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What Is Cognitive Dissonance?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

Verywell / Hugo Lin

• How It Feels
• Dealing With
• Potential Pitfalls

Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes. People tend to seek consistency in their attitudes and perceptions , so this conflict causes unpleasant feelings of unease or discomfort.

The inconsistency between what people believe and how they behave motivates them to engage in actions that will help minimize feelings of discomfort. People attempt to relieve this tension in different ways, such as by rejecting, explaining away, or avoiding new information.

Signs of Cognitive Dissonance

Everyone experiences cognitive dissonance to some degree but that doesn't mean that it is always easy to recognize. Some signs that what you are feeling might be related to dissonance include:

• Feeling uncomfortable before doing something or making a decision
• Trying to justify or rationalize a decision you've made or action you have taken
• Feeling embarrassed or ashamed about something you've done and trying to hide your actions from other people
• Experiencing guilt or regret about something you've done in the past
• Doing things because of social pressure or a fear of missing out (FOMO) , even if it wasn't something you wanted to do

Examples of Cognitive Dissonance

What does this inconsistency-related discomfort look like in everyday life? Here are just a few cognitive dissonance examples that you may notice in your own:

• You want to be healthy, but you don't exercise regularly or eat a nutritious diet . You feel guilty as a result.
• You know that smoking (or drinking too much ) is harmful to your health, but you do it anyway. You rationalize this action by pointing to your high stress levels.
• You'd like to build up your savings but tend to spend extra cash as soon as you get it. You regret this decision later, such as when facing an unexpected expense that you don't have the money to cover.
• You have a long to-do list but spend the day watching your favorite shows instead. You don't want your spouse to know, so you try to make it look like you've worked hard all day.

Cognitive Dissonance Examples in TV Shows and Movies

Several television shows and movies contain characters experiencing cognitive dissonance. Examples to consider include:

• The Truman Show
• Irresistible
• Stand By Me

Causes of Cognitive Dissonance

There are a number of different situations that can create conflicts that lead to cognitive dissonance.

Forced Compliance

Sometimes you might find yourself engaging in behaviors that are opposed to your own beliefs due to external expectations at work, school, or in a social situation. This might involve going along with something due to peer pressure or doing something at work to avoid getting fired.

New Information

Sometimes learning new information can lead to feelings of cognitive dissonance. For example, if you engage in a behavior that you later learn is harmful, it can lead to feelings of discomfort. People sometimes deal with this by finding ways to justify their behaviors or findings ways to discredit or ignore new information.

People make decisions, both large and small, on a daily basis. When faced with two similar choices, we are often left with feelings of dissonance because both options are equally appealing.

Once a choice has been made, however, people need to find a way to reduce these feelings of discomfort. We accomplish this by justifying why our choice was the best option so we can believe that we made the right decision .

Cognitive dissonance can be caused by feeling forced to do something, learning new information, or when faced with a decision between two similar choices.

What Influences Cognitive Dissonance?

The degree of dissonance experienced can depend on a few different factors. Among them are how highly a particular belief is valued and the degree to which the beliefs are inconsistent.

The overall strength of the dissonance can also be influenced by several factors, including:  

• The importance attached to each belief . Cognitions that are more personal, such as beliefs about the self , and highly valued tend to result in greater dissonance.
• The number of dissonant beliefs . The more dissonant (clashing) thoughts you have, the greater the strength of the dissonance.

Cognitive dissonance can often have a powerful influence on our behaviors and actions. It doesn't just influence how you feel; it also motivates you to take action to reduce feelings of discomfort.

How Cognitive Dissonance Feels

Cognitive dissonance can make people feel uneasy and uncomfortable. This is particularly true if the disparity between their beliefs and behaviors involves something that is central to their sense of self . 

For example, behaving in ways that are not aligned with your personal values may result in intense feelings of discomfort. Your behavior contradicts not just the beliefs you have about the world, but also the beliefs that you have about yourself.

This discomfort can manifest itself in a variety of ways. Someone with cognitive dissonance may feel:

• Embarrassment

Cognitive dissonance can even influence how people feel about and view themselves, leading to negative feelings of self-esteem and self-worth.

Impact of Cognitive Dissonance

Because people want to avoid discomfort , cognitive dissonance can have a wide range of effects. Dissonance can play a role in how we act, think, and make decisions. We may engage in behaviors or adopt attitudes to help relieve the discomfort caused by the conflict.

Some things that a person might do to cope with these feelings include:

• Adopting beliefs or ideas to help justify or explain away the conflict between their beliefs or behaviors. This can sometimes involve blaming other people or outside factors.
• Hiding beliefs or behaviors from other people . People may feel ashamed of their conflicting beliefs and behaviors, hiding the disparity from others to minimize feelings of shame and guilt.
• Only seeking out information that confirms existing beliefs . This phenomenon, known as confirmation bias , affects the ability to think critically about a situation but helps minimize feelings of dissonance.

People like to believe that they are logical, consistent, and good at making decisions. Cognitive dissonance can interfere with the perceptions they hold about themselves and their abilities, which is why it can often feel so uncomfortable and unpleasant.

Dealing With Cognitive Dissonance

When there are conflicts between cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, and opinions), people will take steps to reduce the dissonance and feelings of discomfort. They can go about this a few different ways.

Adding More Beliefs to Outweigh Dissonant Beliefs

People who learn that greenhouse emissions result in global warming might experience feelings of dissonance if they drive a gas-guzzling vehicle. To reduce this dissonance, they may seek out new information that overrides the belief that greenhouse gasses contribute to global warming.

Reducing the Importance of the Conflicting Belief

A person who cares about their health might be disturbed to learn that sitting for long periods during the day is linked to a shortened lifespan. Since they work all day in an office and spend a great deal of time sitting, it is difficult to change their behavior.

