different methods of research paper

15 Types of Research Methods

Research methods refer to the strategies, tools, and techniques used to gather and analyze data in a structured way in order to answer a research question or investigate a hypothesis (Hammond & Wellington, 2020).

Generally, we place research methods into two categories: quantitative and qualitative. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses, which we can summarize as:

• Quantitative research can achieve generalizability through scrupulous statistical analysis applied to large sample sizes.
• Qualitative research achieves deep, detailed, and nuance accounts of specific case studies, which are not generalizable.

Some researchers, with the aim of making the most of both quantitative and qualitative research, employ mixed methods, whereby they will apply both types of research methods in the one study, such as by conducting a statistical survey alongside in-depth interviews to add context to the quantitative findings.

Below, I’ll outline 15 common research methods, and include pros, cons, and examples of each .

Types of Research Methods

Research methods can be broadly categorized into two types: quantitative and qualitative.

• Quantitative methods involve systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques, providing an in-depth understanding of a specific concept or phenomenon (Schweigert, 2021). The strengths of this approach include its ability to produce reliable results that can be generalized to a larger population, although it can lack depth and detail.
• Qualitative methods encompass techniques that are designed to provide a deep understanding of a complex issue, often in a specific context, through collection of non-numerical data (Tracy, 2019). This approach often provides rich, detailed insights but can be time-consuming and its findings may not be generalizable.

These can be further broken down into a range of specific research methods and designs:

Combining the two methods above, mixed methods research mixes elements of both qualitative and quantitative research methods, providing a comprehensive understanding of the research problem . We can further break these down into:

• Sequential Explanatory Design (QUAN→QUAL): This methodology involves conducting quantitative analysis first, then supplementing it with a qualitative study.
• Sequential Exploratory Design (QUAL→QUAN): This methodology goes in the other direction, starting with qualitative analysis and ending with quantitative analysis.

Let’s explore some methods and designs from both quantitative and qualitative traditions, starting with qualitative research methods.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods allow for the exploration of phenomena in their natural settings, providing detailed, descriptive responses and insights into individuals’ experiences and perceptions (Howitt, 2019).

These methods are useful when a detailed understanding of a phenomenon is sought.

1. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research emerged out of anthropological research, where anthropologists would enter into a setting for a sustained period of time, getting to know a cultural group and taking detailed observations.

Ethnographers would sometimes even act as participants in the group or culture, which many scholars argue is a weakness because it is a step away from achieving objectivity (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

In fact, at its most extreme version, ethnographers even conduct research on themselves, in a fascinating methodology call autoethnography .

The purpose is to understand the culture, social structure, and the behaviors of the group under study. It is often useful when researchers seek to understand shared cultural meanings and practices in their natural settings.

However, it can be time-consuming and may reflect researcher biases due to the immersion approach.

Example of Ethnography

Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street  by Karen Ho involves an anthropologist who embeds herself with Wall Street firms to study the culture of Wall Street bankers and how this culture affects the broader economy and world.

2. Phenomenological Research

Phenomenological research is a qualitative method focused on the study of individual experiences from the participant’s perspective (Tracy, 2019).

It focuses specifically on people’s experiences in relation to a specific social phenomenon ( see here for examples of social phenomena ).

This method is valuable when the goal is to understand how individuals perceive, experience, and make meaning of particular phenomena. However, because it is subjective and dependent on participants’ self-reports, findings may not be generalizable, and are highly reliant on self-reported ‘thoughts and feelings’.

Example of Phenomenological Research

A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology  by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting-point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

3. Historical Research

Historical research is a qualitative method involving the examination of past events to draw conclusions about the present or make predictions about the future (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

As you might expect, it’s common in the research branches of history departments in universities.

This approach is useful in studies that seek to understand the past to interpret present events or trends. However, it relies heavily on the availability and reliability of source materials, which may be limited.

Common data sources include cultural artifacts from both material and non-material culture , which are then examined, compared, contrasted, and contextualized to test hypotheses and generate theories.

Example of Historical Research

A historical research example might be a study examining the evolution of gender roles over the last century. This research might involve the analysis of historical newspapers, advertisements, letters, and company documents, as well as sociocultural contexts.

4. Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research method that involves systematic and objective coding and interpreting of text or media to identify patterns, themes, ideologies, or biases (Schweigert, 2021).

A content analysis is useful in analyzing communication patterns, helping to reveal how texts such as newspapers, movies, films, political speeches, and other types of ‘content’ contain narratives and biases.

However, interpretations can be very subjective, which often requires scholars to engage in practices such as cross-comparing their coding with peers or external researchers.

Content analysis can be further broken down in to other specific methodologies such as semiotic analysis, multimodal analysis , and discourse analysis .

Example of Content Analysis

How is Islam Portrayed in Western Media?  by Poorebrahim and Zarei (2013) employs a type of content analysis called critical discourse analysis (common in poststructuralist and critical theory research ). This study by Poorebrahum and Zarei combs through a corpus of western media texts to explore the language forms that are used in relation to Islam and Muslims, finding that they are overly stereotyped, which may represent anti-Islam bias or failure to understand the Islamic world.

5. Grounded Theory Research

Grounded theory involves developing a theory  during and after  data collection rather than beforehand.

This is in contrast to most academic research studies, which start with a hypothesis or theory and then testing of it through a study, where we might have a null hypothesis (disproving the theory) and an alternative hypothesis (supporting the theory).

Grounded Theory is useful because it keeps an open mind to what the data might reveal out of the research. It can be time-consuming and requires rigorous data analysis (Tracy, 2019).

Grounded Theory Example

Developing a Leadership Identity   by Komives et al (2005) employs a grounded theory approach to develop a thesis based on the data rather than testing a hypothesis. The researchers studied the leadership identity of 13 college students taking on leadership roles. Based on their interviews, the researchers theorized that the students’ leadership identities shifted from a hierarchical view of leadership to one that embraced leadership as a collaborative concept.

6. Action Research

Action research is an approach which aims to solve real-world problems and bring about change within a setting. The study is designed to solve a specific problem – or in other words, to take action (Patten, 2017).

This approach can involve mixed methods, but is generally qualitative because it usually involves the study of a specific case study wherein the researcher works, e.g. a teacher studying their own classroom practice to seek ways they can improve.

Action research is very common in fields like education and nursing where practitioners identify areas for improvement then implement a study in order to find paths forward.

Action Research Example

Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing   by Ellison and Drew was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

7. Natural Observational Research

Observational research can also be quantitative (see: experimental research), but in naturalistic settings for the social sciences, researchers tend to employ qualitative data collection methods like interviews and field notes to observe people in their day-to-day environments.

This approach involves the observation and detailed recording of behaviors in their natural settings (Howitt, 2019). It can provide rich, in-depth information, but the researcher’s presence might influence behavior.

While observational research has some overlaps with ethnography (especially in regard to data collection techniques), it tends not to be as sustained as ethnography, e.g. a researcher might do 5 observations, every second Monday, as opposed to being embedded in an environment.

Observational Research Example

A researcher might use qualitative observational research to study the behaviors and interactions of children at a playground. The researcher would document the behaviors observed, such as the types of games played, levels of cooperation , and instances of conflict.

8. Case Study Research

Case study research is a qualitative method that involves a deep and thorough investigation of a single individual, group, or event in order to explore facets of that phenomenon that cannot be captured using other methods (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

Case study research is especially valuable in providing contextualized insights into specific issues, facilitating the application of abstract theories to real-world situations (Patten, 2017).

However, findings from a case study may not be generalizable due to the specific context and the limited number of cases studied (Walliman, 2021).

See More: Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

Example of a Case Study

Scholars conduct a detailed exploration of the implementation of a new teaching method within a classroom setting. The study focuses on how the teacher and students adapt to the new method, the challenges encountered, and the outcomes on student performance and engagement. While the study provides specific and detailed insights of the teaching method in that classroom, it cannot be generalized to other classrooms, as statistical significance has not been established through this qualitative approach.

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research methods involve the systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques (Pajo, 2022). The focus is on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.

9. Experimental Research

Experimental research is a quantitative method where researchers manipulate one variable to determine its effect on another (Walliman, 2021).

This is common, for example, in high-school science labs, where students are asked to introduce a variable into a setting in order to examine its effect.

This type of research is useful in situations where researchers want to determine causal relationships between variables. However, experimental conditions may not reflect real-world conditions.

Example of Experimental Research

A researcher may conduct an experiment to determine the effects of a new educational approach on student learning outcomes. Students would be randomly assigned to either the control group (traditional teaching method) or the experimental group (new educational approach).

10. Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires are quantitative methods that involve asking research participants structured and predefined questions to collect data about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or characteristics (Patten, 2017).

Surveys are beneficial for collecting data from large samples, but they depend heavily on the honesty and accuracy of respondents.

They tend to be seen as more authoritative than their qualitative counterparts, semi-structured interviews, because the data is quantifiable (e.g. a questionnaire where information is presented on a scale from 1 to 10 can allow researchers to determine and compare statistical means, averages, and variations across sub-populations in the study).

Example of a Survey Study

A company might use a survey to gather data about employee job satisfaction across its offices worldwide. Employees would be asked to rate various aspects of their job satisfaction on a Likert scale. While this method provides a broad overview, it may lack the depth of understanding possible with other methods (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

11. Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal studies involve repeated observations of the same variables over extended periods (Howitt, 2019). These studies are valuable for tracking development and change but can be costly and time-consuming.

With multiple data points collected over extended periods, it’s possible to examine continuous changes within things like population dynamics or consumer behavior. This makes a detailed analysis of change possible.

Perhaps the most relatable example of a longitudinal study is a national census, which is taken on the same day every few years, to gather comparative demographic data that can show how a nation is changing over time.

While longitudinal studies are commonly quantitative, there are also instances of qualitative ones as well, such as the famous 7 Up study from the UK, which studies 14 individuals every 7 years to explore their development over their lives.

Example of a Longitudinal Study

A national census, taken every few years, uses surveys to develop longitudinal data, which is then compared and analyzed to present accurate trends over time. Trends a census can reveal include changes in religiosity, values and attitudes on social issues, and much more.

12. Cross-Sectional Studies

Cross-sectional studies are a quantitative research method that involves analyzing data from a population at a specific point in time (Patten, 2017). They provide a snapshot of a situation but cannot determine causality.

