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1.2 The Communication Process

Learning objectives.

• Identify and define the components of the transmission model of communication.
• Identify and define the components of the interaction model of communication.
• Identify and define the components of the transaction model of communication.
• Compare and contrast the three models of communication.
• Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter.

Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with whom a communication encounter starts and ends. Models of communication simplify the process by providing a visual representation of the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex model still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication because they allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of communication, define communication, and apply communication concepts. When you become aware of how communication functions, you can think more deliberately through your communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future communication and learn from your previous communication. The three models of communication we will discuss are the transmission, interaction, and transaction models.

Although these models of communication differ, they contain some common elements. The first two models we will discuss, the transmission model and the interaction model, include the following parts: participants, messages, encoding, decoding, and channels. In communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed from sender to receiver. For example, when you say “Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a message of greeting that will be received by your friend.

Although models of communication provide a useful blueprint to see how the communication process works, they are not complex enough to capture what communication is like as it is experienced.

Chris Searle – Blueprint – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and understand messages is the encoding and decoding process. Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication. As we will learn later, the level of conscious thought that goes into encoding messages varies. Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, he decodes your communication and turns it back into thoughts in order to make meaning out of it. Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various options, or channels for communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel , or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If your roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you may need to get his attention by waving your hands before you can ask him about dinner.

Transmission Model of Communication

The transmission model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process. We are left to presume that the receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does not. The scholars who designed this model extended on a linear model proposed by Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and spread of new communication technologies of the time such as telegraphy and radio, and you can probably see these technical influences within the model (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in order to be decoded. The radio announcer doesn’t really know if you receive his or her message or not, but if the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance that the message was successfully received.

Figure 1.1 The Transmission Model of Communication

Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility is put on the sender to help ensure the message is successfully conveyed. This model emphasizes clarity and effectiveness, but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to effective communication. Noise is anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a communication encounter. Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may interfere with a message being accurately received and decoded. The transmission model of communication accounts for environmental and semantic noise. Environmental noise is any physical noise present in a communication encounter. Other people talking in a crowded diner could interfere with your ability to transmit a message and have it successfully decoded. While environmental noise interferes with the transmission of the message, semantic noise refers to noise that occurs in the encoding and decoding process when participants do not understand a symbol. To use a technical example, FM antennae can’t decode AM radio signals and vice versa. Likewise, most French speakers can’t decode Swedish and vice versa. Semantic noise can also interfere in communication between people speaking the same language because many words have multiple or unfamiliar meanings.

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new ways, which eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication that we will discuss more later. This model is not quite rich enough to capture dynamic face-to-face interactions, but there are instances in which communication is one-way and linear, especially computer-mediated communication (CMC). As the following “Getting Plugged In” box explains, CMC is integrated into many aspects of our lives now and has opened up new ways of communicating and brought some new challenges. Think of text messaging for example. The transmission model of communication is well suited for describing the act of text messaging since the sender isn’t sure that the meaning was effectively conveyed or that the message was received at all. Noise can also interfere with the transmission of a text. If you use an abbreviation the receiver doesn’t know or the phone autocorrects to something completely different than you meant, then semantic noise has interfered with the message transmission. I enjoy bargain hunting at thrift stores, so I just recently sent a text to a friend asking if she wanted to go thrifting over the weekend. After she replied with “What?!?” I reviewed my text and saw that my “smart” phone had autocorrected thrifting to thrusting ! You have likely experienced similar problems with text messaging, and a quick Google search for examples of text messages made funny or embarrassing by the autocorrect feature proves that many others do, too.

“Getting Plugged In”

Computer-Mediated Communication

When the first computers were created around World War II and the first e-mails exchanged in the early 1960s, we took the first steps toward a future filled with computer-mediated communication (CMC) (Thurlow, Lengel, & Tomic, 2004). Those early steps turned into huge strides in the late 1980s and early 1990s when personal computers started becoming regular features in offices, classrooms, and homes. I remember getting our first home computer, a Tandy from Radio Shack, in the early 1990s and then getting our first Internet connection at home in about 1995. I set up my first e-mail account in 1996 and remember how novel and exciting it was to send and receive e-mails. I wasn’t imagining a time when I would get dozens of e-mails a day, much less be able to check them on my cell phone! Many of you reading this book probably can’t remember a time without CMC. If that’s the case, then you’re what some scholars have called “digital natives.” When you take a moment to think about how, over the past twenty years, CMC has changed the way we teach and learn, communicate at work, stay in touch with friends, initiate romantic relationships, search for jobs, manage our money, get our news, and participate in our democracy, it really is amazing to think that all that used to take place without computers. But the increasing use of CMC has also raised some questions and concerns, even among those of you who are digital natives. Almost half of the students in my latest communication research class wanted to do their final research projects on something related to social media. Many of them were interested in studying the effects of CMC on our personal lives and relationships. This desire to study and question CMC may stem from an anxiety that people have about the seeming loss or devaluing of face-to-face (FtF) communication. Aside from concerns about the digital cocoons that many of us find ourselves in, CMC has also raised concerns about privacy, cyberbullying, and lack of civility in online interactions. We will continue to explore many of these issues in the “Getting Plugged In” feature box included in each chapter, but the following questions will help you begin to see the influence that CMC has in your daily communication.

• In a typical day, what types of CMC do you use?
• What are some ways that CMC reduces stress in your life? What are some ways that CMC increases stress in your life? Overall, do you think CMC adds to or reduces your stress more?
• Do you think we, as a society, have less value for FtF communication than we used to? Why or why not?

Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process. Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may point to the sofa when your roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. Although this seems like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate between the roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.

The interaction model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the transmission model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was received, the interaction model is more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in this model based on whether or not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.

Figure 1.2 The Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your communication. I have had job interviews on a sofa in a comfortable office, sitting around a large conference table, and even once in an auditorium where I was positioned on the stage facing about twenty potential colleagues seated in the audience. I’ve also been walked around campus to interview with various people in temperatures below zero degrees. Although I was a little chilly when I got to each separate interview, it wasn’t too difficult to warm up and go on with the interview. During a job interview in Puerto Rico, however, walking around outside wearing a suit in near 90 degree temperatures created a sweating situation that wasn’t pleasant to try to communicate through. Whether it’s the size of the room, the temperature, or other environmental factors, it’s important to consider the role that physical context plays in our communication.

Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. I recently found out some troubling news a few hours before a big public presentation. It was challenging to try to communicate because the psychological noise triggered by the stressful news kept intruding into my other thoughts. Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect communication. During the initial stages of a romantic relationship individuals may be so “love struck” that they don’t see incompatible personality traits or don’t negatively evaluate behaviors they might otherwise find off-putting. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters.

Transaction Model of Communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating, because communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).

To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what communication is and what communication does. The transmission model views communication as a thing, like an information packet, that is sent from one place to another. From this view, communication is defined as sending and receiving messages. The interaction model views communication as an interaction in which a message is sent and then followed by a reaction (feedback), which is then followed by another reaction, and so on. From this view, communication is defined as producing conversations and interactions within physical and psychological contexts. The transaction model views communication as integrated into our social realities in such a way that it helps us not only understand them but also create and change them.

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. In short, we don’t communicate about our realities; communication helps to construct our realities.

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators . Unlike the interaction model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. For example, on a first date, as you send verbal messages about your interests and background, your date reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait until you are done sending your verbal message to start receiving and decoding the nonverbal messages of your date. Instead, you are simultaneously sending your verbal message and receiving your date’s nonverbal messages. This is an important addition to the model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.

Figure 1.3 The Transaction Model of Communication

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.

Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. As we are socialized into our various communities, we learn rules and implicitly pick up on norms for communicating. Some common rules that influence social contexts include don’t lie to people, don’t interrupt people, don’t pass people in line, greet people when they greet you, thank people when they pay you a compliment, and so on. Parents and teachers often explicitly convey these rules to their children or students. Rules may be stated over and over, and there may be punishment for not following them.

Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. For example, as a new employee you may over- or underdress for the company’s holiday party because you don’t know the norm for formality. Although there probably isn’t a stated rule about how to dress at the holiday party, you will notice your error without someone having to point it out, and you will likely not deviate from the norm again in order to save yourself any potential embarrassment. Even though breaking social norms doesn’t result in the formal punishment that might be a consequence of breaking a social rule, the social awkwardness we feel when we violate social norms is usually enough to teach us that these norms are powerful even though they aren’t made explicit like rules. Norms even have the power to override social rules in some situations. To go back to the examples of common social rules mentioned before, we may break the rule about not lying if the lie is meant to save someone from feeling hurt. We often interrupt close friends when we’re having an exciting conversation, but we wouldn’t be as likely to interrupt a professor while they are lecturing. Since norms and rules vary among people and cultures, relational and cultural contexts are also included in the transaction model in order to help us understand the multiple contexts that influence our communication.

Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more easily. For example, you would likely follow social norms of politeness and attentiveness and might spend the whole day cleaning the house for the first time you invite your new neighbors to visit. Once the neighbors are in your house, you may also make them the center of your attention during their visit. If you end up becoming friends with your neighbors and establishing a relational context, you might not think as much about having everything cleaned and prepared or even giving them your whole attention during later visits. Since communication norms and rules also vary based on the type of relationship people have, relationship type is also included in relational context. For example, there are certain communication rules and norms that apply to a supervisor-supervisee relationship that don’t apply to a brother-sister relationship and vice versa. Just as social norms and relational history influence how we communicate, so does culture.

Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We will learn more about these identities in Chapter 2 “Communication and Perception” , but for now it is important for us to understand that whether we are aware of it or not, we all have multiple cultural identities that influence our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence their communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in their communication.

Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not limited to race or ethnicity.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

When cultural context comes to the forefront of a communication encounter, it can be difficult to manage. Since intercultural communication creates uncertainty, it can deter people from communicating across cultures or lead people to view intercultural communication as negative. But if you avoid communicating across cultural identities, you will likely not get more comfortable or competent as a communicator. Difference, as we will learn in Chapter 8 “Culture and Communication” , isn’t a bad thing. In fact, intercultural communication has the potential to enrich various aspects of our lives. In order to communicate well within various cultural contexts, it is important to keep an open mind and avoid making assumptions about others’ cultural identities. While you may be able to identify some aspects of the cultural context within a communication encounter, there may also be cultural influences that you can’t see. A competent communicator shouldn’t assume to know all the cultural contexts a person brings to an encounter, since not all cultural identities are visible. As with the other contexts, it requires skill to adapt to shifting contexts, and the best way to develop these skills is through practice and reflection.

Key Takeaways

• Communication models are not complex enough to truly capture all that takes place in a communication encounter, but they can help us examine the various steps in the process in order to better understand our communication and the communication of others.
• The transmission model of communication describes communication as a one-way, linear process in which a sender encodes a message and transmits it through a channel to a receiver who decodes it. The transmission of the message many be disrupted by environmental or semantic noise. This model is usually too simple to capture FtF interactions but can be usefully applied to computer-mediated communication.
• The interaction model of communication describes communication as a two-way process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts. This model captures the interactive aspects of communication but still doesn’t account for how communication constructs our realities and is influenced by social and cultural contexts.
• The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. This model includes participants who are simultaneously senders and receivers and accounts for how communication constructs our realities, relationships, and communities.
• Getting integrated: How might knowing the various components of the communication process help you in your academic life, your professional life, and your civic life?
• What communication situations does the transmission model best represent? The interaction model? The transaction model?
• Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter you had. Sketch out the communication encounter and make sure to label each part of the model (communicators; message; channel; feedback; and physical, psychological, social, relational, and cultural contexts).

