achievement lies a story of struggle, triumph, and unwavering determination.

So, let us continue to explore these remarkable journeys, as we delve deeper into the pages of history and the hearts of those who have shaped our world.

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What Is Biography? Definition, Usage, and Literary Examples

Biography definition.

A  biography  (BYE-og-ruh-fee) is a written account of one person’s life authored by another person. A biography includes all pertinent details from the subject’s life, typically arranged in a chronological order. The word  biography  stems from the Latin  biographia , which succinctly explains the word’s definition:  bios  = “life” +  graphia  = “write.”

Since the advent of the written word, historical writings have offered information about real people, but it wasn’t until the 18th century that biographies evolved into a separate literary genre.  Autobiographies  and memoirs fall under the broader biography genre, but they are distinct literary forms due to one key factor: the subjects themselves write these works. Biographies are popular source materials for documentaries, television shows, and motion pictures.

The History of Biographies

The biography form has its roots in Ancient Rome and Greece. In 44 BCE, Roman writer Cornelius Nepos published  Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae  ( Lives of the Generals ), one of the earliest recorded biographies. In 80 CE, Greek writer Plutarch released  Parallel Lives , a sweeping work consisting of 48 biographies of famous men. In 121 CE, Roman historian Suetonius wrote  De vita Caesarum  ( On the Lives of the Caesars ), a series of 12 biographies detailing the lives of Julius Caesar and the first 11 emperors of the Roman Empire. These were among the most widely read biographies of their time, and at least portions of them have survived intact over the millennia.

During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church had a notable influence on biographies. Historical, political, and cultural biographies fell out of favor. Biographies of religious figures—including saints, popes, and church founders—replaced them. One notable exception was Italian painter/architect Giorgio Vasari’s 1550 biography,  The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects , which was immensely popular. In fact, it is one of the first examples of a bestselling book.

Still, it wasn’t until the 18th century that authors began to abandon multiple subjects in a single work and instead focus their research and writing on one subject. Scholars consider James Boswell’s 1791  The Life of Samuel Johnson  to be the first modern biography. From here, biographies were established as a distinct literary genre, separate from more general historical writing.

As understanding of psychology and sociology grew in the 19th and early 20th centuries, biographies further evolved, offering up even more comprehensive pictures of their subjects. Authors who played major roles in this contemporary approach to biographing include Lytton Strachey, Gamaliel Bradford, and Robert Graves.

Types of Biographies

While all biographical works chronicle the lives of real people, writers can present the information in several different ways.

• Popular biographies are life histories written for a general readership.  The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks  by Rebecca Skloot and  Into the Wild  by Jon Krakauer are two popular examples.
• Critical biographies discuss the relationship between the subject’s life and the work they produced or were involved in; for example,  The Billionaire Who Wasn’t: How Chuck Feeney Secretly Made and Gave Away a Fortune  by Conor O’Clery and  Unpresidented: A Biography of Donald Trump  by Martha Brockenbrough.
• Historical biographies put greater understanding on how the subject’s life and contributions affected or were affected by the times in which they lived; see  John Adams  by David McCullough and  Catherine the Great  by Peter K. Massie.
• Literary biographies concentrate almost exclusively on writers and artists, blending a conventional  narrative  of the historical facts of the subject’s life with an exploration of how these facts impacted their creative output. Some examples include  Savage Beauty: The Life of Edna St. Vincent Millay  by Nancy Milford and  Jackson Pollock: An American Saga  by Gregory White Smith and Steven Naifeh.
• Reference biographies are more scholarly writings, usually written by multiple authors and covering multiple lives around a single topic. They verify facts, provide background details, and contribute supplemental information resources, like bibliographies, glossaries, and historical documents; for example,  Black Americans in Congress, 1870-2007  and the  Dictionary of Canadian Biography .
• Fictional biographies, or biographical novels, like  The Other Boleyn Girl  by Philippa Gregory, incorporate creative license into the retelling of a real person’s story by taking on the structure and freedoms of a novel. The term can also describe novels in which authors give an abundance of background information on their characters, to the extent that the novel reads more like a biography than fiction. An example of this is George R.R. Martin’s  Fire and Blood , a novel detailing the history of a royal family from his popular  A Song of Ice and Fire

Biographies and Filmed Entertainment

Movie makers and television creators frequently produce biographical stories, either as dramatized productions based on real people or as nonfiction accounts.

Documentary

This genre is a nonfictional movie or television show that uses historical records to tell the story of a subject. The subject might be a one person or a group of people, or it might be a certain topic or theme. To present a biography in a visually compelling way, documentaries utilize archival footage, recreations, and interviews with subjects, scholars, experts, and others associated with the subject.

Famous film documentaries include  Grey Gardens,  a biography of two of Jacqueline Kennedy’s once-wealthy cousins, who, at the time of filming, lived in squalor in a condemned mansion in the Hamptons; and  I Am Not Your Negro , a biography of the life and legacy of pioneering American author James Baldwin.

Television documentary series tell one story over the course of several episodes, like  The Jinx :  The Life and Deaths of Robert Durst , a biography of the real estate heir and alleged serial killer that focused on his suspected crimes. There are many nonfiction television shows that use a documentary format, but subjects typically change from one episode to the next, such as A&E’s  Biography  and PBS’s  POV .

These films are biographical motion pictures, written by screenwriters and performed by actors. They often employ a certain amount of creative liberty in their interpretation of a real life. This is largely done to maintain a feasible runtime; capturing all of the pivotal moments of a subject’s life in a 90- or 120-minute movie is all but impossible. So, filmmakers might choose to add, eliminate, or combine key events and characters, or they may focus primarily on one or only a few aspects of the subject’s life. Some popular examples:  Coal Miner’s Daughter , a biography of country music legend Loretta Lynn;  Malcom X , a biopic centered on the civil rights leader of the same name; and  The King’s Speech , a dramatization of Prince Albert’s efforts to overcome a stutter and ascend the English throne.

Semi-fictionalized account

This approach takes a real-life event and interprets or expands it in ways that stray beyond what actually happened. This is done for entertainment and to build the story so it fits the filmmaker’s vision or evolves into a longer form, such as a multi-season television show. These accounts sometimes come with the disclaimer that they are “inspired by true events.” Examples of semi-fictionalized accounts are the TV series  Orange Is the New Black ,  Masters of Sex , and  Mozart of the Jungle —each of which stem from at least one biographical element, but showrunners expounded upon to provide many seasons of entertainment.

The Functions of Biography

Biographies inform readers about the life of a notable person. They are a way to introduce readers to the work’s subject—the historical details, the subject’s motivations and psychological underpinnings, and their environment and the impact they had, both in the short and long term.

Because the author is somewhat removed from their subject, they can offer a more omniscient, third-person narrative account. This vantage point allows the author to put certain events into a larger context; compare and contrast events, people, and behaviors predominant in the subject’s life; and delve into psychological and sociological themes of which the subject may not have been aware.

Also, a writer structures a biography to make the life of the subject interesting and readable. Most biographers want to entertain as well as inform, so they typically use a traditional  plot  structure—an introduction,  conflict , rising of tension, a climax, a resolution, and an ending—to give the life story a narrative shape. While the ebb and flow of life is a normal day-to-day rhythm, it doesn’t necessarily make for entertaining reading. The job of the writer, then, becomes one of shaping the life to fit the elements of a good plot.

Writers Known for Biographies

Many modern writers have dedicated much of their careers to biographies, such as:

• Kitty Kelley, author of  Jackie Oh! An Intimate Biography; His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Frank Sinatra ; and  The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty
• Antonia Fraser, author of  Mary Queen of Scots ;  Cromwell; Our Chief of Men ; and  The Gunpowder Plot: Terror and Faith in 1605
• David McCullough, author of  The Path Between the Seas; Truman ; and  John Adams
• Andrew Morton, author of  Diana: Her True Story in Her Own Words; Madonna ; and  Tom Cruise: An Unauthorized Biography
• Alison Weir, author of  The Six Wives of Henry VIII; Eleanor of Aquitaine: By the Wrath of God; Queen of England ; and  Katherine Swynford: The Story of John of Gaunt and His Scandalous Duchess

Examples of Biographies

1. James Boswell,  The Life of Samuel Johnson

The biography that ushered in the modern era of true-life writing,  The Life of Samuel Johnson  covered the entirety of its subject’s life, from his birth to his status as England’s preeminent writer to his death. Boswell was a personal acquaintance of Johnson, so he was able to draw on voluminous amounts of personal conversations the two shared.

What also sets this biography apart is, because Boswell was a contemporary of Johnson, readers see Johnson in the context of his own time. He wasn’t some fabled figure that a biographer was writing about centuries later; he was someone to whom the author had access, and Boswell could see the real-world influence his subject had on life in the here and now.

2. Sylvia Nasar,  A Beautiful Mind

Nasar’s 1998 Pulitzer Prize-nominated biography of mathematician John Nash introduced legions of readers to Nash’s remarkable life and genius. The book opens with Nash’s childhood and follows him through his education, career, personal life, and struggles with schizophrenia. It ends with his acceptance of the 1994 Nobel Prize for Economics. In addition to a Pulitzer nomination,  A Beautiful Mind  won the National Book Critics Circle Award for Biography, was a  New York Times  bestseller, and provided the basis for the Academy Award-winning 2001 film of the same name.

3. Catherine Clinton,  Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom

Clinton’s biography of the abolitionist icon is a large-scale epic that chronicles Tubman’s singular life. It starts at her birth in the 1820s as the slave Araminta Ross, continuing through her journey to freedom; her pivotal role in the Underground Railroad; her Moses-like persona; and her death in 1913.

Because Tubman could not read or write, she left behind no letters, diaries, or other personal papers in her own hand and voice. Clinton reconstructed Tubman’s history entirely through other source material, and historians often cite this work as the quintessential biography of Tubman’s life.

4. Megan Mayhew Bergman,  Almost Famous Women

Almost Famous Women  is not a biography in the strictest sense of the word; it is a fictional interpretation of real-life women. Each short story revolves around a woman from history with close ties to fame, such as movie star Marlene Dietrich, Standard Oil heiress Marion “Joe” Carstairs, aviatrix Beryl Markham, Oscar Wilde’s niece Dolly, and Lord Byron’s daughter Allegra. Mayhew Bergman imagines these colorful women in equally colorful episodes that put them in a new light—a light that perhaps offers them the honor and homage that history denied them.

Further Resources on Biography

Newsweek  compiled their picks for the  75 Best Biographies of All Time .

The Open Education Database has a list of  75 Biographies to Read Before You Die .

Goodreads put together a list of readers’  best biography selections .

If you’re looking to write biographies,  Infoplease  has instructions for writing shorter pieces, while  The Writer   has practical advice for writing manuscript-length bios.

Ranker  collected  a comprehensive list of famous biographers .

Related Terms

• Autobiography
• Short Story

Literary Devices

Literary devices, terms, and elements, definition of biography.

A biography is a description of a real person’s life, including factual details as well as stories from the person’s life. Biographies usually include information about the subject’s personality and motivations, and other kinds of intimate details excluded in a general overview or profile of a person’s life. The vast majority of biography examples are written about people who are or were famous, such as politicians, actors, athletes, and so on. However, some biographies can be written about people who lived incredible lives, but were not necessarily well-known. A biography can be labelled “authorized” if the person being written about, or his or her family members, have given permission for a certain author to write the biography.

The word biography comes from the Greek words bios , meaning “life” and – graphia , meaning “writing.”

Difference Between Biography and Autobiography

A biography is a description of a life that is not the author’s own, while an autobiography is the description of a writer’s own life. There can be some gray area, however, in the definition of biography when a ghostwriter is employed. A ghostwriter is an author who helps in the creation of a book, either collaborating with someone else or doing all of the writing him- or herself. Some famous people ask for the help of a ghostwriter to create their own autobiographies if they are not particularly gifted at writing but want the story to sound like it’s coming from their own mouths. In the case of a ghostwritten autobiography, the writer is not actually writing about his or her own life, but has enough input from the subject to create a work that is very close to the person’s experience.

Common Examples of Biography

The genre of biography is so popular that there is even a cable network originally devoted to telling the stories of famous people’s lives (fittingly called The Biography Channel). The stories proved to be such good television that other networks caught on, such as VH1 producing biographies under the series name “Behind the Music.” Some examples of written biographies have become famous in their own right, such as the following books:

• Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow (made even more famous by the musical “Hamilton,” created by Lin-Manuel Miranda)
• Unbroken by Laura Hillenbrand
• Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson
• Into the Wild by Jon Krakauer
• The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skloot
• Mountains Beyond Mountains: The Quest of Dr. Paul Farmer, A Man Who Would Cure the World by Tracy Kidder
• Three Cups of Tea: One Man’s Mission to Promote Peace … One School at a Time by Greg Mortenson

Significance of Biography in Literature

The genre of biography developed out of other forms of historical nonfiction, choosing to focus on one specific person’s experience rather than all important players. There are examples of biography all the way back to 44 B.C. when Roman biographer Cornelius Nepos wrote Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae (“Lives of those capable of commanding”). The Greek historian Plutarch was also famous for his biographies, creating a series of biographies of famous Greeks and Romans in his book Parallel Lives . After the printing press was created, one of the first “bestsellers” was the 1550 famous biography Lives of the Artists by Giorgio Vasari. Biography then got very popular in the 18th century with James Boswell’s 1791 publication of The Life of Samuel Johnson . Biography continues to be one of the best selling genres in literature, and has led to a number of literary prizes specifically for this form.

Examples of Biography in Literature

And I can imagine Farmer saying he doesn’t care if no one else is willing to follow their example. He’s still going to make these hikes, he’d insist, because if you say that seven hours is too long to walk for two families of patients, you’re saying that their lives matter less than some others’, and the idea that some lives matter less is the root of all that’s wrong with the world.

( Mountains Beyond Mountains: The Quest of Dr. Paul Farmer, A Man Who Would Cure the World by Tracy Kidder)

Tracy Kidder’s wonderful example of biography, Mountains Beyond Mountains , brought the work of Dr. Paul Farmer to a wider audience. Dr. Farmer cofounded the organization Partners in Health (PIH) in 1987 to provide free treatment to patients in Haiti; the organization later created similar projects in countries such as Russia, Peru, and Rwanda. Dr. Farmer was not necessarily a famous man before Tracy Kidder’s biography was published, though he was well-regarded in his own field. The biography describes Farmer’s work as well as some of his personal life.

On July 2, McCandless finished reading Tolstoy’s “Family Happiness”, having marked several passages that moved him: “He was right in saying that the only certain happiness in life is to live for others…” Then, on July 3, he shouldered his backpack and began the twenty-mile hike to the improved road. Two days later, halfway there, he arrived in heavy rain at the beaver ponds that blocked access to the west bank of the Teklanika River. In April they’d been frozen over and hadn’t presented an obstacle. Now he must have been alarmed to find a three-acre lake covering the trail.

( Into the Wild by Jon Krakauer)

Jon Krakauer is a writer and outdoorsman famous for many nonfiction books, including his own experience in a mountaineering disaster on Mount Everest in 1996. His book Into the Wild is a nonfiction biography of a young boy, Christopher McCandless who chose to donate all of his money and go into the wilderness in the American West. McCandless starved to death in Denali National Park in 1992. The biography delved into the facts surrounding McCandless’s death, as well as incorporating some of Krakauer’s own experience.

A commanding woman versed in politics, diplomacy, and governance; fluent in nine languages; silver-tongued and charismatic, Cleopatra nonetheless seems the joint creation of Roman propagandists and Hollywood directors.

