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Critical Race Qualitative Methods

• By: Emel Thomas Edited by: Emel Thomas
• Product: Sage Research Methods: Diversifying and Decolonizing Research
• Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd
• Publication year: 2024
• Online pub date: March 21, 2024
• Discipline: Sociology , Education , Psychology , Health , Anthropology , Social Policy and Public Policy , Social Work , Political Science and International Relations , Geography , Criminology and Criminal Justice , Nursing , Business and Management , Communication and Media Studies , Counseling and Psychotherapy , History , Economics , Marketing , Science , Technology , Computer Science , Engineering , Mathematics , Medicine
• Methods: Ethnography , Research design , Narrative research
• DOI: https:// doi. org/10.4135/9781529691535
• Keywords: critical race theory , race , racism Show all Show less
• Academic Level: Intermediate Undergraduate Online ISBN: 9781529691535 More information Less information

Even though equality, diversity, and inclusion targets feature in many policy documents and training programmes of organisations, race and racism remain an issue for many individuals. To understand the complex operation of prejudice and inequality in society, researchers should choose appropriate qualitative research designs that can shed light on the experiences of the marginalised and antiracist practice. As outlined in this guide critical race research designs aligned with the tenets of critical race theory enable the story and counter-stories to be heard. It is when one listens, reflects, hears, and acts that social justice and decolonisation processes begin.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this guide, readers should be able to …

• Recognise the foundations of critical race qualitative methods.
• Identify critical race qualitative designs for use in research projects.
• Examine the challenges and limitations of critical race qualitative research methods.

Introduction

In academic work it is important to be critical and analytical of concepts and processes. Being critical suggests that one is thoughtful and evaluative. Good critical research will examine what has occurred as well as how and why circumstances are the way they are. To be critical will mean that you must ask yourself the ‘so what’ question to get to true meaning in a diverse context ( University of Plymouth, 2008 ). Essentially this enables you and your research project to identify new knowledge, examine existing knowledge and deeply appreciate the research environment. Undertaking a critical qualitative research project requires a willingness to question and challenge the validity and relevance of information and/or beliefs. When researching aspects of race and ethnicity, being critical involves diligence and prudent actions that go beyond simply accepting or rejecting various methodological designs. Being a critical race qualitative researcher means assuming responsibility for research methods that must reveal multiple perspectives and interpretations of a situation. Therefore, you will navigate methodological research options that seek to capture the complexity of race as a socially constructed and contested term.

This guide is split into three core sections in which I outline the key characteristics of critical race qualitative research methods. In each section I provide some important aims that you should reflect on when seeking to apply critical race qualitative methods in practice. I will also highlight some of my experiences as a critical race qualitative researcher. I do this not just to name my own reality, but also to contribute further to inclusive publications on diversity ( Thomas, 2012 ). Across the guide are scattered references to acclaimed critical race scholars. For example, in her landmark article on critical race theory in education, Ladson-Billing ( 1998 ) suggests that stories serve as interpretive structures by which we can order and interpret racial experiences. If all else is neglected in this guide, I recommend storytelling and counter-story-telling for research focused on race and racism.

What Are Critical Race Methods?

Emerging from legal debates in the United States of America (USA), critical race theory (CRT) is a movement and framework that examines the role of race and racism in society ( Taylor et al., 2009 ). As theory it is intended to explain, frame, and justify racialised experiences. Applied in practice it is often aligned with qualitative research activities. CRT attempts to challenge traditional approaches to understanding race, both on an individual basis and as embedded in the structures and systems of wider society. Consequently, the foundational principles of CRT include examining (1) the normalisation of racism in everyday life, (2) stories and counter stories on race, (3) liberal agendas and the convergence of equality, (4) white supremacy, and (5) intersectionality ( Gillborn, 2008 ). When undertaking a qualitative research project on critical race it is important to design a plan that considers these five core elements. Critical race qualitative research methods are techniques used to explore and analyse race, racism, inequality, and power. They are data collection strategies that elicit the lived experiences of the racially oppressed in marginalised contexts.

Normalisation of Racism

To examine how racist practice is made normal, as a qualitative researcher you must review the permanence of discrimination and prejudice. Critical race researchers acknowledge that racism is deeply ingrained in the fabric of society and therefore needs to be scrutinised ( Delgado & Stefanic, 1994 ; Gillborn, 2008 ). Hence, qualitative research methods include detailed assessments of the context. This might include analysis of historical records, policy documents, media reports, artefacts, and certifications. In my research within English secondary schools, I reviewed school behavioural policies and records of student detentions to build a picture of the actions taken by teachers towards various ethnic groups. Establishing this context early on in my research work enabled me to scrutinise and challenge existing rules and regulations in the school environment that advantaged some and not others.

Storytelling and Counter-storytelling

Collecting narratives through interviews from research participants is a strategy often applied by qualitative researchers in a range of disciplines. However, as a critical race qualitative researcher, you must be able to not only analyse narratives but also delve into counternarratives. In other words, storytelling and counter-storytelling provides a powerful means by which to amplify marginalised voices. CRT also challenges the prevailing narratives that perpetuate racial inequalities. Counter-storytelling is laying side by side or contrasting the story from both the dominant and underprivileged perspectives ( Ladson-Billing, 1998 ). This method should aim to counteract stereotypes and misrepresentations. By incorporating storytelling and counter-storytelling in my qualitative research I was able to foster an inclusive understanding of contemporary groupings of teenagers: British minority ethnic and Eastern European young people in English schools. It is worth remembering that stories can be told in person through interviews but also can be conveyed through examples such as written diaries, blogs and online postings. Whether it is face to face in person or through innovative online platforms, a research participant must be enabled to tell their stories in their own words.

Liberal Agendas and Convergence

Liberalism operates to promote individual rights and neutrality. When considered as part of critical race it centres on the limitations of liberal approaches such as colour-blindness (seeking to treat everyone the same) to adequately capture the deeply rooted problem of racism. Interest convergence is focused on racial changes enacted by a person in power when they coincide with their own self-interests ( Lawrence & Hylton, 2022 ). Much like the context of the normalisation of racism these two elements would require a qualitative researcher to analyse history in depth. Reviewing existing records and events is a method that can be undertaken so that disparities are not individualised but considered within the hierarchy of institutions in wider society. Reflect deeply on when, where, and why events and activities occur in the research environment. For example, in my research several young people mentioned cultural days held in school for the Black community. They suggested that schools scheduled pointless activities during ‘Black History Month’ that were intended merely to ‘tick a box’. Many of my student participants were judgmental of teducators who ran events that they felt did not represent their community ( Thomas, 2012 ).

White Supremacy

The focus on White supremacy in critical race research analyses the manifestation of White identity and how it has created and contributed to injustice and inequality ( Bhopal, 2018 ). It highlights the importance of examining policies and practices that across society have advantaged dominant racial groups. Hence critical race qualitative researchers would need to investigate, within context, where systemic power imbalances occur. This is likely to warrant a complex interplay of research designs such as case study and ethnographic immersive field work.

Intersectionality

Critical race qualitative researchers recognise the possibility that individuals may experience multiple formations of oppression simultaneously. Crenshaw ( 1991 ) coined the term intersectionality , which suggests that there are several forms of identity that can compound disadvantages—for example, race, gender, class, and disability. Therefore, acknowledging that individuals may experience multiple forms of oppression simultaneously is essential. To capture this, a qualitative research method must be flexible and provide an avenue for showcasing a nuanced understanding of identity. Appropriate online websites can be used creatively to map out the daily life and interactions of participants and their families. I have seen online Padlets effectively used by contemporary postgraduate researchers to give participants ownership of their life story in a timeline formatting. The researcher was then able to analyse the intersecting issues that emerged over a given period.

Section Summary

• Critical race qualitative methods are techniques that are used to explore and analyse race, racism, inequality, and power within research.
• Critical race qualitative methods usually aligned with and extend the core tenets of Critical Race Theory.
• The five principles that are recognised in critical race qualitative research projects are: normalisation of racism, storytelling and counter-storytelling, liberalism and convergence, white supremacy, and intersectionality.

Critical Race Qualitative Research Design

Ethnography is the systematic study of individual cultures. As part of CRT it involves an in- depth study of a particular community and is often referred to as Critical Race Ethnography , because it provides a powerful lens for exploring and examining the dynamics of race in a given social and cultural context ( Hopson & Dixson, 2014 ). Critical race ethnographers seek social justice by immersing themselves in the lives and communities of people to gain a holistic understanding of their experiences and perceptions. In my research on racism in English schools, this meant that I had to be a part of the secondary school community. To be a critical race ethnographer, I worked and participated in school life in varying roles for several years. I took on roles and embedded my life in locations as a teacher, community leader, pastoral support worker, and local authority facilitator. This was on a long-term basis, so that I could both participate in and conduct observations in the field. Through my research work it meant that I was able to amplify the experiences and perspectives of those individuals in schools who are not usually heard from in traditional research methodologies. Critical ethnography also afforded me the opportunity to self-reflect within my own written diary. Researchers who seek to have a critical race ethnographic design must engage in continuous self-reflection, recognising the influence of their own identity on the research process and outcomes. This will contribute to transparency and ethical research behaviour.

Narrative Analysis is an important critical race qualitative research strategy. Through the examination of narratives direct from research participants, within the framing of CRT, there is the possibility of understanding the lived experiences of individuals within diverse racial contexts. By focusing on the stories and counter-stories of participants’ personal accounts, testimonies, and descriptions, it is possible to reveal and examine a range of social categories. Indeed, this often leads to an Intersectional Analysis in which social categories and structures can be identified that do not operate in isolation, intersect, and mutually reinforce, creating an avenue for exploring unique and complex lived experiences. For example, to understand my personal experience of racism in higher education, it is important to account for my existence as both Black British and female. According to Rollock ( 2021 ) such intersectional work can reveal a racial battle that my White male counterparts do not have to engage in for career progression. Qualitative researchers using narrative and intersectional analysis often employ diverse methodologies in their projects, and research methods include in depth-interviews, focus groups, participant observations, diary logs, and photo-based tasks. All these research methods can also be regularly adapted ( Lawrence & Hylton, 2022 ) for use within online research environments (for example, in a Padlet website, life history form, as previously identified).

Collaborative and Participatory designs involve a critical race researcher embedding phases of collaboration and participation in their project ( Aldana & Richards-Schuster, 2021 ). If such a design is implemented, you would need to recognise that traditional research methods often perpetuate power imbalances and researchers themselves regularly hold authority over the participants they involve. Thus, by involving individuals/communities in the research journey you would be empowering others to shape the research agenda, processes, and outcomes. This is not a passive process but one that addresses the actual concerns and priorities of the research participant. Collaborative and participatory qualitative research methods centre individuals from marginalised groups by engaging them to take on various research activities. For example, participants could codesign research questions, coconduct research methods, coanalyse data, and coauthor research outcomes. One study where this exposed the racialisation of young people living in urban areas was conducted by Aldana and Richards-Schuster ( 2021 ), who utilised youth participatory action research to design their entire project. Young people then incorporated creative and novel approaches to collect data that included drawings, videos, cartoons, theatre/socio-drama, word clouds, and voting boxes as qualitative research methods.

Other critical race qualitative research designs that can be adopted by a researcher could include Historical Analysis, Legal Analysis, Discourse Analysis , and Comparative Analysis . In order, these research strategies would trace the development of racial inequality, scrutinise laws and legal systems, examine language and communication, and identify similarities and differences across racialised communities. Although all the designs and methods outlined in this section are not always mutually exclusive, researchers can employ a combination of approaches to gain a rich understanding of the complexities of race and ethnicity in society. In all instances I would suggest that you deeply consider the research context and self-reflect before deciding upon your own critical race qualitative research design.

• Critical race ethnography, narrative and intersectional analysis, and collaborative and participatory approaches are effective research designs.
• Self-reflection is an important process for all researchers before, during, and after the implementation of a research design.
• Engaging your research community within your research design can be rewarding and liberating.

What Are the Benefits and Challenges of Using Critical Race Methods?

There are several strengths of critical race qualitative research methods. First is that these methods emphasise the importance of understanding the social environment within their historical and cultural contexts. For me this has always been one of the greatest strengths of my critical race work as it enabled a rich comparison at all levels of an investigation. Featuring as part of an intersectional analysis, critical race methods enable the interconnected nature of various social identities such as race, class, gender, and sexuality to showcase a comprehensive understanding of the context and the individual experience ( Taylor et al., 2009 ). Second, a major advantage of the use of critical race methods is the ability to centre the experiences and perspectives of marginalised individuals and communities. Using the methods and designs as outlined in this guide creates a platform for hearing from those who are usually overlooked in mainstream research. In my school-based research this involved hearing from young people whose parents were newly arriving economic migrants from Eastern European, alongside young people whose parents/grandparents were part of former migration waves. Those who are historically silenced are prioritised in critical race designs and an authentic portrayal of their lives is possible as a result. Therefore, critical race qualitative research methods by their nature work towards decolonisation and antiracism agendas. Third, critical race qualitative research methods provide an avenue for advocacy and equity in society. By this I mean that they are tools that are often used to demonstrate a personal commitment to social justice. Unlike other research methods that can be detached from the social issues of the day, critical race methods deliberately explore and account for systems of oppression and point towards ideas that can dismantle them. Finally, within critical race qualitative design a researcher can become more self-aware and flexible in their approach to the research investigation. By their nature critical race methods recognise that all researchers are not neutral observers and the subjectivity of the research process is acknowledged. To this end critical research qualitative methods often move beyond traditional research methodologies and push boundaries for the acquisition of research knowledge ( Lawrence & Hylton, 2022 ).

In more recent times there has been extensive public criticism of critical race as an ideology. Although born in the USA, CRT has recently been politicised by politicians in several Western governments ( Clayton et al., 2021 ; Robbins, 2020 ). However, beyond such Western controversy there is acknowledgment of the limitations of critical race as a research approach. Given that a critical race research approach encourages reflexivity there is a risk that personal biases may influence the interpretation of the data collected. Hence, I would advise that researchers keep a journal (paper based or digital) to ensure they are aware of their own perspectives and continually reflect on their positionality. I found this strategy useful in my own work as a Black British female teacher with sensitivity towards the migration challenges young people face in the English education system. Critical race qualitative research methods can be criticised on the grounds that the findings often focused on an in-depth understanding rather than generalisable findings. Hence the sample sizes of the methods enacted tend to be small and this can lead to issues related to essentialising racial identities. To overcome this, advocates of critical race methodologies argue that quantitative methods can and should be integrated alongside qualitative methods more frequently ( Sablan, 2019 ). This would avoid the oversimplification of race-related issues that in qualitative realms further perpetuate stereotypes of race. Much of my work in education has focused on elements of critical race and therefore the final limitation is one I know very well. Qualitative critical race research methods are resource-intensive and time consuming. This is both to implement and to analyse the data. However once collected and analysed critical race qualitative research data provides an insight into a world you may never have seen or heard of before.

