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Why Is Water So Important? Here’s What You Need to Know

How water works in your body, how much water do you need, how to stay hydrated.

Water is a major component of your body, accounting for 50–60% of your total weight. It is vital for many important body functions, from flushing out waste to lubricating your joints.

Your body constantly loses water throughout the day through urinating, sweating, and breathing. You should consume enough water from foods and beverages daily to prevent dehydration .

This article covers research-backed reasons why your body needs water and how much you need each day.

Klaus Vedfelt / Getty Images

All body cells, organs, and tissues require water to function. Generally, a person can only survive without water for a few days.

It Maintains a Normal Body Temperature

Water regulates our internal temperature by distributing heat throughout the body and cooling it through perspiration (sweat).

When the body becomes too hot, it loses water through sweat . The evaporation of sweat from the skin cools the body, keeping its temperature within a normal range.

If a person becomes dehydrated, they can't produce enough sweat to cool their body. This can cause the body's temperature to reach dangerous levels, leading to heat stroke .

Avoid dehydration by drinking plenty of water if you're working outside or sweating more than usual.

It Protects Your Joints, Spinal Cord, and Other Tissues

Water acts as a lubricant in the mouth (through saliva ) and the eyes (through tears) to help prevent dryness. It's necessary to produce synovial fluid , which lubricates, cushions, and protects the joints.

Water also helps protect the spinal cord and prevents injuries by increasing tissue flexibility and elasticity.

It Transports Nutrients and Gets Rid of Waste

As a major component of blood, water helps transport nutrients and oxygen to cells throughout the body. Water also helps carry waste from the body for excretion through perspiration, urination, and bowel movements.

The kidneys need water to effectively filter waste from the blood and flush it from the body as urine. Staying adequately hydrated helps prevent kidney stones and urinary tract infections (UTIs) , which can harm the kidneys.

Prevents Dehydration

Drinking water daily can help prevent dehydration, a condition that occurs when you lose more fluids than you absorb.

Early signs of dehydration include:

Feeling thirsty
Dark-colored urine
Urinating less than usual

Because water is involved in so many body functions, dehydration can eventually cause life-threatening symptoms, including:

Rapid breathing
Rapid heartbeat
Inability to urinate

People who exercise in the heat, work outdoors, or have certain health conditions that cause them to urinate or sweat more than usual are at a greater risk of dehydration.

It Aids Digestion

Your saliva is primarily made up of water. Saliva is a digestive juice that moistens food, allowing it to move easily through the esophagus into your stomach. Saliva also contains enzymes that help break down starches in food.

As the digestive process continues, water helps break down food, allowing your body to absorb nutrients. Water also makes bowel movements easier.

It Protects Against Chronic Illness and Boosts Longevity

Adequate hydration is linked to healthy aging and longevity. One potential reason for this is that decreased water intake can lead to higher sodium concentrations in the blood, which raises the risk of chronic disease.

Studies suggest that adults who stay hydrated are healthier and less likely to develop chronic diseases, including heart and lung disease . Well-hydrated adults also seem to live longer than adults who don't consume enough fluids.

It Improves Mood and Cognitive Function

Dehydration may cause fatigue and confusion and may be linked to symptoms of anger and depression. In a small study, it was linked to poor cognitive function, potentially affecting attention span and working memory.

One study of young adults looked at the effects of water on cognitive performance and mood after 12 hours of water restriction. Researchers found that 200 milliliters of water improved thirst, anger, fatigue, and overall mood. However, 500 milliliters was optimal, improving mood and cognitive performance.

The amount of water you need depends on several factors, including age, sex, activity level, and health status.

For healthy individuals, the adequate daily water intake is around 11.5 cups for women and about 15.5 cups for men. This includes fluids consumed from all foods and beverages.

Experts estimate that most people get around 20% of their daily water intake from food. This means women should drink about 9 cups of fluid daily, while men should aim for 13 cups to maintain adequate hydration.

People who live in warmer climates, are more physically active, or are experiencing an illness that causes fever and/or diarrhea or vomiting have increased fluid needs.

One easy way to see if you are properly hydrated is to check the color of your urine. If you are drinking enough water, your urine will be pale yellow. If it is dark, you may need to increase your consumption.

Individuals with heart failure or kidney disease may need to limit their fluid intake.

Can You Drink Too Much Water?

Drinking too much water can lead to water intoxication or overhydration, which occurs when the kidneys cannot flush out excess water. This can cause a medical emergency due to decreased sodium concentrations in the blood ( hyponatremia ). To avoid water intoxication, do not drink more than 48 ounces, or six cups, per hour.

If you find it challenging to stay hydrated, here are some helpful tips to keep in mind:

Keep a reusable water bottle with you and refill it throughout the day
Choose water or sparkling water instead of sugary beverages
When you feel thirsty, drink water
Change things up by squeezing fresh lemon or lime into your water or adding a few berries or cucumber slices
Snack on water-rich fruits and vegetables , including watermelon, cantaloupe, lettuce, and celery, throughout the day
Keep track of your water intake by using a water tracker app
Drink water with all meals

Water is vital for your health. It is necessary for temperature regulation, digestion, nutrient absorption, and body waste removal. Drinking water daily can prevent dehydration, a condition that can cause mood and memory problems, constipation, and kidney stones.

People who work in high temperatures, exercise at high intensities, or are sick are at a greater risk of dehydration. Talk to a healthcare provider or registered dietitian to determine the right amount of water for you.

Zhou HL, Wei MH, Cui Y, et al. Association between water intake and mortality risk-evidence from a national prospective study . Front Nutr . 2022;9:822119. doi:10.3389/fnut.2022.822119

Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. How much water do you need?

MaineDOT. The importance of hydration .

Johns Hopkins Medicine. Dehydration and heat stroke .

Lorenzo I, Serra-Prat M, Yébenes JC. The role of water homeostasis in muscle function and frailty: a review . Nutrients . 2019;11(8):1857. doi:10.3390/nu11081857

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Water and healthier drinks .

National Kidney Foundation. 6 tips to be "water wise" for healthy kidneys .

MedlinePlus. Dehydration .

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Your digestive system & how it works .

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Eating, diet, & nutrition for constipation .

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Good hydration linked to healthy aging .

Zhang J, Zhang N, He H, et al. Different amounts of water supplementation improved cognitive performance and mood among young adults after 12 h water restriction in Baoding, China: a randomized controlled trial (RCT) . Int J Environ Res Public Health . 2020;17(21):7792. doi:10.3390/ijerph17217792

National Kidney Foundation. The dos and don'ts of fluid management for kidney disease .

MedlinePlus. Heart failure .

Joo MA, Kim EY. Hyponatremia caused by excessive intake of water as a form of child abuse . Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab . 2013;18(2):95-98. doi:10.6065/apem.2013.18.2.95

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Heat stress: hydration .

By Lindsey DeSoto, RD, LD Desoto is a registered dietitian specializing in nutrition and health and wellness content.

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Importance of water

An English Essay on the Importance of Water for the Students

Without water there cannot be life on our planet, that is to say on earth. Because every living organism needs water, and therefore having a good understanding and care for the water is a must for all of us. Hence, students should write an essay discussing the importance of water in the English language.

Writing an essay on such a topic opens a series of good ideas in the mind of the students regarding the role that water plays in our lives, and it can also make the students aware of the importance of water.

Also, if you wish to write an English essay on the topic My aim in life you may find this link helpful My Aim in Life Essay in English for Students | Easy Essay on My Aim in Life (vedantu.com)

Advantages of Writing an Essay on the Importance of Water.

Writing an essay on any topic helps the students be good writers, and the same goes for the topic of, Importance of water, but there are quite a few more advantages to writing the essay.

One of the most important things for everyone is to express oneself, and the practice of doing so must be given to the child from a very young age. And writing an essay helps the students in this very important thing.

For writing a good essay on any topic, the students must have a good understanding of the subject of the essay. And hence, writing an essay on the Importance of water, helps the students in learning about the value of water, not just our lives, which is to say humans, but the life of the whole planet.

In his famous play Hamlet Shakespeare writes, Brevity is the soul of wit, meaning being short or concise is very important in speech, or shortness of words is the essence of intelligence. The same rule applies in writing the essay, and doing as clear an understanding of the topic at hand is required as possible. And hence composing an essay on the importance of water helps the students understand the same.

One of the most important gifts that humans are blessed with is the gift of language, and this gift has to be used effectively. Writing an essay helps the students in learning the methods of using the language in such a manner that it makes everything clear to the reader. A good essay does not only touch the heart of the readers but it opens the mind of the reader, it can move them, that is to say, if a good essay is written on the importance of water it can make the readers aware about the same, and not just aware but also careful about using the water.

Water means Life. Water is a prime natural resource. It is a basic need for humans and a precious asset that living beings have. Water is equally vital for the survival of the plant and animal kingdoms. Soil needs water for sustaining plants. The water cycle is essential for ecological balance too. Though a big portion of the Earth is covered with water, only a small portion of it can be used for various human activities. So we need to be judicious and rational, regarding the usage of water.

Why is water important for our bodies?

Water is important for our body for the following reasons.

Above 70% of our body contains water so it is pivotal for the human race to survive.

Water helps in regulating our body temperature.

Water helps in the digestion of solid food.

It also keeps our skin healthy and hydrated.

Water helps in excreting waste from our body through sweat, urination, and defecation. So replenishing the water in our body is essential to prevent dehydration.

Drinking water also helps in reducing calories and maintaining body weight because it can increase the rate of metabolism.

Water consumption lubricates the joints, spinal cord, and tissues.

Importance of Water

All living organisms, plants, animals, and human beings contain water. Almost 70% of our body is made up of water. Our body gets water from the liquids we drink and the food we eat. Nobody can survive without water for more than a week. All plants will die if they do not get water. This would lead to the death of all the animals that depend on plants for their food. So the existence of life would come to an end.

Role of Water In Life Processes

Water plays an important role in most of the life processes by acting as a solvent. The absorption of food in our body takes place in solution form with water as the solvent. Also, many waste products are excreted in the form of solutions through urine and perspiration.