To deal with the feelings of discomfort then, they might find some way of rationalizing the conflicting cognition. For instance, they may justify their sedentary behavior by saying that their other healthy behaviors—like eating sensibly and occasionally exercising—make up for their largely sedentary lifestyle .

Changing Beliefs

Changing the conflicting cognition is one of the most effective ways of dealing with dissonance but it is also one of the most difficult—particularly in the case of deeply held values and beliefs, such as religious or political leanings .

Some of the ways people reduce discomfort from cognitive dissonance include seeking information that aligns with and supports current beliefs, reducing the conflicting belief's importance, and changing beliefs to reduce the feelings of conflict.

Potential Pitfalls of Cognitive Dissonance

Sometimes, the ways that people resolve cognitive dissonance contribute to unhealthy behaviors or poor decisions .

In "A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance," Leon Festinger (the psychologist who first described this phenomenon) gives an example of how a person might deal with dissonance related to a health behavior by discussing individuals who continue to smoke, even though they know it is harmful to their health.

According to Festinger, there are a few ways that a person might resolve this dissonance.

• They might decide that they value smoking more than they value health, deeming the behavior "worth it" in terms of risks versus rewards.
• They may minimize potential drawbacks, such as by convincing themselves that the negative health effects have been overstated or by believing that they cannot avoid every possible risk out there.
• They might try to convince themselves that if they do stop smoking, they will gain weight , which also presents health risks.

By using these types of explanations, the smoker is able to reduce the dissonance and continue the unhealthy behavior.

History of Cognitive Dissonance

Leon Festinger first proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance, centered on how people try to reach internal consistency. He suggested that people have an inner need to ensure that their beliefs and behaviors are consistent. Inconsistent or conflicting beliefs lead to disharmony, which people strive to avoid.

In his 1957 book, "A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance," Festinger explained, "Cognitive dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition which leads to activity oriented toward dissonance reduction just as hunger leads toward activity oriented toward hunger-reduction. It is a very different motivation from what psychologists are used to dealing with but, as we shall see, nonetheless powerful."

A Word From Verywell

Cognitive dissonance plays a role in many value judgments, decisions, and evaluations. Becoming aware of how conflicting beliefs impact the decision-making process is a great way to improve your ability to make faster and more accurate choices.

Mismatches between your beliefs and actions can lead to feelings of discomfort (and, sometimes, coping choices that have negative impacts), but such feelings can also sometimes lead to change and growth.

American Psychological Association. Cognitive dissonance .

Cancino-Montecinos S, Björklund F, Lindholm T. Dissonance reduction as emotion regulation: Attitude change is related to positive emotions in the induced compliance paradigm .  PLoS One . 2018;13(12):e0209012. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0209012

Festinger L. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance .

Vaidis DC, Bran A. Respectable challenges to respectable theory: Cognitive dissonance theory requires conceptualization clarification and operational tools .  Front Psychol . 2019;10:1189. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01189

Hasan U. Cognitive dissonance and its impact on consumer buying behaviour .  IOSR J Bus Manage . 2012;1(4):7-12. doi:10.9790/487x-0140712

Baumeister RF, Bushman B. Social Psychology and Human Nature .

Cooper J.  Cognitive Dissonance: 50 Years of a Classic Theory .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cognitive Dissonance: Theory, Examples & How to Reduce It

If this has ever happened to you, you have experienced first-hand what this article is about: what happens when we act in a way that does not align with who we believe we are.

That slight feeling of discomfort we perceive when noticing this mismatch is called cognitive dissonance .

Cognitive dissonance is powerful because we are highly driven to eliminate it. The way we do that can be transformative or destructive. Interestingly, we often do so without being aware of it.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will provide you with detailed insight into Positive CBT and give you the tools to apply it in your therapy or coaching.

This Article Contains:

Cognitive dissonance: festinger’s theory, a real-life example, 4 ways to address cognitive dissonance, a look at research findings, assessing cognitive dissonance: 2 questionnaires, dealing with dissonance in therapy: 4 tips, a note on cognitive dissonance in relationships, 2 books on the topic, 4 interesting podcast episodes on the subject, positivepsychology.com’s relevant resources, a take-home message.

A man with a conviction is a hard man to change. Tell him you disagree and he turns away. Show him facts or figures and he questions your sources. Appeal to logic and he fails to see your point.

Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Over 60 years ago, Leon Festinger (1957) postulated one of the most well-known theories of psychology: cognitive dissonance theory.

The theory is based on the idea that two cognitions can be relevant or irrelevant to each other (Festinger, 1957). Such cognitions can be about behaviors, perceptions, attitudes, emotions, and beliefs. Often, one of the cognitions in question is about our behavior. If the cognitions are relevant, they can be in agreement (consistent) or disagreement (inconsistent) with one another (Festinger, 1957).

Discrepancy between an attitude and a behavior – eating a doughnut while thinking of reducing calorie intake – leads to psychological discomfort called cognitive dissonance (Harmon-Jones, 2019).

Cognitive dissonance leads to the motivation to reduce the dissonance (Festinger, 1957). The stronger the discrepancy between thoughts, the greater the motivation to reduce it (Festinger, 1957).

There are four strategies used to do reduce the discomfort of cognitive dissonance:

• We change our behavior so that it is consistent with the other thought.
• We change one of the dissonant thoughts in order to restore consistency.
• We add other (consonant) thoughts that justify or reduce the importance of one thought and therefore diminish the inconsistency.
• We trivialize the inconsistency altogether, making it less important and less relevant.

There are two other factors that influence the magnitude of cognitive dissonance: whether you had some choice over the inconsistency and whether you expect the inconsistency to have negative consequences in the future. The more choice you had over the inconsistency (Linder, Cooper, & Jones, 1967) and the worse the consequences (Cooper & Worchel, 1970), the stronger the dissonance will be.

Dissonance can also be experienced vicariously through people of a social group that we identify with. When they act inconsistently with their attitude, we feel the same discomfort as if we had acted inconsistently with our attitude ourselves (Cooper, 2016).