This design is used to measure and compare the prevalence of certain characteristics or outcomes in different groups within the sampled population.

The major advantage of cross-sectional design is its ability to measure a wide range of variables simultaneously without needing to follow up with participants over time.

However, cross-sectional studies do have limitations . This design can only show if there are associations or correlations between different variables, but cannot prove cause and effect relationships, temporal sequence, changes, and trends over time.

Example of a Cross-Sectional Study

Our longitudinal study example of a national census also happens to contain cross-sectional design. One census is cross-sectional, displaying only data from one point in time. But when a census is taken once every few years, it becomes longitudinal, and so long as the data collection technique remains unchanged, identification of changes will be achievable, adding another time dimension on top of a basic cross-sectional study.

13. Correlational Research

Correlational research is a quantitative method that seeks to determine if and to what degree a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables (Schweigert, 2021).

This approach provides a fast and easy way to make initial hypotheses based on either positive or  negative correlation trends  that can be observed within dataset.

While correlational research can reveal relationships between variables, it cannot establish causality.

Methods used for data analysis may include statistical correlations such as Pearson’s or Spearman’s.

Example of Correlational Research

A team of researchers is interested in studying the relationship between the amount of time students spend studying and their academic performance. They gather data from a high school, measuring the number of hours each student studies per week and their grade point averages (GPAs) at the end of the semester. Upon analyzing the data, they find a positive correlation, suggesting that students who spend more time studying tend to have higher GPAs.

14. Quasi-Experimental Design Research

Quasi-experimental design research is a quantitative research method that is similar to experimental design but lacks the element of random assignment to treatment or control.

Instead, quasi-experimental designs typically rely on certain other methods to control for extraneous variables.

The term ‘quasi-experimental’ implies that the experiment resembles a true experiment, but it is not exactly the same because it doesn’t meet all the criteria for a ‘true’ experiment, specifically in terms of control and random assignment.

Quasi-experimental design is useful when researchers want to study a causal hypothesis or relationship, but practical or ethical considerations prevent them from manipulating variables and randomly assigning participants to conditions.

Example of Quasi-Experimental Design

A researcher wants to study the impact of a new math tutoring program on student performance. However, ethical and practical constraints prevent random assignment to the “tutoring” and “no tutoring” groups. Instead, the researcher compares students who chose to receive tutoring (experimental group) to similar students who did not choose to receive tutoring (control group), controlling for other variables like grade level and previous math performance.

Related: Examples and Types of Random Assignment in Research

15. Meta-Analysis Research

Meta-analysis statistically combines the results of multiple studies on a specific topic to yield a more precise estimate of the effect size. It’s the gold standard of secondary research .

Meta-analysis is particularly useful when there are numerous studies on a topic, and there is a need to integrate the findings to draw more reliable conclusions.

Some meta-analyses can identify flaws or gaps in a corpus of research, when can be highly influential in academic research, despite lack of primary data collection.

However, they tend only to be feasible when there is a sizable corpus of high-quality and reliable studies into a phenomenon.

Example of a Meta-Analysis

The power of feedback revisited (Wisniewski, Zierer & Hattie, 2020) is a meta-analysis that examines 435 empirical studies research on the effects of feedback on student learning. They use a random-effects model to ascertain whether there is a clear effect size across the literature. The authors find that feedback tends to impact cognitive and motor skill outcomes but has less of an effect on motivational and behavioral outcomes.

Choosing a research method requires a lot of consideration regarding what you want to achieve, your research paradigm, and the methodology that is most valuable for what you are studying. There are multiple types of research methods, many of which I haven’t been able to present here. Generally, it’s recommended that you work with an experienced researcher or research supervisor to identify a suitable research method for your study at hand.

Hammond, M., & Wellington, J. (2020). Research methods: The key concepts . New York: Routledge.

Howitt, D. (2019). Introduction to qualitative research methods in psychology . London: Pearson UK.

Pajo, B. (2022). Introduction to research methods: A hands-on approach . New York: Sage Publications.

Patten, M. L. (2017). Understanding research methods: An overview of the essentials . New York: Sage

Schweigert, W. A. (2021). Research methods in psychology: A handbook . Los Angeles: Waveland Press.

Stokes, P., & Wall, T. (2017). Research methods . New York: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Tracy, S. J. (2019). Qualitative research methods: Collecting evidence, crafting analysis, communicating impact . London: John Wiley & Sons.

Walliman, N. (2021). Research methods: The basics. London: Routledge.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Reference management. Clean and simple.

Types of research papers

Analytical research paper

Argumentative or persuasive paper, definition paper, compare and contrast paper, cause and effect paper, interpretative paper, experimental research paper, survey research paper, frequently asked questions about the different types of research papers, related articles.

There are multiple different types of research papers. It is important to know which type of research paper is required for your assignment, as each type of research paper requires different preparation. Below is a list of the most common types of research papers.

➡️ Read more:  What is a research paper?

In an analytical research paper you:

• pose a question
• collect relevant data from other researchers
• analyze their different viewpoints

You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic. It is important to stay neutral and not show your own negative or positive position on the matter.

The argumentative paper presents two sides of a controversial issue in one paper. It is aimed at getting the reader on the side of your point of view.

You should include and cite findings and arguments of different researchers on both sides of the issue, but then favor one side over the other and try to persuade the reader of your side. Your arguments should not be too emotional though, they still need to be supported with logical facts and statistical data.

Tip: Avoid expressing too much emotion in a persuasive paper.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information. You should include facts from a variety of sources, but leave those facts unanalyzed.

Compare and contrast papers are used to analyze the difference between two:

Make sure to sufficiently describe both sides in the paper, and then move on to comparing and contrasting both thesis and supporting one.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students write. They trace probable or expected results from a specific action and answer the main questions "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes.

In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

An interpretative paper requires you to use knowledge that you have gained from a particular case study, for example a legal situation in law studies. You need to write the paper based on an established theoretical framework and use valid supporting data to back up your statement and conclusion.

This type of research paper basically describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like:

Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions. You need to describe your experiment with supporting data and then analyze it sufficiently.

This research paper demands the conduction of a survey that includes asking questions to respondents. The conductor of the survey then collects all the information from the survey and analyzes it to present it in the research paper.

➡️ Ready to start your research paper? Take a look at our guide on how to start a research paper .

In an analytical research paper, you pose a question and then collect relevant data from other researchers to analyze their different viewpoints. You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students are confronted with. The answer questions like "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes. In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

This type of research paper describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like biology, chemistry or physics. Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions.

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 6. The Methodology
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

• Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
• Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
• In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
• The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
• The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
• The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
• In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

• The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
• The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II.  Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

• Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
• Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
• The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
• The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

• Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
• Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
• Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
• Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
• Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
• Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
• Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
• Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE :   Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE : If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE :   If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III.  Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

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• Research Process

Choosing the Right Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers

• 3 minute read
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Table of Contents

Choosing an optimal research methodology is crucial for the success of any research project. The methodology you select will determine the type of data you collect, how you collect it, and how you analyse it. Understanding the different types of research methods available along with their strengths and weaknesses, is thus imperative to make an informed decision.

Understanding different research methods:

There are several research methods available depending on the type of study you are conducting, i.e., whether it is laboratory-based, clinical, epidemiological, or survey based . Some common methodologies include qualitative research, quantitative research, experimental research, survey-based research, and action research. Each method can be opted for and modified, depending on the type of research hypotheses and objectives.

Qualitative vs quantitative research:

When deciding on a research methodology, one of the key factors to consider is whether your research will be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative research is used to understand people’s experiences, concepts, thoughts, or behaviours . Quantitative research, on the contrary, deals with numbers, graphs, and charts, and is used to test or confirm hypotheses, assumptions, and theories. 

Qualitative research methodology:

Qualitative research is often used to examine issues that are not well understood, and to gather additional insights on these topics. Qualitative research methods include open-ended survey questions, observations of behaviours described through words, and reviews of literature that has explored similar theories and ideas. These methods are used to understand how language is used in real-world situations, identify common themes or overarching ideas, and describe and interpret various texts. Data analysis for qualitative research typically includes discourse analysis, thematic analysis, and textual analysis. 

Quantitative research methodology:

The goal of quantitative research is to test hypotheses, confirm assumptions and theories, and determine cause-and-effect relationships. Quantitative research methods include experiments, close-ended survey questions, and countable and numbered observations. Data analysis for quantitative research relies heavily on statistical methods.

Analysing qualitative vs quantitative data:

The methods used for data analysis also differ for qualitative and quantitative research. As mentioned earlier, quantitative data is generally analysed using statistical methods and does not leave much room for speculation. It is more structured and follows a predetermined plan. In quantitative research, the researcher starts with a hypothesis and uses statistical methods to test it. Contrarily, methods used for qualitative data analysis can identify patterns and themes within the data, rather than provide statistical measures of the data. It is an iterative process, where the researcher goes back and forth trying to gauge the larger implications of the data through different perspectives and revising the analysis if required.

When to use qualitative vs quantitative research:

The choice between qualitative and quantitative research will depend on the gap that the research project aims to address, and specific objectives of the study. If the goal is to establish facts about a subject or topic, quantitative research is an appropriate choice. However, if the goal is to understand people’s experiences or perspectives, qualitative research may be more suitable. 

Conclusion:

In conclusion, an understanding of the different research methods available, their applicability, advantages, and disadvantages is essential for making an informed decision on the best methodology for your project. If you need any additional guidance on which research methodology to opt for, you can head over to Elsevier Author Services (EAS). EAS experts will guide you throughout the process and help you choose the perfect methodology for your research goals.

Why is data validation important in research?

When Data Speak, Listen: Importance of Data Collection and Analysis Methods

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• How to Write Your Methods

Ensure understanding, reproducibility and replicability

What should you include in your methods section, and how much detail is appropriate?

Why Methods Matter

The methods section was once the most likely part of a paper to be unfairly abbreviated, overly summarized, or even relegated to hard-to-find sections of a publisher’s website. While some journals may responsibly include more detailed elements of methods in supplementary sections, the movement for increased reproducibility and rigor in science has reinstated the importance of the methods section. Methods are now viewed as a key element in establishing the credibility of the research being reported, alongside the open availability of data and results.

A clear methods section impacts editorial evaluation and readers’ understanding, and is also the backbone of transparency and replicability.