Barnlund, D. C., “A Transactional Model of Communication,” in Foundations of Communication Theory , eds. Kenneth K. Sereno and C. David Mortensen (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1970), 83–92.

Ellis, R. and Ann McClintock, You Take My Meaning: Theory into Practice in Human Communication (London: Edward Arnold, 1990), 71.

Schramm, W., The Beginnings of Communication Study in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).

Shannon, C. and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1949), 16.

Thurlow, C., Laura Lengel, and Alice Tomic, Computer Mediated Communication: Social Interaction and the Internet (London: Sage, 2004), 14.

Communication in the Real World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

The Basic Elements of the Communication Process

ThoughtCo / Hilary Allison

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Whenever you've had a conversation, texted a friend, or given a business presentation, you have engaged in communication . Any time two or more people get together to exchange messages, they are engaging in this basic process. Although it seems simple, communication is actually quite complex and has a number of components.

Communication Process Definition

The term communication process refers to the exchange of information (a message ) between two or more people. For communication to succeed, both parties must be able to exchange information and understand each other. If the flow of information is blocked for some reason or the parties cannot make themselves understood, then communication fails.

The communication process begins with the sender , who is also called the communicator or source . The sender has some kind of information — a command, request, question, or idea — that he or she wants to present to others. For that message to be received, the sender must first encode the message in a form that can be understood, such as by the use of a common language or industry jargon, and then transmit it.

The Receiver

The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter . To comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the sender's information and then decode or interpret it. 

The Message

The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver. Additional subtext can be conveyed through body language and tone of voice. Put all three elements together — sender, receiver, and message — and you have the communication process at its most basic.

Also called the channel , the  medium  is the means by which a message is transmitted. Text messages, for example, are transmitted through the medium of cell phones.

The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been successfully transmitted, received, and understood. The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as a written or verbal response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response (indirect).

Other Factors

The communication process isn't always so simple or smooth, of course. These elements can affect how information is transmitted, received, and interpreted:

• Noise : This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being sent, received, or understood. It can be as literal as static over a phone line or radio or as esoteric as misinterpreting a local custom.
• Context : This is the setting and situation in which communication takes place. Like noise, context can have an impact on the successful exchange of information. It may have a physical, social, or cultural aspect to it. In a private conversation with a trusted friend, you would share more personal information or details about your weekend or vacation, for example, than in a conversation with a work colleague or in a meeting.

The Communication Process in Action

Brenda wants to remind her husband, Roberto, to stop by the store after work and buy milk for dinner. She forgot to ask him in the morning, so Brenda texts a reminder to Roberto. He texts back and then shows up at home with a gallon of milk under his arm. But something's amiss: Roberto bought chocolate milk when Brenda wanted regular milk. 

In this example, the sender is Brenda. The receiver is Roberto. The medium is a text message. The code is the English language they're using. And the message itself is "Remember the milk!" In this case, the feedback is both direct and indirect. Roberto texts a photo of milk at the store (direct) and then came home with it (indirect). However, Brenda did not see the photo of the milk because the message didn't transmit (noise) and Roberto didn't think to ask what kind of milk (context).

• Definition and Examples of Senders in Communication
• Noise and Interference in Various Types of Communication
• Science Says You Should Leave the Period Out of Text Messages
• A Receiver's Role in Clear, Effective Communication Is an Important One
• Email Message
• What Is a Message in Communication?
• What Is Wei Xin?
• What Does Medium Mean in the Communication Process?
• Texting (Text Messaging)
• The Power of Indirectness in Speaking and Writing
• What Is Communication?
• Spanish Cell Phone and Social Media Abbreviations and Vocabulary
• History of Pagers and Beepers
• Basic Parts of the Brain and Their Responsibilities
• Use and Omission of Subject Pronouns in Spanish
• Communicate With Special Education Parents

Communication Process: Definition, Steps, and Importance

At first glance, the communication process seems simple enough, right?

You say a few words to the interlocutor, they understand what you mean and give you a prompt response. 

But, that’s not always the way things go. Say that a joke you make falls flat, and you have to think of ways to redirect the conversation. Or, you use the word “ bike ” to talk of your love of cycling, but the interlocutor thought of motorbikes. 

These issues occur because the communication process is ever-changing and depends on 8 interconnected factors .

In the following sections, we’ll devote more attention to the importance of the communication process and each of its factors. 

We’ll also hear from experts who’ll share some of their tried-and-true tips on improving the communication process and eliminating miscommunication . 

Without further delay, let’s jump in. 

Table of Contents

What is the communication process?

The communication process encompasses a sequence of acts necessary for effective communication . These acts ensure the successful transmission of meaning between at least 2 participants, helping them to understand each other without issues. 

However, while the communication process is a comprehensive and reliable tool that can help achieve successful communication between two or more people, it sometimes isn’t as straightforward as it first appears. 

In reality, effective communication requires careful attention to the 8 interconnected factors that make up the process . When properly followed, the communication process can ensure the intended message is conveyed and understood without misinterpretation or confusion. 

But, this requires a deep understanding of the process and active participation. 

What are the parts of the communication process?

In the book The Process of Communication: An Introduction to Theory and Practice , American communication theorist David K. Berlo writes: 

“ With the concept of process established in our minds, we can profit from an analysis of the ingredients of communication, the elements that seem necessary (if not sufficient) for communication to occur. ”  – David K. Berlo

When Berlo mentions the “ concept of process ,” he references the fact that communication, like other processes, is dynamic and ever-evolving . 

Take the conversations you have with your coworkers as an example. The topic changes depending on whom you’re speaking to, as does your tone of voice and body language . 

But, some ingredients remain the same with each interaction — the 8 elements of the communication process. These are:

• Environment,
• Context, and
• Interference.

We’ll now examine these factors in greater detail. 

Element #1: Source (Sender)

In the process of communication, the source or sender is the person who speaks in order to create and impart a specific message to their audience . 

The source may convey their message using verbal language but also through their:

• Body language, 
• Clothing, and
• Tone of voice. 

According to Berlo, communication is virtually impossible without a source :

“ We can say that all human communication has some source , some person or group of persons with a purpose, a reason for engaging in communication. ” – David K. Berlo

Before speaking or writing, the source has to decide what they want to convey and how they wish to format their message. 

Then, the source encodes this information using words and putting them in specific order to achieve the desired meaning. Only after taking these steps can a source deliver the message to the audience. 

Element #2: Message

The message is the source’s purpose of communication , and during the communication process, the source converts this purpose into speech or text. 

In The Basics of Speech Communication , Scott McLean describes the message as “ the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience .” 

McLean also emphasizes that the message is more than words strung together by order and grammatical rules . How we format and transmit our message depends on the type of communication we intend to engage in.

For instance, in written communication, you can change and reshape a message through:

• The use of emojis ,
• The addition of subheadings,
• Adjustments in writing style, and 
• Formatting the message . 

And, as we’ve mentioned, your appearance and body language during in-person meetings or video conferencing calls can also affect how you communicate your message. 

But, there’s more to it. 

Our environment and the context we provide can imbue the message with additional meaning. On the other hand, noise can obscure our intended meaning during the interaction and become a communication barrier .  

Element #3: Channel

The channel is the manner by which the message travels from the source to the receiver . 

In his examination of communication models , Berlo touches on channels, stating that:

“ A channel is a medium, a carrier of messages. It is correct to say that messages can exist only in some channels; however, the choice of channels often is an important factor in the effectiveness of communication. ” – David K. Berlo

If you think of the streaming services you’re subscribed to as separate channels, they all combine visual and auditory information to communicate a specific message. When you look away from the screen, you can still hear the program and gather enough clues to understand what’s going on. 

The same goes if you lower the volume. Thanks to subtitles and visual cues, you’ll still be able to follow the plot without much trouble.

A similar scenario happens in real-time communication . Depending on our purpose and needs, we can choose from several different channels, which could include:

• Voice and video calls,
• Direct messaging in a business communication app ,
• Voice messages , and
• Emails. 

🎓 Pumble Pro Tip

For a deeper look into communication channels and information about which channels are suitable for different kinds of communication, see this guide:

• Channels of communication

Element #4: Receiver

As the name suggests, the receiver is the person whose task is to receive the source’s message . 

The receiver is just as important as the source in the communication process because their actions can make or break the interaction.

No matter how carefully you choose your words, the communication situation may go awry, as you have no control over how the interlocutor:

• Interprets the message , 
• Behaves after hearing the message , or
• Uses their cultural experience and knowledge to participate in communication. 

The above points determine whether the receiver will choose to provide feedback to the source and actively participate in the communication action . No further communication can occur if the receiver decides not to respond and withholds feedback. 

Keep in mind that a receiver may not always respond using verbal messages. 

For example, if you are speaking at a business summit attended by more than 200 people, you’ll feel the audience sizing you up. Although the attendees won’t voice their opinion on what you’re saying, you can modify your performance and add more information to your message by watching the reaction of audience members. 

Element #5: Feedback

Feedback is the response the receiver returns to the source. 

• Unintentional or intentional and
• Nonverbal or verbal . 

Feedback is vital in letting the source know how the receiver has interpreted the message . 

Another important function of feedback in communication is to give the receiver the chance to:

• Request additional information or clarification,
• Support or object to the source’s claims, and
• Inform the source how to modify their approach. 

The role feedback plays in the communication process cannot be overstated. 

In the research article Some effects of feedback on communication , Mueller and Leavitt detailed the result of an experiment that dealt with how different levels of feedback affected communication. Their conclusion was that: 

“ Increasing feedback resulted in increasing [communication] accuracy . ” – Mueller and Leavitt

Feedback is instrumental in professional communication, and so is feedforward. To learn more about how the two concepts are related and how to use them to your advantage, read this blog post:

• Feedback vs. feedforward: Moving from feedback to feedforward

Element #6: Environment

The environment refers to the mental and physical contexts in which we communicate , both as the sender and the receiver of messages. It encompasses the setting, atmosphere, and conditions that may influence the interpretation and reception of information .

For example, if you’re in a conference room, your environment might include:

• Windows, and
• A whiteboard. 

Psychological aspects of the environment may include whether the topic is discussed in a transparent manner and whether the communication is formal or informal. 

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Element #7: Context

While some confuse context for the environment when talking about the communication process, context refers to the:

• Setting, and
• Expectations of the conversation participants. 

For example, when you head into the office, you expect those present to be smartly dressed and speak and act in a specific way. Thus, anyone wearing a T-shirt and shorts would stick out like a sore thumb. 

That’s because context dictates how formal or informal the environment should be. 

During work meetings, someone’s position and expertise affect when and how they will speak, as well as what they will speak about. During short breaks, everyone is free to quickly catch up or talk about informal topics. But, when the meeting resumes, all off-topic conversations cease. 