The concept of cognitive dissonance is nicely explained in this YouTube video by social psychologist Andy Luttrell.

Cognitive dissonance occurs frequently and to all of us (Harmon-Jones, 2019).

Imagine confronting a sunbather with the information that excessive sun exposure is the leading cause of skin cancer. The two thoughts – ‘sunbathing can cause cancer’ and ‘I am sunbathing’ – will cause the discomfort of cognitive dissonance. Consequently, they will be motivated to reduce it.

They will do this in one of four ways:

• They change their behavior. Upon acquiring the additional information, they might stop sunbathing.
• They change one thought. They might decide to deny the evidence showing a link between sun exposure and skin cancer.
• They add other (consonant) thoughts. They might think that sun exposure is necessary for the body to produce vitamin D, which is important for bone health, among other benefits. Therefore, they may decide that a little sunbathing is good for their health.
• They trivialize the inconsistency. They might think that facts like that have been disproven plenty of times before and disregard the information altogether.

In fact, it is a psychological mechanism that helps us perceive our world (and our place in it) consistently. It is a mechanism that alerts us when we are not acting in line with our beliefs, attitudes, or plans.

In that sense, the experience of cognitive dissonance is an opportunity to learn and grow, as long as we deal with it constructively and respond in a way that we choose and is beneficial.

1. Mindfulness

Often, we deal with cognitive inconsistencies without being aware of them. The first step is to notice inconsistencies between our thoughts. We can raise our awareness through mindfulness practice . This includes refraining from judgment and instead being accepting of our observations.

2. Challenge current beliefs

The next step is to identify the cause of inconsistencies in our thoughts. Understanding your beliefs and values behind the inconsistencies is an opportunity to develop deeper self-knowledge.

Sometimes, it’s helpful to challenge our current beliefs . This can be a difficult and uncomfortable process and involves getting additional information.

3. Consider the importance of dissonant thoughts

Sometimes the dissonant information appears to be important at first sight but can be diminished upon deeper reflection.

A good example is the prospect of embarrassing ourselves in front of others, such as by forgetting our words during a speech. However, after further thought, we may decide that it does not matter what others think of us and can thus reduce the dissonance.

4. Justifying behavior

We may perceive dissonance when we engage in a new behavior (e.g., when we decline an invitation to an event we usually attend in order to protect our leisure time). While this can feel uncomfortable at first, it’s helpful to reflect on the reasons behind our behavior.

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Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) conducted one of the first studies examining cognitive dissonance.

In a three-group experimental design, they asked participants to complete a boring and monotonous task. Subsequently, intervention group participants were offered either $1 or $20 (under random selection) to engage in so-called counter-attitudinal behavior: telling the next participant that the task was enjoyable.

The researchers hypothesized that the intervention group participants would experience cognitive dissonance as a result of two conflicting thoughts: 1) the task is boring and 2) I am telling someone the task is fun.

They further presupposed that participants would be driven to reduce the dissonance by justifying their behavior. Since participants in the $20 condition had a more substantial justification (higher pay) already, they were further assumed to perceive less dissonance than those in the $1 condition.

Cognitive dissonance was measured indirectly by asking participants about changes in their opinion about how enjoyable the task was following the experiment.

As hypothesized, those in the $1 condition reported a significantly greater change of their opinion about the task than the other two groups. You can watch the following video clip about the study.

One of the criticisms about cognitive dissonance is that we cannot measure it directly (Harmon-Jones, 2019). Thus far, research studies have typically assessed cognitive dissonance using various indirect measures including:

• Changes in attitude toward a specific, context-dependent topic, such as enjoyment of the mundane task in the experiment described above (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959)
• Information seeking following a change in usual behavior (Engel, 1963)
• Differences in task performance as a result of the physical arousal associated with dissonance (Elliot & Devine, 1994)
• Galvanic skin responses (Elkin & Leippe, 1986)

More recently, psychometric measurement scales were developed. Since cognitive dissonance often naturally occurs after a decision such as a purchase, this is what questionnaires have focused on.

Sweeney, Hausknecht, and Soutar (2000) developed a 22-item scale measuring cognitive dissonance immediately following a purchase. It examines three dimensions of cognitive dissonance:

• Emotional consequences of the purchase (‘After I bought this product, I felt annoyed’)
• Judgment regarding the wisdom of the purchase (‘I wonder if I made the right choice’)
• Concern over the deal (‘After I bought this product, I wondered if they had fooled me’)

The questionnaire can be downloaded free from ResearchGate .

Koller and Salzberger (2007) developed an eight-item consumer behavior scale. Their questionnaire includes items regarding the decision-making process before and after the purchase. The full text can be requested from the authors free of charge via the ResearchGate website .

Therapists aim to help their patients by understanding and changing their attitudes, emotions, or behaviors. Dissonance can be hard to address constructively. The following tips consider its use or presence in therapy.

1. Induce effort

Cognitive dissonance theory itself suggests that if patients are investing time, money, and emotional effort in the therapy, they will be likely to work hard to reach their therapeutic goals in order to justify their efforts.

2. Provide choice

If patients are provided with the opportunity to co-design aspects of their therapy, they may be more likely to act in line with their choices by reaching their therapeutic goals.

3. Provide a safe space and consider the use of relaxation techniques

Patients are likely to feel uncomfortable when dissonant thoughts are discussed, which can impede their ability to think constructively.

4. Discussing discrepant behavior

Therapy can help patients by reflecting on and taking control of their thoughts . Sometimes when patients engage in a new, more constructive behavior, they can perceive dissonance simply because it is contrary to the way they used to act. Providing the space and time to understand their new behavior and justifying it can help to reduce the dissonance.

Cognitive dissonance and the way we cope with it regularly affect our relationships, too, both positively and negatively.