For example, the Reproducibility Project: Cancer Biology project set out in 2013 to replicate experiments from 50 high profile cancer papers, but revised their target to 18 papers once they understood how much methodological detail was not contained in the original papers.

What to include in your methods section

What you include in your methods sections depends on what field you are in and what experiments you are performing. However, the general principle in place at the majority of journals is summarized well by the guidelines at PLOS ONE : “The Materials and Methods section should provide enough detail to allow suitably skilled investigators to fully replicate your study. ” The emphases here are deliberate: the methods should enable readers to understand your paper, and replicate your study. However, there is no need to go into the level of detail that a lay-person would require—the focus is on the reader who is also trained in your field, with the suitable skills and knowledge to attempt a replication.

A constant principle of rigorous science

A methods section that enables other researchers to understand and replicate your results is a constant principle of rigorous, transparent, and Open Science. Aim to be thorough, even if a particular journal doesn’t require the same level of detail . Reproducibility is all of our responsibility. You cannot create any problems by exceeding a minimum standard of information. If a journal still has word-limits—either for the overall article or specific sections—and requires some methodological details to be in a supplemental section, that is OK as long as the extra details are searchable and findable .

Imagine replicating your own work, years in the future

As part of PLOS’ presentation on Reproducibility and Open Publishing (part of UCSF’s Reproducibility Series ) we recommend planning the level of detail in your methods section by imagining you are writing for your future self, replicating your own work. When you consider that you might be at a different institution, with different account logins, applications, resources, and access levels—you can help yourself imagine the level of specificity that you yourself would require to redo the exact experiment. Consider:

• Which details would you need to be reminded of? 
• Which cell line, or antibody, or software, or reagent did you use, and does it have a Research Resource ID (RRID) that you can cite?
• Which version of a questionnaire did you use in your survey? 
• Exactly which visual stimulus did you show participants, and is it publicly available? 
• What participants did you decide to exclude? 
• What process did you adjust, during your work? 

Tip: Be sure to capture any changes to your protocols

You yourself would want to know about any adjustments, if you ever replicate the work, so you can surmise that anyone else would want to as well. Even if a necessary adjustment you made was not ideal, transparency is the key to ensuring this is not regarded as an issue in the future. It is far better to transparently convey any non-optimal methods, or methodological constraints, than to conceal them, which could result in reproducibility or ethical issues downstream.

Visual aids for methods help when reading the whole paper

Consider whether a visual representation of your methods could be appropriate or aid understanding your process. A visual reference readers can easily return to, like a flow-diagram, decision-tree, or checklist, can help readers to better understand the complete article, not just the methods section.

Ethical Considerations

In addition to describing what you did, it is just as important to assure readers that you also followed all relevant ethical guidelines when conducting your research. While ethical standards and reporting guidelines are often presented in a separate section of a paper, ensure that your methods and protocols actually follow these guidelines. Read more about ethics .

Existing standards, checklists, guidelines, partners

While the level of detail contained in a methods section should be guided by the universal principles of rigorous science outlined above, various disciplines, fields, and projects have worked hard to design and develop consistent standards, guidelines, and tools to help with reporting all types of experiment. Below, you’ll find some of the key initiatives. Ensure you read the submission guidelines for the specific journal you are submitting to, in order to discover any further journal- or field-specific policies to follow, or initiatives/tools to utilize.

Tip: Keep your paper moving forward by providing the proper paperwork up front

Be sure to check the journal guidelines and provide the necessary documents with your manuscript submission. Collecting the necessary documentation can greatly slow the first round of peer review, or cause delays when you submit your revision.

Randomized Controlled Trials – CONSORT The Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) project covers various initiatives intended to prevent the problems of  inadequate reporting of randomized controlled trials. The primary initiative is an evidence-based minimum set of recommendations for reporting randomized trials known as the CONSORT Statement . 

Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses – PRISMA The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses ( PRISMA ) is an evidence-based minimum set of items focusing  on the reporting of  reviews evaluating randomized trials and other types of research.

Research using Animals – ARRIVE The Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments ( ARRIVE ) guidelines encourage maximizing the information reported in research using animals thereby minimizing unnecessary studies. (Original study and proposal , and updated guidelines , in PLOS Biology .) 

Laboratory Protocols Protocols.io has developed a platform specifically for the sharing and updating of laboratory protocols , which are assigned their own DOI and can be linked from methods sections of papers to enhance reproducibility. Contextualize your protocol and improve discovery with an accompanying Lab Protocol article in PLOS ONE .

Consistent reporting of Materials, Design, and Analysis – the MDAR checklist A cross-publisher group of editors and experts have developed, tested, and rolled out a checklist to help establish and harmonize reporting standards in the Life Sciences . The checklist , which is available for use by authors to compile their methods, and editors/reviewers to check methods, establishes a minimum set of requirements in transparent reporting and is adaptable to any discipline within the Life Sciences, by covering a breadth of potentially relevant methodological items and considerations. If you are in the Life Sciences and writing up your methods section, try working through the MDAR checklist and see whether it helps you include all relevant details into your methods, and whether it reminded you of anything you might have missed otherwise.

Summary Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your methods is keeping it readable AND covering all the details needed for reproducibility and replicability. While this is difficult, do not compromise on rigorous standards for credibility!

• Keep in mind future replicability, alongside understanding and readability.
• Follow checklists, and field- and journal-specific guidelines.
• Consider a commitment to rigorous and transparent science a personal responsibility, and not just adhering to journal guidelines.
• Establish whether there are persistent identifiers for any research resources you use that can be specifically cited in your methods section.
• Deposit your laboratory protocols in Protocols.io, establishing a permanent link to them. You can update your protocols later if you improve on them, as can future scientists who follow your protocols.
• Consider visual aids like flow-diagrams, lists, to help with reading other sections of the paper.
• Be specific about all decisions made during the experiments that someone reproducing your work would need to know.

Don’t

• Summarize or abbreviate methods without giving full details in a discoverable supplemental section.
• Presume you will always be able to remember how you performed the experiments, or have access to private or institutional notebooks and resources.
• Attempt to hide constraints or non-optimal decisions you had to make–transparency is the key to ensuring the credibility of your research.
• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
• How to Edit Your Work

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The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

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Academic Paper: Methodology

8 min read • march 13, 2023

Dylan Black

Introduction

Now that we've finished our introduction and lit review and you are officially an expert™️ in your topic of inquiry, we can finally get started on planning out what exactly it is you're planning on doing! While this may seem like a simple task, many AP Research students consider the Methodology section of the paper to be the most laborious and at times the most difficult part of the paper.

Furthermore, your method is completely unique to your paper. This is because, for completely different topics, the methods used within those disciplines will differ entirely. In some of the harder sciences (ie. chemistry, physics, biology) you are more likely to use a formal experiment whereas, in the humanities, qualitative methods like interviews and content analyses are much more common.

However, in figuring out the best research method for your research, not only will you have to think "what is the best way of solving this problem/answering this question?" but you will ALSO have to remember to look back at your sources from your literature review and see how those sources designed their methods. This will come in handy a bit later when we discuss justifying your methodology .

Image from GIPHY

Types of Research Methods

In Research, you will be presented with so so so many different types of research methods ranging from observatory studies to content analyses to experiments . In this guide, because of the sheer magnitude of how many methodologies there are, we'll be talking about two major subsets of research and describe a few methods that you may want to look into. Again, do what is best for your project and what applies most to your discipline.

Quantitative Methods

According to the University of South Carolina, " Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data" ( USC ). In essence, quantitative methods are methods that rely more on numbers and less on "soft" evidence, so to speak. This means substantiating claims, not just through the method results, but by performing analysis on data to prove formally, usually through the use of statistical tools, your assertions.

Descriptions of quantitative methods usually involve three main parts:

The study population and sampling

Which people, places, things are you studying and what is the sample size?

The data collected/the tools for data collection

What specifically are you collecting and how will you be collecting it?

Data analysis

How did you take the raw data (the pure numbers) and analyze it in such a way that it proves your hypothesis?

Discipline wise, quantitative methods lend themselves to the sciences and social sciences, with experiments as the typical quantitative method. However, another popular quantitative method involves surveys , specifically surveys with fixed results like multiple choice questions, not open-ended responses, though you can have a combination, this just means your method is more mixed .

Qualitative Methods

While quantitative methods fixate mostly on numbers , qualitative methods fixate on non-numerical, and less "hard", data. According to USC, qualitative methods differentiate from quantitative methods in that they "are not experimentally examined or measured [if measured at all] in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency". This means that a qualitative study will not focus as heavily on numbers and will rather focus on more abstract, but still concrete, analysis of things like content.

Note that just because a study is qualitative does not mean that its results are A) easier to write or B) are less rigorous. The results from a qualitative study, while less statistically concrete, are still required to be incredibly backed, supported, and thought out. Many people consider non-numerical studies to be less rigorous because "numbers never lie" so to speak, but in fact, quantitative studies can have many issues with credibility, some that can't be applied to qualitative studies.

Qualitative methods typically revolve around some form of content. Whether this content involves collected responses, from things like interviews and/or surveys , or a formal content analysis where a researcher uses coding , a way of breaking down content, to do an in-depth analysis. (disconnected from programming 🖥️)

Qualitative research lends itself to the humanities and social sciences, such as in literature, film analysis, historical research, and other very document and content-heavy fields. Furthermore, if you are collecting any sort of "wordy" responses, such as long responses in a survey and interview responses, your method is more than likely going to incorporate some form of qualitative analysis .

Ethics of Experimentation and the IRB

Many AP Research students perform studies that involve human subjects. This means that you must abide by the rules of ethical experimentation . Note that, even if you aren't doing an experiment, if you have human subjects, ethics will 100% play a role in your methodological design. In this section, we'll go over some of the key points of ethics and describe what an IRB (Institutional Review Board) is.

The first, and most obvious, ethical principle to abide by is " do no harm ". Basically, don't design an experiment that could cause direct harm, both physical and/or psychological, to your participants. While accidents do happen, and are often not fully under the researcher's control, making explicit note not to deliberately cause harm is important.

Voluntary Participation Being Open and Honest

Furthermore, your participants must voluntarily participate in your study. This doesn't just mean having your participants visually and verbally agree, you must get written permission for participants to take part in a study. When you receive written permission from a participant, however, they still retain the right to stop participating at any time during your experiment or study.