• The benefits of critical race methods are that they result in context-rich data, unique perspectives and experiences, platforms for advocacy, and self-reflection.
• The challenges of critical race methods are that they are subject to personal bias, limited in generalisability, and both resource-intensive and time consuming.
• When applying critical race methods is it is good practice to prioritise the voices of those who have been historically silenced.

Critical projects by their nature demand that researchers ask a variety of questions. Researchers using critical race qualitative research designs therefore must seek to examine knowledge from multiple perspectives, having considered the research context. To implement successful critical race methods researchers should seek to align and extend the core theoretical principles of the normalisation of racism, storytelling and counter-storytelling, liberalism and convergence, white supremacy, and intersectionality. Common critical race research designs feature ethnographic, narrative, intersectional, collaborative, and participatory, historical, legal, discourse and comparative approaches. Although critical race designs have distinctive benefits, such as the ability to centre the voices of the marginalised, it would be wise to develop self-reflection tools as a researcher. This could combat criticisms related to generalisability and essentialism.

Multiple Choice Quiz

1. A critical researcher must:

Incorrect Answer

Feedback: This is not the correct answer. The correct answer is B.

Correct Answer

Feedback: Well done, correct answer

2. A core principle in Critical Race Theory is:

Feedback: This is not the correct answer. The correct answer is A.

3. Critical race research qualitative methods usually include:

4. An advantage of implementing a critical race qualitative research design is that:

5. A limitation of implementing a critical race qualitative research design is that:

Feedback: This is not the correct answer. The correct answer is C.

Further Reading

Web resources.

• Padlet: https://padlet.com/
• Thinglink: https://www.thinglink.com/
• Book Creator: https://bookcreator.com/

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Integrated Methods for Applying Critical Race Theory to Qualitative COVID-19 Equity Research

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Urban Public Health, Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA.
• 2 COVID-19 Task Force on Racism & Equity, Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice, and Health, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA.
• 3 Department of Community Health Sciences, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA.
• 4 Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, School of Public Health, Seattle, WA.
• 5 School of Nursing, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA.
• 6 Department of Health Policy and Management, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA.
• 7 Department of Global Health, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
• PMID: 35909643
• PMCID: PMC9311305
• DOI: 10.18865/ed.32.3.243

Background: Racism persists, underscoring the need to rapidly document the perspectives and experiences of Black, Indigenous and People of Color (BIPOC) groups as well as marginalized populations (eg, formerly incarcerated people) during pandemics.

Objective: This methods paper offers a model for using Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP) and related critical methodologies (ie, feminist and decolonizing methods) to inform the conceptualization, methods, and dissemination of qualitative research undertaken in response to the evolving COVID-19 pandemic.

Sample: Using purposive snowball sampling, we identified organizations involved with health equity and social justice advocacy among BIPOC and socially marginalized populations. Focus group participants (N=63) included community members, organizers, activists, and health workers.

Design: We conducted topic-specific (eg, reproductive justice) and population-specific (eg, Asian and Pacific Islander) focus groups (N=16 focus groups) in rapid succession using Zoom software.

Methods: A self-reflexive, iterative praxis guided theorization, data collection and analysis. We obtained community input on study design, the semi-structured discussion guide, ethical considerations and dissemination. Applying PHCRP, we assessed our assumptions iteratively. We transcribed each interview verbatim, de-identified the data, then used two distinct qualitative techniques to code and analyze them: thematic analysis to identify unifying concepts that recur across focus groups and narrative analysis to keep each participant's story intact.

Results: The praxis facilitated relationship-building with partners and supported the iterative assessment of assumptions. Logistical constraints included difficulty ensuring the confidentiality of virtual discussions.

Conclusions: These novel approaches provide an effective model for community-engaged qualitative research during a pandemic.

Keywords: Critical Race Theory; Health Equity; Qualitative Research; Racism; Social Injustice.

Copyright © 2022, Ethnicity & Disease, Inc.

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• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
• Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural
• Health Equity*
• Public Health / methods
• Qualitative Research

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Article contents

Critical race theory and qualitative methodology in education.

• Laurence Parker Laurence Parker University of Utah
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.844
• Published online: 23 May 2019

Since its inception in the United States, critical race theory (CRT) has had a methodological link to qualitative research methods per se. Through the use of counter-story and counter-narratives, CRT in law was formed as a way to critique formal traditional legal reasoning by interjecting the racialized reality of how law was conceived and operationalized to justify a political and economic system of racial capitalism. As CRT moved into other fields such as education, researchers saw its utility as a methodological framework to critique the ways in which racial ideology, policies, and practice served to discriminate against students of color in primary, secondary, and higher education both in the United States, the United Kingdom and other global contexts. This chapter highlights these major trends and speculates as to future directions for critical race theory and qualitative research methodology in education.

• critical race theory
• secondary and post-secondary education
• qualitative research methodology
• counter-narrative
• counter-story
• qualitative race research in education

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date: 27 March 2024

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Research Methods for Social Justice and Equity in Education pp 45–57 Cite as

Framing Critical Race Theory and Methodologies

• Kenzo K. Sung 3 &
• Natoya Coleman 3  
• First Online: 27 February 2019

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2 Citations

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Critical Race Theory (CRT) is now a prominent framework for critical scholarship on race and racism in the field of education. Our goal is to introduce CRT as a formative theoretical and methodological framework for social justice and equity-minded educational researchers. The chapter is divided into three sections: (1) key terms and concepts, (2) broader history of CRT, and (3) critical race methodologies in education. By tracing CRT’s trajectory in educational research and analyzing the significance of its legacy, we provide an alternative framework to analyze how racism is institutionalized through research-based or legalized “truths” that too often continue to perpetuate the oppression of minoritized communities. In doing so, we illuminate the significance of critical race analysis in educational research and the implications to reframe current discussions regarding the relation of research and the struggle for social justice.

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Suggested Readings

Richard Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2012). Critical race theory: An introduction . New York, NY: New York University Press.

Popular Critical Race Theory primer is concisely written with lots of clear examples. Book is intended to be a first introduction in legal studies, but easily readable and adaptable for the field of education.

Lynn, M., & Dixson, A. (2013). Handbook of critical race theory in education . New York, NY: Routledge.

Edited collection of essays from foundational Critical Race Theory scholars in the field of education. Book will provide reader a strong understanding of CRT’s influence in educational research on race and racism.

Crenshaw, K., Gotanda, N., Peller, G., & Thomas, K. (1996). Critical race theory: The key writings that formed the movement . New York, NY: The New Press.

Edited collection of early Critical Race Theory foundational articles and essays from the field of legal studies. Book will provide reader a strong understanding of CRT’s historical trajectory.

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Sung, K.K., Coleman, N. (2019). Framing Critical Race Theory and Methodologies. In: Strunk, K.K., Locke, L.A. (eds) Research Methods for Social Justice and Equity in Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05900-2_4

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Critical Race Theory

Sarah E. Movius

Critical Race Theory (CRT) deconstructs a dominant culture’s constructed view of race and explains how the construct is used to suppress people of color in society. Exploring the complexity of how society has been shaped by the dominant culture and analyzing the finding through the lens of race can lead to a deeper understanding of the oppression and suppression of people of color and lead to advocacy. There are two precursors to CRT, Critical Theory (in general) and Critical Legal Theory. While both theories have similar influences, each theory analyzes race differently and adds to how work by philosophers such as Karl Marx and Max Horkheimer is understood (Crossman, 2019; Cornell Legal School, n.d.).

It is important to understand how critical theories differ from non-critical theories. Non-critical theories focus on trying to understand or explain a particular aspect of an individual or society, whereas critical theories focus on critiquing and modifying society as a whole. According to Crossman (2019), “A critical theory must do two important things: It must account for society within a historical context, and it should seek to offer a robust and holistic critique by incorporating insights from all social sciences” (n.p.). For example, Critical Legal Theory is grounded in an understanding that “the law supports a power dynamic which favors the historically privileged and disadvantages the historically underprivileged” (Cornell, n.d., n.p.); this theory allows for direct analysis of the oppression and discrimination against underprivileged people and people of color present in the current legal system. With roots in the civil rights movement and Vietnam war, Critical Legal Theory emerged in an era rife with activism and controversy through scholars ready to analyze the justice system in America. It urges the legal fields to pay more attention to the social context of the law and to uphold the integrity of the legal system equitably.  These theories have contributed a variety of concepts to CRT and helped to focus how CRT developed as a theory.

Previous Studies

Research that uses CRT delves into many different avenues of investigation; the ways that white dominant culture impacts marginalized populations are complex and can have far-reaching consequences in places that may not be obvious. For example, Wolf-Meyer (2019) analyzes how the dominant culture is being promoted and perpetuated in apocalyptic and fictitious texts. Focusing on how race is represented in the sci-fi dystopian classic movie RoboCop (Schmidt & Verhoeven, 1987), the researcher points out the overwhelming lack of diversity as well as the ideology of white superiority. In this story, the only way to save the city of Detroit is to create an android, RoboCop, that “…has the soul of a white man who can recall a time when Detroit wasn’t the crime-ridden dump it has become, waiting to be gentrified into Delta City” (Wolf-Meyer, 2019, p.32). This message is further reinforced by RoboCop being the only police officer able to fight corruption, gang violence, and drug dealers to bring peace to Detroit (The Numbers, n.d.). RoboCop is a “White savior” and the protector of Detroit; however, in real life, nearly two-thirds of the citizens of Detroit are Black. In the film, black actors have roles as henchmen or characters of little to no importance (Wolf-Meyer, 2019). This film implies that, in the future, there will be little place for any race other than White.

In another study, Delgado and Stefancic (2001) explore how CRT applies to current society. They analyze “some of the internal struggles that are playing out within the group and examine a few topics, such as class, poverty, the wealth and income gaps, crime, campus climate, affirmative action, immigration, and voting rights, that are very much on the country’s front burner” (Delgado & Stefanic, 2001, p.113). Since the nineties, a series of policy initiatives funded by right-wing conservatives have called for removing social programs and public funding, cutting bilingual education, abolishing affirmative action, deregulating hate speech, ending welfare, and revamping measures that support the increase of minorities in the political arena (Delgado & Stefanic, 2001). The measures are designed to perpetuate the already skewed status quo and to further segregate people of color from achieving equity by removing programs that help to alleviate inequalities within the exclusive systems that are dominated by White interests.

Further, Christian et al. (2019) examined the relevance of CRT for sociological theory and empirical research  Throughout their research, they explored how CRT explains the long-standing continuity of racial inequality and how racism and white supremacy are reproduced through more than cultural inequalities. They also analyze how the use of CRT has systematically give a voice to people of color and how that voice is becoming one of resistance that is challenging racism and oppression in society. When analyzing race and white supremacy, Christian et al. (2019) use CRT to highlight the different pieces of race and racism in conjunction with cultural inequalities; their critical analysis dissects social and cultural inequalities to explain how color blindness, intersectionality, and race impact our social system and how they are used to debilitate people of color. Through the lens of CRT, Christian et al. push scholars past traditional questions about racism and encourage them to investigate the mechanisms that systemically reproduce inequity in American society.

In other words, CRT is based on the idea that, to understand the current system of oppression and inequality institutionalized in American society, it is necessary to analyze the roots of racism and be transparent when discussing racial domination. In America’s dominant culture, the reality based on CRT is that “whites created racial categories, imbued meaning and structural properties to each category, and racialized modern social relations, institutions, and knowledge” (Christian et al., 2019, p. 1735).  CRT scholars believe that by critical analysis and dissection of the dominant culture, knowledge can be gained about how to counter White hegemonic dominance. Christian et al. end their article with asking fellow scholars and researchers to become part of a resistance that is fighting for equity and equality for people of color and to reveal how institutionalized privileges, societal norms, and hegemonic hierarchies are perpetuating systematic racism and oppression to silence people of color.

Model of Critical Race Theory

One possible model for CRT is presented in Figure 1.  By using CRT to deconstruct the individual concepts that comprise it, the causes of racism and racial oppression can be understood and advocated against.

Precursors 

As noted above, Critical Theory and Critical Legal Theory ground the concepts, constructs, and proposition of CRT.

Concepts and Constructs

Many different concepts comprise the bigger constructs that form the proposition of CRT. Three of the primary constructs that have emerged and define crucial elements of CRT include color blindness, racism, and intersectionality. No one concept or construct is more important than the others; each weighs in with its complex structure that supports CRT. Figure 2 illustrates the constructs within CRT. These three central constructs are explained below.

Color Blindness  

The ideology behind color blindness suggests that, to end discrimination based on race, all people must be treated as equal regardless of their race, ethnicity, or culture. This ideal of equality is centered around the words of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Had a Dream” speech (1963). Specifically, as King stated, a person should be judged by the content of his or her character, not by the color of his or her skin. While the ideology behind color blindness is derived from the desire to focus on people’s commonalities and shared humanity, it falls short in producing equity and, in the end, operates as a form of racism. Four key concepts are promoted by color blindness. The first concept is abstract liberalism. Abstract liberalism involves using ideas associated with political liberalism (e.g., force should not be used to achieve social policy) and economic liberalism (e.g., choice, individualism) in an abstract manner to explain racial matters (Bonilla-Silva, 2013). While the idea behind abstract liberalism sounds like a move in the right direction, it actually undermines affirmative action and ignores existing racial inequality.

The second concept is the naturalization of race. Naturalization of race is founded on the idea that “like gravitates to like” on a biological level and thereby reinforces the segregation of groups via one’s race (Bonilla-Silva, 2013; Williams, 2011; Wingfield, 2015; Wingfield & Williams, 2011, 2015).  Naturalization of race therefore says that each race should only associate with people of the same race, perpetuating the notion that segregation is natural and needs to be applied for the greater good of all.

The third concept that makes us the construct of color blindness is cultural racism. Cultural racism relies on arguments based solely on culturally-based biases and fallacies; the common statements that “all Asians are good at math” and “White men can’t jump” provide examples of such fallacies and biases. Beliefs like these promote the idea that peoples’ race defines their abilities and limitations as a human being (Bonilla-Silva, 2013).

The fourth concept in this construct is the minimization of racism, suggests that discrimination no longer affects any aspect of a minority’s life when there is evidence to suggest the direct opposite. Racially motivated murders of African Americans and the slow response from the federal government to help predominantly black neighborhoods after Hurricane Katrina made landfall offer examples. When attention is brought to these concerns, minorities are often accused of being hypersensitive or playing the “race card,” leaving the reality of the situation discarded because racial discrimination no longer exists (Bonilla-Silva, 2013).

The basic definition of racism is “prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that one’s race is superior” (Merriam-Webster, n.d., n.p.). The construct of racism within CRT consists of three main concepts: ethnicity, ideology, and White privilege.

In part, the ideology of racism can be tied to the First Amendment. Through the lens of CRT, it can be understood that instead of helping to achieve equality, it perpetuates the status quo due to protecting hate speech. Demaske, (n.d.) states that, “No one legal definition exists for hate speech, but it generally refers to abusive language specifically attacking a person or persons based on their race, color, religion, ethnic group, gender, or sexual orientation and is seen as freedom of speech” (n.p.).  This ties into the belief that one person’s right to free speech is more legitimate than another’s.