Relationships are typically built on shared attitudes, beliefs, and values. When our friends or partners act contrary to our beliefs and values, we perceive dissonance.

Coping mechanisms can include justifying their behavior (and our relationship with them), trivializing their behavior or the importance of it, attempting to change their behavior, or changing our own behavior.

This offers opportunities to discuss the discrepancies, deepen the relationship, and re-align values. Conversely, we may justify or trivialize negative behavior or even end the relationship.

In romantic relationships, important values represent hotspots for cognitive dissonance and typically center on big decisions, such as the wish to have children , lifestyle choices (e.g., buying a house vs. traveling the world), and issues related to family and friends.

The expectation of shared beliefs, values, and attitudes from family members can additionally influence romantic relationships. If these don’t align, we might consider justifying our relationship or breaking up. An extreme example of the negative consequences of cognitive dissonance is when we justify our partner’s harmful behavior toward us and get stuck in a toxic relationship.

1. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance – Leon Festinger

The original book by Leon Festinger is a staple on every (social) psychologist’s bookshelf.

It provides an introduction to the theory and covers the topics of cognitive dissonance following decisions, the effects of forced compliance, the impacts of voluntary and involuntary exposure to information, and the role of social support.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. Cognitive Dissonance: 50 Years of a Classic Theory – Joel Cooper

Psychologist Joel Cooper recently published a comprehensive update of cognitive dissonance theory after more than 50 years of research.

This book includes examples of cognitive dissonance in today’s world.

The Psych Files is hosted by psychologist Dr. Michael A. Britt and has several episodes on cognitive dissonance:

• Episode 8 : Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Why Contradictions Bother Us So Much
• Episode 10 : Cognitive Dissonance Strikes Again! What Your Search on Amazon Says About You
• Episode 63 : Cognitive Dissonance, the Monty Hall Problem and a Possible Resolution?

This episode of the podcast Behavioral Grooves features an interview with Dr. Kathleen Vohs on cognitive dissonance theory. Dr. Vohs discusses the topic as it relates to supporters of Former President Donald Trump justifying one of his controversial tweets in 2019.

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The following resources will make great supplemental support on the topic:

• 20 Most Popular Theories of Motivation in Psychology provides an introductory overview of motivation theories.
• Identifying and Challenging Core Beliefs : 12 Helpful Worksheets will help you identify core beliefs that play a role in your experience of cognitive dissonance.
• You can use the Setting Valued Goals tool to help your clients reflect on their personal values and begin living into these in a more purposeful, satisfying way.
• Our Mindfulness Masterclass© provides a comprehensive opportunity to understand and cultivate mindfulness practice.
• The Meaning and Valued Living Masterclass© provides you with the means to help your clients understand their core values.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others through CBT, this collection contains 17 validated positive CBT tools for practitioners. Use them to help others overcome unhelpful thoughts and feelings and develop more positive behaviors.

Cognitive dissonance is a well-researched psychological phenomenon. It occurs in all of us frequently, not just when planning to diet and justifying a doughnut with a delayed diet start.

Negative consequences of cognitive dissonance reduction include procrastination or acting seemingly contrary to our values and beliefs. However, it can be beneficial to remind ourselves that it exists as a psychological safety mechanism to help us perceive the world consistently and to protect the perception we have about ourselves.

Understanding our mechanisms with which we reduce dissonance and recognizing when it occurs are key to making informed and constructive decisions. Self-awareness and mindfulness practice empower us to notice inconsistencies in our thinking and find the space between dissonance triggers and our reaction so we can choose a response we are truly happy with.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free .

• Cooper, J. (2007). Cognitive dissonance: 50 Years of a classic theory . SAGE Publications.
• Cooper, J. (2016). Vicarious cognitive dissonance: Changing attitudes by experiencing another’s pain. In J. P. Forgas, J. Cooper, & W. D. Crano (Eds.), The psychology of attitudes and attitude change . Psychology Press.
• Cooper, J., & Worchel, S. (1970). Role of undesired consequences in arousing cognitive dissonance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 16 (2), 199–206.
• Elkin, R. A., & Leippe, M. R. (1986). Physiological arousal, dissonance, and attitude change: Evidence for a dissonance-arousal link and a “don’t remind me” effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 51 (1), 55–65.
• Elliot, A. J., & Devine, P. G. (1994). On the motivational nature of cognitive dissonance: Dissonance as psychological discomfort. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 67 (3), 382–394.
• Engel, J. F. (1963). Are automobile purchasers dissonant consumers? Journal of Marketing , 27 (2), 55–58.
• Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance . Stanford University Press.
• Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 58 (2), 203–210.
• Harmon-Jones, E. (Ed.) (2019). Cognitive dissonance: Reexamining a pivotal theory in psychology (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association.
• Koller, M., & Salzberger, T. (2007). Cognitive dissonance as a relevant construct throughout the decision-making and consumption process – An empirical investigation related to a package tour. Journal of Customer Behaviour , 6 (3), 217–227.
• Linder, D. E., Cooper, J., & Jones, E. E. (1967). Decision freedom as a determinant of the role of incentive magnitude in attitude change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 6 (3), 245–254.
• Sweeney, J. C., Hausknecht, D., & Soutar, G. N. (2000). Cognitive dissonance after purchase: A multidimensional scale. Psychology & Marketing , 17 (5), 369–385.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Introduction, general overviews.