Water helps in regulating our body temperature. In hot weather, we drink a lot of water. This maintains our body temperature. Also, water evaporates from the surface of our body as sweat. This takes away heat and cools the body.

Water is essential for plants to grow. Plants need water to prepare food. They also absorb dissolved nutrients from the soil through their roots.

Aquatic plants and animals use the nutrients and oxygen dissolved in water for their survival.

Uses of Water In Everyday Life

Water is used for drinking, washing, cooking, bathing, cleaning, in our day-to-day life.

It is used to generate electricity in hydroelectric power stations.

Water is used for irrigating fields and in the manufacture of various products.

Other Uses of Water

Water serves as a means of transportation for goods and people.

It provides a medium for recreational sports such as swimming, boating, and water skiing.

Water is also used to extinguish fires.

Importance of Oceans

Oceans are of immense use to man. They are useful in many ways, directly and indirectly. They not only play a significant role in the climate of adjoining countries but also serve mankind in many ways. They are a storehouse of several resources.

An ocean is a major source of water and forms a major part of the water cycle. Oceans contribute water vapor to the atmosphere and we get the same in the form of precipitation.

The oceans are the biggest storehouse of edible forms of marine food, fish being most important. In addition to food, sea animals provide other products like oil, glue, etc.

Oceans have enormous mineral and chemical wealth. A variety of dissolved salts like sodium chloride (common salt), magnesium chloride, and potassium chloride are found in plenty in the oceans.

Oil and gas are important fuels obtained from oceans.

Importance of Lakes and Rivers

Economic and industrial development

Water storage

Hydroelectric power generation

Agricultural purposes

Modern multipurpose dams

Source of food

Source of minerals

Tourist attractions and health resorts

Rivers provide fresh drinking water

Ports can be built on them as they form good natural harbors

Major Concerns

Although our planet Earth is covered with 71% percent of water and 29% of the land, the fast-growing contamination of water is affecting both humans as well as marine life. The unequal distribution of water on the Earth and its increasing demand due to the increasing population is becoming a concern for all.

Water pollution makes it difficult for marine animals to sustain themselves.

Covering over 71% of Earth’s surface, water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. Without the seemingly invaluable compound comprising Hydrogen and Oxygen, life on Earth would be non-existent.

We are slowly but harming our planet at a very alarming rate.

Characteristics of a Good Essay.

It must be brief: As pointed out earlier, a good essay must be short, and also to the point. So, if students are writing an essay on the importance of water it must only deal with the water, and anything which does not directly serve the purpose must be excluded.

Must cover the whole topic: Though it may seem a little contradicting to the first point, what is meant by covering the whole topic is that the maximum number of aspects dealing with the importance of water must be covered in this essay. For instance, water is important for all living organisms and not just humans, and so the same has to be covered in one or the other way in the essay on the importance of the water.

Must be to the point: The essay must remain true to the central idea of the topic, which is the importance of water in this case. Hence, almost all the sentences written in the essay must serve the main topic in one or another way. And also, writing should not be vague or ambiguous, or illogical.

Human beings should realize how important and precious water is. At the individual level, you can be more responsible and avoid wasting water so that our future generation can make the best use of this natural resource abundantly.

FAQs on Importance of water

1. Why is water important?

Water is important because it sustains all living organisms on Earth.

2. How is ocean water useful to Mankind?

Ocean water is useful to mankind in the following ways.

Oceans are a major source of water through the water cycle.

Oceans have direct control over the climate.

Oceans are the biggest storehouse of marine food.

Oceans have enormous mineral and chemical wealth.

3. How is water important for our Body?

Water helps to carry nutrients and oxygen to each and every cell of our body. It helps in digestion. It keeps our skin healthy and hydrated. Water consumption lubricates the joints, spinal cord, and tissues.

4. What are the uses of water in our Daily Life?

Water is used for drinking, bathing, cooking, cleaning, and irrigation of crops and manufacturing various products.

5. Why should I use the essay provided by Vedantu on the Importance of water?

The essay that Vedantu provides on the topic of the Importance of water is prepared by expert teachers, for the students of the English language. And hence this essay can be used by the students as an outline or an example of the essay on the Importance of water, it does not necessarily mean that the students have to copy it completely, but it serves the purpose of guiding the students in attempting the essay. Furthermore, the essay is completely free for download for all the students and also it is available in a PDF file format.

The importance of hydration

Drinking enough water each day is crucial for many reasons: to regulate body temperature, keep joints lubricated, prevent infections, deliver nutrients to cells, and keep organs functioning properly. Being well-hydrated also improves sleep quality, cognition, and mood.

Experts recommend drinking roughly 11 cups of water per day for the average woman and 16 for men. And not all of those cups have to come from plain water; for example, some can come from water flavored with fruit or vegetables (lemons, berries, or orange or cucumber slices), or from coffee or tea.

But it’s best to stay away from sugar-sweetened beverages when trying to stay hydrated, says Walter Willett , professor of epidemiology and nutrition at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. In a September 28, 2017 CNN article, Willett said that Americans are “conditioned to expect high levels of sweetness in everything…. You might say we are malhydrated, because we drink so much soda and fruit juice and other sugar-sweetened beverages, and by that I mean we drink beverages that harm our health. Even energy drinks and vitamin waters, most are loaded with sugar and not worth the use.”

Read the CNN article: Benefits of water: Are you getting enough fluids to stay healthy?

Healthy Drinks (The Nutrition Source)

Healthy Beverage Guidelines (The Nutrition Source)

Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Water — The Importance of Water: The Vital Essence

The Importance of Water: The Vital Essence

Categories: Nutrition Water

About this sample

Words: 652 |

Published: Sep 7, 2023

Words: 652 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Water and human health, environmental balance, agriculture and food security, industrial and economic significance, challenges of water scarcity and pollution, responsible water management.

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Essay on Water for Students and Children

500+ words essay on water.

Water is one of the most important substances for life on earth to function. It is equally important for humans as well as animals. Water does not merely help us survive, but it is significant for our day to day functioning. It has numerous uses when we come to think about it. Majority of our earth is covered with water itself, but, not all of it is safe for consumption. Therefore, it makes it essential for us to utilize this transparent substance chemical wisely. Moreover, if we look at the shortage of water happening in our country, it makes it all the more important to conserve it immediately.

Uses of Water

As we have already said that water has numerous uses, we will see where it is used. This part will most importantly help us realize the importance of water . It will make humans aware of what absence of water in the following areas can do to human life. As India’s main occupation is agriculture, water is exhaustively used here. Irrigation and cattle rearing requires a lot of water. Thus, a lot of farmers’ livelihood depends on it.

Further, industries use water for various purposes. It comes in handy when cooling, manufacturing and transporting several goods. For instance, thermal power plants consume quite a substantial amount of water for their running.

Furthermore, the domestic use of water cannot be left behind. In the day to day life of the common man, water plays a vital role. That is to say, from drinking water to washing utensils, we need water every step of the way.

After that, plants need water to survive and make food. It is one of the main elements which help them grow. Hence, water is extremely important for humans, animals, and plants to survive .

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Do not Waste Water

While water is quite essential and yet so scarce, however, people fail to realize this fact. They waste water with little or no care for the results of this activity. There are various ways in which one can avoid wasting water . To begin with, all households must get their leaking taps checked. They should fix them immediately as every drop is precious.

Similarly, we must choose buckets instead of showers for bathing. This is a very debatable topic and it needs to be settled. Showers waste a lot of water, so people must prefer buckets. This particular habit is quite commonly found in most of the households. People do not turn off their taps while brushing their teeth and washing utensils. Always remember to keep the tap off when doing so.

In addition, encourage rainwater harvesting system in all homes. This can help conserve water like never before.

In short, water is essential for the survival of mankind. But, it is, unfortunately, being waster rapidly. Every citizen and government must come together to tackle this issue. Governments must ensure all areas get water equally. On the other hand, citizens must keep in mind to use it wisely and not waste it unnecessarily.

FAQs on Water

Q.1 State the importance of water.

A.1 Water is of the utmost importance for human and animal life. It gives us water to drink. It also comes in great use for farmers and industries. Even common man requires water for various purposes like drinking, cleaning, bathing and more.

Q.2 List the ways to avoid wastage of water.

A.2 Everyone must avoid wasting water. We can do so by fixing our leaking taps, avoiding showers for bathing, and turning off taps when brushing. Furthermore, we can adopt rainwater harvesting system to conserve water.

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Personal Health

Drink Up! Most of Us Could Benefit From More Water

Inadequate hydration can cause fatigue, poor appetite, heat intolerance, dizziness, constipation, kidney stones and a dangerous drop in blood pressure.

By Jane E. Brody

I wonder how we all survived — and even thrived — in our younger years without the plethora of water bottles that nearly everyone seems to carry around these days.

In reading about the risks and consequences of dehydration, especially for the elderly and anyone who exercises vigorously in hot weather, it’s nothing short of a miracle that more of us hadn’t succumbed years ago to the damaging physical, cognitive and health effects of inadequate hydration.

Even with the current ubiquity of portable water containers, far too many people still fail to consume enough liquid to compensate for losses suffered especially, though not exclusively, during the dehydrating months of summer.

For those of you who know or suspect that you don’t drink enough to compensate for daily water losses, the good news is you don’t have to rely entirely on your liquid intake to remain well-hydrated.

Studies in societies with limited supplies of drinking water suggest you can help to counter dehydration and, at the same time, enhance the healthfulness of your diet by consuming nutritious foods that are laden with a hidden water source. Plant foods like fruits, vegetables and seeds are a source of so-called gel water — pure, safe, hydrating water that is slowly absorbed into the body when the foods are consumed.

That’s the message in a newly published book, “Quench,” by Dr. Dana Cohen, an integrative medicine specialist in New York, and Gina Bria, an anthropologist whose studies of the water challenges faced by desert dwellers led to the establishment of the Hydration Foundation, a nonprofit group that promotes understanding and consumption of nonliquid sources of water.