As a crucial element of the communication cycle, context is also vital in cross-cultural communication. Namely, the cultural context we inherit and learn through experience affects how we convey messages. For more information on cross-cultural communication and cultural context, check out this detailed blog post:

• How to perfect cross-cultural communication at the workplace

Element #8: Interference (Noise)

The final component of the communication process, interference , is also sometimes called noise . 

Interference or noise can be anything that distorts or modifies the intended meaning of a message . 

If your desk is by the window, you likely see billboards and commuters and hear traffic sounds. This noise can halt your stream of thought or interrupt a conversation with coworkers. 

However, in the communication cycle, the noise could also be psychological .

Although you work in a quiet environment, your own thoughts could block you from fully listening to what someone is saying. For instance, if your superior hasn’t finished talking to you, but you are already coming up with what to say in return, chances are you’ve missed a few points. 

Similarly, if you forgot to drink water before joining a meeting, you may pay more attention to the water cooler than the presentations. 

Unfortunately, the modern workforce is rife with distractions that act as communication hurdles. The occasional pinging from your team messaging app may prevent you from giving your all to the task at hand. If you’ve struggled with this in the past, take a look at this helpful post:

• How to ensure business chat is not distracting your team

How does the communication process work?

The communication process consists of 5 essential steps . They are:

• Idea formation,
• Message encoding,
• Message transmission,
• Message decoding , and 

Breaking down these communication cycle phases will help you better understand your role in conversation and improve your communication skills.  

Step #1: The source or sender has an idea (Idea formation)

Communication begins with the source, the person who thinks of and sends the message. 

Several things can influence the message a source wants to convey, including their:

• Background , and
• Context of the communication situation . 

For example, how you greet a coworker depends on: 

• Your mood, 
• Their position within the company, 
• Your own culture, and 
• Your knowledge of your coworker’s culture. 

Consequently, before saying or writing anything, you have to consider the above factors to prevent misinterpretation and confusion. 

Moreover, a source should always think about how the receiver or audience will respond to the message. One of the most invaluable skills an effective communicator can hone is the ability to adapt their message so that it elicits a positive response from the interlocutor. 

Step #2: The source encodes the idea in a message (Encoding)

Encoding is the second step in the process of communication. This phase consists of transforming an idea into gestures and words that will successfully carry its meaning to the receiver . 

However, encoding can be a challenging task as different people associate different meanings with the same words. 

According to Guffey and Loewy in Business Communication: Process & Product , miscommunication that stems from mismatched meanings is called bypassing , and it is one of the most common pitfalls of professional communication. 

To avoid these complications, skilled communicators should strive to use familiar words because the goal is to have the source and receiver agree on their meanings . 

As one HBR article on language and culture states, just because you and your coworkers share a language doesn’t mean you share the same business culture , too. 

Let’s see how language and culture can clash in the example below. 

Jodie has sent a message to Anna, the new administration officer who has moved to the US from the UK. Jodie starts with casual chit chat before diving into the point of her message. 

While that is considered polite behavior in the US, it can grate on people from countries where it is customary to get to the point without veering off-topic. Furthermore, Jodie uses the terms “ trainer ” and “ cell phone .” While these don’t throw Anna off, in the UK, it’s common to hear “ coach ” or “ instructor ” and “ mobile phone. ” 

Finally, Anna’s response is brief and doesn’t venture into non-work-related territory. 

Step #3: The message is transmitted via a communication channel (Transmission)

During the communication cycle, it is necessary to find the best way to physically transmit the message to the receiver. The transmission medium is the channel , and we can share messages via:

• Business communication apps ,
• Announcements,
• Phone calls,
• Pictures, and
• Memorandums. 

Deciding on the most effective channel is imperative because it can affect how a receiver interprets both verbal and nonverbal messages . 

For instance, in the example below, Jodie is sharing the annual performance report with her colleagues. How they receive the message will depend on:

• The tone present throughout the report,
• The document’s layout, and
• The inclusion of graphics and charts. 

Of course, before picking the most effective channel, the source must consider the noise and how it could interfere with the communication process. 

As we’ve discussed, anything that obstructs the communication cycle is considered noise. 

These interferences may take many forms, from misspellings in business emails to poor connection during a virtual call . However, choosing an unsuitable time to send an email or scheduling a team meeting for a simple update can also be an interference. 

Step #4: The receiver decodes the message (Decoding)

An essential phase of the communication cycle — decoding — occurs when the receiver analyzes the message and converts its symbols to uncover the intended meaning . 

Successful communication can only happen when the receiver cracks this code — that is, when they comprehend what the source intended to say . 

But, achieving effective communication is easier said than done because no two people share the same experiences and knowledge. Moreover, numerous communication barriers can get in the way of decoding and halt the entire process. 

Some factors that undermine decoding messages can be internal , and these include:

• A lack of attention when someone is speaking and
• Pre-existing cognitive biases and prejudice towards the source. 

External factors can also impede the communication process. For example, it might be hard to decipher someone’s words in a loud environment, and misunderstandings are bound to happen. 

However, semantic hurdles can cause severe communication issues in a professional setting. For example, let’s analyze the announcement below. 

Joseph has posted what he thinks is an exciting announcement about an upcoming company event. While his intentions may have come from the right place, his words have definitely missed the mark. 

His choice to refer to new hires as “ newbies ,” the female employees as “ girls ,” and seasoned employees as “ oldtimers ” has the potential to offend part of the workforce. 

Thus, these word choices could lead to strong reactions that prevent the employees from focusing on the overall message. 

Step #5: Feedback reaches the source

Feedback is the backbone of communication and covers the interlocutor’s nonverbal and verbal responses. These signals let the source know how someone has received and understood the message .

For example, when a coworker asks, “ How’s your day going? ” you can respond with, “ Good, thanks. And yours? ”. 

Or, if you’ve had a particularly draining day, you might smile and shrug your shoulders. 

The same goes for using team communication apps . You can:

• Send a message, 
• Post a comment, or 
• Use an emoji to show how you feel. 

Of course, different people share varying degrees of feedback, which is why it’s a good idea to encourage feedback with questions like:

• “ Is everything I’ve said clear? ” 
• “ Do you need clarification on anything I’ve mentioned? ” 

Remember that overwhelming the receiver with too much information may confuse them and thus lead to a lack of feedback. 

Think of your delivery, time it appropriately, and give the interlocutor enough time to organize their thoughts. 

Additionally, it’s essential to differentiate between 2 types of feedback:

• Evaluative feedback and
• Descriptive feedback . 

Evaluative feedback doesn’t reflect whether the receiver has understood the source. Instead, it is often judgemental and can push the source into defensiveness .

On the other hand, descriptive feedback results from the receiver understanding the intended meaning of the source’s message. 

For example, saying, “ I see how the numbers suggest we should focus more on inbound marketing in the next quarter, ” is better than stating, “ These numbers don’t look too good. ” 

The first response invites others to become active in the conversation, while the second acts as more of a deterrent. 

Do you want to become better at giving and requesting constructive feedback? If that’s the case, head to the blog posts below:

• How to give constructive feedback when working remotely
• How to ask your manager for feedback

Tips for improving the communication process

Now that we’re familiar with the elements and phases of the communication process, we can focus on learning how to ensure the best possible outcomes. 

Tip #1: Beware of bypassing

Business communication is complex, and unless you’re careful, bypassing could become a common occurrence. 

Bypassing is a phenomenon that happens when the source and receiver attach 2 wholly different meanings to a single word . 

For example, if you’ve just landed your first job after graduating from university, seeing “ meeting cadence ” mentioned in a message from your manager might confuse you. 

You may immediately think of the more well-known definition of the word “ cadence, ” which is the inflection of someone’s voice. But, your manager is referring to the frequency of team meetings, and it could take a while to straighten things out.

The good news is that business communication doesn’t have to be convoluted. You can prevent bypassing if you:

• Avoid using business jargon in the workplace ,
• Use simple and clear language , and
• Proofread your messages and emails to eliminate spelling errors and vague wording .

Tip #2: Strive to be a more attentive listener

Even when the source goes to great lengths to neatly package their message, their efforts will go to waste if the interlocutor is a poor listener. 

Fortunately, active listening is a skill, and you can learn how to leverage it to your advantage in business communication. 

In Communication in Business: Strategies and Skills , Judith Dwyer cites Gamble and Gamble (1996), who have identified 6 common behaviors most poor listeners exhibit . 

These disruptive behaviors are:

• Dart thrower : Questioning the speaker and the validity of their story as soon as they make a mistake, no matter how minor it is. 
• Ear hog : Dominating the communication situation by pushing your story and preventing others from telling their side. 
• Bee : Only listening to parts of the conversation that interest you the most and ignoring everything else. 
• Earmuff : Sidetracking the conversation to avoid confronting specific information. 
• Gap filler : Coming up with additional information to prove you’ve heard the whole story, although you only zeroed in on parts of it. 
• Nodder : Feigning listening by pretending to pay attention to the speaker. In reality, you are thinking about a different topic entirely.

Sometimes, we inadvertently engage in the above behaviors, so it’s essential to join every communication act without preconceived notions. 

According to Joanna Staniszewska , a seasoned marketing, communication and HR professional, communication is a two-way street, and active listening is one of the most effective strategies:

“ Actively listening to others fosters trust and understanding. Encourage individuals to pay attention, ask questions, and confirm their comprehension during conversations. ”

🎓 Pumble Pro Tip 

Do you want to learn more tips on becoming a present and attentive listener? If so, we have just the post for you:

• How to engage in deep listening in the workplace

Tip #3: Create an environment that encourages feedback

Establishing stable feedback loops positively impacts employee engagement , creating a safe space for people to self-advocate at work . 

A system that compels team members to speak up without reservations in manager-employee relationships is invaluable. It can act both as a channel for employee recognition and resolving conflicts before they snowball into large-scale issues. 

Staniszewska mentioned that a stable communication process should rely on sustainable feedback loops:

“ Emphasize the need for feedback mechanisms that allow individuals to assess their communication effectiveness continually. This can be formal, like surveys, or informal, like regular team check-ins .”

So, how do you create a positive feedback loop that reinforces the communication process?

You can start by:

• Leading with empathy: Emphasize to others you’re ready to hear them out without prejudice or judgment.
• Giving feedback in person: Face-to-face meetings or video calls often feel more authentic than messages and emails.
• Managing your emotions: Tap into your emotional intelligence and approach each situation with a clear mind.

Here’s how that may look.

When eliciting feedback, remember not to rush the interaction, states Dawid Wiacek , a communication and executive career coach:

“ In today’s business landscape, speed is often a competitive advantage, but when it comes to success in communication, one of the keys is actually slowing down. To ensure the other person has digested your message accurately, it’s helpful to ask them to summarize it in their own words. 

You can ask what resonated about the message and what didn’t; what they felt was the core element, and what was secondary; what was validating and perhaps surprising. The point here is you want to engage the recipient and make sure that the original message was translated appropriately and not lost in translation. ”

Tip #4: Think about where you (and others) come from 

Although it can be nerve-wracking, giving feedback to colleagues is part of virtually all jobs. 

Ideally, we deliver critiques in a constructive and empowering manner, but that’s not always how things pan out. That’s not to say we purposely try to offend our coworkers. The situation may simply be a result of cultural differences. 

Let’s take the below exchange as an example. 