Therefore, if you are observing a human subject and they express a desire to leave or to stop whatever you are performing, you are obligated to let them leave. It's important to note at this point that written permission carries over to minors . However, because signatures by a minor are not legally binding, you also need permission from a parental figure to conduct your research.

There have been studies in the past where voluntary participation has not been taken into account, and this has led to ethically disastrous studies. For example, in the Stanford prison experiment , psychology professor Philip Zimbardo conducted a study involving participants labeled as guards and prisoners. In this experiment, the guards were given almost absolute power over prisoners, leading to many prisoners being physically harmed. However, despite ethical principles involving voluntary participation , the experiment was continued, even after participants expressed their desire to withdraw.

It's also important to be open and honest with your participants. This means making sure that your participants are aware of what it is you are studying, the results you expect, and other details about the experiment that otherwise they would not know. However, you may also deceive your participants if their knowledge of the experiment would skew your results.

For example, let's suppose you were doing an experiment on anger and frustration in board games, and your experiment involved an unsolvable puzzle. It is necessary that your participants do not know the details of what you are studying and how you are studying it, otherwise, their reactions will not be accurate.

Confidentiality

Finally, the confidentiality of your participants is an ethical point to make. Despite collecting information from individuals, you may not reveal whose responses are whose and display identifying information in your results section. Identifying information includes names, email addresses, physical addresses, and anything else that can be used to tie a response to an individual person.

IRB Approval

When you perform a study based on human participants, it is necessary that your methodology is approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB). An IRB is a panel, of usually five people, who read a request for a methodology and give it one of three "ratings" (they will not use these terms specifically, but they will align to them):

A green light- you are A-OK to get started on your research

A yellow-light- you need to make a few adjustments

A red-light- you either need to start from scratch or make major changes to your experiment for it to be ethical.

Making an IRB proposal typically involves a written application and, sometimes, a short presentation, though this will depend on how your school handles IRBs.

Writing a Method Section

Be explicit and specific.

When writing your method section, being explicit in what you will be doing is, quite honestly, the most important part. The main goal of your method section is to get across exactly what you will be doing to answer your research question. Therefore, you must be incredibly specific when writing because your reader should be able to understand precisely how you performed your research.

Another important role of the method section is to make your research replicable . This means that if a researcher were to read your paper and wanted to re-create your study for whatever reason, they know exactly what steps you took and why you took them.

Justify Your Method With Research

Another important note for your method section is that everything you plan to do must be justified in some way shape or form by already existing research. This means using the little-r research you employed in your literature review to explain:

Why your proposed method aligns with methods used by previous researchers

Why it will accurately solve your problem or answer your question

This point is often glossed over by Research students because to them, their method is obvious and will work, but to readers, this simply is not true. Because of this, it is key to the effectiveness of your method section that you justify and logically support your method.

Closing Thoughts

Congratulations! You now know everything you need to know about designing a methodology and writing a methods section in your research paper. Once you write this section, you're officially over the hump and are over halfway done with your paper! It's also at this point that you transition formally from little-r research to big-R research, which is super super exciting! Good luck, and now that you have a method...

Key Terms to Review ( 16 )

Content analyses

Data Analysis

Data collection

Do No Harm principle

Ethical experimentation

Experiments

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Methodology

Qualitative Analysis

Study population

Voluntary Participation

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Although research paper assignments may vary widely, there are essentially two basic types of research papers. These are argumentative and analytical .

Argumentative

In an argumentative research paper, a student both states the topic they will be exploring and immediately establishes the position they will argue regarding that topic in a thesis statement . This type of paper hopes to persuade its reader to adopt the view presented.

 Example : a paper that argues the merits of early exposure to reading for children would be an argumentative essay.

An analytical research paper states the topic that the writer will be exploring, usually in the form of a question, initially taking a neutral stance. The body of the paper will present multifaceted information and, ultimately, the writer will state their conclusion, based on the information that has unfolded throughout the course of the essay. This type of paper hopes to offer a well-supported critical analysis without necessarily persuading the reader to any particular way of thinking.

Example : a paper that explores the use of metaphor in one of Shakespeare's sonnets would be an example of an analytical essay.

*Please note that this LibGuide will primarily be concerning itself with argumentative or rhetorical research papers.

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Guide

Different Types of Research Papers

• According to the purpose
• According to the depth of scope
• According to the data type
• According to variables manipulation
• According to the type of inference
• According to the time in which it is carried out
• According to the sources of information
• According to how the data is obtained
• According to design
• Other research paper types

Types of research papers

As a way to make your journey through the research-type paper options a bit easier, let’s divide them by types of work.

According to the purpose:

• Theoretical. Theoretical research type is one of the most popular types of research paper as it has a clear focus. If you have to work with this type, your main objective is to generate all currently available. Even if it has no practical appliance (like in Engineering or design), you must use it anyway. You must collect data and make sure that your target audience understands what your research is about and what theory it follows. Most of such research papers will relate to theories and basic analytical work.
• Applied. This research type stands for something that can be approached scientifically based on practice. The aim here is to generate practical skills. It’s essential in Engineering, Healthcare, and Biology. For such types of papers, one can alternate between technological or scientific types of research, depending on your aims. A technological approach will be fitting if you wish to improve some processes. Now, the scientific research type would include prediction as you work with variables and design things.

According to the depth of scope:

• Exploratory. It is most suitable for research type papers where you have to explore a not-well-known subject. Start with making a hypothesis and developing research. It can be an investigation talking about the role of video games in the development of teenagers.
• Descriptive. This type of research is where you must describe certain characteristics or discuss specifics of some belief or an event. You may not have to research why something has caused these characteristic traits. You must describe and talk about how some things may change IF this or that takes place.
• Explanatory. It’s one of the popular research methods since one has to analyze specific methodologies and help the target audience trace the cause-and-effect relations. It is close to descriptive writing by nature. Still, you must create a research environment since your findings may have to be re-created by others.
• Correlational. This is where you identify the link between two or more variables. You must focus on determining whether certain research variables will be affected and see whether something is systematic regarding these changes (correlational research methodology).

According to the data type:

• Qualitative . It’s used to collect, evaluate, and explain information based on obtained information. It means you have to approach a linguistic-semiotic method to things as you research. You can turn to analysis, interviews, questionnaires, and personal surveys. This is where statistical data helps! You must ask yourself “why” instead of “how.”
• Quantitative. Such types of papers to write belong to one of the most challenging cases because quantitative stands for mathematical (think MATLAB) and computer-based software to check things. It also makes it possible to create a prognosis, which is why this type of research is usually met in engineering.
• Mixed. It’s also possible to use both methodologies if you can support your research type assignment with source information and personal examples. If you are dealing with Psychology or Experimental study, use surveys and aid yourself with AI-based evaluation tools.

According to variables manipulation:

• Experimental. Contrary to its title, you do not have to experiment per se. It’s about the design or replication of things you research. It means you have to re-create specific research conditions to discover what effects are caused by given variables. It’s where you primarily use case studies and sample groups.
• Non-experimental. They often call this research type an observational study. It means that you have to provide analysis in its natural environment. You do not have to intervene in the process but consider turning to descriptive writing. This research may include observation of animals in their natural habitat or the use of the noise effect in the urban environment.
• Quasi-experimental. These types of academic papers are not purely experimental, as you only work with two or three variables. Another aspect of this research is based on randomly chosen variables. It helps to decrease the bias in your study. It also helps to focus on relevant data and allows us to narrow things down.

According to the type of inference:

• Deductive. It means the research is basically fixed since one has to focus on laws and things that can or cannot be. It helps to come to certain conclusions. As you look at the research problem, you use deduction to create your considerations. If you make assumptions and develop reliable evidence, this work method suits you.
• Inductive. It’s one of the flexible methods to think about. The reason why it’s flexible is the way inductive research is generated. You conclude by observing and generalizing while different kinds of research occur. You have to collect data over a period, which makes the process less fixed.
• Hypothetical-deductive approach. You have to make a hypothesis for your research work and use deduction methods to come up with a conclusion. The major difference is that a researcher also takes time to evaluate whether things are correct.

According to the time in which it is carried out:

• Longitudinal. You might know this type of work as diachronic research. Despite the complex name, it focuses on the same issue or an event where a fixed period is taken. It has to track certain changes based on variables. It’s one of the most popular research papers in Healthcare, Nursing, Sociology, Psychology, and Education.
• Cross-sectional. Also known as synchronous research, it is the type of work that approaches cross-sectional design. Here, you have to look at some event or a process at a certain point by taking notes. Thus, research can be used both for sample groups or when working with a case study.

According to the sources of information:

• Primary. Most students are asked to use primary sources. It is exactly why we have a primary research paper method. The data must be collected directly (personal interviews, surveys, questionnaires, a field observation study, etc.) and represent first-hand information. It is perfect for papers in Psychology, Journalism, Healthcare, and subjects where accuracy is vital.
• Secondary. This research type of work is mainly developed with sources that represent secondary references. These include books in print or found online, scientific journals, peer-reviewed documents, etc. If another expert or a student reviews a study, it is related to secondary research; so will your project.

According to how the data is obtained:

• Documentary. As the name suggests, documentary research is based on the secondary references you used. It is a systematic review where you turn to secondary sources related to your subject of study. The most prominent types of research projects in this area are writing a literature review or working with a case study. It is one of the most accessible and clear types of research work.
• Field. It is quite popular research these days as students tend to collect information in the field or at the location where something takes place. Think about researching Fashion Studies where you attend the shows or exploring Environmental Science, where you must observe a phenomenon and take notes.
• Laboratory. The major difference in laboratory research type is working in a strictly-controlled environment where study notes are taken immediately. You must isolate unnecessary variables and use one or two scientific methods. Therefore, such type of research writing is called laboratory research. If your college professor asks for this assignment, consider keeping up with standards and rules.
• Survey. This is where you have to work with the primary information or the use of first-hand data you obtain yourself. It is especially helpful when you work with a group to obtain variables. With this research type, you can also come up with certain conclusions to support your hypothesis and thesis statement.

According to design:

• Fixed. When conducting a fixed research type, narrow things down and focus on temporal aspects. It means you have to discuss how often you will evaluate something, where your research will occur, a sample group, and other fixed variables. Working on fixed types of research reports, creating precise conditions, and follow strict protocols. Such research is related chiefly to lab reports or laboratory works mostly used in Healthcare and/or Law.
• Flexible. Now, the flexible research type will provide you with a process where certain things will change as you take step after step in your research. The examples may include case studies where you have to observe the changes that may take over time. Another example would relate to Anthropology or Geography, where you have to observe a group of people or deal with a cross-cultural analysis. It can also relate to grounded-theory studies, where you should develop theoretical knowledge based on analysis and your thinking.