When referring to White privilege, the simplest definition is that if a person is White, they have an inherent advantage over all other non-White races. White privilege consists of many different components that work together to continue to influence systemic decisions that promote the agenda of the dominant culture without concern for the inequalities that are present (Bonilla-Silva, 2013).

Intersectionality   

The construct of intersectionality draws together the interconnectedness of race, class, gender, and sexuality in a person’s everyday lived experiences (Bell, 2018). The interconnectedness could be used as a way to discriminate against a person based on being a part of particular groups, which defines a person’s racial privilege. Within intersectionality are four main concepts: race, class, ability, and ethnicity. These concepts are a way to create social categorization, which can be used to establish an overlapping and interdependent system of multiple forms of discrimination and to create a further divide between all others and the dominant culture (Crichlow, 2015). Another way to look at the concepts and constructs that comprise CRT is shown in Figure 3.

Proposition

CRT proposes that deconstructing the current system of oppression based on color blindness, racism, and intersectionality can uncover issues of oppression and lead to advocacy, awareness, and acceptance among people.

Using the Model

There are many ways that the model of CRT can be used by teachers, students, and researchers for personal or professional reasons. For example, CRT can be a helpful tool for analyzing policy issues such as school funding, segregation, language policies, discipline policies, and testing and accountability policies (Groves-Price, n.d.). The model can be used by students to challenge the conventional legal strategies that are used to make social and economic decisions and to change the legal approach to take into consideration the nexus of race in American life (Demaske, n.d.). The CRT model can also be used as a foundation to assist teachers to “communicate understanding and reassurance to needy souls trapped in a hostile world” (Bell, 1995, n.p.). Further, the model can support researchers “to help analyze the experiences of historically underrepresented populations across the k-20 education [system]” (Ledesma & Calderón, 2015, p. 206). In classrooms, CRT can be used as part of an instructional strategy that develops a deeper understanding of how race is portrayed in America and within our professional and personal spheres and how those spheres impact our understanding of culture in America.

The deconstruction of systems that are currently in place to suppress people of color and promote dominant culture interests can play a role in achieving equal representation of people of color in all aspects of society and culture. Understanding the basic concepts, constructs, and proposition of CRT can assist in this endeavor.

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Editorial: Critical Race Theory: Why Should We Care about Applying It in our Research?

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Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics; Graduate School of Public Health & Health Policy; City University of New York; New York, NY

Race and Racism Today

While race has been always with us in the United States, the concept of race has been shaped by the political and scientific beliefs of the social fabric of our society throughout history. Thus, the past two years have provided a unique context for race, racism and race relationships in the United States. Indeed, President Donald J. Trump and his administration have brought race into our everyday life at alarming levels - whether through rhetoric against football players calling attention to social justice, 1 the suggestion that White supremacists at the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia were “very fine people,” 2 or the name calling of Mexican Americans – bad hombres, rapists, drug dealers or animals 3 – just a few of the everyday examples the nation endures through the now-famous tweets of the day. Evidence suggests that the divisiveness characterizing Donald Trump’s 2016 presidential campaign and the constancy of his disparaging remarks about anyone who disagrees with his agenda or discourse is already having adverse mental health effects. 4 All of these add up to direct and indirect tolls on the nation’s health, especially for those of us for whom race is part of our ascribed and/or self-identity. 4 As scientists, we must be responsibly conscious of finding ways to design research studies and produce solid evidence within the context of the societal structure where race, racialization and racial relationships take place.

Research Dedicated to Critical Race Theory

En hora buena! I commend and congratulate the guest editors of this supplement of Ethnicity & Disease , Drs. Chandra L. Ford and Collins O. Airhihenbuwa, for providing a public health framework, based on Critical Race Theory (CRT), that could contribute to achieving health equity by informing research design, development, implementation and translation of findings into policy changes. This supplement includes a collection of 10 articles including qualitative and quantitative empirical research as well as a few commentaries applying CRT to current issues or public health education. We present these articles in three domains: Defining CRT, Applying CRT and Training the Next Generation.

Defining Critical Race Theory

In this section, the guest editors, Ford & Airhihenbuwa, 5 provide a concise but comprehensive summary and introduction to CRT: definition; distinction from public health; its application to health equity research; and most importantly, the presentation of a tool that could help translate CRT for use in health equity research, the Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP). While CRT refers to the social scientific approach to study race and racism in the society, PHCRP uses CRT concepts and methods for racial/ethnic health equity research. Specifically, and as one of the PHCRP three functional components (ie, race conscious orientation to research; four major focus areas; and CRT-derived lexicon), the four major focus areas could easily serve as a conceptual framework for any research question addressing racial/ethnic equity research. For instance, if I were to examine the association between race/ethnicity and hypertension in US adults, the premise is that African Americans or Blacks (40.3%) have a higher prevalence of hypertension than Whites (27.8%). 6 Using the four major focus areas, I will link: 1) hypertension in African Americans to the embodiment of the psychosocial stress associated with the racism they have and continue to experience nowadays 7 (Focus 1: Contemporary Racialization); 2) the previous hypothesis would unpack and challenge any biases around biological or genetic factors associated with the findings (Focus 2: Knowledge Production); 3) the findings would be explained in the context of the multidimensional social construction of race and the history of oppression for African Americans throughout the years (Focus 3: Conceptualization and Measurements); and 4) rather than using the findings to state the well-known and established disparities, I would use them to call attention to interpersonal and structural racism African Americans face day in and day out, which could inform interventions to prevent the onset of hypertension and help control the condition among those who have it (Focus 4: Action). Thus, PHCRP could help to: 1) inform translation of findings from research; and 2) design meaningful research studies that contribute to our understanding of racial/ethnic equity inquiry beyond the findings. Specifically, and using a PHCRP framework, the study findings could be contextualized in a society where race/ethnicity, as part of the social fabric, manifests in disproportionate negative health outcomes in minority groups such as African Americans and Hispanics relative to the majority group.

Applying Critical Race Theory

This section comprises six articles including a commentary on setting the anti-racism agenda and five studies using qualitative and quantitative methodology, applying PHCRP to big data 8 and to an existing hypothesis on the thrifty gene among Canadian aboriginal populations. 9 The articles use qualitative methodology through semi-structured interviews, focus groups and community forums and are focused on two important and distinct issues: health care disparities, a persistent problem even when access to care is not an issue 10 ; and the Flint water contamination due to a change in water supplier from Detroit’s Water Department to the Flint River in Michigan in 2014. Through semi-structured interviews and focus groups with personnel at a large Minnesota health care system, Cunningham & Scarlato 11 show how colorblindness, a way of not seeing or acknowledging race when thinking of racial/ethnic inequity or differences, among participants could evade race to inform their beliefs that all patients are treated equally by providers and staff while refuting suggestions of racial inequality. As the authors conclude, this way of thinking helps to maintain the racial status quo and may preclude efforts to promote health equity. Muhammad and colleagues, 12 on the other hand, using community forums of mostly Black adolescents aged 13 to 17 years in Flint, aimed to understand how participants conceptualize, interpret and respond to the racism they perceive as part of the administrative process that led to the Flint water contamination. The youth clearly connected the racial composition of the city (ie, a Black city) and its historical and persistent racial stratification with the water contamination crisis, seeing it as a type of genocide targeting Blacks. Thus, they saw the water contamination problem as yet another form of racism against the city residents.

Roberts et al, 13 using intersectionality as part of CRT, examine the combined effects of gender and racial teen discrimination on dating violence among Black and Hispanic adolescents aged 13 to 19 years in Bronx, New York. Findings suggest that adolescents reporting both gender and racial discrimination were 2.5 as likely to report experiencing dating violence compared with those who did not report gender and racial discrimination after adjusting for age and sex. Ford and colleagues 8 provide an application of three foci of PHCRP – contemporary racial relations; knowledge production; and conceptualization and measurement – into an empirical study that uses big data (N=3,476,741) in California. The authors discuss the advantages and disadvantages of applying PHCRP to their research but emphasize the potential for the study to establish the feasibility of using PHCRP elements for social epidemiology, health services research and other studies using big data. The authors also present the next steps for the analytical phase of the study to translate their findings into action, the four foci of PHCRP.

This section includes two sole-authored commentaries by Hay and Jones. Hay 9 uses the application of PHCRP to the thrifty gene hypothesis, a racist theory of genetic predisposition to type 2 diabetes among Indigenous populations in Canada as proposed by James V. Neel in 1962. Stressing the need to incorporate CRT and PHCRP in public health research, he discusses how, despite the thrifty gene theory being debunked in 1989 by Neel himself, it is still imprinted in the DNA of the Canadian health system as relates to their indigenous populations.

Finally, this section includes a commentary on anti-racism. Jones 14 describes her experience in putting racism at the forefront during her tenure as president of American Association of Public Health (APHA) and her use of allegories such as the Gardener’s Tale or the Cliff Analogy to call attention to how racism impacts our lives. During her term at APHA, she proposed the launching of a National Campaign against Racism to bring attention to this foundational pillar of our history and root cause of health inequity. Focusing on the denial of racism in our society, she discusses the three main tasks of the proposed Campaign: naming racism; asking “How is racism operating here?”; and organizing and strategizing to act. While APHA did not host the Campaign, other institutions/venues are currently embracing anti-racism and campaign elements as a framework for their work.

Training the Next Generation

The three articles under this domain present a proposal to include CRT in a public health curriculum and discuss the results of conversations to develop a medical school curriculum on racism using PHCRP among a multiracial group of faculty members as well as the experiences of training professionals on CRT. Israel Cross 15 not only underscores the lack of historical and contemporary instructions on race and the role it plays in shaping health but also how, to some extent, White supremacy is maintained or normalized through the public health curriculum. She proposes ways in which CRT could be embedded in the public health curriculum to inform education, methodology and practice. Hardeman et al 16 discusses a 12-month, two-phased conversation process among faculty members of a medical school to develop a curriculum on racism. The conversations included only minority women in Phase I and integrated males and White colleagues in Phase II. The findings suggest that the Phase I discourse went not only well but was also described as ‘powerful’ by the participants. However, for Phase II, participants in Phase I became quieter and the group dynamics shifted. The results call attention to the importance of conversations on racism and its roles among people of all racial/ethnic backgrounds and the need to account for gender-race intersectionality when having such conversations. Finally, Butler et al 17 praise the success of a 2.5-day training program using CRT. The authors state that there was a wide range of participation along the career continuum and that participants were eager to examine race and racism in their research using a PHCRP framework.

Conclusions

CRT and PHCRP aim to identify and contextualize racism in the design, implementation, conduct and translation of research findings. This supplement of Ethnicity & Disease on CRT and PHCRP is crucial given our current times. Interestingly, this year marks the 50th anniversary of the “Separate and Unequal” or Kerner report. 18 This report’s main conclusion was that the nation was moving toward two societies, one Black and one White, and that these societies were separate and unequal due mainly to the pervasive discrimination and segregation in Blacks but unknown to Whites. While there have been some improvements for Blacks, they are still experiencing disadvantages due to race inequality. For instance, Jones et al 19 compare key sociodemographic and health-related characteristics for Blacks and Whites between 1968 and 2018. This comparison underscores four Black-White disparities that have increased over the past 50 years: the percentage of college-educated (Black-White gap: 7.1% in 1968 vs 19.3% in 2018); median wealth in 2016 USD (Black-White gap: $45,188 in 1968 vs $153,591 in 2018); incarcerated per 100,000 population (Black-White ratio: 5.4 in 1968 vs 6.4 in 2018); and infant mortality per 1,000 live births (Black-White ratio: 1.9 in 1968 vs 2.3 in 2018). 19 Moreover, we can add the re-emerging structural racism of police brutality against Black men, including killing while the Black victim is not attacking or unarmed. 20 The latter has a direct effect on the mental health of Black adults in the general population. These statistics suggest that we still have a long way to go to create an equal society and call attention to the tenets of CRT and PHRCP to incorporate race and racism when conducting research to reduce and eventually eliminate health inequity. Thus, we are excited to publish this supplement and commend the guest editors and contributing authors for tackling this timely issue.

Acknowledgments

Ethnicity & Disease gratefully acknowledges publication and other support for this supplement from: the Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health; United to Re-create Intersections and Spaces for Engagement (U-RISE), LLC; Center for AIDS Research (grant #AI028697); and the Institute of American Cultures at the University of California at Los Angeles.

The journal thanks Guest Editors Chandra L. Ford, PhD, MPH and Collins O. Airhihenbuwa, PhD, MPH for their work in bringing together researchers from around the nation and Canada to contribute to advancing Critical Race Theory in public health. We also thank the many reviewers who gave of their time and expertise to ensure the scientific rigor of this issue.

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Using Critical Race Theory Research to Inform and Improve Instruction

Does research suffer when we stop talking about the processes and procedures behind it? That’s the question Jessica DeCuir-Gunby , a professor of educational psychology at the NC State College of Education, and her colleagues, Thandeka Chapman and Paul Schutz, posed before developing Understanding Critical Race Research Methods and Methodologies: Lessons from the Field .

In the edited collection, DeCuir-Gunby and her team bring together researchers from across the disciplines to synthesize different methods of Critical Race Theory research to demonstrate how to make scholarship efforts more significant in improving issues of educational equity and access in schools.

“We wanted to produce something that talked about how to create good critical race methods studies, research studies that are theoretically grounded and methodologically sound,” she said.

Written for novice researchers, but also applicable for seasoned scholars new to Critical Race Theory, the book explores the relationship between the theory and research methods — whether qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. In each chapter, the authors share their experiences with conducting critical race research by explicating how they use a particular methodological approach to investigate race and education.

“Theory informs the research methods that you use, and the research methods that you use in turn informs your theory,” DeCuir-Gunby said. “In order to advance theory, we have to simultaneously advance research methods. Utilizing good research methods is essential to the research process.”

The book acts as a field guide that helps scholars take action when it comes to Critical Race Theory and provides resources to refine the means in which research studies are designed and data are collected.

She says documenting the ways racism infiltrates schools and affects children is essential, but researchers must also focus on ways to enhance, critique and develop critical race methods to advance the field of education.

“We cannot just focus on the myriad of problems in education that need to be solved. We have to also consider the multitude of ways to address those problems.”

3 Takeaways from Understanding Critical Race Methods and Methodologies

• True Critical Race Theory research is grounded in the original legal writings and texts. “In order to engage in Critical Race Theory scholarship, researchers have to understand the foundational readings that formed it. Without this foundation, your research will not be truly centered within an authentic Critical Race Theory framework.”
• Current research methods and methodologies are not always culturally relevant. “Critical race scholarship often requires the critique of existing methodologies as well as the enhancement, extension or creation of new methods and methodologies to address the complex racial issues that exist in society.
• Being a critical race scholar involves more than just conducting research. “Critical race scholarship, specifically, involves having a personal connection to the research that is conducted to address the social issues in our daily lives.”
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PERSPECTIVE article

Racial and ethnic disparities in psychological care for individuals with fasd: a dis/ability studies and critical race theory perspective toward improving prevention, assessment/diagnosis, and intervention.