• Core Historical Sources
• Biographies and Autobiography of Classic Contributors
• Classic and New Paradigms
• Other Dissonance Inducement Situations
• Moderators of Cognitive Dissonance
• Affect and Dissonance
• Physiological Measures
• Neuroimaging and the Cognitive Dissonance State
• Regulation Strategies Aiming at Inconsistency: Modes of Reduction
• Regulation Strategies Aiming at Discomfort: Palliative Regulations
• Factors Influencing Regulation
• Controversies and Critics
• Preconditions for Cognitive Dissonance
• Reformulations and New Models for the Dissonance Theory
• Intercultural Approach Dissonance and Cultural Context
• Dissonance in NonHuman Animals

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory by David C. Vaidis , Alexandre Bran LAST REVIEWED: 28 October 2020 LAST MODIFIED: 28 October 2020 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0156

Appearing for the first time in the mid-20th century, the term “cognitive dissonance” appears nowadays about eight hundred times in PsycINFO and the original book has been cited more than forty-five thousand times in scientific publications: that is more than twice a day for about sixty years. The theory of cognitive dissonance was molded by Leon Festinger at the beginning of the 1950s. It suggests that inconsistencies among cognitions (i.e., knowledge, opinion, or belief about the environment, oneself, or one’s behavior) generate an uncomfortable motivating feeling (i.e., the cognitive dissonance state). According to the theory, people feel uncomfortable when they experience cognitive dissonance and thus are motivated to retrieve an acceptable state. The magnitude of existing dissonance depends on the importance of the involved cognitions. Experiencing a higher level of dissonance causes pressure and motivation to reduce the dissonance. Findings from several studies show that dissonance occurs when people do not act in accordance with their attitude (e.g., writing supportive arguments in favor of a topic that they do not agree upon; performing a task they disapprove). Festinger 1957 (cited under Core Historical Sources ) considers three ways to cope with cognitive dissonance: (a) changing one or several involved elements in the dissonance relationship (e.g., moving an opinion to fit a behavior), (b) adding new elements to reduce the inconsistency (e.g., adopting opinions that fit a behavior), and (c) reducing the importance of the involved elements. Early theorists in this field suggested improvement to the cognitive dissonance theory by adding restrictions for the emergence of the phenomena. Three major developments have to be considered: the commitment purpose and freedom, the consequence of the act purpose, and the self-involvement. Since the 2010s, the theory has been refined with new integrative models and methodological breakthrough. Mostly studied in human beings, several studies shift paradigms to other animals such as nonhuman primates, rats, and birds. The cognitive dissonance theory has been applied to a very large array of social situations and leads to original experimental designs. It is arguably one of the most influential theories in social psychology, general psychology, and cross-discipline sciences more generally.

The field of cognitive dissonance is broad. Several paradigms were developed and many theories coexist. There are plenty of sources, mostly scientific articles and books, that provide a wide overview of the literature on cognitive dissonance. After about a half century of the development of the theory, several authors have published condensed works and state-of-the-art pieces concerning the topic, but they often suggest a partially deviant point of view. Aronson 1992 and Brehm 2007 , written by two of Festinger’s historical students, offer historical anecdotic information as well as keystones to understand the phenomenon of cognitive dissonance. In the same vein, Cooper 2019 proposes the author’s personal view of this story, focusing on his own theoretical achievements. Gawronski and Strack 2012 offers an overview of the cognitive consistency field. More aimed at advanced researchers in cognitive dissonance, Harmon-Jones 2019 (the second edition of Harmon-Jones and Mills 1999 ) is an edited volume that synthesizes modern perspectives on dissonance.

Aronson, Elliot. 1992. The return of the repressed: Dissonance theory makes a comeback. Psychological Inquiry 3:303–311.

DOI: 10.1207/s15327965pli0304_1

Aronson reviews the history of cognitive dissonance and mainly develops the self-consistency revision. This paper could be considered as the one that permits a regain of interest of the theory in the late 1990s.

Brehm, Jack W. 2007. A brief history of dissonance theory. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 1:381–391.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00035.x

The paper reviews the storyline of cognitive dissonance theory, from Festinger’s very beginning up to the spreading of experimentations all over the world. The author does not develop the reformulations but presents an outline of the theory.

Cooper, Joel. 2019. Cognitive dissonance: Where we’ve been and where we’re going . International Review of Social Psychology 32.1.

DOI: 10.5334/irsp.277

Cooper examines the long history of critiques of the theory and offers a view of the current state of cognitive dissonance. Throughout the paper, Cooper reviews his important contributions to the field.

Festinger, Leon. 1962. A theory of cognitive dissonance . Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.

The most essential work about the theory. Festinger develops the core concepts and then covers four situations of dissonance: consequences of decisions, forced compliance, exposure to information, and the role of social support. The last chapter also gives strong advice to improve and delimit the theory. The book has been initially printed in 1957 at Row Peterson and Company before being republished. The current available version is the one revised in 1985 by Festinger.

Gawronski, Bertram, and Fritz Strack. 2012. Cognitive consistency: A fundamental principle in social cognition . New York: Guilford Press.

This book provides an overview of the cognitive consistency field and of the place of cognitive dissonance theory.

Harmon-Jones, Eddie. 2019. Cognitive dissonance: Reexamining a pivotal theory in psychology . 2d ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Aimed at a postgraduate and researcher audience, this book is a collection of chapters written by various top experts in the field of cognitive dissonance. It offers a substantial panorama of the theories and research issues. The first edition was released in 1999 and the second edition proposed several updates.

Harmon-Jones, Eddie, and Judson Mills. 1999. Cognitive dissonance: Progress on a pivotal theory in social psychology . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

DOI: 10.1037/10318-000

Aimed at a postgraduate and researcher audience, this book is a collection of chapters written by various top experts in the field of cognitive dissonance. It offers a substantial panorama of the theories and research issues of the 2000s.

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What Is Cognitive Dissonance Theory?

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Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.

This produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance.

For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition), they are in a state of cognitive dissonance.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive dissonance was first investigated by Leon Festinger, arising out of a participant observation study of a cult that believed that the earth was going to be destroyed by a flood, and what happened to its members — particularly the really committed ones who had given up their homes and jobs to work for the cult — when the flood did not happen.

While fringe members were more inclined to recognize that they had made fools of themselves and to “put it down to experience,” committed members were more likely to re-interpret the evidence to show that they were right all along (the earth was not destroyed because of the faithfulness of the cult members).