More about these foods later. First, I must convince more of you that remaining well hydrated is crucial to your health. However solid your body, the majority of it is water, ranging from 75 percent of the body weight of infants to 55 percent of the elderly. Every bodily process, every living cell, depends on water to function properly. Water transports nutrients, regulates body temperature, lubricates joints and internal organs, supports the structure of cells and tissues and preserves cardiovascular function. People can survive for only three or four days — a week at most — without water.

But more to the point is the quality of survival. Inadequate hydration can cause fatigue, poor appetite, heat intolerance, dizziness, constipation, kidney stones and a dangerous drop in blood pressure. Brain effects include mood shifts, muddled thinking, inattentiveness and poor memory. A loss of only 1 to 2 percent of body water can impair cognitive performance, according to studies at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University .

Your body’s water balance is determined by how much you consume, your age and activity level and environmental conditions. The body loses water through the skin, lungs, kidneys and digestive tract; in other words, by sweating, breathing and elimination of waste, both liquid and solid.

“Water needs can vary from person to person — and no one person will need the same amount of fluid from one day to the next,” the Virginia scientists wrote in the American College of Sports Medicine’s Health and Fitness Journal.

The typical American consumes about one liter — a little over four cups — of drinking water a day. But people like me who engage in quasi-vigorous physical activity daily need more, and those who exercise strenuously for more than an hour a day need even more than that, perhaps supplemented by a sports drink containing the electrolytes sodium and potassium (but avoid those with more than a pinch of sugar). Keep in mind that skimping on your liquid intake or relying on sugary drinks can take a toll on your physical performance.

If you’re planning to engage in strenuous exercise or do physical work outdoors on a hot day, it’s best to start hydrating the day before. Check the color of your urine; the paler it is, the better. Also continue to drink water or other fluids throughout your activity and for hours afterward.

A critical factor in remaining well hydrated is not to rely on thirst to remind you to drink but rather to be proactive by consuming enough liquid before, during and after meals and physical activity. The longstanding advice to drink eight glasses of water a day was something I (among many others) was never able to achieve. I’m happy to say that experts have since modified that rule. Current thinking calls for getting about 70 percent of daily water needs from liquids (including coffee and tea, by the way, though not alcohol) and the rest from solid foods.

The authors of “Quench” suggest two dozen fruits and vegetables that are especially hydrating, ranging from cucumbers with 96.7 percent water to grapes with 81.5 percent water. Surely you can find many you would enjoy in a list that includes lettuce, tomatoes, cauliflower, spinach, broccoli, carrots, peppers, watermelon, strawberries, pineapple, blueberries, apples and pears.

Even chia seeds, an ancient so-called superfood said to sustain the ultrarunning prowess of the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico, can be a force against dehydration; they absorb 30 times their weight in water and can provide the body with slow-release hydration, especially during long bouts of physical activity in high heat and humidity.

Naturally packaged plant water hydrates more efficiently than plain drinking water, the “Quench” authors maintain, because it’s already purified, is packed with soluble nutrients and gradually supplies the body with water.

That said, while there is considerable anecdotal evidence for the effectiveness of plant water, especially among enthusiasts of green smoothies, well designed clinical studies are still lacking. Yet I feel comfortable in recommending an increased reliance on these hydrating foods because, at the very least, they can result in a more nutritious diet and foster better weight control.

Getting more of your water from plant foods can also help to cut down on pollution. The earth is being overrun with disposable plastic water bottles that can be found littering streets and parks and floating in rivers, oceans and lakes everywhere. Unless you are visiting a region of the world where it is unsafe to drink the water, try to avoid buying water. If you are in doubt about the safety of your municipal water supply, if you rely on well water that has not been tested, or if you dislike the taste or your local water, consider installing a faucet filter or using a portable filter container like Brita.

Now, join me as I take a big drink to your health.

Jane Brody is the Personal Health columnist, a position she has held since 1976. She has written more than a dozen books including the best sellers “Jane Brody’s Nutrition Book” and “Jane Brody’s Good Food Book.” More about Jane E. Brody

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20 Benefits of Drinking Water: How Much and Why

Water is essential for immunity, balanced blood pressure, kidney functioning, mineral transportation, digestion, skin health, and ideal body temperature.
An adult man should drink 3.7 liters of water daily, whereas 2.7 liters would be an appropriate quantity for women.
Thirst and color of urine would decide whether you are taking adequate water intake or not.
You should consciously take water during fever, diarrhea, pregnancy, and hot temperatures, which you can get from fruits, soups, juices, and other liquid intakes.

Drinking water comes with a lot of benefits. But what exactly are these benefits? How much water is too much to drink? Are you drinking enough of it?

These questions may have crossed your mind. Well, there is no need to keep wondering because we have come armed with 20 solid benefits of drinking water.

We have also included the recommended water levels for different age groups and some water statistics. It should help you understand why water is vital and maybe even motivate you to increase your daily intake.

Table of Contents

20 Benefits of Drinking Water

1. helps form saliva and mucus.

Water essentially makes up our saliva and mucus. It helps keep our mouth, nose, and eyes moist, preventing unwanted friction by keeping them all lubricated. Drinking water can also keep the mouth clean and prevent bad breath. Furthermore, if you replace those sugary drinks with water, it can also reduce tooth decay.

2. Delivers oxygen throughout the body

Our blood constitutes more than 90% water. It is thus vital in transporting oxygen to different parts of the body. This is why a lack of water can cause a shortage of proper oxygen supply, causing you to have low energy.

3. Boosts skin health and overall beauty

Drinking water can make your skin cells healthier and plump. It is known to minimize premature wrinkles and help you look younger for longer. It can also flush out the toxins that dull your face and ensure a healthy glow. Adding a dash of lemon into your water can add vitamin C to your intake and further boost your skin health.

4. Lubricates joints

Our joints are made from cartilage. Cartilage is about 80% water. Therefore, long-term dehydration can reduce the shock-absorbing ability and cause joint pain. The liquid intake will boost your physical activity with increased energy.

5. Boosts productivity

The lack of water can cause you to become sluggish. A glass of water can help replenish your energy and attention.

6. Flushing out the waste

Water is essential for flushing out unwanted wastes via sweating, urine, and feces. This helps keep your kidneys healthy and your immune system strong. Read about if the water lowers cholesterol or not here .

7. Regulates body temp

When the body heats up, water expels sweat. This sweat evaporates to cool our body temperature. Some studies have suggested that the body’s water shortage causes heat build-up.

8. Helps the digestive system

Water is a must for keeping the digestive system functioning. Lack of water can cause an imbalance in your stomach ecosystem. It increases acidity, which can give way to stomach ulcers. Moreover, dehydration can lead to problems like constipation.

But on a sad note, sometimes, your stomach might hurt after drinking water. This is when you need to consider examining your health. You may want to know what might possibly cause this to happen. So we have prepared this article on why your stomach hurts after drinking water . Well, this article can be helpful so give it a read.

9. Cushions the brain, spinal cord, and other sensitive tissues

As water forms most of our body, lack of it can severely affect the brain’s functioning. Long-term dehydration can even cause problems with reasoning skills and affect the production of several hormones.

10. Maintains blood pressure

A lack of water in your blood can cause it to become thicker, which results in high blood pressure problems. Drinking plenty of water helps balance your body’s fluid levels.

11. Reduces fatigue

The primary symptom of dehydration is exhaustion. It can make you feel fully drained and unable to perform everyday activities. A tall glass of this caffeine-free drink can ensure your energy is well maintained throughout the day.

12. Helps the transport of minerals and nutrients

The minerals and nutrients dissolve in the water, making it easy to circulate them throughout the body.

13. Promotes weight loss

Water can be an excellent substitute for any sugary drinks that may be contributing to weight gain. You can also drink a glass of water before meals to help prevent overeating. Similarly, drinking cold water is better as your body will burn off some calories to heat that water.

14. Helps kidneys function smoothly

The kidneys are the center for fluid management in your body. They filter nearly 120-150 quarts of fluids every day. The lack of water can cause kidney stones, urinary tract infections, and other problems. You can help your kidneys flush out the unwanted wastes by drinking gallons of water.

15. Helps boost performance during exercise

Consuming more water contributes to a smoother overall functioning. Unsurprisingly, it can make strenuous exercise easier on your body. Muscles tend to tire out quickly when there is a lack of water. So, remember to take your water bottle to the gym!

We recommend carrying filtered water bottles as they purify water and make it clean and safe to drink. It’s not new that most athlete prefers Gatorade over water as their exercise enhancement drink. Does it actually boost your energy, or is it only good when you’re sick? How beneficial is drinking water? Read here for more detail about Gatorade.

16. Prevents hangovers

Water is excellent at keeping yourself hydrated in between alcoholic beverages. This will also prevent you from drinking too much and prevent headaches the following day.

17. Helps airways

Dehydration causes the airways in your body to become more constricted. The airways constrict to prevent or minimize water loss. However, it can aggravate conditions like asthma or allergies.

18. Prevents sickness

Drinking fluids while sick can help replace all the extra water you are losing. Significantly during colds, it can also aid in decongestion. While this hasn’t been scientifically corroborated, drinking water will help your body heal faster by flushing out all the impurities. Other than that, it can help prevent dehydration headaches as well.

So, we recommend drinking plenty of water for health benefits. You might not readily find clean and safe drinking water outside your home or during outdoor activities. Therefore, we recommend carrying portable water filters . A portable water filter removes contaminants from outdoor water sources and makes the water safe for drinking.

19. Improved Thinking

At this point, we have understood that drinking water can help you become fresh and energized. As a positive consequence, it can promote a more evident mindset, help you concentrate, and stay alert. A study conducted in 2013 reported that students that brought water into an exam room tended to have better grades.

Therefore, make sure to put a water cooler dispenser in your room during your exam hour, so you don’t have to waste your time running over the kitchen for water again and again. Curious question! Does improved thinking also means reducing depression, anxiety, and stress too? The answer to your curiosity is in the article “ Can water help with depression, anxiety, and stress .”