Other research paper types:

• Argumentative. Also known as a persuasive research type paper, you have to persuade your target audience on your side and a point of view. You have to use at least one piece of evidence (references) to prove your point and support your argument. You must talk about different research opinions and show why your side is correct.
• Analytical. Analytical research papers should always pose a problem and collect relevant information. You can look at another researcher’s works and provide an analysis based on various points of view. The main types of research papers include analysis and must keep the tone analytical and remain neutral without showing your thoughts unless only to guide the reader.
• Definition. This research type requires describing the facts or arguments without using anything based on your opinion or an emotional constituent. You only have to offer information by including facts, yet let your data remain without analysis or bias.
• Action-based. This research type assignment must conduct your work based on a process or a certain action causing things. It can also lead to social processes where a person’s actions have led to something. It can be some research about social movements and/or manufacturing processes.
• Causal. It may relate to cause-and-effect papers where you must focus on the causes. This research type has to address the questions and explore the causes. It can be based on case studies related to business, education, environmental, educational issues, and more.
• Classification. If you have to classify, compare, and contrast things, this method will be helpful. Start with the standards and the rules by setting your classification type immediately. Once you know it, your research paper will go smoothly.
• Comparative. As a rule, this research will deal with comparative work where you take a methodology and compare two sample groups, two individuals, different beliefs, or situations. If you have to compare, discuss your objectives and then create two columns to determine differences and similarities.

What research paper type is most suitable for me?

It will always depend on the research paper objectives you wish to achieve. If you need clarification on the research type you must approach, consult your academic advisor or look closely at your grading rubric. If it says that you must develop an analytical study, it will require posing a specific research question or a problem. The next step would be to collect information on a topic and provide an analysis based on various points of view.

Likewise, if your grading rubric has the word “definition” mentioned, your research type paper must focus on the facts or argumentation. In this case, you should not provide your opinion or talk about what some author thinks. Only the definition of an object or belief is necessary.

As you can see, you only have to find out what your research must achieve. Set the purpose and look at the different types of research and possible methods to approach your problem . Once you know it, look at the research type papers and choose the most fitting option!

• Writing a Research Paper
• Research Paper Title
• Research Paper Sources
• Research Paper Problem Statement
• Research Paper Thesis Statement
• Hypothesis for a Research Paper
• Research Question
• Research Paper Outline
• Research Paper Summary
• Research Paper Prospectus
• Research Paper Proposal
• Research Paper Format
• Research Paper Styles
• AMA Style Research Paper
• MLA Style Research Paper
• Chicago Style Research Paper
• APA Style Research Paper
• Research Paper Structure
• Research Paper Cover Page
• Research Paper Abstract
• Research Paper Introduction
• Research Paper Body Paragraph
• Research Paper Literature Review
• Research Paper Background
• Research Paper Methods Section
• Research Paper Results Section
• Research Paper Discussion Section
• Research Paper Conclusion
• Research Paper Appendix
• Research Paper Bibliography
• APA Reference Page
• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography vs Works Cited vs References Page
• Research Paper Types
• What is Qualitative Research

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What is an Academic Paper? Types and Elements 

Written by students, early career scholars and researchers, an academic paper presents original research findings and case studies with the aim of contributing to the existing body of knowledge on a particular subject. Characterized by their rigorous and systematic approach to research, academic papers contribute to building a researcher’s reputation as an expert within their field, with the number of citations received serving as a measure of the impact that the researcher’s work has had. Unlike other forms of writing, academic papers demand a stringent adherence to specific formats, the use of formal language, and careful attention to detail. Typically, the information shared in academic papers is presented in well-defined sections like title and abstract, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Many types of academic papers are employed for different situations and scopes. Let’s take a look at some of the different types of academic papers. 

Types of academic papers

Academic papers are differentiated based on the context of the paper, its length and structure, its purpose and who it addresses.  

• Research papers  are the most common type of academic paper and present original research, usually conducted by PhD students who conduct in-depth investigations in their chosen field of study.  
• Review papers, or literature reviews are academic papers that provide a comprehensive analysis and synthesis of existing research on a specific topic. They only assess existing literature on a subject and do not involve any empirical experiment. The methodology mentioned in review papers refers to the methods used to collect research.  
• Case studies:   Researchers create this type of academic paper when they want to undertake and present their study on particular subjects, concepts, or incidents. Typically involving reasonably in-depth analysis of a topic, case studies can be beneficial for understanding certain historical events in recent times, such as market crashes or natural disasters, especially for future uses.  
• Position papers:   Academic   papers that present an author’s stance on a particular issue or topic are called position papers. Researchers must present facts and evidence to support their views systematically. This kind of academic paper is commonly used in policy-making and legal professions.  
• Conference papers:  These constitute a summary of any of the above types of academic papers to a length that can be appropriately discussed at a meeting or conference. Conference papers are usually presented when researchers want to introduce a new concept or gather insights from other experts on their work.  
• Theoretical reports:  These are articles written by researchers who are working on formulating new theories based on existing research and provide an in-depth look at a specific topic based on existing literature and theoretical foundations. 

Elements of an academic paper

Research papers are different from fiction writing as they require rigorous citations, adherence to structure and appropriate styles to be accepted in academia. Every research paper has some key elements which make it identifiable as a research paper and make the theme of the paper clearly understood, along with the process involved with the said paper. As such, these rules must be adhered to while writing academic papers. Many publishing journals will have their guidelines, so be prepared to tweak your format in accordance with those guidelines. A typical format consists of the following key elements –  

• Title and Abstract:  The title introduces the topic of the academic paper in a catchy, concise way, while the abstract gives us a summary of the whole paper. The abstract helps readers get an idea about the paper without having to read the entire paper.  
• Introduction:  Usually placed at the start of an academic paper, the introduction enables researchers to better understand the topic of study. It highlights the research question, the scope of the research, its context, and its relevance. 
• Methodology:  This section of the academic paper typically constitutes its main body. Researchers must provide a detailed, step-by-step account of the methodology followed to arrive at the findings. This section is important as it helps readers understand how you arrived at your conclusions and enables them to recreate the experiment—not just to verify the findings but also perhaps to build on it in the future.  
• Results:  Typically placed towards the later part of an academic paper, the results section is where researchers can present their research findings in an accurate and detailed manner. Experts suggest using visual tools like graphs, tables and infographics when sharing numeric data and statistics. The results must be communicated in simple, clear, unambiguous language that readers can easily understand. 
• Discussion:   Sometimes grouped with the results section, the discussion section is where research findings are discussed in detail. Researchers discuss the implications and limitations of their work and share the potential for further research.  
• Conclusion:  The conclusion summarizes the entire academic paper, from the introduction and methodology to the results and discussion. It reinforces key messages and highlights important concepts and themes. 
• References : This section of the academic paper lists the sources of information mentioned in the article as a bibliography so that the reader is able to refer to the sources. Ensuring accuracy in citations is imperative to avoid allegations of plagiarism, even if it was inadvertent. 

Different types of academic papers are employed based on the context of the paper, its length and structure, its purpose, and who it addresses. While each type of academic paper has its unique features, they all share a common set of critical elements that make them identifiable as research papers. By understanding and following these essential elements, researchers can effectively communicate their research findings and make meaningful contributions to their field of study.

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Diversity of Research Methodology : A Guide to Different Types of Research Methodology

• December 9, 2021

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Research is a methodology used by scientists from various fields to experiment with different topics of interest. Researchers do their experiments to either reject or accept a formulated hypothesis or to just study a topic in depth. The conclusions from such are mostly for the betterment of society and to enhance the knowledge about subjects that were not touched many times before. 

Research as a scientific tool helps these researchers to measure sample data with as minimum as possible biases and much higher accuracy rate. This helps them to confidently put forth a conclusion to the society knowing that the data gathered is legit and the results drawn from the studies are systematic and statistically sensible. 

Researchers adopt various methods of research that best suit their study. In this article we will be seeing various types of research methodology that are classified based on their common features and use.

What is the importance of research methodology?

Research methodology offers a systematic and structured framework that helps researchers gather, analyze, and interpret data to evaluate hypotheses. The various types of research methodology ensure that the results are reliable, meaningful, and valid. 

• A well-defined methodology offers credibility to your research findings. 
• It helps establish a clear path for other researchers to replicate the research and validate your result. 
• Different methodologies are suited for different data types and research goals. Choosing the right one ensures you gather precise and accurate data. 
• Selecting the proper research methodology helps optimize resource allocation. It ensures that you effectively utilize the time, budget, and resources to achieve the research objective.

17 Types of research methodology

Research types are classified based on their objective, depth of study, data analysis, time, and cost efficiency. Researchers are likely to use various types in combination for their study. 

Types of research methodology based on PURPOSE

01. Theoretical research

Also known as pure research or basic research. Theoretical research is used when the researcher wants to gather more information about a particular topic without considering its practical work. Such research is used mostly for documentaries and mathematical formulas, which give a better understanding of the subject. 

Example : Social research was conducted to understand the economic mentality of middle-class citizens.

02. Applied research

Applied research works to find a solution to a scientific problem. The main objective is to address the STEM fields, such as engineering, medicine, etc., which are more closely connected to human lives with their actual applications. There are two types of applied research:

• Technological applied research aims to enhance the efficiency of the products through betterments in the technological aspects. 
• Scientific applied research helps to generate a predictive analysis based on the available data, which will be even more helpful in the goods and services sector. 

Example : A business can analyze the customers’ purchase strategies and plan the marketing accordingly.

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Types of research methodology based on the DEPTH OF SCOPE

03. Exploratory research 

As the name suggests, exploratory research is used as a preliminary study for the topics about which there is no deeper knowledge explored yet. It acts as a reference to the further in-depth studies that will emerge from this hypothesis. As it is not a deep study, it focuses more on data collection that will explain the causes of the phenomena. 

Example : A study conducted to understand the relationship between millennials and social media usage. 

04. Descriptive research

This, too, does not go very deep into the phenomena as it just focuses on finding out the characteristics the phenomena show rather than the factors that cause it. Researchers have to make sure they are not disturbing the observed phenomena and causing a change in them. 