• 1 Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
• 2 Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN, United States
• 3 Great Lakes Neurobehavioral Center, Edina, MN, United States
• 4 International Adult Leadership Collaborative of FASD Changemakers

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are among the most common neurodevelopmental disorders and substantially impact public health. FASD can affect people of all races and ethnicities; however, there are important racial and ethnic disparities in alcohol-exposed pregnancy prevention, assessment and diagnosis of FASD, and interventions to support individuals with FASD and their families. In this article we use the Dis/Ability Studies and Critical Race Theory (Dis/Crit) framework to structure the exploration of disparities and possible solutions within these three areas (prevention, diagnosis, intervention). Dis/Crit provides a guide to understanding the intersection of dis/ability and race, while framing both as social constructs. Following the Dis/Crit framework, the systemic, historical, and contemporary racism and ableism present in psychological care is further discussed. We aim to elucidate these racial and ethnic disparities within the fields of psychology and neuropsychology through the Dis/Crit framework and provide potential points of action to reduce these disparities.

Introduction

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are neurodevelopmental conditions associated with prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE). In the United States, FASD affect approximately 1.1–5% of school-aged children ( 1 ), making them among the most common neurodevelopmental disorders. Diagnostic criteria for FASD include neurobehavioral differences in the presence of PAE and may include subtle facial features and smaller growth in body and brain size in some individuals ( 2 , 3 ). Outcomes are variable in FASD; many risk and protective factors can influence functioning such as genetics, nutrition, receipt of services, and trauma/life stressors. Without adequate understanding and support, people with FASD are at higher risk for academic challenges ( 4 ), mental health conditions ( 5 ), housing and independent living issues, and trouble with the law ( 6 , 7 ). FASD has a considerable public health impact ( 8 ) representing substantial societal and economic costs ( 9 ). Additionally, FASD are under-recognized and commonly misdiagnosed ( 10 , 11 ).

Importantly, although FASD can affect people regardless of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES), FASD is identified at higher rates in Native American, Black, and low-SES communities compared to White and middle/upper class communities ( 12 ). This pattern is the opposite in other neurodevelopmental disabilities such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( 13 , 14 ) and autism spectrum disorder ( 15 , 16 ), with both diagnoses given to White individuals more frequently than Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) ( 13 , 17 ). Greater attention to these disparities is needed within FASD and is relative to other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Dis/ability Studies and Critical Race Theory (Dis/Crit) provides a framework for understanding the intersections of race and dis/ability. We use the dis/ability notation instead of “disability” to disrupt the potentially harmful idea that some people cannot be successful within society’s view of appropriate functioning due to not being “able” ( 18 , 19 ). Dis/Crit frames racial and dis/ability identities as social constructs. This means there are no clear biological indicators distinguishing unique races or dis/abilities. Society defines the boundaries of what constitutes different race and dis/ability groups, which change over time and are shaped by current and historical power structures and values. Critical to Dis/Crit is an appreciation of the influence of intersecting identities and how societal responses to individual differences result in multiple marginalization ( 20 ). Further, Dis/Crit acknowledges how this double marginalization is maintained by systems of oppression in ways that exacerbate inequality and injustice for BIPOC communities ( 21 ). For example, Black and Native American children, while overrepresented in special education ( 22 ), experience significant delays in diagnosis (and underdiagnosis) of neurodevelopmental conditions ( 17 , 23 ).

Neurodevelopmental conditions result from a complex interplay of biological risks, social-historical influences, and environmental factors ( 24 , 25 ). Dis/Crit provides a framework for understanding how racial/ethnic disparities in prevention, assessment/diagnosis, and intervention for individuals with FASD stem from complex interactions between social determinants of health and structural racism disproportionately affecting BIPOC ( 26 ). These issues represent an urgent public health crisis. Here, we provide examples of such disparities, perspectives regarding their potential causes and conditions, and solutions to advance equitable, culturally-responsive, and evidence-based psychological and neuropsychological care of individuals with FASD ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Graphical overview of racial and ethnic disparities in FASD within prevention, assessment/diagnosis, and interventions domains, and potential solutions.

Our authorship team recognizes the importance of acknowledging our positionality. Our racial/ethnic backgrounds consist of individuals who are White, Black, Native American, and non-Hispanic. Multiple authors are also individuals with FASD. We acknowledge the power dynamics inherent in research, particularly within marginalized communities, and aim to approach this topic with cultural humility.

Racial and ethnic disparities in prenatal care, substance use disorder treatment, and evidence-based information

Mitigating racial/ethnic disparities in FASD necessitates an initial focus on the prevention of alcohol-exposed pregnancies (AEPs). Racial/ethnic differences in AEP are understudied and findings have been equivocal. Several studies suggest an increased risk of AEPs in racial/ethnic minorities ( 27 – 30 ) whereas others suggest White individuals are more likely to have an AEP ( 31 , 32 ).

Aligning with the Dis/Crit framework, it is imperative to recognize and address historical and ongoing racially-biased practices contributing to a disproportionate incidence of AEPs among BIPOC communities on a global scale. Examples of this include intergenerational trauma in Indigenous communities ( 33 – 35 ) and practices such as the “dop system” in South Africa, originating during apartheid, whereby White farm owners used alcohol as a form of labor payment and social control of marginalized racial groups ( 36 – 38 ).

Significant racial/ethnic disparities are evident in prenatal care, receipt of evidence-based AEP information, and interventions for substance and alcohol use disorders (SUDs and AUDs). Importantly, historical and ongoing race-based and intergenerational trauma impacts multiple non-White and BIPOC communities including Black/African Americans, American Indians and Alaska Natives, and people of Jewish and Asian ancestry ( 39 ). This historical context contributes higher rates of stress and disproportionate access to resources for marginalized groups ( 40 ). The prenatal period is a pivotal juncture for preventing AEPs ( 41 ). BIPOC women are less likely than White women to receive prenatal care ( 42 ) and experience disparities in respect and autonomy within healthcare settings ( 43 ) potentially contributing to underutilization of services ( 44 ). Regarding receipt of evidence-based prenatal education, the literature is mixed. Some research has suggested Black women are less likely to receive evidence-based information regarding the negative impacts of AEPs compared to White women ( 45 ). However, recent data indicate BIPOC and low-SES women are more likely to receive comprehensive prenatal health education (including AEP information) than White and economically advantaged counterparts despite experiencing greater risks for adverse birth outcomes suggesting such prenatal health education is inadequately addressing these disparities ( 46 ). Moreover, significant gaps in receipt of mental health treatment exist for Black and Hispanic pregnant women with SUDs when compared to White women, even after controlling for education level, income, age, health insurance, and urbanicity ( 47 ). Pregnant BIPOC with AUDs are less likely to seek treatment, partially due to risk of victimization stemming from policies pertaining to AEPs ( 48 – 50 ). These policies may heighten the risk of criminalization among BIPOC women and reduce reporting for fear of losing their children or other punitive measures ( 50 ).

Potential solutions

To reduce disparities in the receipt of evidence-based prenatal information and SUDs care, mental health providers can incorporate universal screening techniques, following the Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT) model ( 51 ). These efforts should include reflective and supervisory practice regarding racial/ethnic stereotyping potentially influencing disparities. Moreover, mental health practitioners can support open discussions about PAE by utilizing SAMHSA’s guidelines to reduce stigmatizing language ( 52 ) while being mindful of their respective state’s policies on AEPs and mandated child welfare reporting. Advocacy efforts should support policies prioritizing supportive over punitive actions for pregnant individuals who report an AEP. Efforts to reduce racial/ethnic disparities in AEPs should also involve tailored, culturally-responsive adaptations of prevention programs. Emphasis should be placed on collaboration with individuals with living experience (i.e., those with AEPs and BIPOC) as well as qualitative research methodology to understand experiences of intersectionality within systems of care. For example, Gonzales et al., emphasizes the importance of community-level healing practices (i.e., drumming, talking circles, and sharing practices related to pregnancy and parenting) to address racialized trauma as a key factor in contributing to AEPs in a Native American community ( 53 ). This underscores the need for culturally-informed, trauma-responsive training for mental health practitioners and those providing prenatal care. Finally, community-driven initiatives such as Proof Alliance’s program “Our Children Are Sacred” ( 54 ), which disseminates information on AEPs while addressing the historical trauma and racism experienced by Indigenous communities, will be important.

Racial and ethnic disparities in assessment and diagnosis of FASD

The diagnostic process of FASD considers what is known about PAE; brain differences; smaller growth in height, weight, and head circumference; distinctive facial features (thin upper lip, smooth philtrum, short eye openings); and below average performance (i.e., 1.5–2 standard deviations below the mean depending on the diagnostic system) on norm-referenced neurocognitive and neurobehavioral measures ( 2 , 55 ). Early diagnosis and intervention are crucial in supporting long-term functional outcomes ( 56 , 57 ) and preventing adverse outcomes such as school disruption, mental health challenges, and trouble with the law, which have disproportionate consequences for BIPOC individuals. However, numerous barriers make early and accurate diagnosis a substantial hurdle for many individuals ( 58 , 59 ). These barriers include a high cost of services, lack of healthcare access, lack of trained clinicians, the “hidden” nature of the condition for individuals who do not have facial and growth differences ( 25 , 60 ), and stigma regarding AEPs ( 61 – 63 ). Such healthcare disparities disproportionately affect BIPOC, low-SES, and rural communities ( 64 – 66 )—communities already at high risk for unequal access to prevention and early intervention. To our knowledge there are no empirical studies addressing potential ways in which race, dis/ability status, and other factors may contribute to healthcare inequalities for people with FASD and their families.

Psychologists and neuropsychologists play an important role in FASD diagnosis by collecting developmental histories, performing and interpreting neuropsychological assessments, and providing recommendations for services ( 67 ). The fields of psychology and neuropsychology have deep roots in structural racism. For example, many current cognitive performance assessments have been criticized for contributing to racially-biased educational placement of BIPOC and low-SES students in special education ( 68 , 69 ).

Importantly, BIPOC have been systematically excluded from research aimed at determining normative references of typical development, which likely contributes to inequality in rates of FASD diagnosis ( 12 ). Normative references for lip/philtrum ratings are available only for children of European, Black/African American, and South African mixed-race heritage ( 70 , 71 ). Although the three cardinal facial features associated with PAE are present across racial/ethnic groups, threshold cutoffs for diagnosis vary by race/ethnicity ( 71 – 73 ). Clinicians often have to use their judgment to decide which racial guide to use for individuals whose race is not represented in existing guides. Similarly, available normative data for head circumference and palpebral fissure length (eye openings) is based on smaller samples predominantly composed of individuals of European heritage ( 74 , 75 ). Moreover, factors such as stereotype threat can lead to underestimation of cognitive abilities in BIPOC ( 76 , 77 ) suggesting they may be more likely to meet cutoffs used to quantify below average performance in FASD diagnostic systems.

First, it is imperative that we strive to improve representation and normative data for the tools we use to inform assessment and diagnosis of individuals of diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds ( 25 , 73 ). Moreover, factors such as cultural, linguistic, and SES background; quality of and access to educational opportunities; test familiarity; stereotype threat; and appropriateness of test norms should be thoughtfully considered as potential contributors to observed performance on neuropsychological assessment ( 78 ). Use of technologies such as digital and mobile health could also increase access to assessment and diagnosis for families in rural and under-resourced communities ( 79 ), although similar attention is needed to possible normative limitations and content biases. Efforts to reduce racial/ethnic disparities in assessment and diagnosis of FASD must also include a concerted effort to address the systemic racism and White privilege ingrained in medicine ( 80 , 81 ). White psychologists/neuropsychologists must acknowledge the “invisible knapsack” of White privilege ( 82 ) and its potential role in engendering a rational mistrust of medical providers for BIPOC. Aligned with the Dis/Crit framework, researchers and clinicians should also consider how ableist language (e.g., “impairment,” “deficit”) as used in current FASD diagnostic systems may contribute to stigmatization as well as the intersectionality of receiving an FASD diagnosis and identifying as BIPOC ( 18 ). Additionally, centering research efforts on understanding cultural perspectives of FASD ( 83 ), perspectives of individuals with living experiences ( 84 ), and how the intersection of race and dis/ability may further affect access to systems of care will be crucial to ensuring research outcomes are valuable to and address the priorities of the FASD community.

Disparities in neurodevelopmental and behavioral interventions for people with FASD

Despite a considerably high prevalence, few interventions have been developed to support symptoms of FASD, and a majority of existing interventions have not yet progressed to active community implementation. A comprehensive review of the literature on interventions for FASD is beyond the scope of this paper ( 85 , 86 ). To our knowledge, empirical studies on potential racial and ethnic disparities in interventions for FASD have not been published despite clear evidence for such disparities in neurodevelopmental disability literature more broadly ( 87 – 89 ). However, it is critical to acknowledge FASD intervention research and clinical services are rooted in the tradition of Western medicine, with limited access to services globally ( 85 ). Furthermore, numerous barriers impede evidence-based intervention for FASD across diverse cultures, including absence of local programs, housing of interventions in universities/medical centers who historically mistreated and oppressed BIPOC individuals, and failure of existing interventions to address individual differences at the intersection of dis/ability and culture ( 90 ).

A majority of interventions for FASD have been developed in North America ( 86 ) and many require English language proficiency as an inclusion criterion. While not specific to FASD intervention research, others have noted an increasing trend of English language requirements in behavioral clinical trials broadly ( 91 ). This constitutes a major limitation of current intervention research in the field of FASD likely to disproportionately affect BIPOC, non-English speaking, and bi/multilingual individuals and is likely to reduce the generalizability of intervention research. Many existing interventions are also caregiver-driven, which may hinder access for single-parent households or parents with multiple jobs.

The inclusion of BIPOC and those with living experiences of FASD is crucial to community-engaged and inclusive intervention research ( 92 ). The use of qualitative methodologies to understand intersecting experiences of race and dis/ability in their entirety should be a first step in addressing disparities. Consistent with the Dis/Crit framework, it is imperative to include perspectives of individuals at the intersection of dis/ability and BIPOC identities as there are increased health disparities and unique experiences within systems for those holding such intersecting identities ( 93 ). Research advisory boards and community-based participatory research can be invaluable in ensuring the voices of community members are incorporated into ongoing research efforts ( 94 – 96 ). To highlight the need for community-engaged research, the annual meeting of the Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder Study Group in 2022 featured a panel discussion including two adults with living experiences of FASD (“Nothing about us without us”) ( 97 ). A detailed qualitative analysis of best practices for community-engaged research with adults with FASD is currently under development ( 98 ).