20. Improves your immune system

Drinking lots of water can help flush out all the harmful particles from your body. It thus boosts your immune system and promotes a proper oxygen flow throughout your body.

How much water do you need to drink?

Now that we know all the great benefits drinking water provides, the next question is, how much water should you drink?

The simple answer is it varies. Depending on your physique, your lifestyle, how much you sweat, and so on. While there isn’t a hard and fast rule regarding the exact intake, there is an average recommendation from the U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine .

For children (under 8) : Approx.1.18 liters or 40 ounces (~5 cups)
For children (9-13) : Approx. 1.6-1.9 liters or 56-64 ounces (~7-8 cups)
For teenagers : Approx. 1.9-2.6 liters or 64-88 ounces (~8-11 cups)
For men : Approx. 3.7 liters or 125 ounces (~15.5 cups)
For women : Approx. 2.7 liters or 91 ounces (~11.5 cups)
For pregnant or breastfeeding women : Approx. 2.3-3.07 liters or 80-104 ounces (~10-13 cups)

This direction is an average daily recommendation. It may seem ridiculously high, but you must remember that we also get much of our water from food. So with that in mind, the actual amount of water would be about 12.5 cups (100 ounces) for men and about 9 cups (73 ounces) for women.

When to consciously drink water?

While we stress the importance of drinking water, you are most likely consuming enough water on average. Water in foods, coffee, and other drinks, along with the occasional glass of water, should be sufficient to keep you from dehydration.

However, there are certain times when you need to make sure you are hydrated more than the others. These can be:

When you have a fever : Hydrate to ensure the body can transfer nutrients smoothly and heal quicker.
During summer : As you lose more water, sweating and drinking water can help regulate body temperature.
During constipation, diarrhea, and vomiting : Can monitor body functioning and replenish water supply lost during diarrhea and vomiting.
During pregnancy : While pregnant or breastfeeding, women will require more than the average amount of water. They will need to increase their intake to at least 10-13 cups daily.

How do I know if I am drinking enough water?

Your body has a handy way of letting you know when you aren’t drinking enough: thirst. If you spend most of the day without being thirsty, your water intake is already sufficient. You can also check the color of your urine. You are drinking enough water if it is colorless to a light yellow.

Water Statistics

We all wonder if we consume enough water or not, but have we thought about how much water is being consumed in general? A study regarding the behaviors and attitudes associated with low drinking water intake among U.S. adults , with a sample size of 3,397 adults, discovered:

7% of adults reported zero consumption of drinking water
36% reported consuming only about 1 to 3 cups of water
35% reported consuming between 4 to 7 cups
22% reported drinking 8 cups or more.

This study concluded that participants aged 55 years or older were likely to drink less than 4 cups of water daily. However, there are many ways one can get their daily fluid intake. It can be by consuming fruits or vegetables as well. Still, pure and calorie-free water is the healthiest way to keep yourself hydrated.

Sources of Drinking Water

Pure water is, of course, the healthiest choice you could make for your fluid intake. However, some people really don’t like the taste. In such cases, instead of drinking water at all, it is better to resort to one of the following:

Fruit juice or soda: While fruit juices come with added preservatives and sugar, they can still provide quite a bit of hydration. The same goes for soda, which is 90% water.
Fruits and vegetables: Citrus fruits can also be an excellent choice. Not only do they have high water content, but they are also rich in vitamins. Similarly, vegetables like lettuce, celery, or zucchini are 90% water. Strawberries, watermelon, cucumber, tomatoes, broccoli, spinach, eggplant, and so on also have very high water content.
Soups or broths: If you dislike plain water, then soup can be a great replacement. Especially if you live in colder climates, then they can provide both warmth and hydration.
Other drinks: Warm drinks such as coffee, tea, or cocoa can also be an excellent way to provide some liquid intake. However, you will need to watch your sugar intake. Similarly, soy milk is another drink that is nearly 88.5% water.

Water is an excellent no-calorie drink with a multitude of benefits to offer. The history of clean drinking water fascinates how our ancestors used different methods to consume clean and safe water. Besides having the privilege of infinite filtration techniques, we lack the habit of drinking water.

According to the statistics, the average Americans are not meeting their required water intake. To avoid this, ensure you have a glass of water handy every morning and don’t forget to take your water bottle to the gym!

(Last Updated on July 7, 2022 by Sadrish Dabadi)

Nina Howell is a Rewenable Energy researcher and consultant based out of Houston, Texas Area. She earned her Master's Degree in Energy and Earth Resources from Austin Jackson School of Geosciences in 2010, and a Bachelor's Degree in Environmental Science from State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry in 2008. Nina has been working in the energy sector since 2011. She worked as an Energy Supply Analyst from 2011 to 2017 in Bounce Energy and then as a Research and Energy Consultant at GE Renewable Energy from March 2017 to February 2020 . Nina is a mom of 2 beautiful children who are joy to her life. She strongly believes in eco-friendly living and is vocal about renewable energy, environmental issues, water crisis, and sustainable living.

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Int J Environ Res Public Health

Drinking Water Quality and Human Health: An Editorial

Patrick levallois.

1 Direction de la santé environnementale et de la toxicologie, Institut national de la santé publique du Québec, QC G1V 5B3, Canada

2 Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada

Cristina M. Villanueva

3 ISGlobal, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; [email protected]

4 Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), 08002 Barcelona, Spain

5 Consortium for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Carlos III Institute of Health, 28029 Madrid, Spain

6 IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), 08003 Barcelona, Spain

Drinking water quality is paramount for public health. Despite improvements in recent decades, access to good quality drinking water remains a critical issue. The World Health Organization estimates that almost 10% of the population in the world do not have access to improved drinking water sources [ 1 ], and one of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals is to ensure universal access to water and sanitation by 2030 [ 2 ]. Among other diseases, waterborne infections cause diarrhea, which kills nearly one million people every year. Most are children under the age of five [ 1 ]. At the same time, chemical pollution is an ongoing concern, particularly in industrialized countries and increasingly in low and medium income countries (LMICs). Exposure to chemicals in drinking water may lead to a range of chronic diseases (e.g., cancer and cardiovascular disease), adverse reproductive outcomes and effects on children’s health (e.g., neurodevelopment), among other health effects [ 3 ].

Although drinking water quality is regulated and monitored in many countries, increasing knowledge leads to the need for reviewing standards and guidelines on a nearly permanent basis, both for regulated and newly identified contaminants. Drinking water standards are mostly based on animal toxicity data, and more robust epidemiologic studies with an accurate exposure assessment are rare. The current risk assessment paradigm dealing mostly with one-by-one chemicals dismisses potential synergisms or interactions from exposures to mixtures of contaminants, particularly at the low-exposure range. Thus, evidence is needed on exposure and health effects of mixtures of contaminants in drinking water [ 4 ].

In a special issue on “Drinking Water Quality and Human Health” IJERPH [ 5 ], 20 papers were recently published on different topics related to drinking water. Eight papers were on microbiological contamination, 11 papers on chemical contamination, and one on radioactivity. Five of the eight papers were on microbiology and the one on radioactivity concerned developing countries, but none on chemical quality. In fact, all the papers on chemical contamination were from industrialized countries, illustrating that microbial quality is still the priority in LMICs. However, chemical pollution from a diversity of sources may also affect these settings and research will be necessary in the future.

Concerning microbiological contamination, one paper deals with the quality of well water in Maryland, USA [ 6 ], and it confirms the frequent contamination by fecal indicators and recommends continuous monitoring of such unregulated water. Another paper did a review of Vibrio pathogens, which are an ongoing concern in rural sub-Saharan Africa [ 7 ]. Two papers focus on the importance of global primary prevention. One investigated the effectiveness of Water Safety Plans (WSP) implemented in 12 countries of the Asia-Pacific region [ 8 ]. The other evaluated the lack of intervention to improve Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Nigerian communities and its effect on the frequency of common childhood diseases (mainly diarrhea) in children [ 9 ]. The efficacies of two types of intervention were also presented. One was a cost-effective household treatment in a village in South Africa [ 10 ], the other a community intervention in mid-western Nepal [ 11 ]. Finally, two epidemiological studies were conducted in industrialized countries. A time-series study evaluated the association between general indicators of drinking water quality (mainly turbidity) and the occurrence of gastroenteritis in 17 urban sites in the USA and Europe. [ 12 ] The other evaluated the performance of an algorithm to predict the occurrence of waterborne disease outbreaks in France [ 13 ].

On the eleven papers on chemical contamination, three focused on the descriptive characteristics of the contamination: one on nitrite seasonality in Finland [ 14 ], the second on geogenic cation (Na, K, Mg, and Ca) stability in Denmark [ 15 ] and the third on historical variation of THM concentrations in french water networks [ 16 ]. Another paper focused on fluoride exposure assessments using biomonitoring data in the Canadian population [ 17 ]. The other papers targeted the health effects associated with drinking water contamination. An extensive up-to-date review was provided regarding the health effects of nitrate [ 18 ]. A more limited review was on heterogeneity in studies on cancer and disinfection by-products [ 19 ]. A thorough epidemiological study on adverse birth outcomes and atrazine exposure in Ohio found a small link with lower birth weight [ 20 ]. Another more geographical study, found a link between some characteristics of drinking water in Taiwan and chronic kidney diseases [ 21 ]. Finally, the other papers discuss the methods of deriving drinking water standards. One focuses on manganese in Quebec, Canada [ 22 ], another on the screening values for pharmaceuticals in drinking water, in Minnesota, USA [ 23 ]. The latter developed the methodology used in Minnesota to derive guidelines—taking the enhanced exposure of young babies to water chemicals into particular consideration [ 24 ]. Finally, the paper on radioactivity presented a description of Polonium 210 water contamination in Malaysia [ 25 ].

In conclusion, despite several constraints (e.g., time schedule, fees, etc.), co-editors were satisfied to gather 20 papers by worldwide teams on such important topics. Our small experience demonstrates the variety and importance of microbiological and chemical contamination of drinking water and their possible health effects.