Example : investigating the standard of living in rural and urban areas.

05. Explanatory research 

It is most commonly used for establishing the cause-effect relationship between the variables. The results from explanatory research can then be generalized for the rest of the variables. 

Example : understanding a toddler’s behavior while watching cartoons.

Types of research methodology based on the TYPE OF DATA USED 

06. Qualitative research 

Qualitative research is used to collect, compare, and analyze large descriptive data from the sample. This data is often collected through surveys, interviews, and focus groups where people are allowed to express their opinions and thoughts openly to open-ended questions. The data from qualitative research is usually large and needs data labeling or coding while analyzing it. 

Example : Studying the effects of exercise on health

07. Quantitative research 

Quantitative research collects the data through quantitative and close-ended questions, and the data is analyzed using statistics, mathematical, and computerized tools. The data is mostly collected through surveys and it is in the form of numeric values. 

Example : Conducting a survey on the likes and dislikes of the customers regarding clothing. 

Types of research methodology based on MANIPULATION OF VARIABLES

08. Experimental research 

Experimental research starts with replicating a phenomenon in a scientific environment. The variables are tested for the cause-effects on the sample chosen at random by putting them in two groups – a control group and a treatment group. The result is an understood cause-effect relationship between the variables. 

Example : Experiment to test a new drug in the market on patients. 

09. Non-experimental research 

It focuses on experimenting with the population in their natural environment. Also known as an observational study, researchers do not directly intervene in the experiment. As it is observed, it is also used with descriptive research.

Example : A study on the effects of a certain education program on a batch of students. 

10. Quasi-experimental research 

It is very similar to experimental research but the only difference is the sample for the experiment is not selected at random. Since it is a narrowed-down study focusing on a certain kind of population, the sample should be tested and then assigned to the treatment or control group.

Example : A study was conducted to know the effects eating more cheese has on bad breath. 

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Types of research methodology based on TYPE OF INFERENCE

11. Deductive investigation

It focuses on explaining reality with the help of general laws referring to certain conclusions. These conclusions are a part of research problems and are said to be true if the deductive investigation turns out to be applied in the right way.

12. Inductive investigation

It is also an observational study that focuses on achieving generalized results. It collects the data from which new theories can be generated. 

13. Hypothetical-deductive investigation

It first formulates the hypothesis based on basic observation and then uses deductive investigation to conclude the study, which will, in return, reject or accept the hypothesis. 

Types of research methodology based on TIME OF STUDY

14. Longitudinal study 

Also known as Diachronic research, it observes one event, individual, or group at different times. It aims to track the changes in the subject over time. It is generally used in medical, para-medical, and social fields. 

Example : To study the health of a patient under treatment over several weeks. 

15. Cross-sectional study

Also known as Synchronous research, it focuses on observing events, individuals, or groups of subjects over time. 

Types of research methodology based on INFORMATION SOURCES

16. Primary research

This is research that is done from scratch. Researchers themselves gather data that is specific to their study and is more reliable since it is first-hand information. 

17. Secondary research 

This research is conducted on someone else’s work. Researchers use available material like research papers, interviews, and documentaries as a source of data and information in their research. The problem with this is there is no guarantee that the collected information is reliable or not, and there is a chance of getting more irrelevant data outside of the research topic at hand. 

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Advantages of Using Different Types of Research Methodology

Embarking on a research journey involves navigating diverse methodologies, each serving as a unique lens for scrutiny. These approaches not only help achieve research goals but also elevate the entire process to thorough analysis. Let’s explore the advantages of various research methodologies:

• Verification and Fact-Checking: Methodologies act as guardians, providing a structured framework for reliable outcomes.
• Diverse Perspectives: Varied methodologies present unique angles, unraveling nuanced aspects for a comprehensive analysis.
• Quantitative Precision with Surveys: Surveys offer numerical efficiency, bypassing intricacies for streamlined, informed results.
• Qualitative Depth in Case Studies: Qualitative methods, like case studies, dive deep into intricacies, offering insights overlooked by quantitative methods.
• Validation and Generalization: Employing multiple methods ensures cross-verified, consistent results, allowing findings to be applicable to a broader audience.

In the intricate dance of research, these diverse methodologies play a pivotal role, elevating the quality and reliability of discoveries. Researchers, navigating this ever-expanding landscape, unlock new dimensions of understanding, making their findings impactful.

What factors should you consider when selecting the type of research methodology?

To run a research, you don’t just need to know how to analyze data but also identify the suitable method that helps resolve the research problem efficiently with a high degree of accuracy.

1. Define your research objectives: 

You should have a clear and precise idea of the research problem you intend to resolve. A good research question should be valuable and applicable.

2. Know the research type: 

Learn about the types of research methodology available to identify which categories your research falls under. For example, the quantitative method involves gathering statistical data, while the qualitative method focuses on gathering customer’s voices.

3. Create inclusive surveys: 

To ensure your research findings represent the target population, you must ensure that you create inclusive surveys.

4. Survey questions should align with the research problem: 

The questions you ask should address the intended research objective. The responses to each survey question should help test the hypothesis.

When selecting the right research methodology, it’s important to consider the time available for conducting the research.

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In the intriguing realm of research, the different types guide you through the complex landscape of data collection and analysis. The types of research methodology serve as the backbone of acquiring valid data to address problems and test hypotheses. Follow the various types mentioned above, some tips, and their importance, equipping your project with the right methodology and making impactful discoveries.

• What is the research methodology?

Research methodology is a systematic approach used by researchers to plan, conduct, and analyze studies, ensuring reliable and valid results.

• What is a mixed research method?

Answer: In a mixed methods study, researchers collect and analyze quantitative and qualitative data within the same study.

• How do I choose the right research methodology?

Consider your research objectives, data type, and available time, focusing on factors like depth of study, manipulation of variables, and type of inference.

• Can I use multiple research methodologies for a study?

Yes, using a combination of methods enhances verification, fact-checking, and validation, providing more comprehensive and applicable results.

• What is the difference between research methods and research methodology?

While research methods aim to solve a research problem, research methodology evaluates the appropriateness of the methods used. The types of methodology are tools for selecting a research approach, and the methodology assesses the suitability of all approaches and procedures employed in the research.

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• Open access
• Published: 23 March 2024

Evaluating the cross-cultural competence instrument for healthcare professionals (CCCHP) among nurses in Okinawa, Japan

• Chieko Shirai 1 , 2 ,
• Daisuke Nonaka 1 &
• Jun Kobayashi 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  369 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

To provide better quality healthcare services to patients with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, the cross-cultural competence of medical professionals is important. However, assessing and improving the cross-cultural competence of healthcare professionals is difficult in Japan, as there is no standardized scale to measure the competence. This study’s purpose was to translate the Cross-Cultural Competence instrument for Healthcare Professionals (CCCHP), which was developed and used in Europe, and to examine its reliability and validity among Japanese nurses.

During June and July 2021, nursing staff were invited to take web- and paper-based surveys in Okinawa Japan. The CCCHP (five-factor model with 27 items across motivation, attitude, skills, emotion, and knowledge) was translated using a combination translation method, and a five-point Likert scale was used for responses. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and known-group method were used to examine structural validity, while Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used to test reliability.

A total of 294 responses were analyzed; 77.2% had more than five years of experience. Since the fit index indicated that the five-factor model was not a good fit, it was modified to a four-factor model (J-CCCHP24) by moving three variables, removing the knowledge factor, and using the error covariance of the variables. The fit index after the modification was improved to comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.92, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = 0.91, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.05, and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) = 0.06, and Cronbach’s alpha was 0.85. The mean scores of J-CCCHP24 were significantly higher in the group with a history of overseas travel, higher foreign language skill, training in intercultural care, experience of foreign patient care, and intercultural interactions outside the workplace than in the group without these characteristics.

This study confirmed the validity and reliability of the modified Japanese version of the CCCHP (four-factor model with 24 items). The results suggest that the exposure to different cultures on a personal level may help improve nurses' cross-cultural competence. Further refinement of this scale for practical use would encourage the implementation of necessary countermeasures to improve the cross-cultural competence of Japanese healthcare professionals.

Peer Review reports

Foreign patients in Japan have experienced several cultural barriers: when they use Japanese medical services they feel difficulties, such as a lack of attention to their culture, not being able to exercise their right of withdrawal, being approached based on their appearance, and a lack of awareness of implicit understanding [ 1 ]. It has been pointed out that having a low level of cross-cultural competence among healthcare professionals can lead to an exclusionary manner toward foreign patients and an assumption that the Japanese style of care is always correct [ 1 , 2 ]. In order to provide better quality healthcare services to patients with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, the cross-cultural competence of healthcare professionals is important [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. It will help the professionals be aware of the differences in patients' cultural values, beliefs, habits and behaviors, and devise ways to effectively support them to best promote their health and wellbeing [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ].

The government has promoted the inclusion of foreign residents through the universal health insurance plan since 2012, hence any medical facility should serve patients from different cultural backgrounds. However, hospitals and professionals are rather reluctant to accept foreign patients because of the difficulty in providing translator service and culturally diverse care, a lack of manpower due to the greater numbers of Japanese patients, and other reasons [ 6 ]. There are more than 8000 active hospitals in Japan [ 7 ], but only 73 medical institutions had been accredited for caring for foreign patients by the Japan Medical Service Accreditation for International Patients (JMIP) as of 2022 since its establishment in 2013. Indeed, medical institutions without JMIP accreditation continue to be the only option for many foreign patients. In addition to language, the prejudice held by healthcare workers that the care of foreign patients is somewhat more difficult, and the low level of cross-cultural competence to bridge the expectation gaps, limit the acceptance of foreigners by Japanese medical services [ 1 ].

Cross-cultural competence self-assessment scale

A psychometric properties scale can help to provide a better understanding of weaknesses and suggestions to improve the cross-cultural competence among healthcare professionals [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. It is desirable that the scale can also measure the knowledge and skills of transcultural care that are required in clinical settings for the multidisciplinary healthcare team.

In one study conducted in Japan, Sugiura compared the competence of former overseas nursing volunteers and nurses in public hospitals using a unique scale [ 9 ]. The scale consisted of 46 items in a five-factor model, with the factors being culture-specific knowledge, skills, general knowledge, a tendency to approach or avoid, and awareness of one’s own culture. The reliability of the scale was confirmed by internal consistency and reproducibility, and the construct validity was ensured by factor analysis. The problem pointed out by Sugiura was the large number of items. In addition, six of the 11 observables in the skills category included some variables with missing values of 20% or more, possibly because the questions were not relevant and were difficult for respondents to answer.