( Cleopatra: A Life by Stacy Schiff)

Stacy Schiff wrote a new biography of Cleopatra in 2010 in order to divide fact from fiction, and go back to the amazing and intriguing personality of the woman herself. The biography was very well received for being both scrupulously referenced as well as highly literary and imaginative.

Confident that he was clever, resourceful, and bold enough to escape any predicament, [Louie] was almost incapable of discouragement. When history carried him into war, this resilient optimism would define him.

( Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption by Laura Hillenbrand)

Laura Hillenbrand’s bestselling biography Unbroken covers the life of Louis “Louie” Zamperini, who lived through almost unbelievable circumstances, including running in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, being shot down as a bomber in WWII, surviving in a raft in the ocean for 47 days, and then surviving Japanese prisoner of war camps. Zamperini’s life story is one of those narratives that is “stranger than fiction” and Hillenbrand brings the drama brilliantly to the reader.

I remember sitting in his backyard in his garden, one day, and he started talking about God. He [Jobs] said, “ Sometimes I believe in God, sometimes I don’t. I think it’s 50/50, maybe. But ever since I’ve had cancer, I’ve been thinking about it more, and I find myself believing a bit more, maybe it’s because I want to believe in an afterlife, that when you die, it doesn’t just all disappear. The wisdom you’ve accumulated, somehow it lives on.”

( Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson)

Steve Jobs is one of the most famous cultural icons of modern-day America and, indeed, around the world, and thus his biography was eagerly awaited. The author, Walter Isaacson, was able to interview Jobs extensively during the writing process. Thus, the above excerpt is possible where the writer is a character in the story himself, asking Jobs about his views on life and philosophy of the world.

Test Your Knowledge of Biography

1. Which of the following statements is the best biography definition? A. A retelling of one small moment from another person’s life. B. A novel which details one specific character’s full life. C. A description of a real person’s entire life, written by someone else.

2. Which of the following scenarios qualifies as a biography? A. A famous person contracts a ghostwriter to create an autobiography. B. A famous author writes the true and incredible life story of a little known person. C. A writer creates a book detailing the most important moments in her own life.

3. Which of the following statements is true? A. Biographies are one of the best selling genres in contemporary literature. B. Biographies are always written about famous people. C. Biographies were first written in the 18th century.

10 Key Characteristics, Origin, Types And Classification Of A Biography

We explain what a biography is, its origin and how this writing is classified. Also, what are its features, extension and more.

What is a Biography?

Origin of the term biography, genre of the biography, biography background.

biography types

• Authorized.  The one that has the approval of the biographer or his heirs and executors, that is, the one that has survived a certain process of censorship.
• Unauthorized. That written without approval and revision of the biographed character or his heirs.
• False. It is known as false autobiography or false biography to works of fiction that pretend to be biographical writings.

Delimitation of the biography

Objectivity of the biography

Biographical approach.

biographical novelty

Biography extension.

Biography Value

Kalum Talbot

MA student of the TransAtlantic Masters program at UNC-Chapel Hill. Political Science with a focus on European Studies. Expressed ideas are open to revision. He not only covers Technical articles but also has skills in the fields of SEO, graphics, web development and coding. .

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What Is a Biography?

Learning from the experiences of others is what makes us human.

At the core of every biography is the story of someone’s humanity. While biographies come in many sub-genres, the one thing they all have in common is loyalty to the facts, as they’re available at the time. Here’s how we define biography, a look at its origins, and some popular types.

“Biography” Definition

A biography is simply the story of a real person’s life. It could be about a person who is still alive, someone who lived centuries ago, someone who is globally famous, an unsung hero forgotten by history, or even a unique group of people. The facts of their life, from birth to death (or the present day of the author), are included with life-changing moments often taking center stage. The author usually points to the subject’s childhood, coming-of-age events, relationships, failures, and successes in order to create a well-rounded description of her subject.

Biographies require a great deal of research. Sources of information could be as direct as an interview with the subject providing their own interpretation of their life’s events. When writing about people who are no longer with us, biographers look for primary sources left behind by the subject and, if possible, interviews with friends or family. Historical biographers may also include accounts from other experts who have studied their subject.

The biographer’s ultimate goal is to recreate the world their subject lived in and describe how they functioned within it. Did they change their world? Did their world change them? Did they transcend the time in which they lived? Why or why not? And how? These universal life lessons are what make biographies such a meaningful read.

Origins of the Biography

Greco-Roman literature honored the gods as well as notable mortals. Whether winning or losing, their behaviors were to be copied or seen as cautionary tales. One of the earliest examples written exclusively about humans is Plutarch’s Parallel Lives (probably early 2 nd century AD). It’s a collection of biographies in which a pair of men, one Greek and one Roman, are compared and held up as either a good or bad example to follow.

In the Middle Ages, Einhard’s The Life of Charlemagne (around 817 AD) stands out as one of the most famous biographies of its day. Einhard clearly fawns over Charlemagne’s accomplishments throughout, yet it doesn’t diminish the value this biography has brought to centuries of historians since its writing.

Considered the earliest modern biography, The Life of Samuel Johnson (1791) by James Boswell looks like the biographies we know today. Boswell conducted interviews, performed years of research, and created a compelling narrative of his subject.

The genre evolves as the 20th century arrives, and with it the first World War. The 1920s saw a boom in autobiographies in response. Robert Graves’ Good-Bye to All That (1929) is a coming-of age story set amid the absurdity of war and its aftermath. That same year, Mahatma Gandhi wrote The Story of My Experiments with Truth , recalling how the events of his life led him to develop his theories of nonviolent rebellion. In this time, celebrity tell-alls also emerged as a popular form of entertainment. With the horrors of World War II and the explosion of the civil rights movement, American biographers of the late 20 th century had much to archive. Instantly hailed as some of the best writing about the war, John Hersey’s Hiroshima (1946) tells the stories of six people who lived through those world-altering days. Alex Haley wrote the as-told-to The Autobiography of Malcom X (1965). Yet with biographies, the more things change, the more they stay the same. One theme that persists is a biographer’s desire to cast its subject in an updated light, as in Eleanor and Hick: The Love Affair that Shaped a First Lady by Susan Quinn (2016).

Types of Biographies

Contemporary Biography: Authorized or Unauthorized

The typical modern biography tells the life of someone still alive, or who has recently passed. Sometimes these are authorized — written with permission or input from the subject or their family — like Dave Itzkoff’s intimate look at the life and career of Robin Williams, Robin . Unauthorized biographies of living people run the risk of being controversial. Kitty Kelley’s infamous His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Frank Sinatra so angered Sinatra, he tried to prevent its publication.

Historical Biography

The wild success of Lin-Manuel Miranda’s Hamilton is proof that our interest in historical biography is as strong as ever. Miranda was inspired to write the musical after reading Ron Chernow’s Alexander Hamilton , an epic 800+ page biography intended to cement Hamilton’s status as a great American. Paula Gunn Allen also sets the record straight on another misunderstood historical figure with Pocahontas: Medicine Woman, Spy, Entrepreneur, Diplomat , revealing details about her tribe, her family, and her relationship with John Smith that are usually missing from other accounts. Historical biographies also give the spotlight to people who died without ever getting the recognition they deserved, such as The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks .

Biography of a Group

When a group of people share unique characteristics, they can be the topic of a collective biography. The earliest example of this is Captain Charles Johnson’s A General History of the Pirates (1724), which catalogs the lives of notorious pirates and establishes the popular culture images we still associate with them. Smaller groups are also deserving of a biography, as seen in David Hajdu’s Positively 4th Street , a mesmerizing behind-the-scenes look at the early years of Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Mimi Baez Fariña, and Richard Fariña as they establish the folk scene in New York City. Likewise, British royal family fashion is a vehicle for telling the life stories of four iconic royals – Queen Elizabeth II, Diana, Kate, and Meghan – in HRH: So Many Thoughts on Royal Style by style journalist Elizabeth Holmes.

Autobiography

This type of biography is written about one’s self, spanning an entire life up to the point of its writing. One of the earliest autobiographies is Saint Augustine’s The Confessions (400), in which his own experiences from childhood through his religious conversion are told in order to create a sweeping guide to life. Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is the first of six autobiographies that share all the pain of her childhood and the long road that led to her work in the civil rights movement, and a beloved, prize-winning writer.

Memoirs are a type of autobiography, written about a specific but vital aspect of one’s life. In Toil & Trouble , Augusten Burroughs explains how he has lived his life as a witch. Mikel Jollett’s Hollywood Park recounts his early years spent in a cult, his family’s escape, and his rise to success with his band, The Airborne Toxic Event. Barack Obama’s first presidential memoir, A Promised Land , charts his path into politics and takes a deep dive into his first four years in office.

Fictional Biography

Fictional biographies are no substitute for a painstakingly researched scholarly biography, but they’re definitely meant to be more entertaining. Z: A Novel of Zelda Fitzgerald by Therese Anne Fowler constructs Zelda and F. Scott’s wild, Jazz-Age life, told from Zelda’s point of view. The Only Woman in the Room by Marie Benedict brings readers into the secret life of Hollywood actress and wartime scientist, Hedy Lamarr. These imagined biographies, while often whimsical, still respect the form in that they depend heavily on facts when creating setting, plot, and characters.

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The 7 Characteristics of the Most Important Biographies

The Characteristics of good biographies Must be based on authenticity and honesty, should be objective when presenting the lives of subjects and trying to avoid stereotypes.

Biographies are narrative and expository texts whose function is to give an account of the life of a person. At the time of writing a biography, special care must be taken and be truthful throughout the text, since what is narrated are real facts that happened to an individual.

But this is not all, good biographies must present details of the person's life, such as his birth, his family, his education, his weaknesses and strengths, among others, to understand the course of this.

However, biographies can not simply be a list of events, since this would be a timeline.

In this sense, in the biographical texts must exist a thematic progression, which will allow to relate these events, giving meaning to the narration.

7 Main features of biographies

1- general topic: individual.

As stated above, biography is a narrative about a person's life. In this sense, the first thing to take into account when writing a biography is about who is going to be treated.

There is a great variety of subjects on which a biographical text can be written, from figures recognized worldwide, such as Elon Musk Or Marie Curie, to ourselves, which would be an autobiography.

2- Character of the subject

In the biographies, a description of the main elements that define the character of the subject must be included, since this description will allow the reader to understand the decisions that the subject took or the achievements that reached.

For example, if you do a biography about George Washington, you could mention that since he was young he was very mature and had a great sense of responsibility, elements that made him an outstanding military leader and a hero for the United States.

3- Limited theme: focus

Because a person's life has many stages and many events, biography can focus on only one facet of the person.

For example, if you make a biography about Stanislao Cannizzaro , Who was an Italian scientist, professor and politician, could focus the biographical text in only one of these facets, for example, that of the scientist, and thus develop the contributions that this gave to science.

This delimitation should be included in the thesis of the biography, which is in the introduction.

4- Language function: informative

The type of language that should be used in biographies is the referential or informative, since what is sought is to transmit information about the life of the individual studied.

5- Organization

Most biographies follow chronological order. Because it is a narrative about real events, beginning in the early years of life of the figure in question could provide details that facilitate the reader's understanding.

The chronological order can be divided into stages of life; For example: birth and childhood, adult life and death (in case the subject studied has died).

However, the organization of the text will depend on the needs of the author. Some of the most common non-chronological models are:

• By subjects that have affected the studied subject or phases that it has crossed. For example, a biography about the painter Pablo Picasso could focus on the periods of works of this: cubist, blue, pink, black, among others.
• By interviews: In this case, the data presented are obtained through interviews with people who knew, or know, the subject studied. In this sense, the biographical text will be a recount of the testimonies of the interviewees.
• In media res: This is a literary term that refers to the anachronistic order, in which analepsis (jumps in time into the past) and prolepsis (jumps in time into the future) are used.

This means that the text does not begin with the birth of the individual but at some point in the life of the individual, and from there"leaps"to past events, and then return to the point where the story began.

Stuart, A Life Backwards, by author Alexander Masters, is an example of this type of biography.

6- Recount of at least one relevant event in the person's life

The biography must include at least one event highlighting the life of the individual being studied; This will make the text interesting to the reader.

For example, if you make a biography about Antoine Lavoisier , One should speak of its discovery, the law of conservation of mass; If it is a biography about the scientist John Dalton , It would be appropriate to talk about the atomic theory raised by it and how it was influenced by the discoveries of other scientists of the time.

7- Veracity

The most important feature of a biography is that it must be truthful and precise, since it is about the life of a person.

In this sense, the sources of information must be carefully checked, to determine if what they transmit is true or not.

The best sources of information in these cases are autobiographies, books and letters written by the individual studied, interviews with the individual (in case he has not died) and interviews with other people who are related, or who have been related, With the individual.

• How to write a biography. Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from grammar.yourdictionary.com.
• How to write a biography (with examples). Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from wikihow.com.
• Narrative essay biographical essay. Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from phschool.com.
• Biography. Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from yourdictionary.com.
• How do you start a biography? Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from quora.com.
• Biography. Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from homeofbob.com.
• Characteristics of good biographies. Retrieved on May 9, 2017, from education.com.

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Biography: what is biography, definition, types of biography, characteristics, origin and more 

What is biography.

It is one of the most important subgenres of the didactic genre of literature, since it consists of the text of the history of the life of a person. It is a written narration in which the most important facts of a person’s life are related as a summary, starting with the birth, with the whole context of the place of origin, and in some cases even going back to family history. The narrator is not the protagonist.

As for the completion of the biography, many of them are written when the protagonist has already died, so that it covers his or her life from beginning to end. However, it is up to the writer to choose how far the biography will go, especially if the protagonist lives.

Meaning of the subgenre biography

The term comes from the union of the Greek bios, which refers to life, and graphein, which refers to writing. This is how the term is configured, giving rise to a form of writing focused on life, so that it can also be used in a symbolic sense.

Definition of the sub-genre biography

It is a type of text written in the third person, in which the content consists of a summary of the life of a person, however, it may include appreciations by the author in which aspects related to the context of the life of the protagonist of the biography are specified, in addition to information related to accurate data.

What is the function of a biography?

A text like this gathers a great amount of information about the life of a person, so that its purpose is, above all, to make known fundamental features of the life of the person about whom the biography is made, in most cases it is about public people in which their professional activity is highlighted, appreciations about their private life or other activities for which they have stood out, which are essential to understand their work.

History and origin of the biographical subgenre

It is considered that the biographical text type has its beginnings since Antiquity, however, it should be noted that at that time it had not been established as a literary subgenre, so it had not been formally classified. It was in the Middle Ages, with the Renaissance movement, that biography began to be recognized, since at that time it was necessary to provide specific information on the artists in order to gradually eliminate the ancient Greek models from which it sought to dissociate itself.

With the passage of time, biography, like humanity, achieved an important evolution, in which it gradually came to incorporate a desperate search for documents that would allow an approach to the lives of subjects and artists. This will be key to the realist movement, which we have already talked about in a previous article. Thus, by the present time, the biography manages to consolidate itself as a writing that allows us to know the life of a character from the most relevant and determining events for the activity for which he is publicly known, in the case of figures recognized in the political, social, cultural, etc. field.

Characteristics of the biography subgenre

Let us look at the essential characteristics of this literary subgenre:

The central theme that distinguishes the biography from other didactic subgenres is the narration of the most relevant facts of a person’s life, which is presented through a written text. It deals with real events in the life of an equally existing person. Its content goes from the birth of a person until the present time or the time of his death. Some authors write about the author even after death, especially if he left works that keep his name active.

Mode of composition

At the time when a biography is being written, as well as when it is read, the organization of the events that are exposed are arranged chronologically, following the line of life. Likewise, in the writing, the author maintains an objective and accurate look in which everything he mentions can be verified. However, the author may mention some particular assessments.