Acknowledgments

Authors want to acknowledge the important work of the IJERPH staff and of numbers of anonymous reviewers.

Author Contributions

P.L. wrote a first draft of the editorial and approved the final version. C.M.V. did a critical review and added important complementary information to finalize this editorial.

This editorial work received no special funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Essay on Importance of Water in Our Life

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100 Words Essay on Importance of Water in Our Life

Introduction.

Water is a vital component of life. It’s everywhere, from the food we eat to the air we breathe.

Health Benefits

Water keeps our bodies running. It helps transport nutrients, regulate body temperature, and remove waste.

Role in Nature

Water is crucial for plants and animals. It helps plants grow and provides a habitat for aquatic life.

Water is essential for life and our wellbeing. We must value and conserve it for a sustainable future.

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Paragraph on Importance of Water in Our Life

250 Words Essay on Importance of Water in Our Life

The essence of life.

Water, a simple molecule consisting of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom, plays an indispensable role in our lives. It is the lifeblood of the environment, essential for the survival of all living organisms.

The Biological Significance

Water makes up approximately 60% of the human body, serving as a medium for biochemical reactions, aiding in digestion, and regulating body temperature. It transports nutrients and oxygen to cells, lubricates joints, and protects sensitive tissues. Without water, these vital processes would cease, leading to life-threatening consequences.

Environmental Impact

Beyond individual organisms, water is integral to ecosystems. It supports biodiversity, with different species adapted to various aquatic environments. Rivers, lakes, and oceans are teeming with life, each contributing to the balance of nature. The water cycle also plays a key role in weather patterns and climate regulation.

Societal Implications

Water is a critical resource for societal development. It is used in agriculture for food production, in industries for manufacturing goods, and in homes for daily chores. Clean drinking water is a fundamental human right, yet many regions still struggle with water scarcity, emphasizing the need for sustainable water management.

In conclusion, water’s importance extends far beyond its simple molecular structure. It is a vital component of life, environment, and society. The challenge lies in ensuring its sustainable use and equitable distribution, to safeguard our future and the planet’s biodiversity. Recognizing the value of water is the first step towards this goal.

500 Words Essay on Importance of Water in Our Life

Water is a fundamental resource that is intricately woven into every facet of human life. It is a life-sustaining element, vital for the survival of all organisms on Earth. Its importance extends beyond quenching thirst and facilitating hygiene, to societal and developmental realms, contributing significantly to the global economy and food security.

Water as a Life-Sustaining Element

The human body is composed of about 60% water, serving as a medium for various biochemical reactions. It aids in digestion, absorption of nutrients, regulation of body temperature, and excretion of waste substances. Dehydration can lead to serious health problems, highlighting the importance of regular water intake.

Water in Agriculture and Food Security

Agriculture is the largest consumer of freshwater, accounting for nearly 70% of all water withdrawals globally. Water is essential for crop growth and livestock rearing, playing a pivotal role in ensuring food security. With climate change exacerbating water scarcity, efficient water management strategies in agriculture are crucial for sustainable development.

Economic Significance of Water

Water is a key driver of economic prosperity. Industries such as tourism, fisheries, energy, and manufacturing heavily rely on water. Hydroelectric power plants, for instance, use water to generate electricity, contributing significantly to the energy sector. Thus, water is not just a commodity, but a critical economic resource.

Societal and Cultural Importance of Water

Water has profound societal and cultural significance. It is central to many religious rituals and ceremonies, symbolizing purity and life. Moreover, water bodies have shaped human settlements, with many ancient civilizations flourishing around rivers and coasts. Today, they continue to influence urban planning and architecture.

Water and the Environment

Water plays a crucial role in maintaining the Earth’s climate system. It regulates global temperatures via ocean currents and the water cycle. Wetlands, which are rich in biodiversity, act as natural water filters, reducing pollution and mitigating climate change impacts.

In conclusion, water is a versatile and indispensable resource, underpinning various aspects of human life. Its importance is multifaceted, spanning health, food security, economic prosperity, societal norms, and environmental sustainability. As we face increasing water scarcity due to climate change and overexploitation, it is imperative to recognize the value of water and strive for its sustainable management. The future of our planet and the survival of future generations hinge on our ability to conserve and wisely use this precious resource.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Essay on Conserve Water Conserve Life
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Safe Drinking Water: Concepts, Benefits, Principles and Standards

Submitted: 15 March 2017 Reviewed: 28 September 2017 Published: 21 March 2018

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.71352

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Water is connected to every forms of life on earth. As a criteria, an adequate, reliable, clean, accessible, acceptable and safe drinking water supply has to be available for various users. The United Nation (UN) and other countries declared access to safe drinking water as a fundamental human right, and an essential step towards improving living standards. Access to water was one of the main goal of Millinium Development Goals (UN-MDGs) and it is also one of the main goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The UN-SDG goal 6 states that “Water sustains life, but safe clean drinking water defines civilization”. Despite these facts, there are inequalities in access to safe drinking water in the world. In some countries, sufficient freshwater is not available (physical scarcity); while in other countries, abundant freshwater is available, but it is expensive to use (economic scarcity). The other challenge is the increasing population of the world at an alarming rate, while the available freshwater resources almost remains constant. This chapter presents aspects of safe drinking water - background information, definition of water safety and access, benefits, principles and regulations, factors challenging the sustainable water supply and water quality standards and parameters.

accessibility
inequalities
quality standards

Author Information

Megersa olumana dinka *.

Department of Civil Engineering Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Water covers more than two-thirds of the earth’s surface, but mostly salty and undrinkable. The available freshwater resource is only 2.7% of the available water on earth but only 1% of the available freshwater (in lakes, rivers and groundwater) is accessible. Most of the available freshwater resources are inaccessible because they are in the hidden part of the hydrologic cycles (deep aquifers) and in glaciers (frozen in the polar ice), which means safe drinkable water on earth has very small proportion (~3%) in the freshwater resources. Freshwater can also be obtained from the seawater by desalinization process. In some countries, sufficient freshwater is not available ( physical scarcity ). In some countries, abundant freshwater is available, but it is expensive to use ( economic scarcity ).

South Africa receives about 450 mm annual rainfall and is classified as a water-stressed country [ 1 , 2 ]. The available freshwater resource can sustain 80 million people only. Some African countries (Ethiopia, Congo and Papua New Guinea) have excess freshwater resources, but they are having water shortage due to economic reasons. Ethiopia, the second populous countries in Africa, is the water tower of east Africa due to the availability of abundant water (nine major river basins). However, the country is among the few countries in the world affected by chronic water problem. The water scarcity in the world is further aggravated by the reduced water quantity (or an increased water demands) due to population growth and the declining of water quality by pollution.

As a criterion, an adequate, clean and safe drinking water supply has to be available for various users [ 3 ]. There is no universally accepted definition of “safe drinking water.” Safe drinking water is defined as the water that does not represent any significant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption [ 4 ]. The safe drinking water must be delivered that is pure, wholesome, healthful and potable. Safe water is not necessarily pure, it has some impurities in it. It contains some traces of salts such as magnesium, calcium, carbonates, bicarbonates and others. The degree of purity and safety is a relative term and debatable. Clean/pure water has no minerals and it only contains H and O. According to the Monitoring organizations under the supervision of the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP), “safe drinking water” is defined as water from an “improved water source,” which includes household connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collections. According to the same organization, “access to safe drinking water” is defined as the availability of at least 20 l per person per day from an “improved” source within 1 km of the user’s dwelling.

Safe drinking (potable) water is the water that can be delivered to the user and is safe for drinking, food preparation, personal hygiene and washing [ 3 ]. The water must meet the required (chemical, biological and physical) quality standards at the point of supply to the users [ 5 ]. Therefore, safe drinking water is a relative term, which depends on the standards and guidelines of a country; the standards set for the different quality parameters are different. The standard of WHO is not exactly the same as that of USA, Canada, European Commission, Russia, India, South Africa, Ethiopia, and so on. The term “safe” depends on the particular resistance ability of an individual. Water that is safe for drinking in some African countries might not be safe in European countries. Some African countries already developed resistance to some of the water-related diseases.

Safe drinking water is anonymously accepted as an international agenda and priority, which is evident from the MDGs and SDGs of the United Nations (UN) initiative and vision (MDGs 7 and SDGs 6). Despite the MDGs effort, still many people lack access to safe drinking water, even lack access to basic water. Globally, more than 1 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water. According to the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) report [ 6 ], contaminated/dirty water is killing more people than cancer, AIDS, wars or accidents. Population of the world is increasing and the available freshwater resources almost remain constant. The number of people without access to safe drinking water is increasing. This is mostly related to the ever-increasing population growth in the developing countries and the inability (or unwillingness) of governments (local and national) to provide adequate water supply facilities in these countries [ 7 ].

2. Drinking water safety and access

2.1. access to safe drinking water.

Water is connected to every form of life on earth and is the basic human need, equally important as air. Water is connected to every aspect of human day-to-day activities directly or indirectly. At a basic level, everyone needs access to safe water in adequate quantities for drinking, cooking, personal hygiene and sanitation facilities that do not compromise health or dignity. Therefore, access to safe and dependable (clean and fresh) water is the fundamental/basic right of humans [ 8 ]. The UN and other countries declared that access to clean, safe drinking water is a basic human right, and an essential step toward improving living standards worldwide. Access to water was one of the main goals of UN-MDGs and it is also one of the main goals of the UN-SDGs. The South African constitution declares “ access to water and food for all ” as the main goal in the constitution following the 1998 National Water Act [ 9 ]. Despite these facts, still there are inequalities in access to safe drinking water in South Africa and in the world, the problem has more impacts on the poor, women and children. There are also inequalities within and among nations [ 6 ]. For instance, the population with access to safe drinking water in Congo was 77% for rural dwellers and 17% for rural dwellers by the year 2002 [ 6 ]. Inequalities in access to water and sanitation are morally unacceptable, but they are prohibited under international law [ 3 ].