Researchers should consider ways in which new interventions can be developed and implemented in partnership with communities to be person-centered, culturally-appropriate, and accessible in a variety of languages ( 85 ). Diverse and representative research teams that include BIPOC, individuals with FASD, and BIPOC individuals with FASD may also bridge these partnerships and provide valuable perspectives. Beyond community partnership, researchers should focus intervention outcomes on community members’ specific priorities and consider the complex ways race and cultural identities may intersect with such priorities. Cultural liaisons (e.g., trained interventionists/providers who are culturally-affiliated) may also be consulted to assist with implementing interventions and addressing cultural differences ( 90 ). Additionally, mobile health initiatives such as the Families Moving Forward Connect app and the My Health Coach app for adults with FASD ( 99 – 101 ), which focus on supporting parents and adults in managing health needs for individuals with FASD, may increase access to evidence-based information and facilitate community support networks. Careful research is planned to determine whether cultural adaptations would be beneficial. Lastly, strategies to increase BIPOC representation in research such as building community trust, employing equitable recruiting methods, and offering information in multiple languages ( 102 , 103 ) will help address racial/ethnic disparities in FASD intervention work. Implementation science guidelines addressing structural racism and health disparities can also guide scientifically sound intervention work ( 104 , 105 ).

A number of important factors have contributed to emerging evidence for racial/ethnic disparities in psychological care for individuals with FASD. While our understanding is far from complete, Dis/Crit provides a useful framework for conceptualizing the causes and conditions of such disparities and informing a path forward ( 21 ). In addition to the specific recommendations for potential solutions outlined above, several broad approaches will support systems-level changes coordinated across disciplines and settings.

It is of utmost importance to include individuals with living experiences of dis/ability (including FASD) and BIPOC at all levels of research aimed at understanding and supporting individuals with FASD. Community-engaged research practices are needed to foster collaborative dialogues with community members and highlight their cultural knowledge and living-experiences to better understand disparities within these communities. Moreover, community-engagement would support equitable research processes that empower individuals with FASD rather than further stigmatize/marginalize them. For example, adults with FASD who are authors on the current paper suggest a future aim of understanding how religion ties into cultural differences for people with FASD and how this may impact the diagnosis and intervention. Researchers and clinicians must strive for inclusivity, cultural humility, and equitable access to resources so individuals with FASD and their communities are supported in navigating each stage from prevention to intervention regardless of race/ethnicity. Equally important is diversification of the (predominantly White) psychology workforce in the United States ( 106 , 107 ), which will allow for individuals seeking clinical services to feel represented and understood, help in reducing language barriers, and potentially lead to increased services globally. Importantly, communication and collaboration across systems of care (i.e., medical professionals and educators) is crucial in reducing disparities and promoting early and accurate identification of FASD. As primary care providers and other professionals (e.g., educators) are often at the forefront of care, psychologists and mental health professionals could offer support on early detection of AEP and FASD, provide referral resources, and intervention. Lastly, further research is needed to understand cultural perceptions and understanding of FASD ( 108 ), which could potentially increase stigmatization and create additional barriers to care for individuals with FASD ( 109 – 111 ). In addition to understanding cultural perceptions of the challenges of individuals with living experience of FASD and their families/caregivers, it will be important to focus on the strengths and resilience of the FASD community ( 112 , 113 ).

In sum, racial/ethnic disparities in psychological care for individuals with FASD represent important challenges to the field and will require coordinated, collaborative, and inclusive efforts to overcome. We hope that increased awareness will foster discussion and stimulate creative solutions to improve equitable, culturally-responsive, and evidence-based psychological services and support for individuals with FASD and their families.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

MR: Conceptualization, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. BG: Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AR: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. CK-T: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. ES: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. EW: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. JM: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. EH: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MM: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SA: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. CP: Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This article was made possible by a private donation to CP.

Conflict of interest

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Abbreviations

FASD, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder; PAE, prenatal alcohol exposure; Dis/Crit, Dis/ability Studies and Critical Race Theory; BIPOC, Black, Indigenous and People of Color; SES, Socio-economic Status; AEPs, alcohol-exposed pregnancies; AUD, alcohol use disorder; SUD, substance use disorder.

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110. Lovelace, TS, Robertson, RE, and Tamayo, S. Experiences of African American mothers of sons with autism spectrum disorder: lessons for improving service delivery. Educ Train Aut Dev Disabil . (2018) 53:3–16. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320426780_Experiences_of_African_American_mothers_of_sons_with_autism_spectrum_disorder_Lessons_for_improving_service_delivery#fullTextFileContent

111. Zuckerman, KE, Sinche, B, Cobian, M, Cervantes, M, Mejia, A, Becker, T, et al. Conceptualization of autism in the Latino community and its relationship with early diagnosis. J Dev Behav Pediatr . (2014) 35:522–32. doi: 10.1097/DBP.0000000000000091

112. Flannigan, K, Wrath, A, Ritter, C, McLachlan, K, Harding, KD, Campbell, A, et al. Balancing the story of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: a narrative review of the literature on strengths. Alcoholism . (2021) 45:2448–64. doi: 10.1111/acer.14733

113. Petrenko, C, and Kautz-Turnbull, C. From surviving to thriving: a new conceptual model to advance interventions to support people with FASD across the lifespan In: Deborah, JF, and Silvia, L editors. International review of research in developmental disabilities . Amsterdam, Netherlands. (2021). 39–75.

Keywords: fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, FASD, prenatal alcohol exposure, Dis/Crit, disparities, race, ethnicity

Citation: Rockhold MN, Gimbel BA, Richardson AA, Kautz-Turnbull C, Speybroeck EL, de Water E, Myers J, Hargrove E, May M, Abdi SS and Petrenko CLM (2024) Racial and ethnic disparities in psychological care for individuals with FASD: a dis/ability studies and critical race theory perspective toward improving prevention, assessment/diagnosis, and intervention. Front. Public Health . 12:1355802. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1355802

Received: 14 December 2023; Accepted: 16 February 2024; Published: 13 March 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Rockhold, Gimbel, Richardson, Kautz-Turnbull, Speybroeck, de Water, Myers, Hargrove, May, Abdi and Petrenko. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Christie L. M. Petrenko, [email protected]

† These authors have contributed equally to this work and share first authorship

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Integrated Methods for Applying Critical Race Theory to Qualitative COVID-19 Equity Research.

Author information, affiliations.

• Amani B 1, 2
• Baptista SA 1
• McAndrew B 1
• Sharif MZ 2
• Skrine Jeffers K 2
• Bradford NJ 2
• de la Rocha P 2

ORCIDs linked to this article

• Skrine Jeffers K | 0000-0002-6162-3071
• Huỳnh J | 0000-0002-8455-7062

Ethnicity & Disease , 21 Jul 2022 , 32(3): 243-256 https://doi.org/10.18865/ed.32.3.243   PMID: 35909643  PMCID: PMC9311305

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Abstract 

Conclusions, free full text , integrated methods for applying critical race theory to qualitative covid-19 equity research.

1 Department of Urban Public Health, Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA

2 COVID-19 Task Force on Racism & Equity, Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice, and Health, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA

Alejandra Cabral

3 Department of Community Health Sciences, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA

Mienah Z. Sharif

4 Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, School of Public Health, Seattle, WA

James Huỳnh

Kia skrine jeffers.

5 School of Nursing, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA

Shelby A. Baptista

Breann mcandrew, natalie j. bradford.

6 Department of Health Policy and Management, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA

Patanjali de la Rocha

7 Department of Global Health, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA

Chandra L. Ford

Research concept and design: Amani, Huỳnh, Skrine Jeffers, de la Rocha, Bradford, Ford; Acquisition of data: Amani, Cabral, Huỳnh, de la Rocha Ford; Data analysis and interpretation: Amani, Cabral, Sharif, de la Rocha, Ford; Manuscript draft: Amani, Cabral, Sharif, Huỳnh, Skrine Jeffers, McAndrew, Baptista, Bradford, de la Rocha; Statistical expertise: Amani, Bradford; Acquisition of funding: Amani, Ford; Ad­ministrative: Amani, Cabral, Sharif, Huỳnh, Baptista, McAndrew, de la Rocha, Ford; Supervision: Amani, Ford

Racism persists, underscoring the need to rapidly document the perspectives and experiences of Black, Indigenous and People of Color (BIPOC) groups as well as marginalized populations (eg, formerly incarcerated people) during pandemics.

This methods paper offers a model for using Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP) and related critical methodologies (ie, feminist and decolonizing methods) to inform the conceptualization, methods, and dissemination of qualitative research undertaken in response to the evolving COVID-19 pandemic.

Using purposive snowball sampling, we identified organizations involved with health equity and social justice advocacy among BIPOC and socially marginalized populations. Focus group participants (N=63) included community members, organizers, activists, and health workers.

We conducted topic-specific (eg, reproductive justice) and population-specific (eg, Asian and Pacific Islander) focus groups (N=16 focus groups) in rapid succession using Zoom software.

A self-reflexive, iterative praxis guided theorization, data collection and analysis. We obtained community input on study design, the semi-structured discussion guide, ethical considerations and dissemination. Applying PHCRP, we assessed our assumptions iteratively. We transcribed each interview verbatim, de-identified the data, then used two distinct qualitative techniques to code and analyze them: thematic analysis to identify unifying concepts that recur across focus groups and narrative analysis to keep each participant’s story intact.

The praxis facilitated relationship-building with partners and supported the iterative assessment of assumptions. Logistical constraints included difficulty ensuring the confidentiality of virtual discussions.

These novel approaches provide an effective model for community-engaged qualitative research during a pandemic.

Introduction

Racialized communities are disproportionately impacted by disasters and public health efforts to respond to them. In the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, the life expectancies of Black and Latinx populations decreased 3 to 4 times the life expectancies of Whites, 1 , 2 echoing early predictions that cases, deaths, hospitalizations, and other outcomes would be highest in the communities and populations most impacted by historical and contemporary forms of structural racism. Racism has been defined in many ways. Gilmore’s definition of it, which is widely used in Critical Race Theory, emphasizes its structural nature: racism is the “state-sanctioned and/or extralegal production and exploitation of group-differentiated vulnerability to premature death.” 3

Structural racism is a complex assemblage of mutually reinforcing and interlocking ideas and practices through which systems and institutions create and maintain racial injustice. 4 – 7 It both increases risk (eg, by mandating essential work in high COVID prevalence settings) and limits access to solutions (eg, equitable access to COVID testing) among communities of color. 8 – 10 Racism selectively renders some solutions (eg, access to testing) socially and politically possible, while creating the impression that others (eg, closing incarcerated settings) are unimaginable. 11 Understanding the effects of racism is important for addressing the implications of the current public health disaster and future ones. It is also extremely relevant in preparing for emergent high levels of death, disability, financial hardships, and grief associated with it and its implications for generations to come.

In March 2020, the Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health responded to the pandemic by forming the UCLA/Charles R. Drew University COVID-19 Task Force on Racism and Equity (“the Task Force”), which immediately launched the “COVID Storytelling Project (ie, Project).” The Project, an ongoing, two-pronged research study, has been documenting the perspectives and experiences of diverse racialized and marginalized populations and communities (eg, immigrants, people experiencing incarceration, unhoused people, and racial justice protestors) over the course of the pandemic.

The goals of the study are to understand how social injustices, in particular structural racism, have affected the health of racialized and marginalized populations and communities during the COVID-19 pandemic by prioritizing the voices of communities that are missing from or misunderstood within dominant public health discourse. 12 The existence of structural and other forms of racism is well-documented in the health equity evidence base and in other literatures (eg, sociology, law, economics). 13 – 17 The critical methodologies, specifically, Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP), on which the study is based, frame racism as impacting all aspects of how society is organized; they recognize that the oppressive, exploitative systems of White supremacy, capitalism, and patriarchy intersect and mutually reinforce one another. 4 , 18 – 21

Working from the understanding that structural racism exists, PHCRP-based projects pursue answers to one overarching question: How is racism operating here? 22 – 24

In this Project, we specifically sought to clarify three points: How does racism:

1) exacerbate the risk of acquiring COVID-19 or dying from it?

2) affect efforts to mitigate and contain the spread of COVID-19?

3) exacerbate hardships among the communities already experiencing racial, economic, and gendered inequities?

In this article, we describe the framework and approaches used in the Project’s qualitative arm through which we conducted virtual focus groups in rapid succession among community organizers and frontline professionals. We also discuss lessons learned to date about integrating Critical Race Theory and empirical methods for qualitative COVID equity research.

Framework: Race Conscious Integration of Theory, Research Methods and Community Engagement

To characterize structural racism occurring during the pandemic and identify ways it contributes to COVID inequities for Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) populations, we use the PHCRP and related critical methodologies (ie, feminist, anti-colonial methodologies). As with other critical approaches, PHCRP requires researchers to explicate how their philosophical and theoretical orientations shape their methods and practice. It is very difficult to stand in our commitments to justice and equity within the reality of our institutions, which reflect how neoliberal academia and the Research Industrial Complex (RIC) operate. 25 – 27 To this end, we developed the framework (ie, a disaster praxis) discussed in more detail below. It draws on applications of Critical Race Theory to public health. This framework informs the Project’s conceptual models, research methods, translation of findings, and community engagement activities. ( Figure 1 )

This frame is a sociogenic analysis. We examine the larger society within which pandemic inequities are occurring and focus on societal, as opposed to individual-level, determinants of COVID-19 inequities. In particular, we examine historical (eg, indigenous genocide, enslavement of Africans) and contemporary state-sanctioned activities (eg, the global mass displacement of communities by White supremacy). PHCRP’s theory, method and action are built on the social justice-oriented epistemologies described herein, which examine the ill societal body. 24 , 28 To adhere to PHCRP tenets, our approach foregrounds the primacy of racism and articulates assumptions embedded within the research methods and process.

Social, political, and health systems may undermine the capacity of community-based workers to caretake, organize for justice, and demand dignity for oppressed populations. 29 These community workers operate as networked systems. They help to build resilient social environments 30 that serve as safety nets and reduce disparities. 31 – 34 Community workers who pursue justice and build power for (and within) their communities have been recognized as essential yet they are under-resourced, overburdened, and under-utilized. 35 , 36 Based on the prior evidence, 33 , 34 , 37 we conceptualize the COVID-19 pandemic as exacerbating the precariousness of these networks through losses of life, connection, wellness, and resources. Literature on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on community-based workers supports this theory. 33 , 34 , 37

Integrated Methods

The praxis we developed for this project uses community-engaged research practices that encourage communities and professional researchers to partner as equals to conduct research. 38 , 39 As with decolonizing and Black feminist epistemologies, the praxis also critiques conventional modes of knowledge production, which presume the inherent objectivity of science. To support transformative change, we use an iterative, reflexive process that links theory, methods and action at each stage of the research process. 18 , 40 , 41

Our praxis also learns from the indigenous practice of storytelling. Within this practice, the information gained from participants cannot be reduced to mere narrative data and/or qualitative methods. We position the storyteller both as master of their lived experience and as teacher of their stories; those stories explain power dynamics in the world around them. 42 The person receiving the story is the (lifelong) learner (ie, researcher). The decision to root the project in this way was based on our desire to re-relate to research with intentionality. 41 , 43 We re-relate to research during the pandemic by addressing power differentials between the investigators, the communities we engage and the purpose of the research, which is to bolster social transformation. 41 , 43

The stories participants tell about the contemporary and historical conditions of their communities constitute expert knowledge. The participants are the experts sharing how injustices shape the contexts, struggles, reactions, emotions, solutions, and underlying patterns of inequity, which become the processes and pathways through which COVID-19 disproportionately impacts BIPOC communities. The integration of these approaches for knowledge production is appropriate and necessary to study communities’ experiences with structural racism from their perspective.