Another of the most relevant aspects of this type of subgenre has to do with the type of narrator who writes, since the story is narrated in the third person.

Mode of presentation

Although it is essentially a written text, so that it can be presented in documents and books, the truth is that these serve as a basis for the reproduction of the biography through other formats, as has happened in recent years where the lives of key characters are exposed through documentaries, films, programs, etc.

Historical content

A biography, although it has a series of data on important dates, also tends to make tours around important trips or journeys made by the character, so that it incorporates historical events during their travels, as many of them influence their activities and will have an important impact on decision making. This information also allows the reader to situate and contextualize the reader in relation to the time and space of the person’s life.

Structure of the biography subgenre

As for the structure of this type of text, it is similar to the organization usually used in narrative texts, since it has an opening section, an introduction and a closing section as a conclusion at the end of the text. Thus, the biography is organized as follows:

Introduction: as its name indicates, this initial part introduces the character about whom we are going to talk. Thus, the full name, date and place of birth (if desired date and place of death), and finally the activity he/she developed in life, that is to say, his/her profession and specialty, are mentioned.

Development: in this part begins as such the order of the biography. Here the author begins with the narration of all those events that were transcendental for the protagonist’s life, so he can start by pointing out particularities of his origin, the activity of his parents and siblings, if he focuses on the family circle, etc.

Conclusion : it is the closing of the text in which we reach the last years of the character’s life, if he/she has passed away, or the present time, if the author prefers. Often, in this part the author’s subjectivity is evident due to a series of evaluations that are made in relation to the transcendence of the protagonist.

Likewise, the structure of the biography usually includes other elements in its organization such as:

Dedication: this is a space that occupies one or two short sentences in which the author or writer of the biography allows himself to show affection, either to the protagonist of his biography or to people he esteems.

Preface: in this section the author can relate some of his or her personal experiences in relation to the moment prior to consolidating the biography to be presented. In this sense, he/she can address issues such as the reasons that prompted him/her to develop his/her work, the reasons and the research tools, for example.

Acknowledgements: in the final part of the biography, although it can also appear at the beginning, the author proceeds to thank different people, including those who helped him/her to find relevant information about the protagonist, as well as other people who have accompanied the process through complementary activities, company, photographic work, data collection, etc.

Annexes: in this section the author can include annexes such as photographs, articles and documents that have been mentioned during the course of the biography and that are duly indicated to lead the reader to them.

Types of the biography subgenre

According to the field in which a biography is developed, it is possible to identify some modalities that give rise to a number of types of biography. These are:

Authorized biography

These are all biographies that have been reviewed and validated by the author, who, once he/she has reviewed them, approves everything that is exposed within their content and allows the publication of the biography that has been written.

Unauthorized biography

In this case, the biography has not been reviewed by the author, in most cases without seeking the approval of the person whose life is narrated. Often this type of biography is part of the journalistic activity when reporting on a public person, especially when it is a political or social figure.

Book biography

It is given by the type of format in which the biography is presented. Its length allows for a much more detailed and thorough exploration of the protagonist. Often the person written about is a public personality of interest in a specific society and context. Its content includes background, moments prior to becoming known, work, etc.

Professional biography

In this type of biographies the content is focused on the exaltation of the person’s skills, as well as his or her knowledge, abilities, experience and other aspects that may increase the value of the proposal. It includes skills related to personality traits in the quality of the activity.

Informative biographies

They are usually biographies not marked within the literary world, but within the journalistic world, since they tend to emphasize in-depth research with the intention of informing a much wider audience. There is no deepening of the data presented, but they are exposed in an objective and concrete way where specific aspects are highlighted.

How to write a biography?

Now that we have seen what a biography consists of in broad strokes, it is time to see how to write such a text correctly:

Choosing the protagonist 

The first thing we must do when we plan to write a biography is to choose the person about whom we want to develop the text. We can practically choose any person, whether it is a friend, a relative, an acquaintance, an artist, a doctor, a lawyer, a teacher or any other person we want to write about.

Collecting the information 

Once you have chosen the person you are going to write the biography about, it is time to start gathering as much information about the person as possible. Gather information about their life, background, institutions they went through, their jobs, activities and so on, this will allow you to make a complete biography. If you can have contact with the person, interviewing him or her, for example, will be of great help.

If you choose a famous personality, you may find much of this information in audiovisual media, interviews, books, among others. If not, you can approach relatives, friends and people close to you to obtain much more information.

Asking important questions

As you collect information, it is important, at the same time, to keep in mind a series of key questions that will allow you to go deeper and collect baseline information to provide as much data as possible about your entire life. So some of these questions can be: Who were his parents and what did they do, what was the relationship with his family circle like, what was his childhood like, what led him to approach what would become his main activity in life, what are his first steps in his passion, etc.

Organization of the information

When you have all this information, it is time to organize it. Remember to keep a chronological order, even though there are connections between past and present directly, so you should go deeper into different moments that allow you to configure the future of the protagonist seen from the past.

Establish a central idea 

Many biographies maintain an order that revolves around a particular idea, it can be a particularity of the character, an activity or profession that he/she has developed, etc. Elaborating this central idea will allow you to develop the content around the character’s life, through which all the events will pass.

Start writing

It is time to get down to work. Start writing keeping the order you have chosen and the central idea you have set up, although you can indicate it from the beginning, you must take care that the information you add builds it during the course of the biography.

Adding the bibliography 

Because of the type of text you are writing, since it involves a large number of sources of information, it is necessary that each of the sources be added to the final document, including not only documents or books, but also interviews and people who gave you their word, online sources consulted, etc.

Final proofreading 

We have the whole document ready, now we just need to check again aspects such as spelling and grammar, as well as the coherence between paragraphs and other divisions you have decided to make within the biography. You can ask someone to read it so that they can give you their feedback, especially if the person you are talking about is of interest to them as well.

Remember to check some sources beforehand. You can refer to existing biographies of authors, artists, doctors, politicians or any other important personalities. This will allow you to have a closer guide to start writing the biography.

Example of the biography subgenre

The following is an excerpt from the authorized biography of Steve Jobs, one of the most well-known biographies of our times, written by Walter Isaacson:

“This is a book about the eventful life and searing, intense personality of a creative entrepreneur whose passion for perfection and fierce determination revolutionized six different industries: personal computers, animated films, music, telephony, electronic tablets, and digital publishing. We could even add a seventh: retail, which Jobs didn’t exactly revolutionize, but he did revamp. He also paved the way for a new digital content market based on applications rather than websites. Along the way, he has not only created products that have transformed the industry, but also, on his second try, an enduring company, imbued with his very DNA, filled with creative designers and daring engineers who will be able to carry his vision forward.”

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1.4: Characteristics of Life

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What do a bacterium and a whale have in common?

Do they share characteristics with us? All living organisms, from the smallest bacterium to the largest whale, share certain characteristics of life. Without these characteristics, there is no life .

Characteristics of Life

Look at the duck decoy in Figure below. It looks very similar to a real duck. Of course, real ducks are living things. What about the decoy duck? It looks like a duck, but it is actually made of wood. The decoy duck doesn’t have all the characteristics of a living thing. What characteristics set the real ducks apart from the decoy duck? What are the characteristics of living things?

This duck decoy looks like it’s alive. It even fools real ducks. Why isn’t it a living thing?

To be classified as a living thing, an object must have all six of the following characteristics:

• It responds to the environment.
• It grows and develops.
• It produces offspring.
• It maintains homeostasis.
• It has complex chemistry.
• It consists of cells.

Response to the Environment

All living things detect changes in their environment and respond to them. What happens if you step on a rock? Nothing; the rock doesn’t respond because it isn’t alive. But what if you think you are stepping on a rock and actually step on a turtle shell? The turtle is likely to respond by moving—it may even snap at you!

Growth and Development

All living things grow and develop. For example, a plant seed may look like a lifeless pebble, but under the right conditions it will grow and develop into a plant. Animals also grow and develop. Look at the animals in Figure below. How will the tadpoles change as they grow and develop into adult frogs?

Tadpoles go through many changes to become adult frogs.

Reproduction

All living things are capable of reproduction. Reproduction is the process by which living things give rise to offspring. Reproducing may be as simple as a single cell dividing to form two daughter cells. Generally, however, it is much more complicated. Nonetheless, whether a living thing is a huge whale or a microscopic bacterium, it is capable of reproduction.

Keeping Things Constant

All living things are able to maintain a more-or-less constant internal environment. They keep things relatively stable on the inside regardless of the conditions around them. The process of maintaining a stable internal environment is called homeostasis . Human beings, for example, maintain a stable internal body temperature. If you go outside when the air temperature is below freezing, your body doesn’t freeze. Instead, by shivering and other means, it maintains a stable internal temperature.

Complex Chemistry

All living things—even the simplest life forms—have a complex chemistry. Living things consist of large, complex molecules, and they also undergo many complicated chemical changes to stay alive. Thousands (or more) of these chemical reactions occur in each cell at any given moment. Metabolism is the accumulated total of all the biochemical reactions occurring in a cell or organism. Complex chemistry is needed to carry out all the functions of life.

All forms of life are built of at least one cell. A cell is the basic unit of the structure and function of living things. Living things may appear very different from one another on the outside, but their cells are very similar. Compare the human cells on the left in Figure below and onion cells on the right in Figure below. How are they similar? If you click on the animation titled Inside a Cell at the link below, you can look inside a cell and see its internal structures. http://bio-alive.com/animations/cell-biology.htm

Human Cells (left). Onion Cells (right). If you looked at cells under a microscope, this is what you might see.

• All living things detect changes in their environment and respond to them.
• All living things grow and develop.
• All living things are capable of reproduction, the process by which living things give rise to offspring.
• All living things are able to maintain a constant internal environment through homeostasis.
• All living things have complex chemistry.
• All forms of life are built of cells. A cell is the basic unit of the structure and function of living things.

Explore More

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

• http://www.hippocampus.org/Biology → Non-Majors Biology → Search: Defining Biology
• What does "biology" encompass?
• What characteristics define life?
• Define metabolism.
• Are viruses living? Explain your answer.
• List the six characteristics of all living things.
• Define homeostasis.
• What is a cell?
• Making the next generation is known as ____________.
• Assume that you found an object that looks like a dead twig. You wonder if it might be a stick insect. How could you determine if it is a living thing?

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Biology library

Course: biology library   >   unit 1.

• Preparing to study biology
• Biology overview

What is life?

Introduction, properties of life, 1. organization, 2. metabolism, 3. homeostasis, 5. reproduction, 6. response, 7. evolution, is this the definitive list, separating living and non-living things, what counts as life is still being defined., what do you think, works cited:.

• Eveleth, R. "There Are 37.2 Trillion Cells in Your Body." Smithsonian.com. October 24, 2013. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/there-are-372-trillion-cells-in-your-body-4941473/?no-ist .
• Koshland, D. E. "The Seven Pillars of Life." Science 295, no. 5563 (2002): 2215-216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1068489 .
• Mullen, L. "Defining Life: Q&A with Scientist Gerald Joyce." Space.com. August 1, 2013. http://www.space.com/22210-life-definition-gerald-joyce-interview.html .

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What Makes or Breaks the Capricorn Zodiac Sign?

T he Capricorn zodiac sign is known for its ambition, discipline, and practicality. As one of the most driven and determined signs of the zodiac, Capricorns are often seen as natural leaders and high achievers. But what really sets this zodiac sign apart? What traits can make or break a Capricorn’s success and happiness in life?

Capricorn Zodiac Sign Explained

Capricorns, born between December 22nd and January 20th, are Earth signs, sharing their element with Taurus and Virgo. They are known for their practicality, self-reliance, stoicism, and ambition. Capricorns make reliable allies, though they may not be the life of the party. They are particularly compatible with Taurus and Virgo romantically due to their shared traits and values.

Capricorns are the ultimate powerhouse of the zodiac, with a unique spirit that sets them apart. Known for their fearless ambition, boundless resilience, and ability to persevere through tough times, Capricorns possess a secret wild side rarely seen in conventional personality assessments. Behind their composed exterior lies a rebellious, untamed spirit that comes alive when they let loose, ordering rounds of tequila, dancing on tables, and reveling until dawn. This blend of strength and spontaneity makes Capricorns truly special and unforgettable.

Capricorn Characteristics and Traits

These are some of the traits that make the Capricorn zodiac sign unique:

1. Responsible

Capricorns are known for their responsibility, stemming from their hardworking and ambitious nature. They approach tasks with maturity, pragmatism, and discipline, diligently following rules and staying organized to achieve their goals. They take ownership of their mistakes and use them as learning opportunities. Capricorns excel at keeping track of important details, such as passwords and assignments, and possess a knack for interior design.

2. Ambitious

Capricorns are highly ambitious individuals with grand aspirations they believe they can achieve through hard work and dedication. They are continuously driven to surpass both themselves and others, which fuels their perseverance through long hours of effort. Capricorns anticipate rewards, whether in the form of financial success, job stability, or recognition, once they reach their goals. If you seek a dependable partner for a project, a Capricorn should be among your top considerations.

3. Perfectionists

Capricorns are renowned for their serious and diligent nature, especially in their pursuit of goals, whether it’s completing work projects or excelling academically. They exhibit persistence and a can-do attitude, refusing to give up until they achieve their desired outcomes. Even lacking natural talent, they excel through their unwavering determination and willingness to learn new skills. In essence, the tenacity of a Capricorn should never be underestimated.

4. Strong-willed

Capricorns excel in ambition and diligence, but their high standards and traditional mindset can make them appear stubborn. They often find it challenging to be open-minded or change their perspectives due to their focus on practicality and materialism. Their “my way or the highway” mentality can make it difficult for others to connect with them easily.

Capricorns’ practical and grounded nature can sometimes lead them to focus excessively on the negatives in life, causing dissatisfaction and unhappiness. Their emphasis on appearances over personal feelings can trap them in a cycle of negativity and mood swings. Perfectionism is a common struggle for Capricorns, leading them to view failure as a significant disappointment and easily becoming dejected if things are not perfect. This negative outlook can affect both their own mood and the moods of those around them.

Capricorn Interests

Now that we found out what Capricorns are like, we need to answer the ultimate question: What do they like? Here are only a few of their special interests:

They Enjoy Quiet Time for Reading

Capricorns value reading not just as a pastime but as a means to stockpile precious knowledge. They enjoy delving into books to learn new skills and gain insights that can help them outdo others by acquiring surprising expertise.

They Often Indulge in DIY and Gardening

Capricorns have a deep appreciation for being at home and engaging in practical activities. They find fulfillment in projects that contribute to the improvement of their living space, whether it’s tackling home improvement tasks or nurturing their garden. This hands-on approach allows them to indulge in “ pottering with intent” as they meticulously enhance their surroundings.

They Want You to Say “Thank You” Immediately

Despite their reputation for seriousness and steadfastness, there’s a playful side to every Capricorn. They have an inner child that craves immediate rewards and indulgences. Whether it’s satisfying their sweet tooth, enjoying a favorite drink, or treating themselves to the latest fashion, Capricorns know how to let loose and enjoy life’s pleasures, especially when they give themselves permission to go a bit wild.

They Care for Money More Than You Can Imagine

For Capricorns, success is often synonymous with financial prosperity. They are drawn to money as a tangible measure of their achievements, and the pursuit of financial security serves as their motivation and driving force. Whether it’s climbing the career ladder or making savvy investments, Capricorns are determined to secure their financial future and enjoy the fruits of their labor.

They Love Playing Games

Capricorns thrive on intellectual challenges and are drawn to puzzles and games that test their problem-solving abilities. They prefer tasks that are absorbing and complex, relishing the opportunity to apply their methodical minds to solving problems. Whether it’s tackling intricate jigsaw puzzles or participating in elaborate escape room scenarios, Capricorns enjoy showcasing their brilliance and proving their competency to others.