In another study, Noji et al. translated the Caffrey Cultural Competence in Healthcare Scale (CCCHS), which was developed in the United States, to measure the cross-cultural competence of Japanese nursing staff [ 10 ]. The CCCHS is a shorter survey of 28-items with five factors: knowledge, transcultural nursing care within the work team, transcultural nursing care outside the work team, awareness of the limitations, and understanding of policy. Caffrey et al. longitudinally compared the CCCHS scores of two groups of nursing students between those receiving or not receiving nursing training in a foreign country [ 11 ]. In contrast, Noji et al. cross-sectionally measured the cross-cultural competence of nurses working in hospitals. The internal consistency was acceptable, but the five-factor model was not a good fit to Noji’s data without modification using error covariance. Neither the Japanese version of CCCHS nor the Sugiura scale has been utilized in clinical practice. One reason for this could be the lack of versatility in applying it to multidisciplinary healthcare teams other than nursing staff.

This study adopted the Cross-Cultural Competence for Healthcare Professionals (CCCHP) instrument developed in Germany. It can be used regardless of the healthcare specialty, verified with data from medical students and clinical psychologists [ 8 ]. The original CCCHP was in German, and the English version was created by those of the authors who are fluent in both German and English through the forward translation process. The 27-item model measures healthcare workers’ cross-cultural competence and factors through five factors: motivation and curiosity (MC), attitude (A), knowledge and awareness (KA), emotion and empathy (EE), and skill (S). A higher score indicated higher cross-cultural competence calculated on a five-point Likert scale. Questions are asked about daily clinical practice; for example, S 50 = “For patients who do not fully understand Japanese, I take more time than usual to explain treatment options to them.” In addition, the CCCHP comes with a sixth factor, social desirability (five items), which measures respondents’ tendency to choose a socially desirable response (a confounding factor) to ensure that intercultural competence is not overestimated. The response time for the CCCHP is approximately 10–15 min, so it should be acceptable for use among busy healthcare professionals. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was as high as 0.87, ensuring internal consistency.

The CCCHP was later translated into Finnish by Hietapakka et al. and used to measure the cross-cultural competence of nursing staff [ 12 ]. The five-factor model was not a good fit for the Finnish data. Even though the knowledge and awareness (KA) factor is generally considered an essential part of cross-cultural competence [ 4 , 5 , 8 ], KA was removed to improve the goodness-of-fit indices, as well as one variable from the motivation and curiosity factor (MC58). As of yet, the CCCHP has not been studied in Asia or Japan. Japan has a unique monoethnic culture because of its geographic character and history, so the results may differ from those of the German and Finnish versions. Therefore, the five-factor model with 27 items should be tested.

The purpose of this study was to develop a Japanese version of a self-assessment tool of cross-cultural competence for healthcare professionals based on Bernhard et al.’s CCCHP and to evaluate its psychometric properties for factor validity and internal reliability among nurses in Okinawa, Japan.

Study subject

This cross-sectional study was conducted from June to July 2021 in Okinawa, Japan, where the authors are located. Since the CCCHP has 27 items plus social desirability (five items), the required sample size was estimated n  = 320 using an N :q ratio (sample size/number of items) = 10:1 [ 13 ]. Okinawa prefecture has posted online a list of medical care facilities available for foreign languages in Okinawa [ 14 ]. The first author contacted these medical care facilities, and then out of a total of 16 facilities, 11 joined our study. Additionally, the first author contacted clinics, educational institutions, and public health centers to determine if they had treated any foreign patients in the past two years and if they were willing to cooperate in this study. In total, eight hospitals, eight clinics, three educational institutions, and some nurses indicated their willingness to do so. A total of 351 copies of the explanatory document were distributed by those representatives (e.g., nursing directors, nurse managers, and clinic directors) to the study subjects with nursing background. In order to maintain generalizability of the results, no exclusion criteria were established.

Preparation of the survey

After permission to use the CCCHP had been obtained from one of the authors, the English version of the CCCHP was translated into the ‘Japanese-CCCHP’ and included the social desirable factor (Supplementary file 1 ) in four stages to ensure the quality of the translation: (1) Forward translation by a Japanese researcher and the first author, who have both lived and worked as nurses abroad; (2) back translation by a professional business translator; (3) back translation review by a native speaker with a Master’s degree in education; and (4) minor final edits by the co-authors. While maintaining the equivalence of translation and the accuracy of the results of this study, some wording was adjusted to suit the Japanese context. For example, “immigrants” was translated to “foreigners staying in Japan” instead of the Japanese word for “immigrants.” When the Immigration Control Act was amended in 2009 and 2018, the Japanese government emphasized that it was not an “immigration policy” but a measure against foreign workers who stay for a certain period of time [ 15 ]. In turn, we followed the Japanese media in using the terms “foreigners staying in Japan” and “foreign patients”.

The J-CCCHP27 without the social desirable factor was numbered according to the description by Bernhard et al.: MC, representing motivation/curiosity, had nine items; A, attitudes (four items); S, skills (five items); EE, emotions/empathy (five items); and KA, knowledge/awareness (four items). There were 10 items that would be difficult to answer if the participant had little experience caring for foreign patients (one item in MC, four items in EE, three items in S, and two items in social desirable). For example, MC17 = “I enjoy talking about migrated people’s experiences here.” and EE 63 = “I get impatient when a patient doesn’t understand.”. Therefore, at the beginning of the survey, we added a supplementary note: “If you feel difficulty in answering due to lack of experience, please answer by assuming ‘if you were …’.”

Slight modifications were made to the answer options in the Japanese version (Supplementary file 2 ). All versions used a five-point Likert scale, but the reinforcing word ‘completely’ or ‘fully’ was removed in the Japanese version, since it has been pointed out that Japanese people prefer to choose intermediate responses, which may increase the skewness or kurtosis of the score distribution depending on the combinations of multiple responses [ 16 ]. The German version contains a ‘not able to answer’ option, but neither the Finnish or the Japanese versions do. We considered the ‘not able to answer’ option to be irrelevant for the Japanese version, because we accepted the hypothetical responses of the participants who have limited experience dealing with foreign patients. With regard to scoring, five points were assigned to “Agree” for normal items whereas one point was assigned to “Agree” for reversal items.

A further 19 descriptive questions were added, including demographic questions (e.g., gender, age group, and licenses), questions about current work (e.g., workplace, years of experience, and number of foreign patients handled in the past), and questions relevant to the known group method. Based on the results of previous studies, we hypothesized that the mean of the scores would differ depending on the presence or absence of the following characteristics: experience of being abroad, cross-cultural nursing care training, (subjective) foreign language skills, and intercultural interactions outside the workplace.

In order to motivate nurses in the selected facilities to participate in this study, a mixed mode method was adopted, allowing them to choose between a web- or paper-based survey. The QR code and URL address of the web-based questionnaire, created by QuestionPro.com, were included in the explanatory document. Since some facilities (three hospitals and two clinics) noted that it would not be necessary to send paper copies of the questionnaire, a total of 144 copies were sent to five hospitals and six clinics. When the participants chose the paper version, they could return the completed survey in a pre-addressed envelope, rather than the authors collecting the surveys individually to minimize the sense of obligation.

Statistical analysis

Statistical software RStudio (1.4.1717) and EZR on R Commander (1.52) were used. First, to assess the sufficiency of the sample size, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was checked to confirm it was above 0.5 [ 17 ]. Then, the distribution of scores was analyzed comprehensively from the following points of view; 1) mean and median values approximately equal, 2) skewness and kurtosis values in the range of -1 to + 1, 3) Shapiro–Wilk test with p  > 0.05, and 4) linear quantile–quantile (Q-Q) plots [ 18 ]. By considering all the information together, an overall decision was made about whether the distribution of scores is approximately normal. Since this study was a validation of an existing scale, we did not remove any variables based on the results of item analysis alone. In this regard, “there is no need to be overly sensitive to the statistical features (other than validity) of item scores, since the items are not used in isolation, but are summed and incorporated into the scale scores,” as stated by Yoshida et al. [ 19 ].

The reliability of the scale was rated as follows: Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.80 or higher indicates high internal consistency and less than 0.50 indicates low internal consistency [ 20 ]. One reason for low internal consistency is that some items measure different characteristics. Therefore, if the alpha coefficient is less than 0.50, irrelevant variables can be removed to obtain measurement accuracy.

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) were conducted to test the factor validity of the J-CCCHP27. CFA used the maximum likelihood (ML) method to assess the five-factor model, in which each observed variable was associated with only one factor. Goodness-of-fit indices were calculated: comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR). The numerical cut-offs for evaluating goodness-of-fit were a CFI and TLI ≥ 0.95 (or ≥ 0.90), RMSEA ≤ 0.06, and SRMR ≤ 0.08 [ 21 , 22 ]. A poor fit is when CFI and TLI < 0.90, RMSEA ≥ 0.10, and SRMR > 0.08 [ 21 ].

EFA checked one factor associated with at least three observables [ 8 ]. The number of factors was determined by parallel analysis and scree plots where an eigenvalue is greater than 1.0 in the parallel analysis together with the eigenvalue of the random data [ 23 ]. EFA was conducted by the principal factor method and promax rotation, which is recommended to use when the factors have been known to be correlated [ 23 ]. Promax rotation helps to achieve a simpler structure for interpreting the relation between factor and observed variables by making factor loadings more robust. After confirming that the commonality of each observed variable did not exceed 1.0, factor loadings of 0.40 or higher were sufficient to indicate an association with the factor [ 23 ].

Model modification

In the case of poor fit, model modification should be considered to ensure the accuracy of the results calculated by the scale [ 22 , 24 ]. Along with the logical reasons to modify, a modification index of 20 or more and the EFA results could statistically use a model with a better goodness-of-fit in this study. Although the continuity of the CCCHP study may be lost, the search for a model with a better fit for this study will be beneficial in finding a tool to measure cross-cultural competence among Japanese healthcare professionals. After the scale was modified, the distribution of the total score was checked using a quantile–quantile (Q–Q) plot. If the probability plots were aligned in a straight line, the distribution could be read as a normal distribution. In order to evaluate the effect of the modification, the Akaike information criterion (AIC) values before and after the modification were compared and smaller AIC indicated improvement [ 23 ].