Centering participants and their stories in these ways helps us to: 1) reconceptualize how we understand reality (ie, epistemology); 2) remain intentional about which worlds or life experiences to prioritize; and 3) stand in solidarity with the oppressed by conscientiously avoiding research approaches that may inadvertently reproduce colonial heteropatriarchal research enterprises. 44 , 45 We dive deeper to explore how multiple axes of oppression impact people on the margins of the pandemic response from within a socio-ecological framework that contextualizes how injustices are interconnected and embodied. 14 , 46 – 49

The praxis prioritizes the dissemination of evidence that can support communities’ ongoing movements for racial, reproductive, environmental, and economic justice. We solicit written and oral research and narratives from community-based workers across diverse settings. We use this information to educate ourselves about their work and we disseminate it to others.

An important part of action is to disseminate the findings to the most impacted communities. In addition to the traditional methods of dissemination that include publishing peer-reviewed articles and presenting at scientific conferences, we also share key findings via social media (eg, Twitter, Instagram, and Medium), websites, newsletters, and events (ie, panels). We present the findings directly to community organizations, health and health care institutions, and policymakers. We leverage our platform to amplify the voice of these communities, we invite partner organizations to discuss any topics of interest to them in brief video interviews called “Task Force Talks.” Figure 2 lists topics organizations have discussed to date. The lessons learned from the study results and the feedback from community inform the Task Force’s priorities for future community engagement.

The framework outlined in Figure 1 is our model for integrating social justice-based methods for the qualitative application of Critical Race Theory, and PHCRP more specifically, to COVID-19 equity research. As described in the next section, the protocols used to conduct the research integrate standard qualitative methods and our critical, reflexive approaches.

Qualitative Methodology

The Project, which is ongoing, began in July 2020 as a series of recurring focus groups conducted in rapid succession among advocates for and members of marginalized populations. The overarching aim of the Project is to hear directly from those who have been working across diverse settings on the frontline and essential issues during the COVID-19 pandemic. Applying principles of community-engagement, we began incorporating community input on study design, dissemination, potential barriers, and ethical considerations. ( Figure 3 ) Prior to initiating the study, the Task Force held community sessions to solicit input on the proposed research. Due to the pandemic and COVID-19 stay-at-home mandates, all recruitment, consenting, and data collection were necessarily conducted virtually (eg, using Zoom meeting software) with participants permitted to join either by internet or telephone. The UCLA Institutional Review Board approved all study procedures and materials.

Data Collection

In collaboration with the community partners, the Task Force developed discussion guides to lead semi-structured focus groups. The guide covered multiple domains including barriers and concerns regarding community testing, COVID-19 mitigation strategies, dominant social and economic inequities and challenges pre-COVID-19, COVID-19 information, and health status and access to health care during the COVID-19 pandemic. Facilitators used the guide to ask 10-15 questions in each focus group. Figure 2 lists sample questions and corresponding probes from the semi-structured interview guides. The items are intended to reveal tensions between ideas of individualism, property and ownership with those of mutual aid, communalism, collaboration and cooperation in response to structural racism. After each focus group, all participants received a thank you note via email and a separate email containing compensation of $75 in the form of an Amazon gift card.

Recruitment

We used a purposive snowball sampling strategy focusing on health equity and social justice advocates to identify organizations from which to recruit participants. We also received recommendations from Task Force members with extensive regional or national social justice involvement and individuals referred by others involved in social justice networks. Community partners who work on a wide range of health equity and social justice concerns such as prison abolition, birthing justice, immigrant rights, LGBTQ+ human rights, and international health were eligible to participate. To accommodate busy schedules, participants are provided a choice of dates and times to participate.

Pre-focus Group Meetings

Administrative matters such as securing informed consent and explaining how to use the technology to participate in the meeting, are handled in pre-focus group meetings. Each recruit attends one 15-minute pre-focus group session, during which they meet the moderator, assistant moderator and dedicated technology assistant who will be facilitating their focus group. The moderators answer questions recruits may have, obtain informed consent, discuss Zoom logistics, and review the community norms for participating in the group discussion respectfully.

The six community norms, informed by feedback from our community partners, are that all participants agree to: 1) allow one person to speak at a time; 2) use the name and gender pronouns each participant provides on their Zoom meeting screens; 3) turn-off cell phones (or take calls off-screen); 4) adjust audio settings to be mindful of background noise while acknowledging that interruptions may happen; 5) engage in respectful discourse regardless of any difference of opinions; and 6) keep confidential the information shared during the sessions. Participants were encouraged to keep their cameras on during each 1-1.5-hour session. Zoom windows include a text box with an individual’s name in it. All participants were permitted to use a pseudonym (if they preferred) rather than their actual name, and asked to add their gender pronouns to the text box.

Focus Groups

All focus groups are conducted using Zoom meeting software, including its video and audio recording functions. The dedicated technology assistant stores all recordings in an encrypted cloud-based application that is compliant with IRB protocols requiring blinded for review. Each focus group has between three and six participants; therefore all participants are more likely to be visible to one another at the same time on a single screen. At the beginning of each focus group, the moderator briefly reviews the community norms with the full group of participants and starts the recording.

Populations of Interest

The Project purposively recruited from racially (eg, BIPOC people), and socially marginalized (eg, people who were formerly incarcerated) populations. Focus group participants include advocates for marginalized populations such as organizers, activists, and health workers, who are members of these populations or work closely with them. Thus far, their work has focused on environmental justice, LGBTQ+ human rights, immigrant rights, undocumented youth, people who use drugs, people experiencing homelessness, anti-gentrification, housing rights, labor rights, anti-racist action groups, reproductive health, mental health, international health, community health workers, youth within the jail system or family members of incarcerated or formerly incarcerated individuals, or people impacted by policing or criminalization. We collected demographic information about participants, the organizations they represent, and the people they serve through a survey.

From July 2020 to March 2021, we conducted focus groups (N=16) with 63 diverse participants. The focus groups were stratified by population (ie, Asian American and Pacific Islanders, LGBTQ+ persons, community health workers) or topic (ie, incarceration and criminalization, immigration and detention, reproductive justice).

Data Analysis

Each interview was transcribed verbatim and two research team members reviewed the transcript for accuracy then de-identified the data so that individual participants cannot be identified from the data. After reviewing and revising each transcript, they uploaded it into Dedoose software for the analyses. 50 Subsets of focus groups, organized by topic/focus (eg, incarceration/detention, reproductive justice), were analyzed using two distinct qualitative analytical techniques, thematic and narrative analyses. Thematic analysis allows for the identification of recurrent, unifying concepts. The themes draw connections between issues of equity (such as racism and social justice), health and health care (such as testing and access to a provider), and the social determinants of health (such as housing and employment insecurity and loss) that endure across groups. By contrast, narrative analysis keeps the participants’ stories intact. It views the participants as expert storytellers recounting the conditions of those for whom they care and with whom they work. Participants’ insights about inequities, community health and the pandemic, as well as the stories they share about theirs and others’ struggles, values, and identities doing the work help illuminate how structural racism operates in their communities. Thus, treating the data as stories woven together by participants, provides another tool we can use to examine existing community health networks and the ways larger systems operate. Evaluated in tandem, the thematic and narrative analyses allow the concepts to be unpacked within the participants’ own lived experiences.

Thematic Analysis

Coding for the thematic analyses are completed through an iterative process. 51 – 53 First, two to three members of the study team review all transcripts corresponding to each set of focus groups to generate a preliminary codebook. This development process was guided by the project’s theoretical frameworks and Task Force members’ prior knowledge of the subject matter allowing for both deductive and inductive code development. The deductive strategy allows the conceptual framework to be applied across all sets of focus groups; the inductive approach allows for the development of unique codes specific to each set of focus group topics. After using a consensus approach to establish the coding scheme, the team members independently code the remaining transcripts for that set of focus groups. Analytical memos are also generated through the coding process to mark identified substantive patterns or conceptual clustering that has been instrumental in thematic development. Dedoose data exports enumerate the frequency with which each code is used and situate them into tables. Tables aid in the reducing and organizing of data across codes; the analysts review them for frequency and depth.

Narrative Analysis

A team member creates the narratives for each participant by reviewing each transcript and compiling each individual participant’s contributions. Two study team members then review each narrative to identify how the participants, as both community-based workers and people directly impacted by social injustice, have made meaning of inequity, community-needs, and the pandemic response and experience what they have observed and are living through. Special emphasis is placed on identifying narrative connections between the current moment and longer historical trajectories. After reviewing the narratives individually, the study team discusses these preliminary findings with one another and comes to consensus on similarities and differences, before confirming the final results.

Continuous Reflection

The aforementioned self-reflective critical praxis requires the naming and ongoing review of assumptions throughout the research process to enhance trustworthiness. 54 – 56 Trustworthiness in the validity of study findings is established throughout the research process, and in the analysis phase, we confirm the congruence between our findings and the research aims using the following techniques. 56 Prior to data collection, team members completed a questionnaire. Study team members then met on their own to review. Throughout the analysis phase, weekly meetings continue to provide the opportunity for this self-reflection through dialogue on multiple viewpoints and the sharing of salient content specific and methodological literature. Given the diverse expertise comprising the research team, multiple perspectives are represented and inform these discussions. Once the data have undergone a preliminary analysis, preliminary themes are reviewed with representatives from the communities sampled and academic partners in forums and meetings. Finally, to solicit confirmation and confirm the accuracy of complex ideas and quotes, study team members reach out to select participants for clarification and confirmation.

Thus far, we have described the integrated, CRT-informed praxis that guides all aspects of the project, disclosed assumptions embedded within it, and described the research methods. Below, we outline lessons learned from our broader theoretical approach as well as logistical and ethical lessons related to the project methodology.

During moments of acute crisis in the pandemic (eg surges in hospitalizations), there is a pressing need to generate actionable evidence and share it with impacted communities quickly. Therefore, we have sometimes opted to share any relevant findings with community immediately even if doing so makes it difficult to subsequently publish the findings in traditional “academic” venues (ie, scientific journals). Our team, which comprises researchers, students, and faculty of color, is subject to many of the same social injustices and health inequities that are of interest to this research. As a result, many members of the research team have had to contend with challenges within and across both professional and personal realms. For us, the project is a “labor of love”; therefore, we continue conducting the work while contending with these challenges and we prioritize giving (back to) the BIPOC and other marginalized communities from which we come.

Decolonized storytelling operates outside of conventional academic public health research 40 – 42 , 45 in ways that are often oppositional to it. Our methods strive to practice decolonizing methods, being useful to the broader community while responding to the dictates of academia). 45 These tensions often leave us dissatisfied and feeling we are not doing either well. 57 , 58 Tuck and Yang cautioned against this when describing the disconnect between work that claims to be decolonizing but that is not in service of actual decolonization. 59

While Task Force members are involved with providing mutual aid and building grassroots community power, the formal work of storytelling is limited in how far it can extend and break from existing institutional norms. For example, the copyright standards of many academic journals are unwilling to publish work that has been published previously in reports or op-eds, blogs or other venues that the general public can readily access. This limits the ability to disseminate findings to the public and the scientific community simultaneously. To generate empirical evidence is often labor intensive and, therefore, access to the evidence is biased toward those with more resources, including time. In short, while we seek a progressive challenge to existing systems of inequity, we have found that institutional and structural pressures often confine the work to reformist paradigms.

Below we outline lessons learned related to project design that consider both logistical and ethical considerations.

One central challenge the project has faced has been recruiting, scheduling, and holding focus groups exclusively online. Invitations may be rerouted to junk/spam folders or quarantined by email servers and thus ignored or found after the recruitment period. Strategies such as marking emails as important and copying the person who recommended the potential participant have been useful. Limited availability due to a multitude of reasons (ie, child/elder care), many related to the ways COVID-19 has impacted lives, have also been a barrier. Additionally, documenting perspectives and experiences on local, national and international levels has been challenging because of scheduling across time-zones. Finally, many of those invited to participate declined because of lack of capacity. The work in their communities is of primary concern and does not allow them to participate, even in the online groups.

Remuneration

Institutional restrictions limited the types of remuneration that could be provided to focus group participants to Amazon e-gift cards; however, spending money with this corporation contradicted the social justice principles of many participants. Several of the community-based organizations working with immigrant and detained communities expressed disappointment about the choice of using Amazon considering the company’s ties to immigration and border surveillance enforcement efforts. 60 , 61 Representatives of an organization focused on detention refused to participate due to the amount of the incentive and expressed that their participation would lead to re-traumatization. Thus, they asked for at least double the amount of incentive and required that the study provide self-care (eg, acupuncture) after their participation. We were unable to accommodate the request; therefore, they declined participation. Practically, Amazon gift cards purchased in the United States could only be used within the United States and Canada, making it difficult to recruit international participants. Furthermore, and likely largely due to the pandemic, the study experienced significant delays in delivering incentives.

An additional challenge was the difficulty remunerating partners, many of whom are from under-resourced organizations, for their involvement in the work. Historically, NIH and other funders have provided less support for racially conscious, community-engaged work than for more traditional academic research (eg, clinical or pharmaceutical research). This model makes it difficult to compensate individuals and community-based organizations fairly for their contributions to the work.

Zoom Technology

Though the availability of Zoom technology allowed us to enroll participants who might otherwise be difficult to recruit in person due to, for instance, distance to the study site, the reliance on Zoom technology for all stages of the project (recruitment, consent and data collection) also presents several challenges. First, computer literacy among our participants varied widely. To address this, it was important to provide technical support and instructions in one-on-one or small group meetings scheduled with participants who requested it before the formal focus group and dedicated technical support for the duration of each focus group. Technical glitches related to internet access/connection occurred throughout data collection for both participants and moderators. Participants who used Zoom’s phone-based platform also had difficulty maintaining a reliable connection using their cell phone service providers at times.

Anonymity/Confidentiality

Even though participants were offered an opportunity to use a pseudonym to preserve their anonymity, many participants worked in similar fields (social work, community outreach, etc.), knew each other, and preferred that their contributions to the discussion be associated with (vs disassociated from) their identities. We also had concerns with our inability to know or control for who else might be in a participant’s physical space and the implications of that both for that participant’s comfort and in terms of other study-related considerations (eg, other participants’ confidentiality). This was a challenge that we addressed by continuously underscoring the importance of participants protecting each participant’s confidentiality.