Globally, it is estimated that 89% of people have access to water suitable for drinking [ 10 ]. According to UNDP [ 11 ] report, one out of six people do not have access to clean water, that is, about 1.1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water. In some countries, especially in Africa, almost half of the population do not have access to safe drinking water and hence, is afflicted with poor health [ 12 ]. The number of people without safe drinking water is more than the number reported by UNDP [ 11 ]. This is due to the fact that most of the water supply facilities initiated during the MDGs in developing countries are not functioning properly.

2.2. Benefits of safe drinking water

Water of satisfactory quality is the fundamental indicator of health and well-being of a society and hence, crucial for the development of a country. Contaminated water not only has the potential to pose immediate threat to human, but also can affect an individual productive rate [ 13 ]. According to the WHO [ 14 ] report, an estimated 1.1 billion people in the world drink unsafe water. Approximately 3.1% of the global annual death (1.7 million) and 3.7% of the annual burden (disability) (54.2 million) are caused by the use of unsafe water and lack of basic sanitation and hygiene.

Water provides a number of benefits and services for humans and the ecosystem. As reported by OECD [ 15 ], the benefit of water is not documented sufficiently, resulting in low political priority for water issues and in suboptimal levels of investment in water infrastructures. The same document also indicates that the benefit of water is mostly hidden in other technical documents. Most researchers have indicated that the benefit-cost ratio of access to water is more than 2, and in some cases, it can reach 7.0. In developing countries like Africa, the benefit-cost ratio of access to water is very high (more than 5:1 ratio) because it is related to every dimension of developmental activities (agriculture, energy, industry, etc.). In such areas, the return on investment in water services usually result in a substantial economic gains, estimated in the range of 5–28 USD per 1 USD [ 7 ]. In addition to the economic gains, water supply projects have technical, environmental and political gains. Water sector is interconnected with other development sectors (agriculture, energy, industry, etc.) and factors (social, economic, environmental, health, educational, legal and political) at local, national levels, regional and international levels [ 16 ]. In fact, access to safe water has a number of direct and indirect benefits related to health, education, poverty and environment. The UN World Water Development Report [ 7 ] indicated that there is a linkage or nexus between water and sustainable development, far beyond its social, economic and environmental dimensions. The report clearly indicated that access to safe water has a great role in addressing the developmental challenges, such as human health, food and energy security, urbanization and industrial growth, as well as climate changes. Especially, there is a strong nexus between water, food and energy [ 3 ].

The MDGs of the UN targeted to “ halve the population without access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation” in the period from 1990 to 2015. According to the report by WHO and UNICEF [ 17 ] through their Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for water supply and sanitation, about 2.3 billion people have gained access to an improved drinking water. The report indicates an impressive gain has been made in the past two decades, but much has to be done. The success of MDGs is even doubtful since many of developing countries, especially the poor are still struggling to get access to safe drinking water. As stated in Section 2.1, the number of people without access to safe drinking water is more than the value reported by the UN.

Research has shown that the majority of people without access to safe water are from developing nations [ 18 ]. This shows that many people in the developing world, especially Africa, still depend on unsafe water sources for daily water need and affected by chronic water problems and water-borne diseases. Millions of people die due to water-related diseases like cholera, diarrhea, malaria, dengue fever, and so on. Globally, water-borne diseases kill more than 25,000 people per day and about 5000 children die per day due to water-related diseases (mainly diarrhea) [ 12 ], most of them can be easily prevented. Diarrhea and related diseases kill about 1.8 million children every year, most of them are in developing countries [ 19 ]. It is also estimated that about 1.8 billion people drink water contaminated with Escherichia coli (indicator of fecal contamination) [ 20 ]. In many parts of the world, especially developing countries, water-borne diseases represent the leading cause of death. Thus, access to safe water means a reduction of water-related diseases. It is an opportunity for improved health because it reduces the outbreak of health hazards.

In cognizant to the benefits of water, the newly introduced ambitious Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) by UN in 2014 [ 21 ] considers water as one of the main developmental pillars under SDG 6. In fact, water was also one of the main goals of the UN-MDGs. The UN-SDG 6 states that “ Water sustains life but safe, clean drinking water defines civilization. ” The UN-SDG 6 recommended a dedicated SDG for water under five target areas such as (i) WASH, (ii) water resources, (iii) water governance, (iv) water quality and wastewater management and (v) water-related disasters. This indicates that the benefit-cost ratio of water is very high since it has social, economic, financial and environmental benefits. The benefit of water extends to other developmental activities/sectors such as health, education, agriculture and food production, energy, industry and other social and economic activities [ 7 ]. Therefore, achieving the UN’s SDG 6 seems very hard, especially in the poorest countries like Africa where there are lots of problems and challenges. It requires dramatic improvement to the quality of life and longevity [ 7 ]. If we declare that “access to clean safe drinking water is a basic human right, then providing the necessary education, infrastructure and support to ensure the success of SDG 6 is the responsibility of us all.” In developing countries, improving access to safe water requires the establishment of good governance [ 22 ].

3. Basic principles of safe drinking water supply

3.1. definition of terms.

There are basic standards, norms, criterion and indicators for safe drinking water. There are also policies, strategy and program under safe drinking water. These terms are well defined by Bos et al. [ 3 ]. Norm refers to the standard of development related to the large group of society. Criterion refers to the agreed norm or standard used for the decision. Indicator refers to the measured value of individual water quality parameters. Standard refers to the agreed target/threshold value established as an agreed target, which is set by an authority. There are various water quality standards and criteria in the world. Details of the water quality standards are provided under Section 5.3.

3.2. Water regulations and act

Water regulations are important for the provision of drinking water that is sufficient in quantity, safe, accessible, acceptable, affordable and reliable. Drinking water regulations include controlling of the water supply systems which are water source, water treatment, distribution, use, wastewater and gray water. Countries regulate drinking water differently depending on the quality of their water source. As stated earlier, different countries regulate drinking water differently depending on the quality of their water source.

In South Africa, water sources are monitored by the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). This was achieved by the implementation of the National Water Act (NWA) 36 of 1998 [ 9 ]. The purpose of the NWA is to ensure that the nation’s water resources are protected, used, developed, conserved, managed and controlled. Local authorities are responsible for the supply of water to residents. This was achieved by the implementation of the Water Services Act (WSA) 108 of 1997. WSA are established to provide the following services [ 9 ]: (1) ensuring the rights of access to basic water supply and sanitation; (2) setting national standards, norms and tariffs; (3) water service development plans; (4) prepare the regulatory framework for water service institutions and intermediaries; (5) establish and disestablish committee for water boards and water services and their powers and duties; (6) monitoring water services and intervention and (7) providing financial assistance to water service institutions.

As a criterion, an adequate, clean and safe drinking water supply has to be available for various users [ 3 ]. Moreover, water has to be accessible for all, including children, elders and disabled ones. Water availability refers to both sufficient quantities and reliability of service provisions. Adequacy refers to both the quality and quantity of water. Reliability refers to continuity of the service provision for the current and future generation, which is covered under the principle of sustainability, system robustness and resilience. Acceptability refers to esthetic value of water – the acceptable appearance, taste and odor of water. It is highly subjective parameter and largely depends critically on the perceptions of the local ecology, culture, education and experience and hence, there is no set clear and objective global acceptability standards. Accessibility to water refers to the accessibility to a reliable supply of water on a continuous basis close to the point of demand: within everyone’s reach: home, school, work, public places. It is related to the distance of water source from the point of demand (30 minutes walk or 0.2 km). That means the water has to be accessible for everyone, including children, elders and disabled ones. The detailed definition of the above water variables can be obtained from Bos et al. [ 3 ].

The role of a drinking water supplier is to provide adequate water for the community and prevent/mitigate risk of water contamination in different elements/points of water supply system such as source, treatment and distribution. They also should assure the delivery of a safe and esthetically pleasing drinking water to the consumer’s point. In general, the prevention, mitigation and elimination of water contamination are the responsibilities of water providers and regulators. Water regulations are also important for the provision of drinking water that is sufficient in quantity, safe, accessible, acceptable, affordable and reliable. Countries regulate drinking water differently depending on the quality of their water source. According to the WHO [ 23 ] and US Environmental Protection Agency [ 24 ], there are guidelines and principles that need to be followed for water to be considered fit for use. The guidelines are as follows: physical, microbial, chemical and radiological. The water quality standards for different countries are summarized under Section 6.1.

4. Potential factors challenging water supply systems

The water supply system (WSS) is a system of hydrologic and hydraulic components, including all buildings and installations, used to meet water requirement of industrial and population centers. It consists of capturing raw water, drainage basin, water capturing and transmission pipes, water treatment plants, treated water transfer pipes, drinking water adduction pipes, pumping stations and pumping, water storage tanks and water distribution networks to the consumers [ 25 , 26 , 27 ]. A conventional water supply system is a combination of complex subsystems, consisting of the water supply catchment, water storage reservoir, water treatment plant and water distribution network [ 26 ]. Water supply and distribution systems typically comprise a combination of source works, treatment facilities, service reservoirs, pumping stations, pipes, valves and so on [ 25 ].

4.1. Sustainable water supply and challenges

In the ambitious vision 2050 of the SDG, sufficient and safe water has to be available for all to support human’s basic needs and ecosystem integrity [ 7 ]. The sustainable development of the world largely depends on the sustainable development of water since other sectors are interrelated with water resources. It requires the progress of the three dimensions of the sustainable development (social, economic and environmental) [ 7 ]. Thus, the vision of SDGs (goal 6) for water requires management of the available water and related resources in an integrated, inclusive and participatory approach. Huge investment is highly needed for infrastructure, treatment plant systems and water recycling [ 29 ].

A WSS may face a number of challenges associated with many factors in provision of quality, efficient, reliable, resilient and sustainable water supply for the present and future generations. Rural areas are facing more financial and technical difficulties than urban areas. According to da Silva et al. [ 29 ], wealthier urban areas have more financial capacity and technical expertise than the poor rural communities to raise the capital needed for water infrastructure. Especially in rural areas with arid environment and great hydrologic variability, reliable and dependable WSS requires energy intensive infrastructure. A study made by Chung et al. [ 30 ] showed that robust optimization approach is a useful tool in reliable WSS design, under uncertainty, that prevents system failure at a certain level of risk.