Capricorn in Love

Capricorns are industrious and sensible individuals, embodying an old soul persona that attracts those seeking a stable and committed relationship. To connect with a Capricorn in a meaningful way, one must respect their dedication to their career. They may work long hours and find it challenging to separate their professional and personal lives. Capricorns communicate their feelings directly and pragmatically, eschewing flowery language for straightforwardness.

Capricorns approach intimacy with the same driven mindset they apply to other areas of life, aiming to please their partner due to their ruler, Saturn’s influence. With a preference for power dynamics, they often enjoy taking on a dominant role in the bedroom. Professional success, advancement, or recognition can particularly arouse their desires.

What Are Capricorn’s Worst Personality Traits?

Capricorns, as cardinal earth signs, are often seen as practical and restrained, which some may interpret as boring. They tend to avoid risks and prefer thought-out plans over spontaneity. Their pragmatic nature, combined with their perfectionism, can sometimes lead to hesitation in taking action.

Who Is Compatible With Capricorns?

Capricorns typically have strong compatibility with pragmatic Taurus , cerebral Virgo , and family-oriented Scorpio . Signs sharing the same element, such as Taurus, Virgo, and Capricorn, often synchronize well, with earth signs especially valuing authenticity. Additionally, earth signs harmonize with water signs, as they complement and balance each other effectively.

Capricorn and Cancer often find attraction in their opposite qualities, bonding over their mutual drive for career success and creating a fulfilling home life. Yet, as both are ambitious and focused on their goals, they may struggle with feelings of neglect as they vie for each other’s attention. Capricorn may face challenges with emotionally driven Libra and competitive Aries due to differing priorities and communication styles.

Are you or any of your close friends or family members a Capricorn? What are they like?

You might also want to read: What You Should Know About the Libra Zodiac Sign

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Key facts about U.S. Latinos for National Hispanic Heritage Month

National Hispanic Heritage Month, which begins in the United States each year on Sept. 15, celebrates U.S. Latinos , their culture and their history. Started in 1968 by Congress as Hispanic Heritage Week, it was expanded to a month in 1988. The celebration begins in the middle of September to coincide with independence days in several Latin American countries: Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica celebrate theirs on Sept. 15, followed by Mexico on Sept. 16, Chile on Sept. 18 and Belize on Sept. 21.

Here are some key facts about the U.S. Latino population by geography and by characteristics such as language use and origin group.

As part of our ongoing research about Hispanics in the United States, we analyzed how this group has changed over time using data from the U.S. Census Bureau. The decennial census ( PL94-171 census data ) provided some historical state and national population counts, and population estimates provided the latest data on total population, births and immigration.

We also examined characteristics of the U.S. Hispanic population using the American Community Survey (ACS), which provides data for states and the U.S. on Hispanic origin, language use, country of birth and educational attainment. Data from the 2022 ACS and some from the 2010 ACS are from tabulations released by U.S. Census Bureau . Some ACS and census data is from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) of the University of Minnesota.

The U.S. Hispanic population reached 63.6 million in 2022, up from 50.5 million in 2010. The 26% increase in the Hispanic population was faster than the nation’s 8% growth rate but slower than the 34% increase in the Asian population. In 2022, Hispanics made up nearly one-in-five people in the U.S. (19%), up from 16% in 2010 and just 5% in 1970.

Hispanics have played a major role in U.S. population growth over the past decade. The U.S. population grew by 24.5 million from 2010 to 2022, and Hispanics accounted for 53% of this increase – a greater share than any other racial or ethnic group. The next closest group is non-Hispanic people who identify with two or more races. Their population grew by 8.4 million during this time, accounting for 34% of the overall increase.

The number of Latinos who say they are multiracial has increased dramatically. More than 27 million Latinos identified with more than one race in 2022, up from 3 million in 2010. The increase could be due to several factors, including changes to the census form that make it easier for people to select multiple races and growing racial diversity.

Growth in the number of multiracial Latinos comes primarily from those who identify as at least one specific race and “some other race” (i.e., those who write in a response). This population grew from 2.1 million to 24.9 million between 2010 and 2022 and now represents about 91% of multiracial Latinos. The increase was due almost entirely to growth in the number of people who identified as White and some other race, according to the 2020 census.

At the same time, the number of Latinos who identified as White and no other race declined from 26.7 million in 2010 to 10.7 million in 2022.

The roughly 37.4 million people of Mexican origin in the U.S. represented nearly 60% of the nation’s Hispanic population in 2022. Those of Puerto Rican origin are the next largest group, at 5.9 million, which does not include another roughly 3.2 million Puerto Ricans who lived on the island in 2022. The U.S. population of Puerto Rican origin has grown partly due to people moving from Puerto Rico to the 50 states and the District of Columbia.

Six other Hispanic origin groups in the U.S. each have 1 million or more people: Salvadorans, Cubans, Dominicans, Guatemalans, Colombians and Hondurans. In addition, in 2022, Spaniards accounted for nearly 1 million U.S. Latinos.

Puerto Rico’s population has declined by about 500,000 since 2010, from 3.7 million to 3.2 million. Puerto Rico has experienced a net population loss since at least 2005 , driven by low fertility rates and migration to the U.S. mainland. An ongoing economic recession and devastation from hurricanes Maria and Irma in 2017 have also contributed to the decline.

Venezuelans have seen the fastest population growth among U.S. Latinos. From 2010 to 2022, the Venezuelan-origin population in the U.S. increased by 236% to 815,000. Four other groups saw growth rates exceeding 50%: Hondurans increased by 67%, followed by Guatemalans (62%), Dominicans (59%) and Colombians (51%).

By contrast, the number of people of Mexican origin in the U.S. grew by only 14%, by far the slowest rate among the most populous origin groups.

Hispanics are the largest racial or ethnic group in California and Texas. This demographic milestone in California happened in 2014 and was a first for the state with the nation’s largest Hispanic population . Latinos accounted for 40% of California’s population in 2022, among the greatest shares in the country.

That year, there were about 15.7 million Hispanics in California, up from 14.0 million in 2010. The non-Hispanic White population, the next largest group, declined from 15.0 million to 13.2 million during this time, reflecting a broader national trend .

In Texas, the state with the next largest Latino population (12.1 million), Latinos also made up 40% of the population in 2022 and became the largest racial or ethnic group in 2021. In Florida, the state with the third-largest Latino population (6.0 million), Latinos made up 27% of residents.

Rounding out the top five states with the largest Hispanic populations were New York (3.9 million) and Arizona (2.4 million). Eight more states had 1 million or more Hispanics: Illinois, New Jersey, Colorado, Georgia, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Washington and New Mexico.

Vermont had the nation’s smallest Latino population (15,000) in 2022, followed by Maine (29,000), West Virginia and North Dakota (34,000 each), and South Dakota (42,000).

In New Mexico, Hispanics have been a majority of the population since 2021 and the state’s largest racial or ethnic group since the early 2000s. In 2022, the state was home to 1.1 million Hispanics.

Three states’ Hispanic populations increased by more than 1 million from 2010 to 2022. Texas (2.5 million increase), Florida (1.8 million) and California (1.6 million) accounted for almost half of the growth nationwide since 2010. Arizona (480,000 increase), New Jersey (464,000) and New York (432,000) had the next-biggest increases. All 50 states and the District of Columbia have seen growth in their Hispanic populations since 2010.

North and South Dakota’s Hispanic populations have grown the fastest since 2010. The number of Hispanics in North and South Dakota more than doubled (146% and 107% increases, respectively) from 2010 to 2022. But even with that growth, these states each had fewer than 45,000 Hispanics in 2022, among the smallest populations in the country.

The slowest growth was in New Mexico (10% increase), California (12%), and Illinois and New York (13% each), all states with significant Hispanic populations.

The makeup of the U.S. Hispanic population varies widely across major metropolitan areas.  Most of the metro areas in the Midwest, West and South with the largest Hispanic populations are predominantly Mexican. About three-quarters of Hispanics in the Chicago (77%) and Los Angeles (75%) areas identify as Mexican, as do 67% in the Houston area.

Metro areas in the Northeast tend to have more diverse Hispanic origins. For example, no origin group makes up more than 30% of the New York and Boston metro areas’ Hispanic populations.

Metro areas in Florida and the nation’s capital have distinctive Hispanic enclaves. Puerto Ricans make up 43% of Hispanics in the Orlando area, while Cubans make up 39% of Hispanics in the Miami area. In the Washington, D.C., metro area, Salvadorans account for 30% of Hispanics.

Catholics remain the largest religious group among Latinos in the U.S., but they have become a smaller share of the Latino population over the past decade. In 2022, 43% of Latinos adults identify as Catholic, down from 67% in 2010. Meanwhile, 30% of Latinos are religiously unaffiliated (describing themselves as atheist, agnostic or “nothing in particular”), up from 10% in 2010. The share of Latinos who identify as Protestants – including evangelical Protestants – has been relatively stable.

Newborns, not immigrants, have driven the recent growth among U.S. Hispanics. During the 2010s, an average of 1 million Hispanic babies were born each year, slightly more than during the 2000s. At the same time, about 350,000 Hispanic immigrants arrived annually, down substantially from the previous two decades.

The recent predominance of new births over immigration as a source of Hispanic population growth is a reversal of historical trends. In the 1980s and 1990s, immigration drove Hispanic population growth.

From 2020 to 2022, average annual births among Hispanics were slightly below the previous decade, but immigration decreased considerably, from 350,000 per year to 270,000. Some of this decline can be attributed to immigration into the U.S. stopping almost entirely during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. With the removal of pandemic-related restrictions , the contribution of immigration to Hispanic growth appears to be returning to early 2010s levels.

The share of Latinos in the U.S. who speak English proficiently is growing. In 2022, 72% of Latinos ages 5 and older spoke English proficiently, up from 59% in 2000. U.S.-born Latinos are driving this growth: The share of U.S.-born Latinos who speak English proficiently increased by 9 percentage points in that span, compared with a 5-point increase among Latino immigrants. All told, 42.3 million Latinos in the U.S. spoke English proficiently in 2022.

At the same time, the share of Latinos who speak Spanish at home declined from 78% in 2000 to 68% in 2022, and most of that decline was among the U.S. born.

Even though the share of Latinos who speak Spanish at home has declined, the number who do so has grown from 24.6 million in 2000 to 39.7 million in 2022 because of the overall growth in the Latino population.

The share of U.S. Hispanics with college experience has increased since 2010. About 45% of U.S. Hispanic adults ages 25 and older had at least some college experience in 2022, up from 36% in 2010. The share of Hispanics with a bachelor’s degree or more education also increased, from 13% to 20%. The share with a bachelor’s degree or higher increased more among Hispanic women (from 14% to 22%) than Hispanic men (12% to 18%).

The number of Latinos enrolled in college or postgraduate education also increased between 2010 and 2022, from 2.9 million to 4.2 million. Among all U.S. undergraduate and graduate students, the share of Latinos increased from 14% in 2010 to 20% in 2022, slightly higher than the Latino share of the total population.

Four-in-five Latinos are U.S. citizens. As of 2022, 81% of Latinos living in the country are U.S. citizens, up from 74% in 2010. This includes people born in the U.S. and its territories (including Puerto Rico), people born abroad to American parents, and immigrants who have become naturalized citizens. The Center recently published citizenship rates among Hispanic origin groups for 2021; this data is not yet available for 2022.

Note: This post has been regularly updated since it was originally published on Sept. 16, 2014.

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6 Common Leadership Styles — and How to Decide Which to Use When

• Rebecca Knight

Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances call for different approaches.

Research suggests that the most effective leaders adapt their style to different circumstances — be it a change in setting, a shift in organizational dynamics, or a turn in the business cycle. But what if you feel like you’re not equipped to take on a new and different leadership style — let alone more than one? In this article, the author outlines the six leadership styles Daniel Goleman first introduced in his 2000 HBR article, “Leadership That Gets Results,” and explains when to use each one. The good news is that personality is not destiny. Even if you’re naturally introverted or you tend to be driven by data and analysis rather than emotion, you can still learn how to adapt different leadership styles to organize, motivate, and direct your team.

Much has been written about common leadership styles and how to identify the right style for you, whether it’s transactional or transformational, bureaucratic or laissez-faire. But according to Daniel Goleman, a psychologist best known for his work on emotional intelligence, “Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances may call for different approaches.”

• RK Rebecca Knight is a journalist who writes about all things related to the changing nature of careers and the workplace. Her essays and reported stories have been featured in The Boston Globe, Business Insider, The New York Times, BBC, and The Christian Science Monitor. She was shortlisted as a Reuters Institute Fellow at Oxford University in 2023. Earlier in her career, she spent a decade as an editor and reporter at the Financial Times in New York, London, and Boston.

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• Open access
• Published: 18 April 2024

High-nitrogen fertilizer alleviated adverse effects of drought stress on the growth and photosynthetic characteristics of Hosta ‘Guacamole’

• Jiao Zhu 1 ,
• Youming Cai 1 ,
• Liuyan Yang 1 &
• Yongchun Zhang 1  

BMC Plant Biology volume  24 , Article number:  299 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Several plants are facing drought stress due to climate change in recent years. In this study, we aimed to explore the effect of varying watering frequency on the growth and photosynthetic characteristics of Hosta ‘Guacamole’. Moreover, we investigated the effect of high-nitrogen and -potassium fertilizers on alleviating the impacts of drought stress on the morphology, photosynthetic characteristics, chlorophyll fluorescence, fast chlorophyll a fluorescence transient, JIP-test parameters, and enzymatic and non-enzymatic scavenging system for reactive oxygen species (ROS) in this species.

Leaf senescence, decreased chlorophyll contents, limited leaf area, and reduced photosynthetic characteristics and oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) activity were observed in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress. However, high-nitrogen fertilizer (30-10-10) could efficiently alleviate and prevent the adverse effects of drought stress. High-nitrogen fertilizer significantly increased chlorophyll contents, which was higher by 106% than drought stress. Additionally, high-nitrogen fertilizer significantly improved net photosynthetic rate and water use efficiency, which were higher by 467% and 2900% than those under drought stress. It attributes that high-nitrogen fertilizer could reduce transpiration rate of leaf cells and stomatal opening size in drought stress. On the other hand, high-nitrogen fertilizer enhanced actual photochemical efficiency of PS II and photochemical quenching coefficient, and actual photochemical efficiency of PS II significantly higher by 177% than that under drought stress. Furthermore, high-nitrogen fertilizer significantly activated OEC and ascorbate peroxidase activities, and enhanced the performance of photosystem II and photosynthetic capacity compared with high-potassium fertilizers (15-10-30).

Conclusions

High-nitrogen fertilizer (30-10-10) could efficiently alleviate the adverse effects of drought stress in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ via enhancing OEC activity and photosynthetic performance and stimulating enzymatic ROS scavenging system.

Peer Review reports

Water scarcity is one of the main consequences of climate change caused by global warming and has created abiotic stress environment for a huge number of plants [ 1 ]. Drought stress affects plant physiology and metabolism and negatively affects plant growth, stomatal conductance, gas exchange, chlorophyll content, leaf water potential, and photosynthesis [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Drought in summer often results in the morphological changes in plants such as yellowing, curling, and wilting of leaves and reduces the yield and ornamental value of commercial crops and ornamental plants [ 5 , 6 ].