How Attitude Change Takes Place

Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and behavior in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). This is known as the principle of cognitive consistency.

When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance.

Notice that dissonance theory does not state that these modes of dissonance reduction will actually work, only that individuals who are in a state of cognitive dissonance will take steps to reduce the extent of their dissonance.

The theory of cognitive dissonance has been widely researched in a number of situations to develop the basic idea in more detail, and various factors have been identified which may be important in attitude change.

What Causes Cognitive Dissonance?

• Forced Compliance Behavior,
• Decision Making,

We will look at the main findings to have emerged from each area.

Forced Compliance Behavior

When someone is forced to do (publicly) something they (privately) really don’t want to do, dissonance is created between their cognition (I didn’t want to do this) and their behavior (I did it).

Forced compliance occurs when an individual performs an action that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs. The behavior can’t be changed since it was already in the past, so dissonance will need to be reduced by re-evaluating their attitude toward what they have done. This prediction has been tested experimentally:

In an intriguing experiment, Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) asked participants to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). As you can imagine, participant’s attitudes toward this task were highly negative.

Example of Cognitive Dissonance

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) investigated if making people perform a dull task would create cognitive dissonance through forced compliance behavior.

In their laboratory experiment, they used 71 male students as participants to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour).

They were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell a waiting participant (a confederate) that the tasks were really interesting. Almost all of the participants agreed to walk into the waiting room and persuade the confederate that the boring experiment would be fun.

When the participants were asked to evaluate the experiment, the participants who were paid only $1 rated the tedious task as more fun and enjoyable than the participants who were paid $20 to lie.

Being paid only $1 is not sufficient incentive for lying and so those who were paid $1 experienced dissonance. They could only overcome that dissonance by coming to believe that the tasks really were interesting and enjoyable. Being paid $20 provides a reason for turning pegs, and there is, therefore, no dissonance.

Decision Making

Life is filled with decisions, and decisions (as a general rule) arouse dissonance.

For example, suppose you had to decide whether to accept a job in an absolutely beautiful area of the country or turn down the job so you could be near your friends and family.

Either way, you would experience dissonance. If you took the job you would miss your loved ones; if you turned the job down, you would pine for the beautiful streams, mountains, and valleys.

Both alternatives have their good points and bad points. The rub is that making a decision cuts off the possibility that you can enjoy the advantages of the unchosen alternative, yet it assures you that you must accept the disadvantages of the chosen alternative.

Brehm (1956) was the first to investigate the relationship between dissonance and decision-making.

Female participants were informed they would be helping out in a study funded by several manufacturers. Participants were also told that they would receive one of the products at the end of the experiment to compensate for their time and effort.

The women then rated the desirability of eight household products that ranged in price from $15 to $30. The products included an automatic coffee maker, an electric sandwich grill, an automatic toaster, and a portable radio.

Participants in the control group were simply given one of the products. Because these participants did not make a decision, they did not have any dissonance to reduce. Individuals in the low-dissonance group chose between a desirable product and one rated 3 points lower on an 8-point scale.

Participants in the high-dissonance condition chose between a highly desirable product and one rated just 1 point lower on the 8-point scale. After reading the reports about the various products, individuals rated the products again.

Participants in the high-dissonance condition spread apart the alternatives significantly more than the participants in the other two conditions.

In other words, they were more likely than participants in the other two conditions to increase the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and to decrease the attractiveness of the unchosen alternative.

It also seems to be the case that we value most highly those goals or items which have required considerable effort to achieve.

This is probably because dissonance would be caused if we spent a great effort to achieve something and then evaluated it negatively.

We could, of course, spend years of effort into achieving something which turns out to be a load of rubbish and then, in order to avoid the dissonance that produces, try to convince ourselves that we didn’t really spend years of effort or that the effort was really quite enjoyable, or that it wasn’t really a lot of effort.

In fact, though, it seems we find it easier to persuade ourselves that what we have achieved is worthwhile, and that’s what most of us do, evaluating highly something whose achievement has cost us dear – whether other people think it’s much cop or not!

This method of reducing dissonance is known as “effort justification.”

If we put effort into a task that we have chosen to carry out, and the task turns out badly, we experience dissonance. To reduce this dissonance, we are motivated to try to think that the task turned out well.

A classic dissonance experiment by Aronson and Mills (1959) demonstrates the basic idea.

To investigate the relationship between dissonance and effort.

Female students volunteered to take part in a discussion on the psychology of sex. In the “mild embarrassment” condition, participants read aloud to a male experimenter a list of sex-related words like “virgin” and “prostitute.”

In the “severe embarrassment” condition, they had to read aloud obscene words and a very explicit sexual passage.

In the control condition, they went straight into the main study. In all conditions, they then heard a very boring discussion about sex in lower animals. They were asked to rate how interesting they had found the discussion and how interesting they had found the people involved in it.

Participants in the “severe embarrassment” condition gave the most positive rating.

If a voluntary experience that has cost a lot of effort turns out badly, the dissonance is reduced by redefining the experience as interesting. This justifies the effort made.

How To Reduce Cognitive Dissonance

Dissonance can be reduced in one of three ways: a) changing existing beliefs, b) adding new beliefs, or c) reducing the importance of the beliefs.

Change one or more of the attitudes, behavior, beliefs, etc., to make the relationship between the two elements a consonant one.

When one of the dissonant elements is a behavior, the individual can change or eliminate the behavior.

However, this mode of dissonance reduction frequently presents problems for people, as it is often difficult for people to change well-learned behavioral responses (e.g., giving up smoking).

This is often very difficult, as people frequently employ a variety of mental maneuvers.

Acquire new information that outweighs the dissonant beliefs.

For example, thinking smoking causes lung cancer will cause dissonance if a person smokes.

However, new information such as “research has not proved definitely that smoking causes lung cancer” may reduce the dissonance.