Achieving the SDG requires huge capital investment and good governance , which is lacking in developing countries. Huge investment is highly needed for infrastructure, treatment plant systems and water recycling [ 28 ]. The sustainable development of water sector is affected by the sustainable development of the other sectors. Unsustainable developmental activities are greatly threatening the quantity and quality of renewable freshwater resources. Various driving forces are threatening the sustainability of WSS such as population increase at alarming rate, high rate of urbanization, significant land cover and climate change, the high demand for new energy supplies and poor governance. These driving factors are causing an increasingly frequent water shortage, floods and droughts, deleterious runoff, coastal hypoxia and depleted aquifers [ 28 ]. They have challenged the success of MDGs and will continue challenging the achievement of the newly set MDGs.

The other challenge of sustainable water supply is the lack of appropriate policies and programs that consider rural diversity. Small rural communities are the most vulnerable to water contamination. Furthermore, they struggle to secure the necessary funds for infrastructure necessary to improve water treatment and delivery systems, and thus fail to meet drinking water quality regulations. Community management is the tendency to provide water to rural areas worldwide. Despite the diversity of rural communities and their water supplies, policies tend to be uniform. A quantitative and qualitative study made in the Colombian Andes on four rural water supplies by considering aspects of infrastructure, training of human resources, revenue collection, water quality and post-construction support [ 31 ]. The study concluded that there is a need to design policies and programs that consider rural diversity to facilitate the sustainable water supply services. According to Kot et al. [ 32 ], policymakers have to align small communities with appropriate water quality goals by considering the contextual and cultural differences among rural communities.

In urban areas, the infrequent and insufficient application of adaptive capacity indicators in urban sustainable water supply systems has led to the challenge of dynamic and uncertain urban water supply systems. This condition is threatening the sustainability of urban water supply systems and raises concerns about the progress of urban water systems for variation and change [ 33 ]. As suggested by Spiller [ 33 ], future research should focus on developing methods and indicators that can define, evaluate and quantify adaptive capacity indicators under the three dimensions of sustainable development ( economic, environmental and technical ). Therefore, there is an urgent need to move toward the use of adaptive capacity indicators.

Moreover, there is an urgent need to move toward sustainable and resilient smart water grids in urban areas. Urban water supply systems are facing challenges of sustainability and resiliency, including water leaks, over-use, quality issues and response to drought and natural disasters [ 34 ]. Information and communications technology could help address these challenges through the development of smart water grids that network and automate monitoring and control devices [ 34 ]. While impressive progress has been made on technological elements (information and communication), the application of a smart water grid has received scant attention, especially in developing countries.

In fast-growing urban regions, water demand and supply modeling is extremely important. An accurate prediction of water demand plays a crucial role for water service providers in the planning, design and water utility asset management of drinking WSS. However, accurate prediction is always challenging due to the fact that predicting models require a simultaneous consideration of a number of factors affecting water demand and supply pattern. Some of the factors include climate changes, economic development, population growth, migration and consumer behavioral patterns [ 35 ].

4.2. Challenging factors for water supply systems

There are a number of factors challenging WSS. Some of the factors are aging infrastructure, water service provision thinking horizons, catchment (mountain)-specific issues, climate change, knowledge gaps with respect to present and future hydrology, accurate water demand prediction, land use/cover change, optimal operation of water supply systems, cost recovery, operating cost, water quality (water pollution), water scarcity, water leaks, low water pressure, over-use, response to drought and natural disasters, rapid urbanization, population growth, migration, demographic changes, economic development, consumer behavioral patterns, efficiency and reliability of a water supply system, self-sufficiency through use of alternative water sources, dynamic and uncertain urban water systems, complex dynamic human-environment coupled systems (non-holistic or siloed management), lack of adaptive capacity indicators to assess sustainability of water systems, scant attention of smart water grids (not supported by information and communications technology), lack of policies and programs that consider rural diversity and cultural differences and neglecting wastewater management are mentioned as challenges to water supply systems for provision of sustainable and reliable water services, which meet acceptable standards for present and future generations [ 14 , 25 , 26 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ].

According to Berg and Danilenko [ 38 ], WSS has faced a number of global challenges in the twenty-first century. The major challenges are population growth, uncertain climate changes, socio-environmental issues, limited water resources, economic crises and continuous aging process. There are a number of problems associated with the continuous aging process, including low pressure, water loss and water quality deterioration [ 36 ]. The major challenges in the provision of safe water and sanitation on a global basis are [ 37 ]: (1) water contamination within distribution systems; (2) increasing water scarcity and shortages; (3) implementing innovative and low-cost sanitation systems; (4) providing sustainable water supply systems and sanitation for megacities; (5) reducing the disparities in access to water and sanitation and (6) developing financially feasible water and sanitation services.

Increasing urban water self-sufficiency: The main drivers for increased self-sufficiency were identified to be direct and indirect lack of water, constrained infrastructure, high-quality water demands and commercial and institutional pressures. Public water service providers should plan to achieve a high level of reliable, stable and dependable water supply, which can be achieved by combining alternative water supply systems with the conventional ones. A case study made by Rygaard et al. [ 39 ] demonstrated an increase in water self-sufficiency ratios to more than 80% when the conventional water supply was supplemented by water recycling, seawater desalination and rainwater harvesting. However, the study indicated that care should be made during the introduction of alternative freshwater sources since it may raise several challenges such as very high-energy requirements (> tenfold ) by the alternative techniques, appearance of trace contaminants in recycled wastewaters and the possible resistance from consumers due to the changes made to the drinking water system. The study concluded that despite the challenges, urban water self-sufficiency concepts in combination with conventional water resources are already helping to reach the goal of urban WSS.

Infrastructure development: Water services are in crisis or approaching crisis conditions due to the neglect of infrastructure, particularly underground water mains and sewers, largely because of political unwillingness to allow charges to be set high enough to achieve sustainable cost recovery. This is true in both developed and developing countries [ 43 ]. In developed countries, the solutions are relatively affordable; what is needed is the political commitment to take action. In developing countries, the situation is more serious due to a combination of neglect and rapidly growing urban populations. Without doubt, infrastructure is essential for sustainable water development. But infrastructure alone will not contribute to the improvement of the quality of life unless it is part of an overall framework: development, economic growth, social equity and environmental protection. As mentioned by the Nobel laureate Amartya Sen [ 45 ], “the absence of infrastructure has a pervasive influence on poverty, but at the same time is not a free-standing factor in lifting people from it.” Thus, the focus should be the use of physical infrastructure as a driver for sustainable development. But infrastructure development takes more time beyond the life of most governments. The thinking of water service providers has to be based on long-term horizons. In order to improve the accountability and social welfare of relatively low-income households, there is a need for more comprehensive frameworks (institutional, legal, regulatory, policy and management) than the existing ones at present [ 45 ]. Venkatachalam [ 47 ] suggested that improving the existing public water supply to a satisfactory level will improve the household’s willingness to pay because the willing households could reap significant benefits from the improved supply. This would help the government agencies to come out with an improved water tariff policy that will cover cost of investment and maintenance.

Urban water pricing ( cost recovery, affordability and water conservation ): Policymakers increasingly consider pricing as an important tool for cost recovery, affordability and water conservation to address water scarcity issues. However, implementing tariff reforms is often difficult in practice due to political factors and the absence of governance structures that can result in quality service provision. Additionally, institutional replication of successful water pricing policies has been difficult due to incomplete information and the contextual uniqueness of local institutions, politics and social relations. Water service provision thinking has to be based on long-term horizons. Infrastructure development takes time beyond the life of most governments. In those countries without such political continuity, there is a need for all political factions to agree on goals, policies and plans. It is unlikely that water can ever be separated from politics, but city political consensus must be attempted [ 53 ].

Climate change : Climate change is affecting the frequency of extreme weather events and hence increasing the uncertainty about water availability and reliability [ 50 ]. A properly planned, developed and managed infrastructure and related institutional capacities are required in order to buffer seasonal climatic variations and address water demand issues. More emphasis should be given to mountain-specific issues. Major priority areas include water governance for transboundary basins, cross-border information systems, establishing a knowledge base for mountain regions and sharing benefit between mountain and downstream communities [ 42 ].

Knowledge gaps: With respect to present and future, hydrology poses a serious constraint for infrastructure development. Changing hydrology will pose special challenges to the design, planning and management of infrastructure [ 42 ]. Land use influences raw surface water quality and treatment costs for drinking water supply [ 51 ]. Anthropogenic disturbances to the environment can compromise valuable ecosystem services, including the provision of potable water. These disturbances decrease water quality, potentially increasing treatment costs for producing drinking water.

Efficiency and reliability of a water supply system: Water inflow is among primary determinants of the successful functioning of the entire water supply system since it influences water storage. Developing an approach to assess the resilience of WSS under limited rainfall provides useful insights into effective system management [ 26 ]. For instance, understanding WSS resilience can support the identification of the minimum/threshold rainfall value by which WSS can maintain its operation without failure. It can also help to understand and identify the sensitivity of the WSS to a changing rainfall amount and distribution pattern. In this regard, the water service providers are well aware of the stability of WSS and know when the system experience a pressure or disruptive influences.

Challenges for water supply and Governance: Cities struggling to keep pace with population and demographic changes are not unique. According to a study conducted in Dublin [ 41 ], collectively there are combinations of factors that create an inordinately challenging situation for those attempting to plan for the city’s current and future water resources needs. Their main challenges related to topography, old infrastructure (the nineteenth century), population growth and development needs, water charges, climate change and water supply history.

5. Drinking water quality

5.1. definition and concepts.

Water is most fundamental in shaping the land and regulating the climate. It is one of the most important resources that profoundly influence life. Water quality is the most fundamental controlling factor when it comes to health and the state of diseases in both humans and animals. According to WHO report [ 23 ], about 80% of all the human diseases in human beings are caused by water.