Hosta species (family: Liliaceae) are herbaceous perennials, which are commercially grown on a large scale for landscaping and for extracting essential oil in many countries [ 7 ]. Various members of Hosta spp. have varying sizes, from miniature to giant, and they are native to China, Japan, and Korea. Most endemic species are used as edible vegetables and folk medicines [ 6 ]. Previous studies reported that Hosta spp. is rich in steroids and flavonoids with valuable medicinal properties such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, antitumor, antiviral, acetylcholinesterase inhibitory, antimicrobial, and anti-chronic-prostatitis [ 8 ]. Moreover, flowers of several members of this species have attractive fragrance, with the main aromatic compound being terpenoids (mainly myrcene, limonene, beta-ocimene, and linalool) [ 9 , 10 ]. Compared with the cultivar, the most characteristic aromatic compound in wild-type Hosta flowers was reported to be hexanol. The essential oil obtained from wild-type H. sieboldiana flowers was richer in aromatic compounds than that obtained from the cultivar flowers, highlighting the use of wild-type flowers for essential oil extraction [ 11 ]. In addition, it is considered a decorative plant because of delicate flowers and because its leaves are of varying sizes, shapes, and colors [ 12 ]. Hosta spp. has a high ornamental value in gardening industry. The flowers of most members of Hosta spp. exhibit colors in the shades of purple and white. Their leaves may be green, blue, yellow, golden, or white and may have one or multiple colors [ 12 ]. For example, H. plantaginea is used for landscaping and gardening and is appreciated for its ornamental value with beautiful foliage and flowers, as well as long blooming period [ 8 , 13 ].

Previous studies revealed that various environmental factors affect the growth and photosynthetic capacity of various members of Hosta spp [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. It is essential to conserve water during cultivation and avoid morphological changes that can occur in Hosta spp. after being in water-deficient environment for a long time [ 14 ]. In the view of severe global climate change, increased temperature in summer and reduced rainfall are being observed in China and globally [ 17 ]. Severe environmental stresses such as drought stress would affect photosystem II (PS II) in plants [ 18 ]. Previous studies reported that the application of growth hormones, silicon, or selenium or molecular and genomic breeding for drought resistance could alleviate the adverse effects of drought stress [ 3 , 4 ]. However, they have weak operability, hampering its practical use. However, salicylic acid and nitrogen and potassium fertilizers could also alleviate the effects of drought stress in plants [ 19 , 20 ]. Therefore, the application of fertilizers perhaps is the most convenient and easy way to resist drought stress.

Breeding fragrant cultivars has become the new trend of modern development of Hosta [ 10 ]. Hosta ‘Guacamole’ is an aromatic and ornamental herb and is a Hosta hybrid cultivar. Its white flowers have characteristic fragrance and can be used to extract essential oil. Its leaves lack wax coat; therefore, they are perhaps sensitive to temperature, light, and moisture compared with other members of Hosta spp. with wax coat. In this study, we aimed to explore the effect of drought stress on the growth and photosynthetic characteristics of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ and to further analyze high-nitrogen fertilizers how to alleviate the adverse effects of drought stress. This study provided an effective method to solve the problem of decreasing yield and ornamental value of Hosta spp. under drought and provided the theoretical basis for alleviating the adverse effects of drought stress. In addition, our study provided a basis for the cultivation of Hosta spp. in the view of climate change.

Effect of high-nitrogen and -potassium fertilizers on the morphological characteristics of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress

The morphology of plants under T3 treatment in drought stress was clearly different. The edges of leaves gradually started turning white (Fig.  1 A), and later, the edge of leaves the entire leaf surface turned white under T4 treatment (Fig.  1 B). After the fertilizer treatment in T5 and T6, the leaves turned green and had more leaves than T4 (Fig.  1 B; Table  1 ). Under T3, the size of stomatal opening was smaller by 51.8% and 36.3% than that under T1 and T2, respectively (Fig.  1 C-E). However, T4, T5, and T6 treatments resulted in smaller and even closure of stomatal opening in longtime drought environment (Fig.  1 F-H).

The largest leaf area was under T1, which was higher by 16.7% and 18.7% than that under T2 and T3, respectively. The L * and b * values under T3 treatment were clearly higher by 3.9% and 5.9% than those under T1, respectively. The lowest chlorophyll content was observed under T3, which was lower by 15.6% and 21.0% than that under T1 and T2, respectively. After fertilizer treatment to T3-treated plants, under T5 and T6, the leaf area clearly increased; the largest leaf area was 78.4 ± 5.92 a cm 2 under T5. In addition, under T5 and T6, the chlorophyll content of leaves substantially increased, alleviating the yellowing of the leaves. The highest chlorophyll content was in T5, which was significantly higher 106% than those T4. The L * and b * values were significantly lower and a * value was significantly higher under T5 than under T4 and T6 (Table  1 ).

Morphological response in terms of changes in the leaf shape and color under T1-3 ( A ); Morphological response in terms of changes in the leaf shape and color under T4-6 ( B ); stomatal opening under T1 ( C ), T2 ( D ), and T3 ( E ); Stomatal closure under T4 ( F ), T5 ( G ), and T6 ( H )

Effect of high-nitrogen and -potassium fertilizers on the photosynthetic characteristics of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress

The maximum net photosynthetic rate ( P n ), stomatal conductance ( g s ), and transpiration rate ( T r ) were observed in T1 and T2 compared with T3. However, compared with T1 and T2, T3 treatment exhibited the maximum vapor pressure deficit (VPD). The intercellular CO 2 concentrations ( C i ) and water use efficiency (WUE) were not significantly different among the treatments. After various fertilizer treatments, the P n and WUE under T5 were significantly higher than those under T4 and T6. The P n under T5 was 4.45 ± 1.20 a µmol m − 2 s − 1 , which was significantly higher by 467% than that under T4. However, the g s , T r , and C i under T4 were significantly higher by 417%, 710%, and 329%, than those under T5, respectively, but no significant difference was observed in terms of VPD (Fig.  2 ).

The effect of high-nitrogen and -potassium fertilizers on the P n ( A ), C i ( B ), g s ( C ), T r ( D ), VPD ( E ), and WUE ( F ) of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress. Each value is expressed as the mean ± SE of 9 independent plants. Different lowercase letters represent significant differences between treatments ( P  < 0.05)

Effect of high-nitrogen and -potassium fertilizers on the chlorophyll fluorescence in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress

The actual photochemical efficiency of PS II (ΦPS II) and electron transport rate (ETR) were increased as the water content in soil increased. The highest ETR and ΦPS II were observed under T1. The lowest ΦPS II was observed under T3. The lowest ETR and photochemical quenching coefficient (qP) were observed under T3. The highest non-photochemical quenching coefficient (NPQ) was observed under T2 and T3.

After fertilizer treatments, the ΦPS II, ETR, and qP were significantly increased under T5 and T6, exhibiting the maximum value under T5. These values under T5 were 0.539 ± 0.014 a , 23.4 ± 1.31 a , and 0.822 ± 0.069 a , respectively, and were higher by 177%, 191%, and 90.0%, respectively, than those under T4. Conversely, the NPQ exhibited the minimum value under T5 (0.209 ± 0.061 b ), which was significantly lower than that under T4 and T6 (Fig.  3 ).

The effect of high-nitrogen and potassium fertilizers on the ΦPS II ( A ), ETR ( B ), qP ( C ), and NPQ ( D ) in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress. Each value is expressed as the mean ± SE of 3 independent plants, and each treatment was repeated four times. Different lowercase letters represent significant differences between treatments ( P  < 0.05)

Effect of high-nitrogen and -potassium fertilizers on the chlorophyll fluorescence rise kinetics in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress

The chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ were further analyzed. The chlorophyll fluorescence was higher under T3 than under T1 and T2 in OJIP curve (Fig.  4 A). However, it was clearly lower under T5 and T6 than under T4 in OJIP curve (Fig.  4 B). In ΔW OK analysis, the highest ΔW L under T3 was 1.10 ± 0.324 a which was significantly higher than that under T1 and T2. On the other hand, it was significantly lower by 46.1% and 42.6%, respectively, under T5 and T6 than that under T4 (Fig.  5 A and B). In ΔW OJ analysis, ΔW K was clearly higher by 58.8% and 58.6%, respectively, in T3 than that in T1 and T2 (Fig.  6 A). However, after fertilizer treatments, in T5 and T6, the ΔW K value was significantly lower by 46.4% and 68.2%, respectively, than that in T4 (Fig.  6 B).

We further analyzed the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) activity under T1–3. The OEC center activity was significantly lower in T3 than in T1 and T2. The OEC center activity was only 0.309 ± 0.136 b ; this was attributed to drought stress in T3 (Fig.  7 A). However, under T5 and T6, the OEC center activity was significantly higher by 812% and 683%, respectively, than that under T4. The maximum OEC center activity was observed in T5 (Fig.  7 B).

The V t andΔV t in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under T1, T2, and T3 ( A ) and nitrogen and potassium fertilizer treatments ( B ). Each value is expressed as the mean ± SE of 9 independent plants

The ΔW OK and ΔW L of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under T1, T2, and T3 ( A ) and under nitrogen and potassium fertilizer treatments ( B ). Each value is expressed as the mean ± SE of 9 independent plants. Different lowercase letters represent significant differences between treatments ( P  < 0.05)

The ΔW OJ andΔW K in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under T1, T2, and T3 ( A ) and under nitrogen and potassium fertilizer treatments ( B ). Each value is expressed as the mean ± SE of 9 independent plants. Different lowercase letters represent significant differences between treatments ( P  < 0.05)

The OEC center activity under T1, T2, and T3 ( A ) and treated by nitrogen and potassium fertilizers ( B ) of Hosta ‘Guacamole’. Each value is expressed as the mean ± SE of 9 independent plants. Different lowercase letters represent significant differences between treatments ( P  < 0.05)

Effect of high-nitrogen and potassium fertilizers on the JIP-test parameters in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress

The JIP-test parameters of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ were different under various treatments (Fig.  8 ). The performance index for the conservation of energy from photons absorbed by the PS II antenna to the reduction of PS I acceptors (PI total ), maximum quantum yield of primary photochemistry (F v /F m ), quantum yield of the electron transport flux from Q A to Q B (φ Eo ), and quantum yield of the electron transport flux until the PS I electron acceptors (φ Ro ) were significantly lower in T3 than in T1 and T2. The PI total was significantly lower by 71.6% and 64.7% in T3 than in T1 and T2, respectively. No significant differences in other JIP-test parameters including electron transport efficiency from Q A − to the PSI electron end acceptors (ψ Eo ), electron transport efficiency except Q A (ψ Ro ), and efficiency with which an electron from Q B is transferred until PSI acceptors (δ Ro ) were observed among the treatments (Fig.  8 A). All the JIP-test parameters were higher under T5 and T6 than under T4. The maximum value of PI total and ψ Ro was observed under T5 treatment, which was significantly higher by 1725% and 10.7%, respectively, in T5 than in T4 (Fig.  8 B).

The JIP-test parameters in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under T1, T2, and T3 ( A ) and under nitrogen and potassium fertilizer treatments ( B ). Each value is expressed as the mean ± SE of 9 independent plants

The alleviating effect of high-nitrogen and potassium fertilizers on the impacts of drought stress in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ in terms of reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging

The ROS are scavenged by ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and non-enzymatic antioxidants such as glutathione (GSH). The APX activity was the highest in T5 (4.43 ± 0.133 a U·g − 1 ), which was higher by 44.1% and 46.9% than that in T4 and T6, respectively (Fig.  9 A). The highest SOD activity (55.9 ± 2.68 a U·g − 1 ) and GSH content (294 ± 3.54 a µg·g − 1 ) were observed under T4. In non-enzymatic ROS scavenging system, GSH level was significantly higher by 15.3% and 19.7% in T4 than in T5 and T6, respectively. In enzymatic ROS scavenging system, the SOD activity was significantly higher by 368% and 274% in T4 than in T5 and T6, respectively (Fig.  9 B, C).

The APX ( A ), SOD ( B ), and GSH ( C ) contents under drought stress and under nitrogen and potassium fertilizer treatments. Each value is expressed as the mean ± SE of 9 independent plants. Different lowercase letters represent significant differences between treatments ( P  < 0.05)

High-nitrogen fertilizer could avoid morphological changes of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress

The frequency and severity of drought is expected to increase due to climate change [ 21 ]. Several plants are facing drought stress and high-temperature stress due to climate change; this has resulted in morphological changes including dehydrated, discolored, curled, and burned leaves [ 5 , 6 ]. Thus, studying the response of Hosta plants to drought stress may help to design strategies for improving drought tolerance in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ and to efficiently deal with morphological changes due to drought stress. This study aimed to provide a basis and theoretical guidance for cultivating ornamental and horticultural plants with tolerance to drought stress. Previous studies reported that salicylic acid and sufficient nitrogen supplementation could increase leaf area under drought stress [ 19 , 20 ] and efficiently improve relative water and chlorophyll contents and leaf area [ 8 , 22 ]. Therefore, nitrogen fertilizer can play an important role in alleviating the effects of drought stress in plants. In this study, Hosta ‘Guacamole’ with water shortage (T3) exhibited growth with smaller leaf area and withering from the edge to center of leaves. However, water-soluble fertilizer, particularly high-nitrogen fertilizer, efficiently alleviated the effects of drought stress in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ in summer. In our results, high-nitrogen fertilizer treatment resulted in larger leaf area and greener and smoother leaves under drought stress. Furthermore, stomatal opening was smaller, transpiration rate decreased, and WUE was clearly improved, which avoided the loss of water inside the cells in drought environment. Therefore, this indicated that high-nitrogen fertilizer could avoid morphological changes under drought stress in summer.

High-nitrogen fertilizer could improve the photosynthetic characteristics of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress

Drought stress not only affects plant morphology but also changes the photosynthetic characteristics of plant leaves, which are sensitive to high temperature and drought [ 23 ]. Previous studies reported that the net photosynthesis rate, stomatic conductance, and transpiration rate were reduced in response to drought stress [ 24 ]. Similarly, our results concluded that drought stress significantly negatively affected the photosynthetic characteristics. Meanwhile, previous studies reported that salicylic acid can effectively increase photosynthesis of mustard plants under drought stress with sufficient nitrogen supplementation [ 20 ]. In our study, in the high-nitrogen treatment T5, the net photosynthetic rate and WUE were significantly enhanced and stomatal conductance and transpiration rate were decreased. T5 exhibited the highest WUE and lowest transpiration rate under drought stress, effectively enhancing the ability of drought stress resistance [ 22 ]. However, T4 (water shortage) exhibited lower P n , G s , and T r and higher C i than T5 and T6, which was mainly caused by stomatal closure and complex non-gassing effects [ 25 ]. In our study, high-nitrogen fertilizer could efficiently alleviate the adverse effects of drought stress in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ by reducing transpiration rate of leaf cells and stomatal opening size, increasing WUE, and further efficiently enhancing the photosynthetic rate.

High-nitrogen fertilizer could improve chlorophyll fluorescence and photochemical efficiency in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress

The physiological and biochemical parameters of plants under stress can be nondestructively monitored using hyperspectral imaging systems measuring chlorophyll fluorescence [ 8 ]. In our study, the ΦPS II, ETR, and qP were significantly higher in T1 than in T3, indicating that T3 resulted in photoinhibition and decreased the photochemical efficiency of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ plants under drought stress [ 26 ]. However, T5 and T6 alleviated the photoinhibition and improved the photochemical efficiency caused by drought stress; thus, they significantly enhanced the actual photochemical efficiency of PS II, photochemical quenching coefficient, and electron transport rate. The photochemical quenching coefficient NPQ provides insights on the level of overexcitation energy and protects photosystems from this energy by releasing heat [ 27 ]. In our study, the NPQ was significantly lower in T1 than in T2 and T3, which indicated that drought stress mainly decreased photochemical efficiency and enhanced heat-dissipation pathway in Hosta ‘Guacamole’. However, the NPQ was significantly lower in T5 than in T4 and T6, suggesting that high-nitrogen fertilizer efficiently alleviated photoinhibition under drought stress and enhanced the photochemical efficiency for photosystems rather than regulating heat dissipation [ 28 ].