Carol, who is from the US, sends her well wishes to Jamie, who has been working from Japan for the past 6 years. A minor misunderstanding arises because Carol assumed Jamie and she would interpret the meaning of an emoji in the same way. 

This type of blunder can be funny — Carol and Jamie were able to clear the air quickly and move on. 

But, what would happen in a more serious situation, such as a performance review?

For instance, moving a manager from Germany to take over a department in South Korea can become a disaster if no forethought goes into it. In Korean society and business, respect is determined through a mix of age, experience, and hierarchical position. 

Thus, if the German manager is older than part of his Korean staff, they will be less likely to push back against unwarranted criticism. Moreover, after receiving information from the manager, they could even return disingenuous feedback in an effort to save face. 

Fortunately, this doesn’t mean that all cross-cultural collaboration is doomed. 

When we spoke to Joanna Staniszewska, she highlighted the importance of cultural intelligence and sensitivity:

“ Communication takes place in diverse environments. Stress the importance of cultural awareness and sensitivity. Encourage individuals to adapt their communication styles to resonate with the audience’s cultural norms and expectations. ”

Tip #5: Read up on communication styles

Understanding your preferred communication style and tweaking it to align with your coworkers can make a difference in team collaboration and communication . 

When a colleague abruptly shuts down during the communication process, it might not be because of something you’ve intentionally said or done. Perhaps your personal communication style got in the way, and the person on the other end felt you were disregarding their ideas and opinions. Although you thought you were assertively standing up for your idea, your coworker may have felt like you were subtly attacking theirs.  

Changing how you communicate can point you toward professional success, and a good starting point is bolstering your emotional intelligence . Through a combination of social awareness and self-awareness, you’ll gradually gain more control over how you speak and act in the workplace. 

In the case that you need more guidance, another strategy would be enrolling in a professional development course that could help you become a more transparent and flexible communicator. 

When a communication break occurs, it isn’t always possible to salvage the communication process. However, with the proper education and a dash of commitment, you can learn how to facilitate productive and open conversations. 

For more extensive information on different communication styles, as well as becoming more flexible during business communication, check out this guide:

• Communication styles

Tip #6: Take into account the changing demographics of the workforce

Another unique issue in workplace communication is learning how to connect and collaborate with colleagues from different generations .

We all have specific habits and preferences, and the generational gap can sometimes put our behavior at odds with that of our older or younger coworkers. 

Navigating these differences and refraining from resorting to stereotypes is the way to go when creating a well-connected and inclusive environment. 

So, be honest about your preferred ways of communication and respect the boundaries of your team members. As soon as they notice these efforts, they’ll feel more at ease when asking for help or reaching out about a work task. 

Are you interested in learning more about enhancing communication across generations within your team or company? Then check out this exhaustive blog post:

• How to improve communication across generations at work

Why is the communication process important?

Through the way we communicate, we learn not only how to get ahead in life but also how to form stable relationships. 

If you think of life skills as a tower of cards, communication is near the bottom, laying a solid foundation. Should this card wobble slightly, it will jeopardize the stability of the entire tower. 

Moreover, by mastering the communication process, you :

• Readjust your self-perception and how you view the world around you ,
• Become a better learner , and
• Learn how to represent both your employer and yourself in the best light . 

In the following sections, we will devote more attention to exploring the above three points. 

Reason #1: The communication process affects how we view others and ourselves

The phrase “ at a loss for words ” aptly describes how it feels to come out of a communication situation unsuccessful.

Not only do you feel like you’re missing the right words, but it is as if you’re also missing a vital part of yourself. This unpleasant emotion sprouts because we share a part of our worldview with our interlocutor when communicating . We often inadvertently reveal the reasoning behind our train of thought and how we believe everything fits into this neatly organized snapshot of the world. 

And, you go through the same scenario when listening to friends or coworkers. You take in their appearance, facial expressions, and words to form an assumption about what their values and priorities may be. 

It’s not always feasible to pick the right words or rein in your facial expressions, but learning how the communication process works does help. 

For example, you’ll realize that what you say could reveal just as much about yourself as the topic you are discussing. Thus, rather than simply waiting for your turn to speak, you might make a conscious effort to actively listen and understand the other person’s perspective.

Reason #2: The communication process affects the way we learn

In Business Communication for Success , McLean reminds anyone willing to work on their communication skills that this endeavor will require:

• Persistence, and
• Self-correction.

McLean likens becoming a better communicator to sharpening other valuable life skills. There was a time when you didn’t drive a car or have a clue about digital literacy , yet, over time (and much trial and error), you’ve become a much more capable person. 

So, while results won’t come overnight, and you might get tangled up in a few difficult conversations at work , the effort is worth it. The key is to keep talking and listening. Soon enough, you may catch yourself broaching new subjects more assertively . 

Reason #3: The communication process helps us put our best foot forward

When you work in a team, how you communicate can paint a positive image of both you and your coworkers . When your communication style oozes professionalism and respectfulness, reaching agreements and negotiating deals becomes much less of a hassle. 

Not to mention that, paired with an excellent work ethic, strong communication is a huge plus when it comes to advancing to a leadership position. And, should you decide to change companies, sharp oral and written communication skills will significantly improve your employment prospects. 

If you make a misstep while joining a new team, good communication can help you iron out any lingering issues. But, to avoid these awkward situations altogether and learn how to make a good first impression, check out the below blog post:

• How to professionally introduce yourself

Be mindful of the communication process for long-term success

Whether you want to speak more candidly with family members or reach the next level in your career, knowing what the communication process is and why it matters can give you a head start. 

So, before you craft your next report or begin to lose patience with a coworker, try to:

• Remember the 8 elements of the communication process ,
• Identify your role in the communication situation , and
• Pinpoint your personal drawbacks and work on being a more thoughtful and involved conversation participant . 

Not only will you see better outcomes following your exchanges with colleagues and collaborators, but you’ll find that your interactions have become more engaging and enjoyable. 

References:

• Berlo, D. K. (1963). The process of communication: An introduction to theory and practice. Holt Rinehart and Winston. Retrieved September 2023 from https://archive.org/details/processofcommuni0000berl/mode/2up
• Christian, A. (2022, September 26). Why ‘digital literacy’ is now a workplace non-negotiable. BBC Worklife. https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20220923-why-digital-literacy-is-now-a-workplace-non-negotiable-
• Dwyer, J. (2008). Communication in business: Strategies and skills (4th ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Retrieved September 2023 from https://archive.org/details/communicationinb0000dwye
• Guffey, M. E., & Loewy, D. (2011). Business communication: Process & product (7th ed.). South-Western.
• Leavitt, H. J., & Mueller, R. A. H. (1951). Some effects of feedback on communication. Human Relations, 4, 401–410. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675100400406
• McLean, S. (2010). Business communication for success. Flat World Knowledge.
• McLean, S. A. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Allyn and Bacon. Retrieved September 2023 from https://archive.org/details/basicsofspeechco00mcle/mode/2up
• Molinsky, A. (2014, August 7). Common Language Doesn’t Equal Common Culture. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/04/common-language-doesnt-equal-c
• Panel, E. (2021, May 27). How To Encourage Candid Employee Feedback: 14 Tips For CEOs. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2021/05/27/how-to-encourage-candid-employee-feedback-14-tips-for-ceos/?sh=2805bfec2407

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Chapter 1: The Speech Communication Process

The Speech Communication Process

• Listener(s)

Interference

As you might imagine, the speaker is the crucial first element within the speech communication process. Without a speaker, there is no process.  The  speaker  is simply the person who is delivering, or presenting, the speech.  A speaker might be someone who is training employees in your workplace. Your professor is another example of a public speaker as s/he gives a lecture. Even a stand-up comedian can be considered a public speaker. After all, each of these people is presenting an oral message to an audience in a public setting. Most speakers, however, would agree that the listener is one of the primary reasons that they speak.

The listener is just as important as the speaker; neither one is effective without the other.  The  listener  is the person or persons who have assembled to hear the oral message.  Some texts might even call several listeners an “audience. ” The listener generally forms an opinion as to the effectiveness of the speaker and the validity of the speaker’s message based on what they see and hear during the presentation. The listener’s job sometimes includes critiquing, or evaluating, the speaker’s style and message. You might be asked to critique your classmates as they speak or to complete an evaluation of a public speaker in another setting. That makes the job of the listener extremely important. Providing constructive feedback to speakers often helps the speaker improve her/his speech tremendously.

Another crucial element in the speech process is the message.  The  message  is what the speaker is discussing or the ideas that s/he is presenting to you as s/he covers a particular topic.  The important chapter concepts presented by your professor become the message during a lecture. The commands and steps you need to use, the new software at work, are the message of the trainer as s/he presents the information to your department. The message might be lengthy, such as the President’s State of the Union address, or fairly brief, as in a five-minute presentation given in class.

The  channel  is the means by which the message is sent or transmitted.  Different channels are used to deliver the message, depending on the communication type or context. For instance, in mass communication, the channel utilized might be a television or radio broadcast. The use of a cell phone is an example of a channel that you might use to send a friend a message in interpersonal communication. However, the channel typically used within public speaking is the speaker’s voice, or more specifically, the sound waves used to carry the voice to those listening. You could watch a prerecorded speech or one accessible on YouTube, and you might now say the channel is the television or your computer. This is partially true. However, the speech would still have no value if the speaker’s voice was not present, so in reality, the channel is now a combination of the two -the speaker’s voice broadcast through an electronic source.

The context is a bit more complicated than the other elements we have discussed so far. The context is more than one specific component. For example, when you give a speech in your classroom, the classroom, or  the physical location of your speech, is part of the context  . That’s probably the easiest part of context to grasp.

But you should also consider that the  people in your audience expect you to behave in a certain manner, depending on the physical location or the occasion of the presentation  . If you gave a toast at a wedding, the audience wouldn’t be surprised if you told a funny story about the couple or used informal gestures such as a high-five or a slap on the groom’s back. That would be acceptable within the expectations of your audience, given the occasion. However, what if the reason for your speech was the presentation of a eulogy at a loved one’s funeral? Would the audience still find a high-five or humor as acceptable in that setting? Probably not. So the expectations of your audience must be factored into context as well.

The cultural rules -often unwritten and sometimes never formally communicated to us -are also a part of the context. Depending on your culture, you would probably agree that there are some “rules ” typically adhered to by those attending a funeral. In some cultures, mourners wear dark colors and are somber and quiet. In other cultures, grieving out loud or beating one’s chest to show extreme grief is traditional. Therefore,  the rules from our culture  -no matter what they are -play a part in the context as well.

Every speaker hopes that her/his speech is clearly understood by the audience. However, there are times when some obstacle gets in the way of the message and interferes with the listener’s ability to hear what’s being said.  This is  interference  , or you might have heard it referred to as “noise. ”  Every speaker must prepare and present with the assumption that interference is likely to be present in the speaking environment.

Interference can be mental, physical, or physiological.  Mental interference  occurs when the listener is not fully focused on what s/he is hearing due to her/his own thoughts.  If you’ve ever caught yourself daydreaming in class during a lecture, you’re experiencing mental interference. Your own thoughts are getting in the way of the message.

A second form of interference is  physical interference  . This is noise in the literal sense -someone coughing behind you during a speech or the sound of a mower outside the classroom window. You may be unable to hear the speaker because of the surrounding environmental noises.