Depending on the purpose of water quality analysis, water quality can be defined based on a set of biological, physical and chemical variable, which are closely linked to the water’s intended use. As a principle, drinking water is supposed to be free from harmful pathogens and toxic chemicals [ 3 ]. Contamination of freshwater (especially groundwater) sources is one of the main challenges currently faced by the South Africans, more especially in communities who depend almost exclusively on groundwater [ 52 ]. Groundwater is used for domestic, industrial and agricultural water supply in all four corners of the world. Therefore, the presence of contaminants in natural freshwater continues to be one of the most important environmental issues in many areas of the world, more especially in developing countries [ 53 ]. Once the groundwater is contaminated, its quality cannot be restored back easily, the best way is to protect it.

The concept and theory of water quality is very broad since it is influenced by many factors. Water quality is based on the intended uses of water for different purposes, that is, different water uses require different criteria to be satisfied. In water quality analysis, all of the accepted and unaccepted values must be clearly defined for each quality variable. If the quality variables meet the pre-established standards for a given use is considered safe for that use. When water fails to meet these standards, it must be treated if possible before use.

5.2. Description of water quality parameters

5.2.1. physical parameters.

Physical quality parameters are related to total solids content, which is composed of floating matter, settleable matter, colloidal matter and matter in solution. The following physical parameters are determined in water [ 12 ]:

Color : caused by dissolved organic materials from decaying vegetation or landfill leachate.

Taste and odor : can be caused by foreign compounds such as organic compounds, inorganic salts or dissolved gases.

Temperatures : the most desirable drinking water is consistently cool and does not have temperature fluctuation of more than a few degrees. Groundwater generally meets these criteria.

Turbidity : refers to the presence of suspended solid materials in water such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and so on.

5.2.2. Chemical parameters

The chemical constituents have more health concerns for drinking water than for the physical constituents. The objectionability of most of the physical parameters are based on esthetic value than health effects. But the main objectionability of some of the chemical constituents is based on esthetic as well as concerns for adverse health effects. Some of the chemical constituents have an ability to cause health problems after prolonged period of time [ 54 ]. That means the chemical constituents have a cumulative effect on humans. The chemical quality parameters of water include alkalinity, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved gases, nitrogen compounds, pH, phosphorus and solids (organic). Sometimes, chemical characteristics are evidenced by their observed reactions such as in laundering, redox reactions, and so on [ 12 , 54 ].

Below is a list of some of the chemical compounds and elements found in water:

Arsenic : occurs naturally in some geologic formation. It is mostly used in agricultural chemicals in South Africa. In drinking water, it has been linked to lung and urinary bladder cancer.

Chloride : most waters contain some chloride. The amount found can be caused by the leaching of industrial or domestic waters. Chloride should not exceed 100 mg/L in domestic water to be palatable.

Fluoride : is a natural contaminant of water. It is one of those chemicals given high priority by WHO [ 14 ] for their health effects on humans. High F in drinking water usually causes dental and skeletal fluorosis. Excessive F (>2 mg/L) causes a dental disease known as fluorosis (mottling of teeth), while regular consumption in excess may give rise to bone and skeletal fluorosis [ 12 ]. On the other hand, F < 2 mg/L causes dental cavities in children.

Zinc : is found in some natural waters, particularly in areas where zinc ore deposit have been mined. Though it is not considered detrimental to health, but it will impart a bad taste to drinking water.

Iron : small amounts of iron frequently are present in water because of the large amount of iron in the geologic materials. This will cause reddish color to water.

Manganese : naturally occurring manganese is often present in significant amounts in groundwater. Anthropogenic sources include discarded batteries, steel alloy production and agricultural products.

Toxic substances : generally classified as inorganic substances, organic substances and heavy metals. The toxic inorganic substances include nitrates (NO 3 ), cyanides (CN_) and heavy metals. These substances are of major health concern in drinking water. High NO 3 content can cause Methemoglobinemia in infants (“infant cyanosis” or “blue baby syndrome”); while CN can cause oxygen deprivation [ 12 ]. There are more than 120 toxic organic substances [ 24 ], generally exist in the form of pesticides, insecticides and solvents. These compounds produce health effects (acute or chronic). The toxic heavy metals are arsenic (As), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), selenium (Se) and silver (Ag) [ 12 ]. Like the organic substances, some of these substances are acute poisons (As and Cr) and others produce chronic diseases (Pb, Cd and Hg).

5.2.3. Biological parameters

Biological parameters are the basic quality parameters for the control of diseases caused by pathogenic organisms, which have human origin. Pathogenic organisms found in surface water include bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, plants and animals and viruses. Some of these disease-causing organisms (bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and viruses) are not identifiable and can only be observed microscopically. Microbiological agents are very important in their relation to public health and may also be significant in the modification of physical and chemical characteristics of water [ 12 ]. Water for drinking and cooking purposes must be free from pathogens. The greatest microbial risks are associated with consumption of water that is contaminated with human or animal feces. Feces can carry pathogenic bacteria, protozoa, helminthes and virus. Pathogens originating from feces are the principle concerns in setting health-based targets for microbial safety. Water-borne diseases are particularly to be avoided because of the capacity of result in the simultaneous infection of large number of people. While water can be a very significant source of infectious organisms, many of the diseases that may be waterborne may also be transmitted by other routes, including person-to-person contact, droplets and aerosols and food intake [ 54 ].

The techniques for comprehensive bacteriological test are complex and time consuming. Different tests have been developed to detect the relative degree of bacterial contaminations in terms of an easily defined quantity. There are two mostly used test methods widely used to estimate the number of microorganism of coliform groups ( Escherichia coli and Aerobacter aerogenes ). These include: total coliforms or E. coli , but the second one is found to be a better indicator of biological contamination compared to the first one [ 12 ].

5.3. Water quality standards

As presented in Section 3.1, standard is defined as a basis for judging the quality. A standard for drinking water quality is thus the reference that will ensure that the delivered water will not pose any threat or harm to human health. The water quality standard is the framework against which a water sample can be considered satisfactory or safe for use [ 54 ]. There are a number of standard guidelines for drinking purposes such as World Health Organization [ 54 ], Commission for European Union [ 55 ], U.S. Environmental Protection Agent [ 24 ], Environmental Canada [ 56 ], Russian Standard [ 57 ], Indian Standard [ 58 , 59 ], South African National Standard [ 60 ] and Ethiopian Standards [ 61 ]. Most developing and other developed countries use the WHO standards for drinking water [ 54 ]. Table 1 summarizes water quality guidelines of different countries.

Table 1.

Comparison of the different drinking water standards.

P – probability (%); HDL – highest desirable limit; MPL – maximum permissible limit; USEPA – United States Environmental Protection Agency; CEU – Commission of European Union; EC – Environmental Canada.

Sources: a WHO [ 54 ], b USEPA [ 24 ], c CEU [ 55 ], d UNESCO/WHO/UNEP [ 56 ], e Health Canada [ 57 ], f ISI [ 58 ] and BIS [ 59 ], g SANS [ 60 ], h ESA [ 61 ]. Note that the values indicated for the different standards other than WHO are the maximum permissible limits.

5.4. Water quality index

It is difficult to quantify the overall suitability of water for drinking based on the various guidelines presented in Table 1 . The interpretation of the various water quality parameters separately is usually a difficult task for general public as well as decision and policy makers. Therefore, the calculation of a general water quality index (WQI) is extremely important in order to communicate the quality of water in a better and understandable ways. There are different approaches of calculating WQI. In this section, a brief description has been provided for the weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index Method proposed by Tiwari and Mishra [ 62 ] and adopted by others [ 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ]. The quality rating (q i ), the sub-index (SI) [ 65 ] and the relative weights (Wi) are calculated using Eqs. (1) – (3) .

where V i and S i are the analytical and the standard value for the i th parameter, respectively, V o is the ideal value of the i th parameter in pure water (V o = 0, except pH =7.0). The standard value is usually considered as the maximum permissible level set by WHO [ 10 , 14 , 54 ] or as per the standards for different countries presented in Table 1 . W i is the relative weights for various water quality parameters, assumed to be inversely proportional to the recommended standards for the corresponding parameters. w i is the unit weight of each parameter according to its relative importance in the overall quality of water for drinking purposes. The w i values are provided by Tiwari and Mishra [ 62 ], which depend on the number of parameters considered in the calculation of WQI. Note that the ∑W i should be equal to 1.

Finally, the overall WQI ( Eq. (4) ) is calculated for each of the water sources by aggregating the quality rating (q i ) linearly and taking their weighted mean.

WQI classes are as follows: 0–25 (excellent, grade A), 26–50 (good, grade B), 51–75 (poor, grade C), 76–100 (very poor, grade D), >100 (unfit for drinking, Grade E).

6. Conclusion

As water is a basic need for human life, access to clean, safe drinking water is a basic human right. As a criterion, an adequate, reliable, clean, acceptable and safe drinking water supply has to be available for various users. Moreover, everyone needs access to safe water in adequate quantities for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene and sanitation facilities that do not compromise health or dignity. Access to water is one of the most important catalysts given high priority by the UN for sustainable development. Despite these facts, there are inequalities in access to safe drinking water in the world. There are a number of factors challenging the sustainable WSS. Some of the factors are related to infrastructures (aging), clean water issues (quality, scarcity), natural factors (climate change, flood and drought), human factors (population growth, migration, demographic change, economic development, willingness to pay for water supply services, overuse), water management and delivery problems (pressure, leakages, lack of smart water meters, cost recovery, operation costs, etc.).

MDG fails to achieve its goal for access to safe water and sanitation. The chance for the success of the newly set SDG is also not different from that of MDGs, especially in some African countries. Some of the African leaders are reporting a false number of people with access to safe drinking water and sanitation to get a donation from the UN and using the donated money to buy weapons and use it to suppress the right of the people. In developing countries, improving access to safe water requires provision of good quality education and the establishment of good governance. Priorities should be given to the development of a democratic government and community empowerment.

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