To further understand the effect of drought stress on photosynthesis in Hosta ‘Guacamole’, the measurement and analysis of fast chlorophyll a fluorescence is a useful and efficient method for the assessment of many external or intrinsic adverse effects on PS II photochemistry [ 29 ]. In OJIP curve, the positive ΔL-, ΔK-, ΔJ-, and ΔI-bands appeared in T3, indicating that drought stress perhaps resulted in uncoupling of the OEC, accumulation of Q A − , or destroying the acceptor side of PS II [ 26 ]. In T3, the L-band was positive in ΔW OK with bigger amplitude, and the ΔW L value was significantly higher than that in T1 and T2. This indicated that T3 lost more PS II energetic connectivity, which resulted in more sensitivity to drought stress [ 30 ]. In addition, the K-band was positive in ΔW OJ , and the ΔW L value was significantly higher in T3 than in T1 and T2, which was attributed to the damage on the OEC at the PS II donor side [ 31 ]. Furthermore, our results confirmed the possibility that the OEC activity of T3 was significantly lower than that of T1 and T2, which perhaps generated more H 2 O 2 and destroyed cell structure [ 32 ]. However, the treatment with water-soluble high-nitrogen (T5) and high-potassium (T6) alleviated the negative effects of drought stress in the photosynthetic system. T5 and T6, particularly T5, efficiently improved PS II energetic connectivity and enhanced the OEC activity of the reaction center, which could efficiently avoid cell damage [ 33 , 34 ].

Furthermore, our results revealed that the JIP-test parameters, particularly, PI total , F v /F m , φ Eo , and φ Ro , which quantified the conformation, structure, and function of photosynthetic apparatus, were significantly lower in T3 than in T1 and T2 treatments [ 30 ]. It indicated that drought stress resulted in the inhibition of performance index PI total and quantum yield of the electron transport flux (φ Eo and φ Ro ) [ 31 ]. However, drought stress did not affect the electron transport (ψ Eo , ψ Ro , and δ Ro ) of the photosynthetic apparatus. It indicated that the photosynthetic apparatus was different in T3, which could be attributed to the inhibition of light reactions, OEC inactivation, and reduction of chlorophyll content [ 31 , 35 ]. T5 and T6 efficiently alleviated the photosynthetic apparatus stress and enhanced performance index, photosynthetic capacity, and electron transport under drought stress. T5 exhibited better alleviation and resistance effects in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress and could more efficiently enhance PS II performance and PS II capacity [ 31 ]. This was attributed to the enhanced OEC activity and PS II performance by nitrogen fertilizer.

High-nitrogen fertilizer could improve drought resistance of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ by stimulating enzymatic ROS scavenging system

Prolonged exposure to extreme conditions results in the increased accumulation of ROS, which easily results in lipid peroxidation and cellular damage [ 36 ]. H 2 O 2 is an ROS that can translocate to the nucleus and acts as a signaling agent. Moreover, O 2 − is very harmful and identified as the cause of photooxidative damage in plant leaves [ 36 ]. Meanwhile, OEC-depleted PS II predominantly generates H 2 O 2 [ 32 ]. The balance of ROS in plant cells is important for plant development. The antioxidant defense system in the plant cell includes both enzymatic (e.g., SOD) and nonenzymatic (e.g., ascorbate, GSH, and α-tocopherol) antioxidants [ 37 ]. The enzymatic ROS scavenging system in plant cells includes enzymes such as SOD, POD, CAT, and APX. In the ascorbate–glutathione cycle, APX reduces H 2 O 2 using ascorbate as an electron donor, which plays a crucial role in controlling the level of toxic byproducts of aerobic metabolism [ 38 ]. In the nonenzymatic ROS scavenging system, GSH acts as an antioxidant to reduce oxidative stress. Increased content of GSH is responsible for the reduction of oxidative stress, which plays a role in ROS detoxification, either directly or indirectly [ 20 ]. It is widely accepted that drought affects plant growth and development, changes the accumulation of compatible solutes and protective enzymes, enhances the levels of antioxidants, and inhibits energy-consuming pathways [ 26 ]. In our study, the SOD and GSH levels were significantly higher in T4 than in T5 and T6. This indicated that in Hosta ‘Guacamole’, the nonenazymatic ROS scavenging system was activated under drought stress to reduce damage due to ROS. However, high-nitrogen fertilizer treatment also activated enzymatic ROS scavenging system, as reflected by high APX activity and decreased ROS accumulation, which played an important role in decreasing toxic byproducts of aerobic metabolism in Hosta ‘Guacamole’. Our results indicated that high-nitrogen fertilizer improved drought resistance in Hosta ‘Guacamole’ by stimulating enzymatic ROS scavenging system. In conclusion, in summer, water-soluble fertilizer treatment to Hosta ‘Guacamole’ could efficiently alleviate the adverse effects of drought stress and improve drought resistance, with high-nitrogen (30-10-10).

Fertilizer exhibiting the best effect in alleviating drought stress. The drought resistance mechanism of Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under high-nitrogen fertilizer treatment will be further studied by studying the transcriptome and metabolome. However, we only concentrated on the effect of high-nitrogen fertilizer on Hosta ‘Guacamole’ under drought stress in this study, and similar experiment can be conducted on other plants in future to assess the effect of nitrogen fertilizer under drought stress.

In this study, watering for once in 2 weeks in summer resulted in drought stress in Hosta ‘Guacamole’, causing leaf senescence, decreased chlorophyll content, limited leaf area, and reduced photosynthetic characteristics. However, high-nitrogen fertilizer treatment could efficiently alleviate and prevent the adverse effects of drought stress, enhance net photosynthetic rate and WUE, activate the activity of the reaction center OEC, enhance PS II performance and photosynthetic capacity, and reduce nonphotochemical quenching. In conclusion, the addition of 30-10-10 fertilizer to Hosta ‘Guacamole’ in summer could efficiently alleviate the adverse effects of drought stress and improve drought resistance. Our research provided an effective method for Hosta cultivation in drought season and a basis for future studies on the cultivation of Hosta spp. in view of climate change.

Materials and methods

Plant materials and growth conditions.

Hosta ‘Guacamole’ seedlings were planted in plastic pots (diameter 12 cm) containing substrate and perlite (V:V; 3:1) and grown in a greenhouse (30°56′ N, 121°28′ E, Shanghai, China) at 30/20°C (day/night) under natural light (maximum photosynthesis photon flux density of approximately 300 µmol m − 2 s − 1 ) with relative humidity of 70–85%. The details of the treatments are given in Table  2 . In treatments T1, T2, and T3, varying watering frequency was applied for 50 days with 30 plants in each treatment. Subsequently, the 30 plants of T3 treatment were divided into 3 groups of 10 plants. Two groups ( n  = 10 each) received T5 and T6 treatments with N:P:K 30-10-10 and 15-10-30 fertilizers (ANOREL, Billy Fu Horticulture (Shanghai) Co., Ltd. ), respectively, and the remaining group ( n  = 10) received no fertilizer treatment (T4) for 30 days. The electric conductivity of fertilizers was 500 µs cm − 1 , and the soil humidity in different treatment was different. The soil humidity was determined using hand-held soil tachymeter (Tianjin Tianhang Zhiyuan Technology Co., LTD, China) four times a week at fixed time (Fig.  10 ). Soil humidity was determined using 10 plots each time.

The soil humidity of T1 ( A ), T2 ( B ), T3 ( C ), T4 ( D ), T5 ( E ), and T6 ( F )

Measurements of area and chlorophyll content in the leaves of Hosta ‘Guacamole’

To determine the growth of leaves, a leaf area meter (Yaxin-1241, Beijing Yaxin Liyi Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) was used. Chlorophyll contents were determined using a portable chlorophyll meter SPAD-502 PLUS (Konica Minolta Optics, Tokyo, Japan) as per the method by Iqbal et al. [ 20 ]. To further analyze the effect of drought stress and water-soluble fertilizers on the leaf color, chroma meter (CR-400, KONICA MINOLTA, Japan) was used to measure the chromatic aberration values L * , a * , and b * that denote the brightness value, red-green degree value, and yellow-blue degree value, respectively. The leaf area, chlorophyll content, and chromatic aberration were measured using 15 plants in T1, T2, and T3 treatments. After applying the fertilizers at the 30th day, these parameters were measured using 10 plants each from T4, T5, and T6 treatments.

Assessment of photosynthetic parameters and chlorophyll fluorescence

The photosynthetic parameters, including P n , g s , T r , C i , WUE, and VPD, were measured using CIRAS-3 portable photosynthesis system (PP Systems, Amesbury, MA, USA) with 260 µmol m − 2 s − 1 PPFD, 60–70% relative humidity, and ambient CO 2 of 390 ppm. The measurements were performed using 9 plants from T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6 treatments, respectively. Chlorophyll fluorescence of the leaves was measured using IMAGING-PAM (MAXI) (Zealquest Scientific Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China). The leaves were placed in dark for 30 min prior to measurement. Maximum quantum yield of PS II (F v /F m ), actual photochemical efficiency of PS II (ΦPS II), photochemical quenching coefficient (qP), non-photochemical quenching coefficient (NPQ), and electron transport rate (ETR) were measured. These measurements were performed thrice on four points on each side of the main vein from the tip to middle of the leaves.

Chlorophyll fluorescence rise kinetics and JIP-test parameters

Chlorophyll fluorescence rise kinetics were assessed using a Handy PEA continuous excitation fluorimeter (Handy Plant Efficiency Analyzer; Hansatech Instruments, Ltd., King’s Lynn, UK). The relative fluorescence parameters were calculated by double normalization of the moment chlorophyll fluorescence values to the end point within different intervals with the OJIP part of the transient-OP, OK, OJ, and OI. Following formulae were used for the calculations to clarify the structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus by describing the primary photosynthetic reactions in PS II [ 29 , 39 ]. The fluorescence parameters are listed in Table  3 . Other formulae are given as follows: ΔW OK = W OK (treatment)  − W OK (control) ; ΔW OJ = W OJ (treatment)  − W OJ (control) ; ΔW L =W L(treatment)  − W L(control) ; and ΔW K =W K(treatment)  − W K(control) . The JIP-test parameters including PI  total , φ Eo , F v /F m , φ Ro , δ Ro , ψ Ro , and ψ Eo were measured with nine replications using Handy PEA continuous excitation fluorimeter for each treatment.

ROS scavenging

ROS including superoxide anion radical and H 2 O 2 are scavenged by SOD and APX, respectively [ 36 ]. The SOD activity, APX activity, and GSH contents were measured as per the method by Yang et al. [ 37 ] using the kits by Wuhan ProNets Biotechnology Co, Ltd (Wuhan, China). The leaves of three individuals were mixed and considered as one replication. The experiment included three replicates. The details of extraction and determination of SOD activity, APX activity, and GSH contents are given in supplementary S1 .

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 19.0 (IBM, Inc., Armonk, NY, USA). The morphological and physiological parameters were analyzed using Duncan’s test ( P  < 0.05). The data were processed using Microsoft Excel 2007 (Redmond, CA, USA) and plotted using Origin Pro Version 8.5E (OriginLab, Northampton, MA, USA).

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Abbreviations

ascorbate peroxidase

intercellular CO 2 concentrations

electron transport rate

Maximum quantum yield of PS II

stomatal conductance

Glutathione

non-photochemical quenching coefficient

net photosynthetic rate

photochemical quenching coefficient

superoxide dismutase

transpiration rate

vapor pressure deficit

water use efficiency

actual photochemical efficiency of PS II

quantum yield of the electron transport flux until the PSI electron acceptors

efficiency with which an electron from Q B is transferred until PSI acceptors

electron transport efficiency except Q A

electron transport efficiency from Q A − to the PSI electron end acceptors

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This work was jointly supported by Shanghai Plant Seedling Tissue Culture Professional Technical Service Platform (21DZ2292300).

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Jiao Zhu conceived and designed the study. Jiao Zhu and Xin Li performed the experiments and data analysis. Jiao Zhu wrote the paper with suggestions from Youming Cai, Liuyan Yang, and Yongchun Zhang. Jiao Zhu revised the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Zhu, J., Cai, Y., Li, X. et al. High-nitrogen fertilizer alleviated adverse effects of drought stress on the growth and photosynthetic characteristics of Hosta ‘Guacamole’. BMC Plant Biol 24 , 299 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-04929-5

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Life cycle assessment of anaerobic-anoxic-oxic and extended aeration of the activated sludge treatment system for urban wastewater treatment: a case study in Iran

• Published: 17 April 2024

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• B. Movassagh Inchehboroun 1 ,
• G Asadollahfardi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7867-8757 1 &
• M Delnavaz 1  

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool for the analysis of all environmental impacts associated with a product or system. The objective of our study was to evaluate and compare the environmental impacts of Anaerobic-Anoxic-Oxic (A 2 O) and Extended Aeration Activated Sludge (EAAS) systems of the activated sludge treatment plant for urban wastewater treatments (in Tehran) using the LCA method, as well as to compare the differences of Simapro and Gabi software results. The LCA was carried out using Simapro 9.3.0.2 software, including CML-IA baseline, BEES+, and IMPACT 2002 + assessment methods. Also, the results obtained from the CML method of SimaPro software were compared and validated with the results obtained from the GaBi 9.21.68 software. The results indicated that using the SimaPro software, including CML, and BEES + methods, the Ekbatan Wastewater Treatment (A 2 O system) has the 6% and 16% higher environmental impacts in the acidification and global warming impact categories, respectively, and the Mahalati Wastewater Treatment (EAAS system) has 31% higher environmental impact in the eutrophication impact category. In damage categories, the Ekbatan Wastewater Treatment (A 2 O system) has 14%, 15%, and 6% higher environmental impacts in the resources, climate change, and human health damage categories, respectively, compared to the Ekbatan Wastewater Treatment. In the ecosystem quality damage category, the Mahalati Wastewater Treatment (EAAS system) has a 4% higher environmental impact than Ekbatan Wastewater Treatment (A 2 O system). Comparing the results between SimaPro and GaBi software demonstrated that the results are very similar to each other, and the results of the LCA are not dependent on the software used in this study. To enhance wastewater treatment in Iran, utilizing new technologies for energy efficiency, transitioning to renewable energy sources, promoting community acceptance of treated wastewater for various uses, and implementing stringent control measures are crucial steps.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

The Middle East and North Africa region, the driest place on Earth, harbors only 1% of the world’s freshwater resources for 6% of the global population (Fragaszy et al., 2020 ). The escalating population, urban expansion, and economic development contribute to a growing volume of wastewater, expected to rise further. Currently, only 43% of the generated wastewater undergoes treatment (Fragaszy et al., 2020 ), emphasizing the need for wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to alleviate stress on water sources and mitigate environmental impacts from untreated discharge. While WWTPs play a vital role in achieving sustainable development goals by recovering valuable resources like water and nutrients, their construction, operation, and decommissioning stages involve negative environmental impacts, including electricity and chemical consumption (Tabesh et al., 2019 ; Nguyen et al., 2020 ). Additionally, WWTPs have recently been recognized as sources of greenhouse gas emissions (Yapıcıoğlu, 2021 ).

Das et al. ( 2023 ) studied water scarcity and emerging contaminants (ECs) in sustainable water management, emphasizing the need for advanced treatment methods due to standard procedures’ limitations. It explores integrating water treatment with circular economy principles to enhance resource efficiency and minimize waste, offering insights for stakeholders in sustainable water management.