The last form of interference is  physiological  . This type of interference occurs when your body is responsible for the blocked signals. A deaf person, for example, has the truest form of physiological interference; s/he may have varying degrees of difficulty hearing the message. If you’ve ever been in a room that was too cold or too hot and found yourself not paying attention, you’re experiencing physiological interference. Your bodily discomfort distracts from what is happening around you.

The final component within the speech process is feedback. While some might assume that the speaker is the only one who sends a message during a speech, the reality is that the  listeners in the audience are sending a message of their own, called  feedback  .  Often this is how the speaker knows if s/he is sending an effective message. Occasionally the feedback from listeners comes in verbal form – questions from the audience or an angry response from a listener about a key point presented. However, in general, feedback during a presentation is typically non-verbal -a student nodding her/his head in agreement or a confused look from an audience member. An observant speaker will scan the audience for these forms of feedback, but keep in mind that non-verbal feedback is often more difficult to spot and to decipher. For example, is a yawn a sign of boredom, or is it simply a tired audience member?

Generally, all of the above elements are present during a speech. However, you might wonder what the process would look like if we used a diagram to illustrate it. Initially, some students think of public speaking as a linear process -the speaker sending a message to the listener -a simple, straight line. But if you’ll think about the components we’ve just covered, you begin to see that a straight line cannot adequately represent the process, when we add listener feedback into the process. The listener is sending her/his own message back to the speaker, so perhaps the process might better be represented as circular. Add in some interference and place the example in context, and you have a more complete idea of the speech process.

Fundamentals of Public Speaking Copyright © by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What It Takes to Give a Great Presentation

• Carmine Gallo

Five tips to set yourself apart.

Never underestimate the power of great communication. It can help you land the job of your dreams, attract investors to back your idea, or elevate your stature within your organization. But while there are plenty of good speakers in the world, you can set yourself apart out by being the person who can deliver something great over and over. Here are a few tips for business professionals who want to move from being good speakers to great ones: be concise (the fewer words, the better); never use bullet points (photos and images paired together are more memorable); don’t underestimate the power of your voice (raise and lower it for emphasis); give your audience something extra (unexpected moments will grab their attention); rehearse (the best speakers are the best because they practice — a lot).

I was sitting across the table from a Silicon Valley CEO who had pioneered a technology that touches many of our lives — the flash memory that stores data on smartphones, digital cameras, and computers. He was a frequent guest on CNBC and had been delivering business presentations for at least 20 years before we met. And yet, the CEO wanted to sharpen his public speaking skills.

• Carmine Gallo is a Harvard University instructor, keynote speaker, and author of 10 books translated into 40 languages. Gallo is the author of The Bezos Blueprint: Communication Secrets of the World’s Greatest Salesman  (St. Martin’s Press).

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Article • 17 min read

The Communication Cycle

Six steps to better communication.

By the Mind Tools Content Team

Whether you're writing an email to a co-worker, delivering on-the-job training to a new team member, or giving an important presentation to the board of directors, you must communicate in a way that is clear, concise, and easy to understand.

But do you ever get lost while planning out your message, or struggle to identify what your audience truly needs to know?

There are so many factors to consider during preparation and presentation that it's easy to forget an important point. The Communication Cycle is a six-step process that can help you to tailor and refine your messages. Originally developed by Charles Berner, the model was updated into its modern form by Oxford professor Michael Argyle in his 1972 book, The Social Psychology of Work. [1]

The Communication Cycle helps you to ensure that you don't forget anything essential the first time you present it, and can maximize its impact. By putting the process into the form of a cycle, this approach encourages you to use the feedback you receive to improve your communications in the future.

See the transcript for this video here .

In this article, we'll examine the Communication Cycle, and look at how you can use it to improve your daily communications. We'll also look at an example which shows how you can use it to deliver important communications.

Understanding the Communication Cycle

The Communication Cycle (shown below in Figure 1) provides a handy checklist that can help you to communicate effectively with your audience.

You can apply the Communication Cycle to any situation where communication is involved, but you'll likely find it most useful for preparing and delivering important or complex communications, such as team or organizational emails, marketing materials, and presentations.

The Communication Cycle doesn't include a "test" step. However, you can still apply steps three, four, five, and six to testing your communication. (For example, by asking colleagues to proofread and comment on text, or by practicing a presentation in front of a small group.) You then use any feedback to change and improve your message when you restart the cycle.

How to Use the Communication Cycle

Follow these steps to use the cycle:

Step One: Clarify Your Aim

Organize your thoughts about the message that you want to communicate by answering these questions:

• To whom am I communicating?
• What message am I trying to send? What am I trying to achieve?
• Why do I want to send this message? Do I need to send it at all?
• What do I want my audience to feel?
• What does my audience need or desire from this message?
• What do I want my audience to do with this information?

Our article on The 7 Cs of Communication may be helpful during Step One. Our Communication Skills article also gives some useful tips on removing barriers to communication.

Step Two: Compose/Encode

Now that you've organized your thoughts with the questions in Step 1, start crafting your message. Ask yourself:

• What's the best way to communicate this message?
• What level/type of language should I use?
• Does the audience have any background information on the topic?
• Will my audience need any additional resources to understand my message?
• Am I expressing emotions in my message? If so, which emotions?
• Will the audience assume anything about me or my motives that will damage the credibility of the communication?

Our articles on The Rhetorical Triangle and Monroe's Motivated Sequence can show you how to structure your communications effectively, so that you can inspire your audience to act.

Step Three: Transmit/Deliver

The way that you communicate your message is vital to ensuring that your audience receives it effectively. Ask yourself:

• Is this the right time to send this message?
• What is my audience's state of mind likely to be, and what workload will they be experiencing when they receive this message? How should I present my message to take account of this?
• Will there be any distractions that may damage the impact of the communication? (This is especially important to consider when giving a speech or presentation.)
• Should I include anyone else in the audience?

Step Four: Receive Feedback

This is a key step in the Communication Cycle. Without feedback from your audience, you'll never know how you can improve the way that you communicate your message.

Make sure that you include some type of feedback process as part of your communication. For instance:

• Do you know how to read body language , and could you use it to steer your presentation?
• If you're giving a speech or presentation, will you allow time for a question-and-answer session at the end?
• Will you have a process for getting feedback from your audience?
• When you receive feedback, is it generally what you want and expect?

Remember to use indirect feedback here, too. Did you get the response that you wanted from your communication? Is there anything more that you can interpret from the response that you received?

Step Five: Analyze/Decode/Learn

Use the feedback that you received in Step Four to learn and grow. Depending on your situation, you might need to rewrite your message and try again. (One of the benefits of testing your message on a small scale is that you can do this before the big day.) Questions to ask yourself might include:

• Why did you receive this feedback? What does this tell you about your message?
• What could you have done differently to get the response that you wanted?
• Did the audience feel the way you expected them to feel? If not, why not?
• How should you act or behave differently to move forward?

Step Six: Change/Improve

This step completes the cycle. All of the feedback in the world won't help you unless you commit to learning and changing. Do this by:

• Honoring and respecting the feedback that you've received. If you believe it's valid, change your message or behavior.
• Identifying resources that can help you to improve. For instance, ask colleagues for help and advice; do more testing; or use surveys, classes, books, seminars, and so on.

A Communication Cycle Example

Using the Communication Cycle is fairly straightforward. Think of it as a checklist for creating your messages.

Here's an example of how you can use it:

You're responsible for IT in your organization, and you need to create a presentation for your CEO and executive board. The content should explain exactly what the IT department does and how much work you're all responsible for. The presentation's goal is to show how vital IT is to the organization so that you can hire additional staff to manage the workload, instead of facing budget cuts next quarter.

Here's how you could use the Communication Cycle to organize your presentation effectively.

Step One: Aim

• The CEO and executive board.
• I must show that IT is an essential part of the organization, and that we deserve additional funding to hire more staff.
• Without the board's understanding, they might cut our budget next year.
• I want them to feel excited about the valuable service that IT performs, and concerned about the threats the company might face if our staff is cut.
• My audience needs to understand thoroughly what IT does and, specifically, that we protect the organization from daily threats. The board will need strong data about the money that we've saved the company over the past two years.
• They must understand that giving IT additional funding is in their best interest.
• Group presentation.
• I should avoid using IT jargon and terms. My language should be professional, but easy to understand.
• Some members of the executive board have only a vague understanding of what the IT department does. Others have a much sharper idea.
• The executive board has figures to show that the IT budget is higher than that of other departments.
• Graphs and statistics, on paper or in a PowerPoint presentation, will be helpful visuals.
• I must express how excited I am by my job and my department, as well as the urgency we all feel when faced with additional budget cuts, especially when we provide such an important service to the organization.
• They might assume that, since I'm in IT, I'll naturally be a poor communicator. I must prove right away that this isn't true.
• Yes, because the board will soon approve the budget for the next year.
• They're likely to be overloaded with information already. I must be concise, yet convincing.
• The presentation will likely be in Conference Room A. There's a noisy air vent in that room, so I'll have to speak loudly.
• The presentation is near the end of a long day for the executive team, so they might be tired or lose interest easily.
• I'll allow 10 minutes at the end of the presentation for a question-and-answer session with the board.
• I'll meet with the CEO immediately after the presentation to get his input.
• I'm going to do some research on body language , which will help me see cues from board members on how I'm doing throughout the presentation.

Steps Five and Six: Analyze, and Improve

A few days after the presentation, your boss tells you that the board liked your message and approved additional funding, thanks to your convincing statistics and message. However, they thought that the presentation was a little too long.

With this knowledge, you commit to shortening your speeches and presentations in the future, and you'll do a better job cutting unnecessary information while you're creating your message.

The Communication Cycle is a six-step process for organizing and presenting a message effectively. You can apply it in all situations that involve communication, but it's most useful for important or complex communications.

The process follows a cycle that includes these six steps:

• Clarify your aim.
• Compose/Encode.
• Transmit/Deliver.
• Receive feedback.
• Analyze/Decode/Learn.
• Change/Improve.

By looping through the cycle twice or more, you can continue to improve your communications by analyzing audience response and learning from the feedback that you receive.

[1] Argyle M. (1972). 'The Social Psychology of Work,' London: (Allen Lane).

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Chapter Two – The Communication Process

Models of communication.

It should be clear by now that public speaking happens all around us in many segments of our lives. However, to truly understand what is happening within these presentations, we need to take a step back and look at some of the key components of the communication process.

Linear Model of Communication

The first theoretical model of communication was proposed in 1949 by Shannon and Weaver for Bell Laboratories. [1] This three-part model was intended to capture the radio and television transmission process. However, it was later adapted to human communication and is now known as the linear model of communication. The first part of the model is the sender, and this is the person who is speaking. The second part of the model is the channel, which is the apparatus for carrying the message (i.e., the phone or TV). The third part of the model is the receiver, and this is the person who picks up the message. In this model, communication is seen as a one-way process of transmitting a message from one person to another person. This model can be found in Figure 1.1. If you think about situations when you communicate with another person face-to-face or when you give a speech, you probably realize that this model is inadequate — communication is much more complicated than firing off a message to others.

“Figure 1.1”  by Public Speaking Project.  CC-BY-NC-ND .