Reduce the importance of the cognitions (i.e., beliefs, attitudes).

A common way to reduce dissonance is to increase the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and decrease the attractiveness of the rejected alternative. This is referred to as “spreading apart the alternatives.”

A person could convince themself that it is better to “live for today” than to “save for tomorrow.”

In other words, he could tell himself that a short life filled with smoking and sensual pleasures is better than a long life devoid of such joys. In this way, he would be decreasing the importance of dissonant cognition (smoking is bad for one’s health).

Critical Evaluation

There has been a great deal of research into cognitive dissonance, providing some interesting and sometimes unexpected findings.

It is a theory with very broad applications, showing that we aim for consistency between attitudes and behaviors and may not use very rational methods to achieve it. It has the advantage of being testable by scientific means (i.e., experiments).

However, there is a problem from a scientific point of view because we cannot physically observe cognitive dissonance, and therefore we cannot objectively measure it (re: behaviorism). Consequently, the term cognitive dissonance is somewhat subjective.

There is also some ambiguity (i.e., vagueness) about the term “dissonance” itself. Is it a perception (as “cognitive” suggests), a feeling, or a feeling about a perception? Aronson’s Revision of the idea of dissonance as an inconsistency between a person’s self-concept and a cognition about their behavior makes it seem likely that dissonance is really nothing more than guilt.

There are also individual differences in whether or not people act as this theory predicts. Highly anxious people are more likely to do so. Many people seem able to cope with considerable dissonance and not experience the tensions the theory predicts.

Finally, many of the studies supporting the theory of cognitive dissonance have low ecological validity. For example, turning pegs (as in Festinger’s experiment) is an artificial task that doesn’t happen in everyday life.

Also, the majority of experiments used students as participants, which raises issues of a biased sample . Could we generalize the results from such experiments?

What is the difference between cognitive dissonance theory and balance theory?

Cognitive dissonance theory, proposed by Festinger, focuses on the discomfort felt when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes, leading individuals to seek consistency.

Heider’s Balance Theory , on the other hand, emphasizes the desire for balanced relations among triads of entities (like people and attitudes), with imbalances prompting changes in attitudes to restore balance. Both theories address cognitive consistency, but in different contexts.

Aronson, E., & Mills, J. (1959). The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59(2) , 177.

Brehm, J. W. (1956). Postdecision changes in the desirability of alternatives. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52(3) , 384.

Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of cognitive dissonance . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Festinger, L. (1959). Some attitudinal consequences of forced decisions . Acta Psychologica , 15, 389-390.

Festinger, L. (Ed.). (1964). Conflict, decision, and dissonance (Vol. 3) . Stanford University Press.

Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58(2) , 203.

Cognitive Dissonance in the Learning Processes

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Cognitive disequilibrium ; Knowledge gaps

In order to understand the relationship between cognitive dissonance and the process of learning, one must first examine how cognitive dissonance is defined from two perspectives. From the psychological perspective, cognitive dissonance is described as an uncomfortable internal state occurring when new information conflicts with commonly held beliefs (Festinger 1957 ). As an example, imagine being presented with evidence that the Earth revolves around the sun when your understanding is that the sun revolves around the Earth. From the educational psychology perspective, Piaget (1929) saw cognitive dissonance as a means to facilitate the cognitive processes of accommodation and assimilation, which are central to knowledge development. Accommodation and assimilation occur when learners are presented with new knowledge and must expend mental effort to integrate this information into their existing schema.

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Learning through Dissonance: How Cognitive Conflicts Drive Educational Advancement

April 24, 2024

Cognitive dissonance, in its most basic definition, is mental discomfort.

Many districts incorporate data reviews as an integral component of their Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) process. At these reviews, academic, behavioral, and social-emotional data are meticulously examined by teachers and administrators to identify both positive and negative patterns and trends. The data guides questions concerning achievement and behavioral disparities. What is the data telling us? What do we need to change? What do we need to keep doing?

This process often involves educators challenging their preconceptions against the data presented, and scrutinizing their instructional methods in light of their students’ academic performance. 

Such analysis of data is very personal, and it’s easy to become defensive and blame others. Using cognitive dissonance in these analyses helps foster dynamic discussions among educators, through debate, exchange of ideas, and collaboration. Despite its complexity, when administered properly, cognitive dissonance can lead to vibrant conversations and serve as a catalyst for growth and improvement.

So why is cognitive dissonance good for a school district?

• It promotes critical thinking by encouraging us to evaluate our assumptions, beliefs, biases, and practices. 
• It encourages reflection and growth by prompting us to evaluate our beliefs. 
• It fosters collaboration by allowing us to engage in dialogue and seek feedback from one another.
• It contributes to a culture of continuous improvement by encouraging us to confront inconsistencies, reflect on results, and dig deep to understand what is happening.

What can school districts do to encourage cognitive dissonance?

• Districts can take several proactive steps to encourage cognitive dissonance among educators. Offering targeted professional development that introduces the concept of cognitive dissonance and its educational benefits allows teachers and administrators to reassess and challenge their instruction. This encourages reflection while fostering open dialogue and creating a collaborative space for sharing experiences. Providing educators with resources (i.e. articles and videos) helps deepen their understanding and application of cognitive dissonance in data reviews, leadership, and staff meetings. School leaders should also empower educators to experiment with new teaching strategies and celebrate their growth in adapting these methods.
• Cultivating a growth mindset within the school community emphasizes continuous learning and adaptation, allowing for staff members to engage in cognitive dissonance, a healthy sign of a thriving school district.

Ana Aleman-Putman is the Student Academic Excellence and Well-Being District Coordinator at Grandville Public Schools in Grandville, MI. She serves on the advisory council for Van Andel Institute for Education.

More From Forbes

Your employer brand is your brand: the power of the cpo and cmo relationship.

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How your employees feel about your company — and your brand story — can ultimately shape your ... [+] company's success.