The responsibility for environmental protection rests upon us, and one of its purposes is to safeguard the health and well-being of society through wastewater treatment. The operation of wastewater treatment plants involves the utilization of energy and chemicals, leading to the emission of various gases, and produced residue, such as greenhouse gases, methane and sludge production. Therefore, selecting a wastewater treatment plant type with minimal adverse effects, particularly in terms of greenhouse gas production and acidification, is crucial for public health and resource preservation. This study aims to identify variations in gas emissions, fossil energy consumption, and chemical usage. The findings can inform the construction of new wastewater treatment plants or contribute to minimizing the impact of greenhouse gases through alterations in energy consumption methods or energy efficiency enhancement. These reasons have inspired the authors to delve into this topic.

The use of fossil fuels, chemicals, and generating sludge in wastewater treatment are three factors that affect air, water, and soil quality, resulting in negative impacts on public health and the increase of greenhouse gases, acidification, and other forms of air pollution. Therefore, it is necessary to change the types of energy used or alter wastewater treatment technologies to reduce fossil fuel consumption and minimize chemical usage in the treatment process. By comparing two types of wastewater treatment technologies and selecting the appropriate one, we can mitigate the issues caused by the use of fossil fuels and chemicals.

Various wastewater treatment plants utilize distinct technologies, leading to diverse levels of sustainability. Urban water policymakers and planners worldwide aim to address growing urban water and sanitary needs while ensuring the environmental sustainability of water, and wastewater systems. Assessing the environmental impact of different wastewater treatment plants can be achieved through the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) techniques. LCA, guided by ISO standards, is considered the most integrated and comprehensive tool, encompassing all upstream and downstream impacts associated with wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (Tabesh et al., 2019 ). This method systematically calculates environmental impacts based on the inputs and outputs of a system, allowing for meaningful comparisons in various contexts. Widely used in urban water management, LCA evaluates entire urban water systems or specific components (such as water or wastewater treatment), identifying improvement options and developing sustainability indicators in some cases.

To date, numerous studies have utilized LCA method to investigate water and wastewater systems. Among these studies, some have delved into the entire water cycle, scrutinizing its trajectory from entry into the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) to its exit. Conversely, due to the vastness of certain investigations and limitations in data availability for comprehensive LCA studies, some have exclusively focused on assessing the impacts of either water treatment or wastewater treatment plants.

In the realm of LCA studies concerning WWTPs, there exists variability in scope. Certain studies encompass all three phases—construction, operation, and disposal. Notably, several studies have deemed the environmental impacts during the construction phase as negligible when juxtaposed with the operational phase (Nguyen et al., 2021 ; Limphitakphong et al., 2016 ). Consequently, some investigations have opted to exclude the construction phase from their calculations, concentrating solely on the operational phases of the treatment plant.

Therefore, this paper centers on LCA) of wastewater treatment plants, with a focus on specific studies. Notably, Blanco et al. ( 2016 ) analyzed the environmental LCA) of two A 2 O wastewater treatment systems during operation. One system includes an anaerobic digester, while the other does not. In the first system, carbon dioxide emissions primarily drive the climate change impact category, while in the second system, greenhouse gas emissions, largely from electricity use, contribute significantly to this category. The study suggests that the first system is a superior environmental option based on the results obtained.

Postacchini et al. ( 2016 ) compared three wastewater treatment systems: activated sludge, trickling filter, and high-rate aerobic-anaerobic digestion (HRAAD). They found that both trickling filter and HRAAD systems had lower environmental impacts than activated sludge. Mohammadi and Fataei ( 2019 ) studied wastewater treatment systems in Ardabil, focusing on aeration lagoon and activated sludge. Their findings revealed that while the lagoon system had the highest environmental impacts, the activated sludge system showed significantly lower impacts.

Tabesh et al. ( 2019 ) studied the environmental impacts of modules 1 to 4 of South Tehran WWTP in the operation phase. The use of electricity from burning biogas compared to electricity from thermal power plants decreased the environmental impacts caused by fossil fuels by almost one third. The discharge of treated wastewater into surface waters created significant damage to the environment and the quality of water resources and should be avoided. In return, the use of wastewater to irrigate fields in the south of Tehran, in comparison with the discharge to surface water, reduced the eutrophication impact on the water resources by 40%.

Resende et al. ( 2019 ) evaluated the LCA of two types of artificial wetlands in the phases of construction and operation. The first type of wetland includes horizontal and vertical flow and the second type of wetland includes vertical subsurface flow with aeration. The results indicated that the most environmental impacts were related to the operation phase. The emission of greenhouse gases during the treatment process, and the nutrients in the discharged wastewater were the main cause of environmental impacts such as: global warming and nutrient depletion of water resources. The environmental impacts of the second type of wetland was lower than the first type.

Bahi et al. ( 2020 ) analyzed the environmental impacts of Ain-Taoujdate treatment plant in Morocco, which is a natural lagoon type in two scenarios without aeration and with aeration in three phases of construction, operation and sludge disposal. The results showed that in both scenarios, the operation phase has the most environmental impacts. The second scenario, which is the lagoon with aeration, has more environmental impacts in the construction phase than the lagoon without aeration.

Banti et al. ( 2020 ) investigated the environmental impacts of membrane bioreactor (MBR) and conventional activated sludge (CAS) systems in the operation phase using the life cycle assessment method. The results indicated that the environmental impacts of the MBR system are significantly lower than the conventional activated sludge system. Also, the need for less area and land as well as less sludge production are other advantages of MBR.

Eskandari Ashgofti et al. ( 2020 ) evaluated the environmental impacts of the sanitary and industrial WWTP of Tehran Oil Industry Research Institute, which is a membrane bioreactor (MBR) type, using the life cycle method. despite the difference in impact categories in three different evaluation methods, the most effective factors in sanitary wastewater were chloride and electricity consumption, and in industrial wastewater, in addition to the two factors mentioned in sanitary wastewater, oil was also an influential factor.

Hendi et al. ( 2021 ) studied LCA of disposal of sludge from the WWTP in South Tehran, which is a conventional activated sludge type. In this research, the use of sludge in agricultural lands had a positive effect on the of fossil fuels impact category, due to the reduction of the need for the production and consumption of phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers. On the other hand, there were negative effects in the group of carcinogenic impacts, respiratory impacts, toxicity and acidification, which are mainly due to the presence of heavy metals in the sludge.

Nguyen et al. ( 2021 ) investigated LCA three types of artificial wetland treatment systems, including conventional activated sludge and high-rate algae ponds (HRAP) in the construction and operation phases. The most environmental impacts in the construction phase are concrete, steel and electricity consumption, respectively. Among the three mentioned WWTPs, the activated sludge system had the most and the artificial wetland has the least environmental impact in the construction phase. In the operation phase, the activated sludge system had the most and the algae pond system with a high rate has the least environmental impacts.

Asadollahfardi et al. ( 2022 ) computed the environmental life cycle of concrete, PVC and polyethylene (PE) wastewater pipes. The comparison of these three types of pipes showed that the polyethylene pipe has the least environmental impacts compared to the other two pipes.Patel and Singh ( 2022 ) analyzed the LCA of activated sludge wastewater treatment systems, sequencing batch reactors (SBR), artificial lagoon and high rate anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB). The results determined that the sequential batch reactor system has the most environmental impacts due to high energy consumption. The electricity consumed during the treatment process was the main cause of environmental impacts.

Gomez et al. ( 2023 ) conducted an LCA using the environmental footprint method to assess a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in San Luis Potosi, Mexico. Their analysis covered materials, energy inputs, operation, maintenance, and sludge heavy metal concentrations. Sixteen impact categories were evaluated, highlighting infrastructure and tertiary treatment’s role in land use and ozone depletion, while energy use dominated other indicators. Heavy metal concentrations in sludge were found to impact human health and freshwater.

Bhatt et al. ( 2024 ) combined LCA and quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) to evaluate microalgae-mediated wastewater disinfection (M-WWD) in an Indian sewage treatment plant. M-WWD showed comparable life cycle impacts to traditional methods but had slightly lower health risks from pathogens. M-WWD, especially with biocrude production, offers a promising and eco-friendly alternative for wastewater treatment, warranting further pilot-scale testing and economic evaluation. Zheng and Lam ( 2024 ) analyzed LCA studies on GHG emissions reduction in wastewater treatment. They found that resource recovery options offer promising co-benefits, but changes in sludge disposal practices may have trade-offs. While many scenarios achieve GHG reduction with positive outcomes, over half show deteriorating impacts in at least one environmental category. The study stresses the importance of optimizing design and operation for overall sustainability in municipal wastewater management.

Guo et al. ( 2024 ) developed a photovoltaic-supported wastewater treatment system (WWTS) and analyzed its energy and environmental impacts (LCA). Results indicated an energy payback time (EPBT) of 11.31 years and a greenhouse gas payback time (GPBT) of 8.3 years. They recommended optimization for carbon emission reduction and found positive returns for system expansion under different scenarios and sewage types. Liu et al. ( 2024 ) studied wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) under varying renewable energy ratios, finding reduced environmental impacts like global warming and human toxicity with increased renewable energy use. However, higher renewable energy ratios altered impact contributions, underscoring the need for balanced power allocation. Their 40-year analysis revealed declining energy utilization efficiency, emphasizing opportunities for energy savings and emission reductions in WWTPs for sustainable development in the Tumen River Basin. Torre et al. ( 2024 ) addressed water stress in Lima by proposing wastewater treatment alternatives for eutrophication mitigation and indirect potable reuse (IPR). Using LCA, Life Cycle Costing, and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis, they favored Bardenpho for eutrophication control and hollow fibre- HF-MBR for socio-technical aspects. HF-MBR + RO + AOP emerged as optimal for IPR scenarios. These systems showed varied impacts, eutrophication reduction, and costs, guiding Lima’s move towards a circular economy in wastewater management.

Considering prior Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies, neither of the two types of WWTPs has been precisely investigated in the same manner. A comprehensive review of earlier literature and research reveals a consistent trend where only one software tool has been utilized in most of studies to evaluate the environmental impacts of WWTPs. In the current study, we compared the LCA results using both SimaPro and Gabi software. Moreover, it has been identified that there is a scarcity of studies addressing the evaluation of environmental impacts of WWTPs in the Middle East region. Furthermore, the existing studies in this region have predominantly focused on the assessment of only one type of wastewater treatment plant. As a case study, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, an identical work has not yet been published.

The objective of this study was to assess and compare the environmental life cycle of the Anaerobic-Anoxic-Oxic (A 2 O) and extended aeration activated sludge (EAAS) systems within the activated sludge treatment process for urban wastewater treatment. Additionally, the study aimed to examine the disparities between SimaPro and Gabi software in environmental life cycle assessments. SimaPro 9.3.0.2 and Gabi 9.2.1.68 software, along with the Ecoinvent 3.6 and Agri-footprint 5 databases, were employed to conduct the environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The evaluation encompassed impact categories such as acidification, eutrophication, and global warming.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 description of wwtps, 2.1.1 ekbatan wwtp.

This Ekbatan WWTP is located in Tehran (Iran) and is designed for a population of 100 thousand people and an average flow rate of 12,000 m 3 /day with a removal efficiency of about 97%. The process type of the WWTP is A 2 O activated sludge, and the incoming wastewater enters the biological treatment units after passing through the screen chamber and grit chamber. The wastewater from the biological treatment unit enters the sedimentation tanks and is disinfected after passing the time in the disinfection unit. At the end, the effluent is discharging into the Firouzabad river (Tehran Sewage Company., 2022). Figure  1 a indicates the flow diagram of Ekbatan WWTP.

2.1.2 Mahalati WWTP

This Mahalati WWTP is also located in Tehran (Iran), and the population is 25,600 people. The average flow rate is 3840 m 3 /day and its efficiency is about 93%. The process type of this WWTP is EAAS and the incoming wastewater enters the aeration tanks after the screen chamber, grit chamber, and pre-aeration tank. The wastewater from the aeration tanks enters the sedimentation tanks and is disinfected after passing the time in the disinfection unit. The effluent is discharging into the Darabad river (Tehran Sewage Company., 2022). The Fig.  1 b depicts the flow diagram of Mahalati WWTP.

Flow diagram of ( a ) Ekbatan WWTP; ( b ) Mahalati WWTP

2.2 Life Cycle Assessment) LCA) method

According to ISO 14,040 ( 2006 ) and ISO 14,044 ( 2006 ), each LCA study includes four main steps: goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation of the results.

2.2.1 Goal and scope

The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the environmental life cycle of A 2 O and EAAS systems of the activated sludge treatment system for urban wastewater treatments.

2.2.2 System boundary

To determine the system boundary is one of the most important steps of LCA and directly affects data collection and results (Roghani et al., 2017 ). In WWTPs, the operation phase has more effects compared to the construction and end-of-life (demolition) phase (Lopes et al., 2020 ). Therefore, in present study only, the operation phase of WWTPs including primary treatment, secondary treatment, disinfection and sludge digestion was evaluated. Figure  2 indicates the system boundary of this study. The Functional unit of this study is also selected based on the recommendations of the literature which is one cubic meter of treated wastewater (Abyar et al., 2020 ).

The system boundary for this LCA study

2.2.3 Life cycle inventory

At this stage, data related to different processes was collected. The sources of data used in this study include the data of Tehran Water and Wastewater Company, interviews with the experts of the aforementioned WWTPs, field visits, the results of limited experiments tests conducted on wastewater by authors, and data related to previous studies. And in minor cases, logical assumptions were used due to the inaccuracy of the data.

2.2.3.1 Physical and chemical characteristics of wastewater and sludge.

Table  1 presents the average of physical and chemical characteristics of the influent and effluent of the WWTPs, as well as the amount of sludge produced from these WWTPs from March 2020 to March 2022. All the data in Tables  1 and 2 , and 3 were sourced from the Water and Sewage Company of Tehran Province.

2.2.3.2 Materials used and their transport.

Table  2 presents the information about materials used in WWTPs and their transportation. In WWTPs, sodium hypochlorite is used to disinfect pathogenic microorganisms, and polyelectrolyte is used to coagulate and stabilize sludge. Due to the different treatment and sludge disposal unit of Mahalati WWTP, polyelectrolyte is not used in this WWTP. For the transportation of materials, it is assumed that the transportation is done with 40-ton trucks, and both WWTPs procure materials from the same factory; As a result, the transportation distance is considered the same for both WWTPs. Also, due to the lack of information about sludge transportation, its effects are not included in this section.

2.2.3.3 Energy consumption.

In municipal WWTPs, electricity is used to perform various treatment processes such as pumping, aeration and sludge concentration, which is supplied from the urban electricity network. Table  3 indicates the values of the electricity for the WWTPs.

2.2.3.4 Greenhouse’s gas (GHG) emissions.

GHG emitted from WWTPs are created by the biological treatment process and include carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), nitrous oxide (N 2 O), and methane (CH 4 ). Carbon dioxide is mainly emitted from microbial respiration activities while nitrous oxide is emitted due to denitrification and nitrification processes. Methane is mainly emitted from digestion and decomposition under anaerobic conditions (Nguyen et al., 2019 ). In this study, the production rate of GHG was obtained based on previous studies and theoretical calculations (EPA, 2010 ; Hwang et al., ( 2016 ). For this study, samples for BOD, COD, and MLVSS tests were collected from the effluents of anaerobic, anoxic, and oxic basins at the Ekbatan treatment plant, as well as from the pre-aeration and aeration basin of Mahalati wastewater treatment plant, and experimented according to AWWA ( 2022 ). The experimental work was conducted in the Civil Engineering Department laboratory at Kharazmi University. Table  4 presents the results of the experiments. The BOD, COD, and MLVSS tests were carried out using the Winkler, spectrophotometry, and gravimetry methods, respectively.