Transactional Model of Communication

Models of communication have evolved significantly since Shannon and Weaver first proposed their well- known conceptual model over sixty years ago. One of the most useful models for understanding public speaking is Barnlund’s transactional model of communication. [2]  In the transactional model, communication is seen as an ongoing, circular process. We are constantly affecting and are affected by those we communicate with. The transactional model has a number of interdependent processes and components, including the encoding and decoding processes, the communicator, the message, the channel and noise. Although not directly addressed in Barnlund’s (2008) original transactional model, participants’ worldviews and the context also play an important role in the communication process. See Figure 1.2 for an illustration.

“Figure 1.2”  by Public Speaking Project.  CC-BY-NC-ND .

He who would learn to fly  one day must first learn to  stand and walk and run and  climb and dance; one cannot  fly into flying. ~ Friedrich Nietzsche

Elements of the Communication Process

Encoding and decoding.

Encoding  refers to the process of taking an idea or mental image, associating that image with words, and then speaking those words in order to convey a message. So, if you wanted to explain to your aunt the directions to your new apartment, you would picture in your mind the landscape, streets and buildings, and then you would select the best words that describe the route so your aunt could find you.

Decoding  is the reverse process of  listening to words, thinking about them, and turning those words into mental images. If your aunt were trying to find her way to your apartment, she would listen to your words, associate these words with streets and landmarks that she knows, and then she would form a mental map of the way to get to you.

Communicator

The term  communicator refers to all of the people in the interaction or speech setting. It is used instead of sender and receiver, because when we are communicating with other people, we are not only sending a message, but we are also receiving messages from others simultaneously. When we speak, we observe others’ nonverbal behavior  to see if they understand us and we gauge their emotional state. The information we gain from these observations is known as feedback . Over the telephone, we listen to paralinguistic cues, such as pitch, tone, volume and fillers (i.e., “um,” “uh,” “er,” “like,” and so on). This means that communication is not a one-way process. Even in a public speaking situation, we watch and listen to audience members’ responses. If audience members are interested, agree, and understand us, they may lean forward in their seats, nod their heads, have positive or neutral facial expressions, and provide favorable vocal cues (such as laughter, “That’s right,” “Uh huh,” or “Amen!”). If audience members are bored, disagree, or are confused by our message, they may be texting or looking away from us, shake their heads, have unhappy or confused expressions on their faces, or present oppositional vocal cues (like groans, “I don’t think so,” “That doesn’t make sense,” or “You’re crazy!”). Thus, communication is always a transactional process—a give and take of messages.

The  message involves those verbal and nonverbal behaviors, enacted by communicators, that are interpreted with meaning by others. The verbal portion of the message refers to the words that we speak, while the nonverbal portion includes our characteristics of our voice and other non-vocal components such as personal appearance, posture, gestures and body movements, eye behavior, the way we use space, and even the way that we smell. For instance, the person who gets up to speak wearing a nice suit will be interpreted more positively than a person giving the exact same speech wearing sweats and a graphic t-shirt. Or if a speaker tries to convince others to donate to a charity that builds wells in poor African villages using a monotone voice, she will not be as effective as the speaker who gives the same speech but speaks with a solemn tone of voice. If there is ever a conflict between the verbal and the non-verbal aspects of a message, people will generally believe the nonverbal portion of the message. To test this, tighten your muscles, clench your fists at your sides, pull your eyebrows together, purse your lips, and tell someone in a harsh voice, “NO, I’m NOT angry!” See if they believe your words or your nonverbal behavior.

The message can also be intentional or unintentional. When the message is intentional, this means that we have an image in our mind that we wish to communicate to an audience or a person in a conversation, and we can successfully convey the image from our mind to others’ minds with relative accuracy. An unintentional message is sent when the message that we wish to convey is not the same as the message the other person receives. Let’s say you are returning from an outing with your significant other and they ask, “Did you have a good time?” You  did have a good time but are distracted by a TV commercial when asked, so you reply in a neutral tone, “Sure, I had fun.” Your significant other may interpret your apathetic tone of voice and lack of eye contact to mean that you did not enjoy the evening, when in fact you actually did. Thus, as communicators, we cannot always be sure that the message we wish to communicate is interpreted as we intended.

The  channel  is very simply the means through which the message travels. In face-to-face communication the channel involves all of our senses, so the channel is what we see, hear, touch, smell and perhaps what we taste. When we’re communicating with someone online, the channel is the computer; when texting the channel is the cell phone; and when watching a movie on cable, the channel is the TV. The channel can have a profound impact on the way a message is interpreted. Listening to a recording of a speaker does not have the same psychological impact as listening to the same speech in person or watching that person on television. One famous example of this is the 1960 televised presidential debate between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon. According to History.com (2012), on camera, Nixon looked away from the camera at the reporters asking him questions, he was sweating and pale, he had facial hair stubble, and he wore a grey suit that faded into the set background. “Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley reportedly said [of Nixon], ‘My God, they’ve embalmed him before he even died.” [3]  Kennedy, on the other hand, looked into the camera, was tanned, wore a dark suit that made him stand out from the background, and appeared to be calm after spending the entire weekend with aides practicing in a hotel room. Most of those who listened to the radio broadcast of the debate felt that it was a tie or that Nixon had won, while 70% of those watching the televised debate felt that Kennedy was the winner.

“Kennedy Nixon Debate”  by United Press International. Public domain.

The next aspect of the model of communication is noise.  Noise  refers to anything that interferes with message transmission or reception (i.e., getting the image from your head into others’ heads). There are several different types of noise. The first type of noise is  physiological noise , and this refers to bodily processes and states that interfere with a message. For instance, if a speaker has a headache or the flu, or if audience members are hot or they’re hungry, these conditions may interfere with message accuracy. The second type of noise is psychological noise.  Psychological noise  refers to mental states or emotional states that impede message transmission or reception. For example, if someone has just broken up with a significant other, or if they’re worried about their grandmother who is in the hospital, or if they are thinking about their shopping list, this may interfere with communication processes as well. The third type of noise is actual  physical noise,  and this would be simply the actual sound level in a room. Loud music playing at a party, a number of voices of people talking excitedly, a lawnmower right outside the window, or anything that is overly loud will interfere with communication. The last type of noise is cultural noise.  Cultural noise refers to message interference that results from differences in peoples’ worldviews. Worldview is discussed in more detail below but suffice it to say that the greater the difference in worldview, the more difficult it is to understand one another and communicate effectively.

“The 2nd most famous face in Pushkar”  by Shreyans Bhansali.  CC-BY-NC-SA .

Most people don’t give a lot of thought to the communication process. In the majority of our interactions with others, we are operating on automatic pilot. Although the encoding and decoding process may appear to be fairly straightforward, it is actually much more complicated than it seems. The reason for this is because we all have different worldviews.  Worldview  is the overall framework through which an individual sees, thinks about, and interprets the world and interacts with it. There are five core components to our worldview.

1. Epistemology  is the way that we acquire knowledge and/or what counts as knowledge. Think about the process of conducting research. Thirty years ago, to find a series of facts one had to use a card catalogue and scour the library stacks for books. Now researchers can access thousands of pages of information via their computer from the comfort of their own home. Epistemology is linked to public speaking because it governs audience members’ preferred learning styles and who or what they consider to be credible sources.

2. Ontology  refers to our belief system, how we see the nature of reality or what we see as true or false. We may (or may not) believe in aliens from outer space, that butter is bad for you, that the Steelers will win the Superbowl, or that humans will be extinct in 200 years. Speech writers should be careful not to presume that audience members share the same beliefs. If a speaker claims that illness can be aided with prayer, but several people in the audience are atheists, at best the speaker has lost credibility and at worst these audience members could be offended.

3. Axiology  represents our value system, or what we see as right or wrong, good or bad, and fair or unfair. One of the ways that you can tell what people value is to ask them what their goals are, or to ask them what qualities they look for in a life partner. Our values represent the things that we hope for—they do not represent reality. Values can have an impact on multiple levels of the public speaking process, but in particular values impact speaker credibility and effectiveness in persuasion. For instance, some cultures value modest dress in women, so a female speaker wearing a sleeveless blouse while speaking could cause her to lose credibility with some audience members. Or if audience members value the freedom to bear arms over the benefits of government regulation, a speaker will have a difficult time convincing these audience members to vote for stricter gun control legislation.

4. Cosmology  signifies the way that we see our relationship to the universe and to other people. Cosmology dictates our view of power relationships and may involve our religious or spiritual beliefs. Controversial speech topics (like universal health care and the death penalty) are often related to this aspect of worldview as we must consider our responsibilities to other human beings and our power to influence them. Interestingly, cosmology would also play a role in such logistical points as who is allowed to speak, the order of speakers on a schedule (e.g., from most to least important), the amount of time a speaker has to speak, the seating arrangement on the dais, and who gets the front seats in the audience.

“NFL Superfans”  by HMJD02.  CC-BY-SA .

5. Praxeology  denotes our preferred method of completing everyday tasks or our approach to solving problems. Some speech writers may begin working on their outlines as soon as they know they will need to give a speech, while others may wait until a few days before their speech to begin preparing (we do not recommend this approach). Praxeology may also have an impact on a speaker’s preference of delivery style, methods of arranging main points, and choice of slideware (i.e., Power Point versus Prezi).

It is always good to explore the stuff you don’t agree with, to try and understand a different lifestyle or foreign worldview. I like to be challenged in that way, and always end up learning something I didn’t know. – Laura Linney

It is important to understand worldview because it has a profound impact on the encoding and decoding process, and consequently on our ability to be understood by others. Try this simple experiment. Ask two or three people to silently imagine a dog while you imagine a dog at the same time. “Dog” is a very  concrete word  (a word that describes a tangible object that can be perceived through the senses), and it is one of the first words children in the United States learn in school. Wait a few seconds and then ask each person what type of dog they were thinking of. Was it a Chihuahua? A greyhound? Golden retriever? Rottweiler? Or some other dog? Most likely each person you asked had a different image in his or her mind than you had in yours. This is our worldview at work.

“Lasagna”  by David K.  CC-BY-SA .

To further illustrate, you may tell a co-worker, “I can’t wait to go home this weekend—we are having lasagna!” Seems like a fairly clear-cut statement, doesn’t it? Unfortunately, it is not. While “lasagna” is also a concrete word, our worldviews cause us to interpret each word in the statement differently. Where is “home?” Who is making the meal? What ingredients will be used in the lasagna? Is this dish eaten as a regular meal or for a special occasion? Will there be leftovers? Are friends invited? Since everyone who has eaten lasagna has had a different experience of the cuisine, we all acquire a different image in our mind when we hear the statement “…we are having lasagna!”

Complicating matters is the fact that the more abstract the word becomes, the more room there is for interpretation.  Abstract words  (words that refer to ideas or concepts that are removed from material reality) like “peace,” “love,” “immoral,” “justice,” “freedom,” “success,” and “honor” can have a number of different meanings; each of which is predicated on one’s worldview. Communicators have their own unique worldviews that shape both the encoding and decoding processes, which means that we can never be completely understood by another person. People from the Midwest may call carbonated beverages “pop,” while those from the East Coast may say “soda,” and those from Georgia may say “coke.” Even when simple terms are used like “oak tree” or “fire hydrant,” each listener will form a different mental image when decoding the message. Never take communication for granted, and never assume your listener will understand you. It takes hard work to make yourself understood by an audience.