Conducting Community-Engaged, Qualitative Research During the Pandemic

The distinct realities of conducting community-engaged research that emphasized storytelling as the primary methodology are noteworthy. The infeasibility of face-to face interactions during the pandemic—especially the initial months—was not ideal for conducting focus groups. Comfort with technology and unfamiliarity with the Zoom platform posed challenges. 62 , 63 There were differing levels of familiarity with the technology and access to devices to support that technology. It was necessary for a dedicated co-moderator to provide technical support, assist with name changes, and manage the waiting room. 62 Lastly, Lobe et al emphasizes a quiet space with limited interruptions as a requirement for successful online gatherings. In this project, we found that this was not feasible for all participants. 63 Given the realities of caretaking for elders, children, and/or sharing living space with others, we included the expectation of interruptions in our community norms.

Considering the aforementioned challenges, doing this type of research during the pandemic did create opportunities. For example, the shift to using online the Zoom platform created flexibility and increased participation. 62 , 63 Participants were able to participate in the focus groups from many locations, including work, free time, or even while they ran errands. Similar to others, 64 we have found that online focus groups extend the reach of recruitment efforts beyond a specific geographic area. Finally, drawing on group dialogues may help to heal the ongoing effects of trauma and harm. 46 Focus groups continue to be opportunities for participants to witness the depth of commitment to support communities during COVID-19 and to challenge the existing social contracts that allow inequities to persist.

In this article, we offer a model for integrating critical theory into the conceptualization, methods, and dissemination of qualitative research conducted via Zoom in rapid response to the evolving pandemic. Strengths of this project include our adaptations of the methods to accommodate the realities of the populations of interest. The strategies address the assumptions embedded within the project and they inform the process of relationship-building among colleagues and partners who are doing vital social justice work for community health. From a CRT perspective, a strength of this article is the transparency with which we disclose the assumptions guiding each aspect of the work, how we see the world, and what position we take in the work we do. As public health critical race scholars, we are guided by the relevancy and urgency of our work, especially for racially marginalized communities. The crisis of the moment necessitates data to guide the immediate development of solutions; in addition, it is important to generate data that can support longer term equity and justice efforts.

The challenges and limitations discussed here are likely to evolve as the pandemic matures. At the same time, guided by principles rooted in equity and social justice, we find ourselves renewed in our commitment to support grassroots, community-based, power-building initiatives. 65 – 67

Acknowledgments

Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute of Minority Health and Health Disparities (NIMHD), of the National Institutes of Health under award number 5S21MD000103. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official view of the NIMHD or NIH.

Bradford and Sharif were supported by the The Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health at UCLA and the Ralph J. Bunche Center for African American Studies at UCLA.

We would like to thank the staff at the Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health and UCLA FSPH Department of Community Health Sciences for administrative and technical support; and members of the COVID-19 Task Force on Racism & Equity for feedback on earlier versions of this work.

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Citations & impact 

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School of Education

Educators are liberators because knowledge is transformative.

The SOE Community at AERA 2024

The 2024 aera annual meeting will be in philadelphia from april -14, 2024.

Dozens of UCR School of Education faculty, students, and researchers will participate at this year’s annual American Educational Research Association, or AERA meeting. AERA is the largest national interdisciplinary research association devoted to the scientific study of education and learning. This year’s event will be held in-person from April 11-14 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

“AERA is an important opportunity for educators to come together and exchange ideas. Having so many of our scholars sharing their scholarship and transformative research on a national level is a testament to the important work happening at the UCR School of Education,” said Joi A. Spencer, dean of UCR School of Education. 

Below is a complete list of presentation, papers, and events at this year’s conference.

Wednesday, April 12

Pre-conference mentoring session : “i am because we are”: identifying and connecting with supportive spaces of color in the professorate.

Wed, April 10, 11:00am to 1:00pm, Philadelphia Marriott Downtown, Floor: Level 5, Salon K Abstract : The aim of this session is to provide emerging scholars and early-career scholars guidance on ways of locating and connecting with spaces of color in the academy that serve as sanctuaries of community, support, and collaboration. Chair : Joyce M. McCall, Arizona State University Speaker : Jamel K. Donnor, College of William & Mary Panelists : Cory T. Brown, The Ohio State University - Newark Kevin Lawrence Henry, University of Wisconsin - Madison José Reyes Del Real Viramontes, University of California - Riverside

Thursday, April 11

Event : university of california reception (santa barbara, davis, irvine, riverside, san diego, santa cruz)  .

Thu, April 11, 7pm, Philadelphia Ballroom North and South on the Mezzanine Level at the Sheraton Philadelphia Downtown All SOE faculty, students, and researchers are invited to join Dean Spencer at the UC Reception on Friday, April 12 at 7PM. 

Roundtable Session : Feminist Issues in Mathematics Education (Table 12)

Thu, April 11, 9:00 to 10:30am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Exhibit Hall B Paper : Are Men More Likely Than Women to Voluntarily and Publicly Express Their Mathematical Reasoning? Abstract: Prior evidence of gender differences in risk taking, confidence, and classroom experiences suggests that men are more likely than women to voluntarily and publicly express their mathematical reasoning. On thirteen separate occasions, students were instructed to solve a precalculus problem, report their confidence in the correctness of their solution, and then indicate whether they volunteer to publicly discuss their solution in class. The problems ranged in difficulty from moderate to extreme. Except for the lowest performers, men were more likely than women to volunteer to discuss their solution, and this gender gap increased as students’ performance increased. These results imply that men might publicly demonstrate higher mathematics ability than women, even if there are no gender differences in mathematics ability. Authors : Meaghan Beth McMurran, University of California - Riverside David Weisbart Kinnari Atit, University of California - Riverside  

Paper Session : Understanding and Navigating Political Contexts Through Advocacy

Thu, April 11, 12:40 to 2:10pm, Philadelphia Marriott Downtown, Floor: Level 3, Room 307 Publication : Combating Racist Gaslighting: Exploring Political Discourses That Surround Critical Race Theory Bans Abstract : Recent attacks on Critical Race Theory (CRT) aim to limit discussion and understanding of race (and its intersection with class, gender, and power). This study examines the role of racial gaslighting in public policy discourses that surround CRT-bans while also focusing on ways of combating racial gaslighting. Focusing on early-adopting states of the bans, the findings highlight how multiple dynamics of gaslighting are deployed within political discourses and how these dynamics are countered. Authors : Rican Vue, University of California - Riverside Katrya Txay Ly, University of California - Riverside

Paper Session : Uplifting Black Women Educators' Critical Pedagogies for Liberation and Justice

Thu, April 11, 2:30 to 4:00pm, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 100, Room 104A Paper : Claiming a Critical Vernacular Site in an Early Childhood Classroom Abstract : Drawing on Kynard’s (2013) notion of “vernacular insurrections,” this talk features a Black pre-K teacher who claimed a critical vernacular site for her Black Language speakers. Employing ethnographic case study methodology, I trace the ways this teacher advances emancipatory leadership in the midst of a white supremacist institutional architecture. This study attunes us to the many institutional mechanisms of white supremacy that are overlooked too often, and offers a pathway to consider how these mechanisms serve hegemonic ends. Concomitantly, this work also elucidates the overlooked assets Black teachers bring to Black students. The unacknowledgement of Black Language in schools for students is also an unacknowledgement of the language Black teachers bring and offer in classrooms. Author : Alice Y. Lee, University of California - Riverside

Paper Session : Engaging With Critical Race Theory, Bans, and Positive Racial Identities

Thu, April 11, 4:20 to 5:50pm, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 100, Room 104B Chair : Samina Hadi-Tabassum, Elmhurst University Paper : Silenced and Pushed Out: The Harms of CRT Bans on K–12 Teachers Abstract : There are currently over 600 local and state-wide policies framed as bans against “CRT” being propagated to restrict how race and racism can be taught in K-12 schools across the nation; putting teachers at personal and professional risk for addressing topics related to race, inequality, and injustice. This paper employs CRT to analyze how “CRT-bans” exploit white defensiveness and white comfort; limiting discourse on systemic racism, thereby perpetuating it. Additionally, it presents findings from a study involving 117 teachers nationwide, highlighting the adverse effects of CRT-bans on the racial climate of schools and the attrition of teachers dedicated to equity and inclusion. The study concludes by offering evidence-based recommendations to help schools mitigate the detrimental impact of CRT-bans on teachers.

Authors : Uma Mazyck Jayakumar, University of California - Riverside Rita Kohli, University of California - Riverside

Friday, April 12

Symposium : interrupting anti-blackness: imagining the possibilities.

Fri, April 12, 7:45 to 9:15am, Level 100, Room 112A Abstract : Anti-Blackness impacts every corner of schooling. In this session, we will explore what anti-Blackness is, catalog concrete manifestations of anti-Blackness in schools and provide tools to counter this racism. Three case studies will further explore how to operationalize Black-affirming spaces and curricula, providing an on-the-ground look at what Black-centered spaces can be. Chair : Nicole Michelle Joseph, Vanderbilt University Participants : Joi A. Spencer, University of California - Riverside Kerri A. Ullucci, Roger Williams University Elsa Wiehe, Boston University Marques Spencer, University of San Diego Papers : How Anti-Blackness Operates in Schools: A Nuanced Overview STEAM Academy as an Affirming Model of Black Education Creating Affirming Spaces for Black Youth: A Mental Health Model Centering Africa in the Curriculum

Roundtable Session : Interrogating Language Ideologies: Critical Perspectives on Racial Equity for Multilinguals (Table 21)

Fri, April 12, 7:45 to 9:15am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Exhibit Hall B Paper : The Raciolinguistic Embodiment of Black Teachers and Hearing Black Language as Correct Abstract : Perspectives -The majority white teacher demographic has historically heard Black Language as incorrect, and the educational consequences of such arbitration are numerous and devastating (Baker-Bell, 2020; Author, 2020; Smitherman, 1977). Black Language, however, has been a linguistic resource in Black communities for centuries, and their literacies have educated Black children through eras of colonialism to modern Jim Crow (Richardson, 2003). This single-case study traces a Black early childhood teacher and the ways she leverages her linguistic assets to hear, understand, and utilize Black Language for learning. I situate this work within linguistic and sociolinguistic literature which documents how Black communities innovated new forms of survivance and communication in spite of the malevolence of slavery (Baugh, 1999; Smitherman, 1977). This work also exists within the reality of language and race being interchangeably used to police Black bodies in schools, policies, and society at large (Alim & Smitherman, 2012; Boutte et al., 2021). Author: Alice Y. Lee, University of California - Riverside

Paper Session : Diversity, Identity, and Equity in College Athletics: Perspectives on Recruitment, Experience, and Labor

Fri, April 12, 7:45 to 9:15am, Philadelphia Marriott Downtown, Floor: Level 4, Room 402 Chair: Briana Savage, University of California - Riverside (student) Paper : Uncovering Black Placemaking in Black Student Athlete Organizations at Predominantly White Institutions Abstract: Many Black student-athlete organizations (BSAOs) were created during a time of civil unrest following the murder of George Floyd, a time in which Black athletes engaged in social justice activism on campus and beyond. Research shows BSAOs are critical counterspaces for Black athletes at PWIs and sites of community, belonging, and identity affirmation. Less is known about how BSAOs are made, and how they are re-made and maintained despite living/existing in oppressive, predominantly white environments. In this study, we employ a Black placemaking analysis to closely examine how the labor of Black athletes and staff allows Black athletes to co-create BSAOs to meet their needs and desires, and how athletes and staff navigate organizational structures within their athletic departments and BSAOs. Authors : Briana Savage, University of California - Riverside (student) Ezinne Ofoegbu, Santa Clara University

Invited Speaker Sessions : The Mourning After Affirmative Action: Reflecting on the Dissenting Opinions, Anti-Blackness, and Possibility

Fri, April 12, 9:35 to 11:05am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Room 201B Abstract : This session will emphasize how the Court’s dismissal of close to five decades of legal precedent, affirming the value in the limited use of race in college admissions, unearths evidence of antiblackness, while simultaneously ignoring racial injustice and obscuring educational possibilities. We endeavor to (re)cover affirmative action’s pivotal history, as well as to (re)connect to possibility and inspire new liberation movements. Chair: Joi A. Spencer, University of California - Riverside Participants: Uma Jayakumar, University of California - Riverside María C. Ledesma, San José State University Discussant: David O. Stovall, University of Illinois at Chicago

Roundtable Session : Educational Justice Within and Beyond School Buildings (Table 27)

Fri, April 12, 11:25am to 12:55pm, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Exhibit Hall B Paper : Why Higher Education Institutions Should Provide Degrees Inside Prison Spaces Abstract : This article explores conceptually the role and obligation that higher education programming has in prison spaces. A framework is employed, through Ladson-Billings work, that names the ways in which an accrued educational debt is owed to incarcerated students of color that can begin to be repaid through higher education in prison programming. Authors:   Amos Lee, University of California - Riverside

Roundtable Session : Rethinking Racial Equity, Access, and Curriculum in the Era of Selective Banning (Table 39)

Fri, April 12, 3:05 to 4:35pm, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Exhibit Hall B Paper : Advanced Placement African American Studies as a Master’s Tool? Abstract : African American Studies - a discipline grounded in celebrations of Black culture and interrogations of anti-Black racism - is now being piloted in Advanced Placement (AP) - an educational program that has long excluded Black people and promoted dominant cultural norms. In the parlance of Audre Lorde, Advanced Placement may be "master's tool" incapable of dismantling anti-Black racism. This case study of two AP African American studies teachers investigates whether these courses might meaningfully undermine anti-Black racism in the United States. Through approximately fifty hours of observations and 32 interviews, the findings suggest that the course has strong potential to encourage Black resistance and Black joy, but neglects to interrogate racism as a systemic phenomenon shaping current contexts. Author: Suneal Kolluri, University of California - Riverside

Paper Session : Development of a Multicomponent Reading Intervention in Upper-Elementary Grades: Findings From a Design Experiment

Fri, April 12, 4:55 to 6:25pm, Philadelphia Marriott Downtown, Floor: Level 3, Room 305 Abstract : The purpose of this study was to develop, implement, and test the effects of Read STOP Write on fourth- and fifth-grade students’ foundational reading skills, reading comprehension, and reading motivation. We conducted a design experiment with 14 fourth- and fifth-grade teachers in 12 classrooms at an urban public charter school. A diverse population of students in grades four (n=186) and five (n=134) completed measures of reading achievement and motivation before and after receiving 10 weeks of Read STOP Write lessons. Students experienced significant gains on measures of word recognition, oral reading fluency, and silent reading efficiency and comprehension but not reading motivation. Teachers and students responded positively on social validity surveys. Implications for research and practice will be discussed. Authors : John Z. Strong, University at Buffalo - SUNY Laura S. Tortorelli, Michigan State University Blythe E. Anderson, University at Buffalo - SUNY David A. Fronczak, University at Buffalo - SUNY Eunsoo Cho, University of California - Riverside

Saturday, April 13

Teacher scholar program breakfast (invitation only).