The results of these experiments (Table  4 ) were utilized to determine the λ coefficient through Eq. 1 and to more accurately calculate the greenhouse gases emitted from the WWTPs using Eq. 2. The obtained λ coefficients and their comparison with those from other sources are presented in Table  5 .

Where: λ = Biomass yield (g C converted to biomass/g C consumed in the wastewater treatment process), Q S = Waste sludge stream flow rate (m 3 /hr), Q WW = Wastewater influent flow rate (m 3 /hr).

MLVSS S = Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids concentration of the waste sludge stream (mg/L = g/m 3 ), OD = Oxygen demand of influent wastewater to the biological treatment unit determined as either BOD5 or COD (mg/L = g/m3),Eff OD = Oxygen demand removal efficiency of the biological treatment unit.

CF S = Correction factor for carbon content of the biomass (i.e., MLVSSS) = 0.53 g C/g MLVSS (default), CF C = Conversion factor for maximum C consumption per unit of oxygen demand = 12/32 = 0.375 g C/ g oxygen demand.

CO2 = CO2 emission rate (Mg CO2/hr), CH4 = CH4 emission rate (Mg CH4/hr), 10 − 6 = Units conversion factor (Mg/g), Q WW = Wastewater influent flow rate (m3/hr), OD = Oxygen demand of influent wastewater to the biological treatment unit determined as either BOD5 or COD (mg/L = g/m3).

Eff OD = Oxygen demand removal efficiency of the biological treatment unit, CF CO2 = Conversion factor for maximum CO2 generation per unit of oxygen demand = 44/32 = 1.375 g CO2/ g oxygen demand.

CF CH4 = Conversion factor for maximum CH4 generation per unit of oxygen demand = 16/32 = 0.5 g CH4/ g oxygen demand, MCF WW = methane correction factor for wastewater treatment unit, indicating the fraction of the influent oxygen demand that is converted anaerobically in the wastewater treatment unit.

BG CH4 = Fraction of carbon as CH4 in generated biogas (default is 0.65), λ = Biomass yield (g C converted to biomass/g C consumed in the wastewater treatment process).

Table  5 . indicates the calculated biomass yield ( \(\lambda )\) for different types of treatment processes and comparing it with different references. Table  6 GHG emissions by WWTPs.

2.2.4 Impact assessment

LCA method can be classified into two categories: Midpoint and Endpoint. Midpoint category including several environmental impacts such as Acidification, Global warming, and Human toxicity. Endpoint category convert this midpoint impacts into four damage categories; damage to ecosystem, damage to human health, damage to resources, and climate change. In this study, we used the CML-IA baseline 2000 and BEES + methods, which is a midpoint method for assessing Acidification, Eutrophication, and Global warming impact categories. We also used the IMPACT 2002 + method which is an endpoint method for assessing the damage on human health, ecosystem quality, climate change, and resource. According to Eriksson’s ( 2012 ) proposal for sensitivity analysis, the initial value of each parameter can be varied from 10 to 30% while the values of other parameters are assumed to be constant to determine the sensitivity of the results to changing values. In this regard, the results of treatment of 1 cubic meter of wastewater were considered as basic values, and the impact of a 30% change in the initial data on the life cycle assessment results was compared and investigated.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 results of simapro software, 3.1.1 cml method.

Table  7 . Indicates the values of different impact categories in the two mentioned WWTPs, using the CML-IA baseline 2000 method of SimaPro software.

Acidification occurs as a result of oxidation processes, which generate SO 2 and NO x emissions and causes damage to human health and natural resource. The acidification potential of Ekbatan WWTP (A 2 O system) is 0.00137 kg SO 2 eq., and Mahalati WWTP (EAAS system), acidification potential is 0.00129 kg SO 2 eq. In Ekbatan WWTP, electricity consumption, and Mahalati WWTP, sodium hypochlorite contributes the most to creating the acidification potential. The emission of sulfur dioxide (67%) and nitrogen oxides (31%) have been the main cause of this impact category in both WWTPs. This result is in agreement with the results of (Abyar et al., 2020 ).

The eutrophication potential of WWTPs is mainly due to the presence of phosphorus and nitrogen in the WWTPs effluent. The eutrophication potential for the Ekbatan WWTP (A 2 O system) is 0.00840 kg PO4 3- eq., and for Mahalati WWTP (EAAS system) is 0.01220 kg PO 4 3- eq. Due to the more advanced Ekbatan WWTP system compared to the Mahlati WWTP and greater efficiency in removing nitrogen and phosphorus from wastewater, the Ekbatan WWTP has a 32% lower Eutrophication potential than the Mahalati WWTP. Figure  3 describes the contribution of major parameters in generating the eutrophication potential.

The contribution of major parameters in creating the Eutrophication potential with the CML method of Simapro software

GHG emitted from WWTPs can be categorized as direct and indirect emissions. GHG emitted during the wastewater treatment process (CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O), as a result of biological activities, are direct emissions, and indirect emissions associated with power consumption (Mannina et al., 2019 ). Treatment of 1 m 3 of wastewater in Ekbatan (A 2 O system) and Mahalati WWTPs (EAAS system) generates 0.467 kg CO 2 eq. and 0.391 kg CO 2 eq., respectively. In both WWTPs, electricity consumption, generate the most global warming potential. The Ekbatan WWTP has 16% higher global warming potential than Mahalati WWTP. The reason could be due to the more advanced Ekbatan WWTP system than the Mahallati WWTP and the need for more electricity consumption, and also emits more GHG during the treatment process. This result is in agreement with the results of (Patel and Singh 2022 ; Yapıcıoğlu., 2021 ).

Figure  4 indicates the comparison of the two WWTPs in these three impact categories. In the acidification and global warming impact categories, Ekbatan WWTP has 6% and 16% higher environmental impact than Mahalati WWTP, respectively. In the eutrophication impact category, Mahallati WWTP (A 2 O system) has 31% higher environmental impact than Ekbatan WWTP (EAAS system).

Comparison of environmental impacts of Ekbatan and Mahalati WWTPs with the CML method of SimaPro software

Normalized result of environmental LCA of Ekbatan and Mahalati WWTPs with CML method and SimaPro software

For comparison of the results of the two WWTPs, normalization was carried out in the results of three impact categories. Figure  5 illustrates the normalization results of the impact of the two WWTPs.

As it can be seen in this figure, in both WWTPs, the Eutrophication impact category has left the most environmental impact. This result agrees with the finding After that, the global warming and acidification impact categories are in the next positions.

4 IMPACT 2002 + method

Table  8 ; Fig.  6 present the comparison of the LCA of the Ekbatan and Mahalati WWTPs with the IMPACT 2002 + method. The comparison indicates that in the resources, climate change and human health damage categories, the Ekbatan WWTP (A 2 O system) has a higher environmental impact than Mahalati WWTP (EAAS system) with 14.4%, 15%, and 6% respectively. On the other hand, in the ecosystem quality damage categories, Mahalati WWTP has 4% higher environmental impact than the Ekbatan WWTP. Also, the results show that in both of the WWTPs, in the resources and climate change damage categories, electricity, and in the ecosystem quality and human health damage categories, sodium hypochlorite has contributed the most in creating the damage categories.

Comparison of damage categories of Ekbatan and Mahalati WWTPs with the IMPACT 2002 + method

Normalized result of environmental LCA of Ekbatan and Mahalati WWTPs with IMPACT 2002 + method

Next, normalization was carried out on the damage categories so that all the damage categories can be compared with each other. Figure  7 illustrates the results of this normalization. The result of normalization shows that in both of the WWTPs, human health has left the most environmental impact. After that, the climate change, resources, and ecosystem quality damage categories are in the next positions.

5 Comparison between the CML and BEES + methods

Figure  8 compares the acidification, eutrophication, and global warming impact categories in Ekbatan and Mahalati WWTPs using the CML-IA baseline and BEES + methods. According to Fig.  8 , in both methods, Ekbatan WWTP exhibits higher environmental impacts on acidification (approximately 3%) and global warming impact categories (approximately 9%) due to increased electricity usage. Conversely, Mahalati WWTP, owing to low efficiency in nutrient (nitrogen and phosphor) removal, shows higher eutrophication impacts. Municipal wastewaters, high in nitrogen and phosphorus, contribute significantly to eutrophication. To prevent this, advanced technologies are essential to meet strict legal requirements by reducing nutrient loads. Research indicates that considering eutrophication potential is vital in choosing effective wastewater treatment technologies (Preisner et al., 2020 ).

Comparison of the contribution of acidification, eutrophication, and global warming impact categories in the Ekbatan and the Mahalati WWTPs with CML and BEES + methods

6 Sensitivity analysis

For sensitivity analysis, the values of each parameter were increased by 30% (Eriksson, 2012 ; Nakatsuka et al., 2020 ) and impact categories were re-evaluated with SimaPro software and the CML-IA baseline method. Figure  9 shows the percentage change in the impact categories by increasing 30% in the value of each parameter, assuming that the value of the other parameters is constant. In Ekbatan WWTP and the global warming and acidification potentials, electricity, and the eutrophication potential, phosphorus in the effluent had the most sensitivity in these impact categories. So that with the increase of 30% of the mentioned substances, the global warming potential increased by 14%, eutrophication potential by 17.1%, and acidification potential by 11.8%. In the Mahalati WWTP and global warming, eutrophication, and acidification impact categories, electricity, phosphorus in the effluent, and sodium hypochlorite usage have the most sensitivity in these impact categories respectively. So that with the increase of 30% in the parameters, the global warming potential has increased by 12.4%, the eutrophication potential by 15.3%, and the acidification potential by 13.6%.

The percentage change in the primary results of environmental LCA of the WWTPs

7 Results of GaBi software

Table  9 describes the LCA of the Ekbatan and Mahalati WWTPs, including the global warming, acidification, and eutrophication impact categories, using the CML2001 method and GaBi software. Due to the limitation of material selection and the absence of polyacrylamide in GaBi software, as well as the insignificant environmental impacts of this material in the results obtained from SimaPro software, polyacrylamide was not included in this part of the evaluation. In the acidification and global warming impact categories, Ekbatan WWTP has 5% and 16% higher environmental impacts than Mahallati WWTP, respectively. On the other hand, in the eutrophication impact category, Mahallati WWTP has 32% higher environmental impact than Ekbatan WWTP.

The comparison between the results of SimaPro and GaBi software is shown in Fig.  10 . In both software, the Ekbatani WWTP has higher environmental impacts in the acidification and global warming impact categories. The Mahalati WWTP also has higher environmental impact on the eutrophication impact category in both software.

Comparison of environmental impacts in Ekbatan and Mahalati WWTPs with CML method in SimaPro and GaBi software

Therefore, according to the results obtained from the SimaPro and GaBi software, the results are not dependent on the software used in this study.

7.1 Discussion

Mohammadi and Fataei ( 2019 ) conducted a LCA of the operational phase at the Ardabil wastewater treatment plant (aeration lagoon treatment plant) and the Khalkhal wastewater treatment plant (activated sludge wastewater treatment) in Iran using SimaPro software with the CML 2001 method. In contrast, our study employed SimaPro and GaBi software, along with the CML-IA baseline and IMPACT 2002 + methods for LCA. None of the wastewater treatment methods studied in the present investigation involved lagoon system. Additionally, we compared the environmental impact categories of global warming, acidification, and eutrophication obtained from the CML method with those from the BEES + and IPCC GWP methods to discern the influence of the evaluation method employed. This highlights the greater variety in software and evaluation methods in our current research. In the referenced study, it was found that the gases emitted during wastewater treatment and the resulting effluent discharge had the most significant impact on the creation of the global warming and eutrophication effect categories, aligning with the findings of our research. However, in the aforementioned study, the contribution of electricity and sodium hypochlorite to the various impact categories was considerably lower compared to their contribution in our study. This variance can be attributed to the differing quantities of electricity and sodium hypochlorite utilized in the two studies.

Abyar et al. ( 2020 ) assessed the environmental impacts associated with treating 1 cubic meter of wastewater from a meat processing plant using an A 2 O bioreactor, employing SimaPro software along with the CML and ReCipe midpoint methods. In this current study, we compared the A 2 O wastewater treatment with an extensive aeration system. Furthermore, we utilized the CML-IA baseline and IMPACT 2002 + assessment methods. Specifically, we compared the results concerning the impacts of global warming, acidification, and eutrophication obtained from the CML method with those from the BEES + and IPCC GWP methods to discern the influence of the evaluation method on the outcomes. Additionally, GaBi software was employed for assessment to ascertain the extent of reliance on the software type for results. The findings of the aforementioned study revealed that sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are the primary contributors to the acidification effect group, predominantly associated with electricity consumption, aligning entirely with the results obtained in this study. In the context of global warming and acidification effects, electricity consumption and phosphate content in the wastewater exhibited the most significant contributions in the aforementioned research. Conversely, in our study, greenhouse gases emitted during the treatment process, coupled with electricity consumption, accounted for the largest share in the global warming effect group, while phosphates present in the wastewater dominated the eutrophication effect group.

8 Conclusions

This study was carried out to compare the A 2 O and EAAS systems of the activated sludge treatment system for urban wastewater treatment by the LCA method, as well as to compare the efficiency of Simapro and Gabi software in environmental life cycle assessment. The key results of this study revealed that:

Treatment of 1 m 3 wastewater in the Ekbatan WWTP (A 2 O system) generated 0.00137 kg SO 2 eq., on acidification, 0.00840 kg PO4 3− eq., on eutrophication, and 0.467 kg CO 2 eq., on global warming impact categories. The values of this impact categories for the Mahalati WWTP (EAAS system) are equal to 0.00129 kg SO 2 eq., 0.01220 kg PO 4 3− eq., and 0.391 kg CO 2 eq., respectively.

The Ekbatan WWTP (A 2 O system) has 6% and 16% greater environmental impacts in the acidification and global warming impact categories, respectively, compared to Mahalati WWTP because of high electricity consumption. The Mahalati WWTP (EAAS system) has 31% higher environmental impact in the eutrophication impact category, due to the less capacity for nutrient removal.

In damage categories, the Ekbatan WWTP (A 2 O system) has 14%, 15% and 6% most environmental damage in the resources, climate change, and human health damage categories, respectively, compared to Mahalati WWTP. In the ecosystem quality damage category, the Mahalati WWTP (EAAS system) has 4% more environmental damage than the Ekbatan WWTP. In both of the WWTPs, in the resources and climate change damage categories, electricity, and in the ecosystem quality and human health damage categories, sodium hypochlorite contributes the most in creating the damage categories.

Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that in the Ekbatan WWTP (A 2 O system) in global warming and acidification potentials, electricity, and in the eutrophication potential, phosphorus in the effluent had the most sensitivity in these impact categories. In the Mahalati WWTP (EAAS system), global warming, eutrophication, and acidification impact categories, electricity, phosphorus in the effluent, and sodium hypochlorite usage have the most sensitivity in these impact categories respectively.

The comparison between the results of SimaPro and GaBi software indicated that in both software, the Ekbatani WWTP (A 2 O system) has more environmental impacts in the acidification and global warming impact categories, and the Mahalati WWTP (EAAS system) has more environmental impact on the eutrophication impact category. Consequently, in this study, the results of the LCA are not dependent on the software used.

Data availability

The data are available whenever the journal require.

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Movassagh Inchehboroun, B., Asadollahfardi, G. & Delnavaz, M. Life cycle assessment of anaerobic-anoxic-oxic and extended aeration of the activated sludge treatment system for urban wastewater treatment: a case study in Iran. Environ Dev Sustain (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04846-5

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Received : 19 December 2022

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Published : 17 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04846-5

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