As I continue my series focused on the role of a strategic Chief People Officer (CPO) in impacting the major functions of a business (my last piece explored the critical role of the CPO/CFO relationship ), today, I am delving into the partnership between the CPO and the Chief Marketing Officer (CMO).

A common – and somewhat archaic – way of delineating an organization’s stakeholders has traditionally been divided into “internal clients” (employees), and “external clients” (customers). However, if there is anything we have learned over the last decade, it is that with the proliferation of social media platforms that amplify both the positive and negative aspects of an organization’s culture, the line between a company’s external branding efforts and its internal employee sentiment is getting thinner and thinner. More directly said: how your employees feel about your company is your brand identity.

Given this convergence, a successful partnership between the CPO and CMO becomes crucial to a company’s bottom line. Both leaders must ensure that the company’s internal culture (the domain of the CPO) and external brand message (the domain of the CMO) are not just aligned, but serve as reflections of each other in order to minimize any cognitive dissonance among stakeholders inside and out.

Branding from the Inside Out

Within an organization, ‘brand’ is the intentional, and, more often than not, unintentional story that the company creates. It is an amalgamation of the narratives told, the values upheld, and the collective behavior of everyone - employees, managers, leaders, and other stakeholders - associated with the organization. The image, commitment, and care employees put into their work are determined not only by how they feel about the business but by how they feel about their experience as employees.

A CPO’s role in building that brand is to ensure that the organization is authentic, direct, and transparent about its values, how priorities are set, and how decisions are made. When there is a disconnect, it is the job of the CPO to raise the flag to their peers and amplify the importance of alignment. No organization is perfect and there will always be bumps along the road, but an internal brand is built on trust with employees that can withstand many of those bumps.

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For some bad examples of this in practice: think about the company that says how they treat each other matters, but won’t fire the ‘brilliant jerk’ leading their technical team. Or, a company that says they want top 1% talent, but pays below market compensation for that talent. This dissonance inherently creates a disconnect, and muddles the brand identity for employees. To be clear: I am not saying that companies can’t retain brilliant jerks or shouldn’t have in-office mandates, but rather, it is the organization’s responsibility to be honest and aligned about what they say and the follow through of how they act. In short, organizational culture encompasses not only the values and behaviors promoted by the company but also the experiences and perceptions of its employees.

Given that values are the lynchpin on which internal brand rests, one of the most important areas of partnership between a CPO and CMO is to help determine (and consistently evolve) a clear and true set of organizational values, using the same strategic rigor used for external brand positioning.

The Business Imperative of Aligned Storytelling

Today’s workforce is more emboldened than any other generation to publicly share their experiences of company culture, positive or negative. Any dissonance in the internal experience of an employee creates a fertile ground for employers and brands to look disingenuous to customers and the public at large.

As organizations grow and evolve, effective communication and storytelling become a large part of a CPO’s role. Speaking to employees in order to explain (and re-explain!) company positions and perspectives, and backing up those stories with examples and action ensures that all layers of an organization hear and see examples of a brand living its values.

Using some of the same technical marketing skills used in external campaigns, a joint effort between a CPO and CMO to showcase and highlight the company’s focus, culture, and company's commitment to its values can lay a strong foundation for reinforcing brand identity. In a world with increasing noise, ensuring that employees know, understand, and see lived examples of company culture playing out is an important reinforcement technique to drive alignment internally and externally.

Employee Voice as a Driver of Bottom Line

Reinforcing the organization’s mission, vision, values, and behaviors, and backing up stories internally put the organization at the helm of its brand. Using the voice of the employees as a tool for external branding takes things one step further and strengthens the bilateral relationship between a CPO and a CMO.

Employees can be the best brand ambassadors for organizations. By equipping external-facing employees with the right tools and messages, the CPO and CMO can turn employees into powerful advocates for the company's brand. As we are starting to see more and more, marketing teams are doing more and more placements focused on the employees and employee sentiment as part of holistic branding efforts. A strategic CPO with a lens on marketing can help find and elevate the stories most relevant to customers. Whether it be for recruiting, news and social media, or for big announcements, a CPO represents the employee voice in communications and should not only be an approver but at times the author of these communications.

On the flip side, leveraging marketing techniques to attract top talent is an area where the CMO's expertise can significantly support the CPO's recruitment objectives. Attracting and retaining the best employees, which in turn impacts a company’s ability to meet the extensive goals set forward by the organization, means telling a story that is clear and consistent with the company’s values and operating model. A CMO’s prioritization of support to employee branding efforts bodes well for the bottom line at the same level of customer marketing efforts.

Joint Measures of Success

The CPO/CMO partnership's success can be measured through various metrics, such as employee engagement scores, brand sentiment analysis, and recruitment success rates. These metrics provide insights into how effectively the internal culture is being translated into a positive external brand image. Jointly measuring these metrics ensures that the CPO and CMO relationship doesn’t prioritize one audience at the expense of another.

The overlap of internal and external branding requires a strategic CPO to have a seat at the table and work closely in collaboration with a CMO. A strong, transparent, and aligned internal culture reinforces brand impressions in public marketing efforts. On the other side, a CPO that is involved early, often, and continuously in driving internal values, behaviors, and stories – and in pushing the organization to leverage those values, behaviors, and stories when it comes to sales and talent acquisition – creates an ecosystem where employee experience isn’t a nice to have but a business-critical need.

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10: Persuasive Theories - Cognitive Dissonance Theory

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Persuasive Theories: Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Robert Couse-Baker – cognitive dissonance – CC BY 2.0.

Understanding how people are persuaded is very important to the discussion of public speaking. Thankfully, a number of researchers have created theories that help explain why people are persuaded. While there are numerous theories that help to explain persuasion, we are only going to examine one here: cognitive dissonance theory.

• 10.1: Cognitive Dissonance Theory Adapted from Stand Up, Speak Out: The Practice and Ethics of Public Speaking, Chapter 17.1