Sat, April 13, 7:45 to 9:15am, Philadelphia Marriott Downtown, Floor: Headhouse Tower Level 3, Liberty Salon A Chairs: Joi A. Spencer, University of California - Riverside Kerri A. Ullucci, Roger Williams University

Symposium : Confronting the Assault on Critical Race Theory: Lessons Across Generations

Sat, April 13, 9:35 to 11:05am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 100, Room 111A Publication : Racial Gaslighting and Countering Racial Gaslighting Strategies in an Education Policy Context: A Critical Race Discourse Analysis Abstract : Conservative politicians and pundits have launched an aggressive campaign against Critical Race Theory (CRT), falsely labeling it as divisive, racially regressive, and inherently racist (Pettit, 2021). This deliberate mischaracterization (Hatzipanagos, 2021; Miller et al., 2023) aligns with race-evasive ideology (Bonilla-Silva, 2006). This study expands on the connection between gaslighting and CRT bans (e.g., Miller et al., 2023; Ward, 2022), focusing specifically on racial gaslighting within the policy discussions surrounding these bans. Beyond that, this study attends to countering discourses to inform possible countering gaslighting strategies.

Employing Critical Race Discourse analysis (Briscoe & Khalifa, 2015), the study examines how the discourses surrounding CRT bans reveal racist gaslighting and explores strategies to counteract it. The analysis of four states that have implemented CRT bans demonstrates that the narratives promoting racial gaslighting aim to restore the reputation and status of white individuals. These bans seek to reestablish a white property interests in education curriculum where they are afforded the power to ignore race in education. The study also highlights how opponents of CRT bans have responded to racial gaslighting by challenging dominant discourses and employing liberatory approaches. Given that resistance can be easily co-opted (Davis & Ernst, 2017), approaches that upset the cultural logics that enable gaslighting to begin must be refused. Authors: Rican Vue, University of California - Riverside Katrya Txay Ly, University of California - Riverside 

Roundtable Session: Learning at the Margins: An Intersectional Exploration of the Higher Education Experiences of Students of Color (Table 15)

Sat, April 13, 9:35 to 11:05am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Exhibit Hall B Paper : Racial and Gender Disparities in Achievement and Persistence in Gateway Mathematics Courses: An Intersectional Analysis Abstract : Despite efforts to increase STEM enrollment and diversity, low retention rates persist and particularly affect women and underrepresented minority (URM) students. Existing research has analyzed disparities separately, overlooking the synergistic impact of multiple forms of oppression. This paper examined STEM persistence disparity through an intersectional lens. Focusing on mathematics gateway courses, we investigated the achievement gap and its relation to subsequent course-taking decisions for URM women, URM men, non-URM women, and non-URM men. Results reveal significant disparities in achievement and persistence rates, with URM women experiencing compounded and synergetic disadvantages. The relationship between grades and course-taking decisions varied across demographic groups. Women are reluctant to persist even with decent grades, while URM men are more likely to persist once passed. Authors : Xinyao Zheng, University of California - Riverside Kinnari Atit, University of California - Riverside Soojin Park, University of California - Riverside

Roundtable Session :  Creating Spaces of Inclusion Across Disciplines (Table 37)

Sat, April 13, 9:35 to 11:05am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Exhibit Hall B Paper : “There’s Some Facts You Gotta Know”: Hesitant History Teachers Assigned to Ethnic Studies U.S. History Courses Abstract : With an upcoming requirement that all students take an Ethnic Studies course to graduate from California high schools, the need for Ethnic Studies educators has never been greater. However, since no teaching credential specific to Ethnic Studies currently exists, many of the teachers will come from the social studies. Transitioning from teaching history to teaching Ethnic Studies will present challenges. This case study of four history teachers teaching a course that met the history and Ethnic Studies requirement aims to detail some of these challenges. The findings here suggest three potential difficulties for educators: (1) a willingness to directly engage race and racism in history and the present day, (2) pedagogy centered on chronology and facts, and (3) building community.  Authors : Suneal Kolluri, University of California - Riverside Michael C. Dominguez, San Diego State University

Symposium : Me-Search: Pursuing Race, Culture, and Gender in the Heart and Healing Work of Qualitative Inquiry

Sat, April 13, 11:25am to 12:55pm, Philadelphia Marriott Downtown, Floor: Level 5, Salon L Abstract : Me-search is defined “as research with, about or connected to one’s identity or positionality” or setting (Gardner et al., 2017, p. 90). When examining me-search in the literature, the experiences of scholars of color are often not highlighted due to the overwhelming presence of whiteness in academic spaces. Hence for the purposes of this investigation, we frame qualitative me-search, from the standpoint of scholars of color, as identity work—more specifically the pursuit of race, culture, and gender in the heart and healing work of qualitative inquiry. While we acknowledge that me-search is not confined solely to qualitative inquiry, we argue that qualitative research requires researchers, more so than other modes of inquiry, to tap into their identity and emotionality. Chairs : Abiola Farinde-Wu, University of Massachusetts - Boston Bettie Ray Butler, University of North Carolina - Charlotte Disscussant : Venus E. Evans-Winters, The Ohio State University Paper : Research as Healing: Reflections of a Teacher Educator of Color on Critical Race Praxis Author : Rita Kohli, University of California - Riverside

Sunday, April 14

Roundtable session : the (continued) unbearable whiteness of teacher education: four faculty of color navigating white supremacist entanglements.

Sun, April 14, 7:45 to 9:15am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Exhibit Hall B Abstract : Four teacher educators of color engaged in collective memory work over 14 months to process our experiences working in teacher education programs. Using critical race theory, we find that both individually and collectively we all experienced hardships around navigating institutional white supremacy. While our individual narratives point to curricular colonization, tokenism, and professional vulnerabilities, taken together our narratives demonstrate a refusal to accept a pre-defined and isolating script of white hegemony. To create space together, make sense of and design ways to challenge white supremacy is inherently liberatory. While teacher education remains overwhelmingly white with little change over the last twenty years, teacher educators of color have a central role in critiquing, explaining and challenging whiteness within TEPs. Authors : Sharon Leathers, Ramapo College Ramon Vasquez, University of Minnesota Amos Lee, University of California - Riverside Ranita Cheruvu, University of North Texas

Roundtable Session : Counternarratives for Transformative Change in Teaching and Teacher Education (Table 23)

Sun, April 14, 7:45 to 9:15am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Exhibit Hall B Paper : The Racialized Experiences and Transformative Possibilities of Teacher Educators of Color in Teacher Education Abstract : As research has for decades pointed to the pervasive whiteness of teacher education, a growing body of scholarship has drawn attention to teacher educators of Color and their impact in disrupting Eurocentric curriculum, pedagogy, and ideologies within teacher education programs. Additional studies have also described the emotional cost of this labor. While most existing research on teacher educators of Color is auto-ethnographic, this paper presents an systematic analysis of in-depth interviews with 31 teacher educators of Color. Using a lens of critical race theory (CRT), we identify the structural racism that teacher educators of Color endure across place and context, the impact of that racism, and we also name the tools they use to navigate, resist, and reimagine. Author : Rita Kohli, University of California - Riverside

Symposium : Imagined Futures for Higher Education: Transforming Our Racialized Organizations Toward Racial Justice

Sun, April 14, 9:35 to 11:05am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 100, Room 103A Publication : Is It All for Naught? Inadequate Changes on Campus Without Equity-Minded Governance and Decision-Making Abstract : We are again in a historical time of change prompted by racial social movements, specifically the Black Lives Matter movement, where higher education leaders are returning to conversations about equity. Although many leaders and institutions are committed to racial diversity and equity, structurally institutions remain largely unchanged. Central to this symposium is the possibility of racially just transformative change of higher education (Patton & Haynes, 2018; Stewart, 2018). This symposia is a conversation with higher education scholars reflecting on and imagining how to transform our institutions, as racialized organizations (Ray, 2019), to be racially just. If we don’t seize this opportune time to examine the prevailing racism of our universities, we fail to alter the white supremacist core of our institutions. Author : Raquel M. Rall, University of California - Riverside

Symposium : Reframing Asian American Racialization and Interrogating the Specificity of Anti-Blackness

Sun, April 14, 9:35 to 11:05am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 100, Room 110A Abstract : We consider what it means to reframe our understanding of Asian American racialization in education around critical racial theoretical perspectives. We present four studies on in various educational contexts—student debt in higher education, racial trauma among Southeast Asian immigrants, Asian-Black solidarity through researcher positionality, and youths’ zine-making around anti-Asian violence, anti-Black racism and cross-racial solidarity. What new insights might we uncover about the racialization of Asian American in education when we specify anti-Blackness in our interrogations? How might an intersectional, critical racial examination of Asian American racialization help rupture racist structures and systems in education? We offer implications for intersectional, critical racial framings in educational research and pedagogy (e.g. higher education, teacher education, and ethnic studies curriculum). Paper : Embodying Asian-Black Solidarity through Researcher Positionality Author : Alice Y. Lee, University of California - Riverside

Invited Speaker Session : Civic Education and Racial Justice: What Political Economy Can Offer

Sun, April 14, 9:35 to 11:05am, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Room 202AB Abstract : In this era of heightened anxiety about the lure of bigotry and xenophobia inflamed by political demagogues, what and how can civics education provide hope? How can teachers infuse in their high school classrooms knowledge and skills aimed at preparing future leaders who will protect democracy and advance the cause of social, economic, and racial justice? What tools can educators use in an era of intensified politicization of curriculum content and instruction? These are the questions to be addressed in this presidential session. It will begin with a brief presentation by Michael Feuer, drawing on his most recent book, Can Schools Save Democracy? Civic Education and the Common Good . Feuer will outline a roadmap and strategy for teacher preparation that includes sharpened focus on principles of collective action and political economy, new partnerships among scholars and educators across the disciplines, and priority examples related to reducing racial equality and justice. Following the presentation, a panel will offer critical commentary from perspectives of history, curriculum, economic theory, education politics, and teacher education.  Chair & Discussant : Michael J. Feuer, The George Washington University Participants :  James A. Banks, University of Washington Benjamin M. Jacobs, The George Washington University Joseph E. Kahne, University of California - Riverside Raymond C. Pierce, Southern Education Foundation Rashawn Ray, American Institutes for Research Janelle T. Scott, University of California - Berkeley

Paper Session: Teaching About Controversial Topics in Contentious Times

Sun, April 14, 1:15 to 2:45pm, Philadelphia Marriott Downtown, Floor: Level 4, Room 403 Abstract : In this session, participants will learn from three papers all focused on teaching about controversial topics. One paper will delve into the tensions of discussions of race and controversial topics in dual enrollment classes, whereas another paper will explore what it takes to help prepare preservice teachers for facilitating such discussions. Finally, the third paper argues that civic education needs a re-orientation given the dire attacks in this divisive time. Chair : Dana Morrison, West Chester University of Pennsylvania Paper: College Preparation, Controversial Topics, and Political Indoctrination in Texas Authors : Suneal Kolluri, University of California - Riverside Julia C. Duncheon, University of Washington Taryn Ozuna Allen, Texas Christian University Stephanie Cuellar, Texas Christian University

Paper Session : Beyond the Game: Navigating Identities and Policies in Collegiate Athletics

Sat, April 13, 1:15 to 2:45pm, Philadelphia Marriott Downtown, Floor: Level 4, Room 415 Paper : Breaking Boundaries: A Critical Trans Framework Analysis of Anti-Transgender Sports Policies in K–20 Education Abstract : This policy analysis examines the impacts of anti-transgender sports legislation on K-20 transgender students through a critical trans framework. We investigate how anti-transgender laws enforce gender norms and intersect with other forms of oppression, such as racism and ableism, affecting multi-marginalized transgender students in sports and limiting access to a well-rounded education. Epistemic injustice is revealed, as these policies disregard transgender students' experiential knowledge and involvement in decision-making processes. Preliminary findings indicate that anti-transgender sports policies impact students at individual, institutional, and cultural levels, perpetuating discriminatory practices and reducing access to gender-affirming spaces and supportive adults. We argue for inclusive, evidence-based sports policies developed through collaboration with transgender student athletes and advocacy groups, promoting an equitable and supportive educational environment.  Authors: Tori Porter, University of California - Riverside (student) Briana Savage, University of California - Riverside (student) Dresden June Frazier, University of San Francisco  

Roundtable : International and Immigrant Perspective on Educational Opportunity (Table 37)

Sun, April 14, 1:15 to 2:45 pm, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 200, Exhibit Hall B Paper : The Undocumented Complex: A Literature Review Abstract : This paper provides a literature review contextualizing the discourse on undocumented students and their access to higher education. Guided by the Undocumented Critical Theory, this composition examines the four themes found in the literature: Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals experiences, the othered & in fear phenomenon, a community that is under service, and the academic excellence illustrated by undocumented scholars despite adversities. Author : Pablo Saldaña, University of California, Riverside (student)

Symposium : The Science of Teaching Reading Part 2: Instructional Approaches That Promote Reading Development

Sun, April 14, 3:05 to 4:35pm, Philadelphia Marriott Downtown, Floor: Level 4, Franklin 4 Abstract: This symposium will be Part 2 of the Science of ‘Teaching’ Reading and includes four papers that examine effective teaching approaches to promote reading development among racially and linguistically diverse elementary-grade students. The symposium complements the session, “The Science of Teaching Reading Part 1: Educator knowledge, professional development, and student reading achievement.” The present session includes four papers on the following specific topics: (1) teaching complex grapheme-phoneme correspondences; (2) integrated instruction of reading and writing; (3) content-rich curriculum on reading comprehension and mechanisms; and (4) a systematic review of classroom observation studies in the last four decades. Collectively, these papers expand our understanding of effective teaching approaches and offer insights for enhancing reading outcomes for diverse student populations. Paper : The Science of Teaching Reading Comprehension: Evaluating Our Progress Since Durkin’s Seminal Study Authors : Philip Capin, University of Texas at Austin Katlynn Dahl-Leonard, University of Virginia Colby Hall, University of Virginia Eunsoo Cho, University of California - Riverside Tim T. Andress, University of Texas at Austin Sharon R. Vaughn, University of Texas at Austin

Symposium : Of Archives, Unstably Housed Families, Languages, and the Chicago Young Lords: Community Cultural Wealth Connections

Sun, April 14, 3:05 to 4:35pm, Pennsylvania Convention Center, Floor: Level 100, Room 110B Abstract : This session illustrates how youth of color – mainly Puerto Rican, Latinx, and Black – and their families construct educational possibilities in the face of ongoing racial injustice. Panelists examine a spectrum of educational contexts in the Midwest through the lens of Community Cultural Wealth (2005) to expose layers across injustices and of shared solutions and solidarities. Through varied qualitative methods, we trace racial injustices across different periods, in different locations, and within and outside of formal schooling structures. Groups relied on different forms of capital that coincided with advocacy and activism. Ultimately, we argue that despite the ongoing role of racism and colonialism in educational encounters, youth and their families refuse these inherently deficit logics. Chair & Discussant: Tara J. Yosso, University of California - Riverside  

Learn more about the 2024 AERA Annual Meeting