Context is worth 80 IQ points .- Alan Kay

“Talking technique”  by The U.S. Army.  CC-BY .

The last element of the communication process is the  context  in which the speech or interaction takes place. In the 1980’s context was taught as the actual physical setting where communication occurred, such as in a place of worship, an apartment, a workplace, a noisy restaurant, or a grocery store. People communicate differently in each one of these places as there are unwritten rules of communication (called  norms ) that govern these settings. More recently the concept of context has evolved and expanded to include the type of relationships we have with others and the communicative rules that govern those relationships. So, you do not speak the same way to your best friend as you do to a small child, your parent, your boss, your doctor or a police officer. And you may speak to your best friend differently in your apartment than you do in your parents’ home, and your communication may also change when you are both out with friends on the weekend. In sum, the context refers to the norms that govern communication in different situations and relationships.

• Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949).  The mathematical theory of communication . Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ↵
• Barnlund, D. C. (2008).  A transactional model of communication . In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication theory (2nd Ed), pp. 47 – 57. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction.  ↵
• History.com. (2012). The Kennedy-Nixon Debates. History.com. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/kennedy-nixon-debates   ↵

LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS

Cc licensed content, shared previously.

• Chapter 1 Models of Communication.  Authored by : Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft.  Provided by : Millersville University, Millersville, PA.  Located at :  http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html .  Project : Public Speaking Project.  License :  CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
• Chapter 1 Elements of the Communication Process.  Authored by : Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft.  Provided by : Millersville University, Millersville, PA.  Located at :  http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html .  Project : The Public Speaking Project.  License :  CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
• the 2nd most famous face in Pushkar.  Authored by : Shreyans Bhansali.  Located at :  https://flic.kr/p/7mWPS6 .  License :  CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• lasagna.  Authored by : David K.  Located at :  https://flic.kr/p/9fmq9J .  License :  CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• NFL Superfans.  Authored by : HMJD02.  Located at :  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NFL_Superfans.jpg .  License :  CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• The U.S. Army – Talking technique.  Provided by : The U.S. Army.  Located at :  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Talking_technique.jpg .  License :  CC BY: Attribution

PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT

• Kennedy Nixon Debate 1960. Authored by : United Press International.  Provided by : Wikimedia Commons.  Located at :  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kennedy_Nixon_Debat_(1960).jpg .  License :  Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Principles of Public Speaking Copyright © 2022 by Katie Gruber is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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1.2: Basic Process Models of Communication

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Identify and define the basic components of different communication models.
• Discuss how various communication models can be applied to real-world situations.

BASIC PROCESS MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Imagine you are learning how to build your own computer. You are familiar with how to use computer technology and on a functional level you understand how computers work. Have you ever taken the time to examine and learn the process of computing to understand the series of actions necessary to make them work?

Learning about the communication process is like learning about any other process. We are familiar with different ways we communicate through channels like the spoken word or text messaging. What are some of the processes that shape communication? How can we understand these processes to become more competent communicators?

Understanding interpersonal communication is enhanced by internalizing processes of interaction. To continue this process, we turn to interaction models that elucidate the unique phenomena involved in human communication. The basic process models covered in this module do not include every model but focus on important models pertinent to grasping communication.

Transmission models

Transmission models of communication focuses on the transportation of message(s) from one communicator to another to disseminate knowledge over space (Sapienza, et. al., 2016). Transmission models are focuse on communication as a linear process where the sender is projecting a message to a target without much consideration to ongoing process or feedback loops as described in other models.

In 1949 mathematician Claude Shannon and engineer Warren Weaver developed a basic transmission model of communication that serves as a foundational tool to understanding the communication process (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). The Shannon and Weaver model breaks communication down into five parts- Sender, Encoder, Channel, Decoder, Receiver (Figure 1).

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Shannon-Weaver’s Model of Communication

Note . Notice how the sender and receiver both undergo the transaction simultaneously.

The sender is the original information source of the message. Encoder refers to the transmitter that converts the message into signals. Channel is the means by which the message is conveyed. Decoder is the location of the signal that converts the message. Receiver is the intended target of the message. As a message passes from sender to receiver, it can be impeded by noise , which can alter or distort the message meant for the receiver.

For example, let’s say that Blake is a chemistry professor who is explaining the periodic table in class. Blake would represent the sender or information source.

Blake’s means of encoding or transmitting would be his brain converting the ideas into a message. The channel professor Blake is using is their voice accompanied by writing a diagram on the board.

The decoders would be the ears and eyes of the students in the class. The receivers or destinations are the brains of the students. In this chemistry class there is an abundance of noise that is inhibiting the transmission of the message that Professor Blake is sending. Jamie and Dakota are mischievous class clown types who are intent on derailing the learning experience by making various animal noises at their lab station.

Alex is more interested in watching YouTube videos on a phone with one earbud in and one out, feigning attention to Professor Blake’s message. Meanwhile, Jordan who is desperately attempting to learn chemistry is internally enraged at the inattentive classmates and periodically sneers and makes gestures imploring others to be silent.

In mass mediated communication, messages are encoded into various channels. In a State of the Union address, the President of the United States has a target audience- the American public. The President and his team craft the speech over a period to be delivered to Congress and broadcast live to a television audience. This speech will be simultaneously broadcast through radio and internet channels.

The process described above differs from the immediate interpersonal context of transaction because it is not as dependent on immediate feedback. Yes, people will respond in real time through discussions and social media posts. However, this has no impact on the original message created as it was designed as a one-way communication event. How the President’s message is interpreted will differ significantly due to subjective interpretations based on identity.

Even in a process that is more one-way than immediately interactive, human beings are still communicating meaning to each other. Understanding the differences in structure, code and channel help us gain insight in how these processes influence our interactions on a macro and micro level. In a State of the Union address the President is speaking to the entire country with specific ideas and declarations to embolden ardent supporters.

All of these examples show how noise can impede the quality of a message. Now that we have briefly discussed the Shannon and Weaver model, we will turn to Berlo’s adaptation of the Shannon and Weaver model.

Berlo’s SMCR Model

In 1960, David Berlo expanded the Shannon and Weaver model to more accurately reflect the communication process (Turaga, 2016). Berlo’s model is divided into four basic components: source, message, and channel and receiver. In each pillar of Berlo’s model are subcategories that describe the interaction process in greater detail (Figure 2).

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

Adapted from Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication, by Communication Theory ( https://www.communicationtheory.org/...communication/ )

The source is the origin of the message. Source can also be analogous to sender as the messenger provides the initial context of the interaction. The source must have basic communication skills such as reading, speaking and listening to be an effective communicator. In addition, the attitude of the sender is important in developing a relationship with the audience. The sender must also be knowledgeable regarding the subject matter she/he is discussing.

Inherent in every message are the social systems (values, beliefs, religion) the sender is immersed in, which impacts the rhetorical choices the sender makes. Culture also influences the sender’s message as messages can be interpreted differently depending on an individual’s cultural background.

The first element to consider in a message is content. What is included in the message from beginning to end? Elements are additional aspects such as gestures and signs, that accompany the transmission of the message. Treatment is the way the message is sent, similar to gift wrapping of a present where the message itself is wrapped inside the treatment.

Structure refers to the framework of the message or how the message is constructed. Code refers to form, i.e. text or language that the message is conveyed in.

Similar to the Shannon and Weaver model, channel refers to the medium in which the message is delivered. In order for the message to be received it must be perceived by one or more of the five senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste. Most often, messages are conveyed through sight and sound but non-verbal elements such as touch, taste or smell can also convey meaning, as any chef or dancer will tell you.

Receiver is the person, destination or decoder of the message. As we discussed with the sender, attitude, knowledge, social systems and culture must be considered in understanding how this process works.

Berlo’s model is a simplistic description of the communication process. All messages begin with a person of origin and destination. Let’s return to our scenario involving Professor Blake’s chemistry class. Professor Blake needs to relay and important message to students involving next week’s test. Blake wants to inform them about changes to the study guide but has noticed a few of the students were absent in the last class meeting.

Professor Blake is the source and the message describes the important changes. To ensure continuity, Blake decides to send the message through the channel of email. The message is marked “URGENT” in capital letters to increase the chances the students will open it.

The tag “URGENT” is an example of an element to punctuate the message. Despite the fact Blake has been frustrated lately with some of the students in class, Blake makes sure to use an upbeat tone to not display frustration. Good teachers need to be balanced and exhibit patience.

Always remember attitude is important in developing and maintaining a relationship with the audience. If Professor Blake does not get the desired feedback then changes may need to be made to the communication channel or code.

Transactional model

The transactional model of communication is a more simplified model for understanding the communication process. Developed by Dean Barnlund (2008), the transactional model can be understood as a circular model of communication, more focused on the simultaneous interaction of participants than a linear process (Figure 3).

Both sender and receiver are continually affected by the messages being sent and received back and forth. The transactional model reflects an exchange of ideas, meaning and feelings. Similar to a relationship between a business owner and a client, communication depends on the giving and receiving of information or content.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Transactional Model of Communication

Note . Observe that the Transactional Model recognizes feedback in communication, suggesting the joint activity and meaning-making that occurs between interlocutors.

In the transactional model, communication is simultaneous and interdependent. Riley is a physical therapist who helps clients recover from injuries. Much of Riley’s job is to understand the pain and discomfort of the clients in order to effectively help them recuperate. In this situation, both Riley and the clients must exchange information in order to accomplish mutual goals. Riley wants to help the clients recover and the clients want to feel better.

Riley’s newest client, Cameron is a challenge to help. Cameron has suffered from several injuries from playing soccer, including a few concussions. The problem is Cameron does not like to verbally disclose the injuries because of the desire to continue playing. This unwillingness to disclose injuries makes it difficult for Riley to properly treat Cameron.

In this situation, both Riley and Cameron are dependent on each other to reach the desired outcome. They both have different goals. While Riley wants to do the job properly and ensure Cameron’s health and safety, Cameron is reluctant to disclose information in order to stay on the field. Each person in this situation must mitigate the other’s feelings, ideas and goals in real time to come to a shared meaning or mutually beneficial outcome.

The transactional model of communication emphasizes the role of feedback and the ongoing negotiation of participants in an interpersonal context. How is communication different in situations that are less personal and immediate? To help answer this question, we turn to the transmission model of communication.

Now that we have discussed the idea of communication as transmission we turn to a discussion of rituals. Often, our communication practices depend on a repetitive dynamic of sharing meaning through symbolic interaction and the reinforcement of cultural values.

Ritual model

The ritual model of communication focuses on the sharing of information and preserving that information over time (Figure 5). Ritual communication relies on shared belief systems (Carey, 2009).

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Ritual model

Note . The ritual model emphasizes how communicators draw from outside sources to establish the meaning of everyday messages.

Developed by James Carey, the ritual model considers symbolism, shared practices and codes which produce a cultural identity. An audience is more participant than receiver in an ongoing dance of familiar steps. Communication is not a simple process of sending a message to a receiver. Communication is shaped by the process itself, rather than the content of the message.

Take the evening news for example. Often these broadcasts begin with morbid subjects like the coverage of a murder or kidnapping. Then the broadcast will cover the weather, sports and a human-interest story. Viewers have an expectation of how this format will proceed because of the familiarity of the format.

Content does not change much from broadcast to broadcast as the same types of stories are plugged into the recognizable format. Evening news broadcasts may be viewed while the family eats dinner and discusses the day’s proceedings. Engagement with the evening news serves as cultural currency for the consumer and the messages therein become conversation points to expand on in everyday conversations. Thus, communication content is shaped directly by the evening news ritual.

In closing, we have covered three types of models of communication to understand how interactions work and are affected by feedback and context. Our everyday interactions are shaped by a variety of factors that can alter the meaning or understanding of content. Often, the same message can be understood more effectively by changing the code or channel in which it is presented. By learning process models, we can more effectively encode and decode messaging to become more competent communicators.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Personal Model of Interpersonal Communication

In small groups of 3-5 students, have them develop their own model of interpersonal communication. Include all of the components that are necessary to describe how communication between people works. The model could be a drawing or an object (such as a toaster or slinky toy) that symbolizes the communication process. Prepare to share the model with the class, explaining in detail about the model.

Activity 2: Barriers to Communication

In small groups of 3-5 students, assign each group a different communication context (i.e., verbal, written and/or online). Have them discuss within their group potential communication barriers for their context and ways to reduce those barriers. They should be prepared to discuss their answers with the class. During this discuss, the instructor should highlight common barriers that overlap the varied contexts for further discussion about the communication process (in general).

Examples of different communication contexts that may be used in this activity include:

· Verbal : interpersonal conversations with friends, family, co-workers, acquaintances and others; presentations in public settings; and communication business situations.

· Written : writing a personal letter; text messaging with family, friends or others; and business writing such as a proposal, memo or presentation.

· Online : emailing family or friends; using social media to connect with friends or others; communicating with others via instant messaging or video conferencing software.

Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of communication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Ed.), Communication Theory (2 nd ed., pp. 47-57). Routledge.

Carey, J.W. (2009). A cultural approach to communication. In Communication as Culture (pp. 11-28). Routledge.

Sapienza, Z.S., et. al. (2016). The transmission model of communication: Toward a multidisciplinary explication. A Review of General Semantics, 73 (4).

Shannon, C.E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication . University of Illinois Press.

Turaga, R. (2016). Organizational Models of Communication. IUP Journal of Soft Skills , 10 (2), 56-65.

• Sender: The original information source of the message.
• Encoding: The translation of an idea into a message that can be understood by the receiver.
• Decoding: The translation of the message into meaning by the receiver.
• Channel: The means by which the message is conveyed.
• Receiver: The intended target audience of the message.
• Noise: Interference that impedes the transmission of a message.
• Source: The origin of the message.
• Element: An additional aspect that accompanies the transmission of the message (i.e., a gesture or sign).
• Treatment: The manner in which the message is sent.
• Structure: The framework of the message and how the message is constructed.
• Code: The text or language the message is conveyed in.

Multimedia 1: Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication

Watch this animated video about Barnlunds Transactional Model. How does it compare and contrast with the other models of communication?

Watch it here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VrFXNRzfJKU

Multimedia 2: Communication as Culture, a conversation with James Carey

Watch this conversation with renowned scholar, James Carey, as he discuss the ritual model of communciation. What are some concepts that he mentions that add to what was mentioned in this chapter?

You can view it here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Mozx7z6ues

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The Communication Process. Section 5.1. Communication is an exchange of information between two or more people. It is a two-way process that involves both sending and receiving messages. Sender transmits or sends the message Receiver hears and interprets the message

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Presentation Transcript

The Communication Process Section 5.1

Communication is an exchange of information between two or more people. It is a two-way process that involves both sending and receiving messages. • Sender transmits or sends the message • Receiver hears and interprets the message • Good communication occurs when the sender of the message and the receiver end up with a shared meaning about the message.

Types of Communication • Nonverbal communication is a way of sending and receiving messages without using words. • Verbal communication is the use of words to send and receive messages. • As you become more aware of how you send messages to others, you can begin to develop better communication skills.

Nonverbal Communication • Developing your nonverbal skills are important • You become aware of the nonverbal messages you send and receive • You can learn to send clearer nonverbal messages • Your actions need to support the words you say otherwise this will lead to confusion

Nonverbal Communication • Body language involves sending message through body movements. Through body language, people can express their thoughts, feelings and emotions. • Facial Expressions • Gestures • Body Motions

What are some examples of body language that could be interpreted in different ways, depending on your cultural background.

Verbal Communication • Your environment influences the words your use and the way you use them to express yourself. • Word meanings may vary from one part of the country to another, or from one culture to another. • Your tone of voice can change the meaning of the word

Verbal Communication • Communicating well with others begins with you. By developing your skills in expressing yourself, you will send clearer messages • Developing your listening skills is an equally important part of communication. To be a good listener, you need to develop your skills in active listening

Expressing Yourself • “I-statements are used to express your thoughts, feelings, and ideas and can help you speak for yourself—from your point of view • I-statements give you responsibility and control over what you communicate to others.

Types of I-statements • Descriptive • Used to report what you have seen or heard • Describe information taken in through your senses • “I see the scale reads 135 pounds” • “I smell smoke”

Thought • Start with words such as “I think,” “I wonder,” or “I believe” • Tell others how you interpret what you have seen or heard • “I wonder if it will rain today.” • “I believe I am gaining weight.”

Feeling • Let others know how you feel • “I feel discouraged because I failed the test” • “I feel worried that it will rain during the ball game”

Intention • Let others know what you want to do • Start with words such as “I want” or “I wish” • “I want to pass this course.” • “I wish I could lose some weight.”

Action • Let others know what you are doing now, have done in the past, or will do in the future. • Use action verbs • “I studied two hours last night” • “I plan to memorize that information before the test”

Avoid You-statements • Attack the person, not the problem • Attack the senders self-esteem • The receiver may respond in a defensive manner • They may feel that his or her thoughts, opinions and feelings are unimportant.

Receiving Messages • Passive Listening- they hear words without always listening for meanings • Don’t know if the message was understood

Active Listening-when you give the sender some type of sign that you are listening • Giving feedback shows that you are listening and encourages the sender to keep talking • Checking out means using questions to clarify a message. Ex- “Did you say that his car is wrecked?” • Reflecting you repeat in your own words what you think has been said

Keys to Good Listening • Show interest in what the other person is saying by sitting forward and using eye contact • Try to block out interruptions • Let the sender complete his or her thoughts • Accept the sender’s ideas and feelings • Use good verbal skills in giving feedback. Ask questions, reflect feelings, or restate an idea when appropriate • Control your nonverbal messages. Make sure that they are positive and reinforce your comments • Be aware of strong emotions. Understand that they can affect a message’s clarity, and the way that you might respond. • Don’t let silence make you nervous. Silence provides time for both people to think about what was said

Factoring Affecting Communication Section 5.2

Your Self-Esteem • Self-esteem is an important factor in the way messages are sent or received. • People with low self-esteem have more problems communicating effectively. They may not be quite sure of their own feelings. • Sharing thoughts and feelings with another person is a good way to build self-esteem.

Negative Communication Patterns • Lying is a negative communication pattern in which people are not honest. They do not share observations, thoughts and feelings in an accurate way. • Blaming is a pattern in which people accuse other for everything that goes wrong.

Placating is a pattern of communication in which people will say or do something just to please others or keep them from getting upset. Going along with the crowd is easier for people with low self-esteem • Distracting is when people just ignore unpleasant situations. They may put the issue aside as not really being important.

When a friend is using a negative communication pattern, how could you respond to help improve your friend’s self-esteem?

Your Emotional State • Before trying to communicate, you need to recognize your emotional state. • Intense emotions get in the way of sharing complex thoughts and ideas. If your emotions are intense let the other person know you need time to sort your emotions out.

Your Environment • The times of day or the amount of time you have can make a difference. • Avoid busy and noisy environments • Fatigue or illness can keep a person from showing interest • Distance between the two who are communicating makes it harder to interpret body language and nonverbal signals

Communicating via the internet or even over a phone makes it hard to get a complete picture of the sender’s total message. What are some common items used to communicate in today’s society? How do you think current technology affects a person’s ability to fully understand and interpret another’s message?

Communication Barriers • People with closed minds shut out or ignore opinions and beliefs that are different from their own. • Prejudice occurs when a person forms opinions about others without complete knowledge of facts.

How can you overcome communication barriers? • Keep an open mind • Avoid mixed messages • Overcome prejudice other other by asking questions and getting all the facts before forming an opinion • Practice active listening when others speak. Do not let your mind wander. Respond only when the speaker is finished and it is your turn

Gender and Communication

Quiz Time!!!True or False Women search for the meaning behind words more than men. TRUE

When men and women are together in a group women talk more than men. FALSE

Women use more direct eye contact than men. TRUE

Men, more than women, take the initiative to start and maintain conversations. FALSE

Women ask more questions than men ask. TRUE

Women ask for assistance more frequently than men do. TRUE

Men use less confrontational body language than women. FALSE

When listening, women appear to be more attentive. TRUE

Females dominate public discussions more than men. FALSE

Males interrupt women more frequently than women interrupt men. TRUE

Goals during Talking • Males view talking as a competition • Females view talking as a way to connect with people. How do you think this creates differences when males and females try to communicate? Women try to get closer through conversation and men want to win the conversation.

“It’s Complicated” • Literal-take words at face value • Implied- reading between the lines Describe (tell all about) a time when what you were saying was taken out of context or misconstrued.

Questions in Conversations • Males often see questions as a literal request for an answer. • Females often use questions to start conversations.

5 ways Men and Women’s Speech Patterns Differ Tag endings are questions tagged on to the end of sentences. They make speakers appear more unsure of themselves. SHE: “That test was tough, wasn’t it?” HE: “That test was tough!”

Upward inflections is a rising intonation at the end of a sentence that gives a sense of uncertainty. Making a statement, as a statement sounds authorative. She: “My neighbor played his stereo all night, so I didn’t get any sleep?” He: “My neighbor played his stereo all night so I didn’t get any sleep.”

Emotional verbs- women use more emotional verbs, such as, “I feel…I love…I hope..” She: “I love the student evaluation form you designed. I feel the report should be laid out using excel.” He: “The student evaluation form you designed is excellent. The report should be laid out using excel.”

Qualifiers are words like “a bit” and “kind of” “Third quarter seems a bit long” Quantifiers such as “always, never, all or none” sound more confident, less tentative. “The third quarter always seems so long”

Disclaimers is a phrase at the beginning of a sentence that weakens the following statement. “I’m not sure but…” Hedge weakens an idea by including words: “Maybe” and “Sort of”

Skills for Conflict Resolution Section 5.3

Conflict occurs when any two people disagree on the same issue. Some conflict is a normal part of most relationships. Even when people attempt to communicate clearly, conflict can occur. • Conflict occurs for many reasons, it is often due to different personal values. • People often respond to a disagreement by arguing.

Arguing is a negative form of communication and is used to protect their self-esteem. It attacks the person not the problem. • Name-calling and blaming are two types of You-Statements. Both are destructive to a relationship as they create more hostility. The real conflict is left unresolved. In what ways would conflict be harmful to a relationship?

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