Known group method

The modified version of the J-CCCHP24, a four-factor model with 24 items with an improved goodness-of-fit and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, was used with the known group method to evaluate convergent validity. Differences in the scores between groups were assessed using the Student’s t -test for two groups, one-way ANOVA for age groups, and Spearman’s correlation coefficient for ordered categorical groups. As hypothesized, a significant difference in scores ( p  < 0.05) between the groups meant that the modified J-CCCHP could measure the cross-cultural competence of the respondents.

Ethical considerations

This study was conducted with the approval of the Ethical Review Committee for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects of the University of the Ryukyus (approval no. 1784). The distributed explanatory document described the main idea and purpose, assured anonymity, and explained that there was no disadvantage in participating. It also clearly stated that the submission of responses online or by mail would be considered as consent for participation.

A total of 294 complete responses were analyzed in this study (71.5% response rate). The web-based survey was well accepted by our participants, 222 responses were collected by the web-based survey and 72 responses by the paper-based survey. The KMO value for n  = 294 was 0.87, which met the criteria for a sufficient sample size.

A descriptive summary of the participants in this study is shown in Table  1 . The majority of participants were female (82.7%) and certified as registered nurses (72.5%) without upgraded certifications such as public health nurse or midwife. Only 1% were assistant nurses. Their main workplace was the inpatient ward (66.7%), and most of them had more than five years of nursing experience (77.2%). Only 4% had no experience caring for foreign patients.

The results of the item analysis are shown in Table  2 . The total score of the J-CCCHP27 and subscales A and EE were normally distributed, but MC and S were not normally distributed with an upward bias toward high scores, and KA showed a sharp peak at the intermediate responses. For each item, KA 11 and EE 18 were normally distributed, KA 9 had a floor effect, and the other 24 items were non-normally distributed with either a rightward or ceiling effect.

The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the entire scale was 0.83, which is satisfactory for high internal consistency, but for the subscales, only MC had a high value of 0.84, while the others ranged from 0.75 to 0.31. In particular, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of KA was the lowest at 0.31, indicating a too low internal consistency.

Factor analysis

CFA indicated a poor fit for the five-factor model: CFI = 0.81, TLI = 0.79, RMSEA = 0.07, and SRMR = 0.08. Only SRMR met the borderline criteria (Fig.  1 ). Strong inter-factor correlations were found between MC and S, and A and EE. Several weak correlations below 0.30 were found between KA and the other factors also with observed variables. KA 9 and KA 25 were found to be uncorrelated ( p  > 0.05).

Confirmatory factor analysis of J-CCCHP27. The path diagram for the confirmatory factor analysis of the 27-item five-factor model. The goodness-of-fit indices were CFI = 0.81, TLI = 0.79, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.08, AIC = 19318.8. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.83. (A: Attitude, EE: Emotion/Empathy, KA: Knowledge/Awareness, MC: Motivation/Curiosity, S: Skill, e : error covariance)

The EFA of J-CCCHP27 indicated four factors (Table  3 ), although the initial number suggested was five from the results of parallel analysis and scree plot. The factor loadings greater than 0.40 were extracted for MC, S, EE, and A, but the fifth constructional concept could not be extracted as a factor because there were only two observed variables with factor loadings above 0.40. In addition, KA 11 was rather associated with A instead of KA, and items MC 58 and 10 were associated with S instead of MC.

Modification of the model

In order to achieve acceptable goodness-of-fit to ensure the reliability of the scores, model modification was required. The same modification as the Finnish version of the CCCHP was tried with four factors consisting of 22 items, named J-CCCHP22 (Fig.  2 ). In this model, variables (K 9, 11, 25, and 30 and M 58) were removed [ 12 ] and improved the goodness-of-fit significantly as CFI = 0.87, TLI = 0.85, RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.06, and AIC = 15,279.7. The total score of J-CCCHP22 was normally distributed and the Cronbach’s alpha was also improved to 0.85 (Table  2 ), however, the Cronbach’s alpha of subscale “A” was on the lower borderline of 0.59.

Confirmatory factor analysis of J-CCCHP22. The path diagram for confirmatory factor analysis of the 22-item four-factor model [J-CCCHP-22] maintained the modification of the Finch version. The goodness-of-fit indices were CFI = 0.87, TLI = 0.85, RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.06, AIC = 15279.7. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.85. (A: Attitude, EE: Emotion/Empathy, MC: Motivation/Curiosity, S: Skill, e : error covariance)

The EFA results suggested to keep as many of the original variables as possible (Table  4 ), which was a four-factor model with 24 items, named J-CCCHP24 (Fig.  3 ); removing three variables (KA 9, 25, and 30) and transferring three variables to other factors (MC 10 and 58 to S and KA 11 to A). The goodness-of-fit indices of J-CCCHP24 were similar to J-CCCHP22, but the Q-Q plots of J-CCCHP24 had fewer outliers from the straight diagonal line (Fig.  4 ). The Cronbach’s alpha of J-CCCHP24 was 0.85 and all subscales’ Cronbach’s alpha achieved above 0.60 (Table  2 ). Furthermore, the modification indices suggested adding four new correlation paths between error covariances (MC 38 e –MC 64 e , MC 64 e –EE 48 e , MC 58 e –S 51 e , and MC 12 e –S 53 e ) to improve the goodness-of-fit indices (Fig.  5 ). As a result, J-CCCHP24 with error covariances indicated a better and more stable fit for the study data because of the goodness-of-fit indices: CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.05, SRMR = 0.06, and AIC = 16,559.6. All of these modifications seemed reasonable and well explained when read in the context of each item. For example, MC 10 (“By communicating, I can learn about different cultures”) seemed to be observing skill of cross-cultural communication instead of motivation/curiosity. MC 38 e –64 e may be both influenced by the personal characteristic of “proactive” as bias. Since nurses are interested in caring for foreign patients (MC 64), they desire to take advantage of training (MC 38).

Confirmatory factor analysis of J-CCCHP24. The path diagram for confirmatory factor analysis of the 24-item four-factor model [J-CCCHP-24]. The goodness-of-fit indices were CFI = 0.88, TLI = 0.86, RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.06, AIC = 16654.5. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.85. (A: Attitude, EE: Emotion/Empathy, MC: Motivation/Curiosity, S: Skill, e : error covariance)

Q - Q plots. A comparison of Q-Q plots of J-CCCHP27 with 5 factor model, J-CCCHP24 with 4 factor model, and J-CCCHP22 with 4 factor model. The points lie mostly along the straight diagonal line with some minor deviations, but J-CCCHP24 had fewer outliers from the plot

Confirmatory factor analysis of J-CCCHP24 with error covariances. The path diagram for confirmatory factor analysis of the 24-item four-factor model [J-CCCHP-24]. The goodness-of-fit indices were CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.05, SRMR = 0.06, AIC = 16559.6. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.85. (A: Attitude, EE: Emotion/Empathy, MC: Motivation/Curiosity, S: Skill, e : error covariance)

Not J-CCCHP27 but J-CCCHP24 was used to carry out the known group method because its internal consistency was the most preferable. There was no significant difference in the mean scores of J-CCCHP24 between each group in gender, age, certification, and work experience, but it was significantly higher in participants who experienced more than 15 foreign patients compared to those who experienced 0 to 15 foreign patients (95.2 vs. 91.6) (Table  5 ).

The results of the known group method showed significant differences in the mean scores of all four characteristics (Table  6 ). The mean scores for the four groups according to the level of subjective skill in foreign languages were significantly higher as the language level increased; not at all (87.3), greetings (92.1), beginner (95.8), and intermediate to advanced (101.1) (rho = 0.39, p  < 0.001). The mean score when participants were divided into three groups based on intercultural interactions outside the workplace was higher in the group with regular cross-cultural interactions (98.1), the group with cross-cultural interactions in the past was in the middle (93.4), and the group with no experience with cultural interactions was the lowest (89.6) (rho = 0.28, p  < 0.001).

This is the first study of the Japanese version of the CCCHP to measure the cross-cultural competence of nurses in Okinawa. While utilizing as many existing variables as possible, 24 items with a four-factor model named J-CCCHP24 improved the goodness-of-fit and internal consistency for our data, thereby strengthening the factor structure validity and reliability. According to the results of the known group method, the J-CCCHP24 seemed to represent the cross-cultural competence of the respondents. Consequently, the factors that could improve cross-cultural competence among healthcare workers include: (1) learning about intercultural care, (2) improving communication skills with foreign patients, and (3) striving to have intercultural interactions outside the workplace.

There are a few possible reasons the KA subscale did not correlate with the data. First, the combination of two components in one subscale may have led to lower internal consistency (alpha coefficient for KA of Germany = 0.54, Finland = 0.28, and Japan = 0.31) [ 8 , 12 ]. While three items cover general knowledge about health and cultural diversity (KA 9, 25, and 30), only one question asks about the self-awareness of the influence of one’s own culture (KA 11). Second, differences in culture, social norms, and policies in the medical field of participants may have caused two items (KA 9 and 25) to not be correlated with KA ( p  > 0.05). In particular, KA 9 (“The opportunities to receive healthcare services differ even if compared within the foreign population”) might have been difficult for our participants to envision, because the universal health insurance system has been well established in Japan. Since having the universal healthcare policy is also mandatory for most foreign residents, approximately 95% of foreign residents have been covered [ 25 ]. Therefore, the participants in this study may have believed that medical services are equally provided to all residents in Japan, though the quality of services may not be equitable due to language barriers, prejudice, and so on. On the contrary, a question such as K 11 is a very important item for Japanese healthcare professionals to reflect on their cultural awareness, because the risk of imposing care is increased if they are not aware that their own culture can be the basis for prejudice and misperception [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Adjusting the questions appropriately to the culture and the regulations of the local health system may be essential, in addition to increasing the observational variables of general cultural knowledge, to improve the reliability of KA. Indeed, the KA subscale could be the most difficult part to standardize as a universal cross-cultural scale, hence, testing a greater number of items regarding cultural knowledge and awareness may be required as suggested by Bernhard et al. [ 8 ].

The sample of our study was confined to one of the 47 prefectures in Japan. Nurses are regulated by the Act on Public Health Nurses, Midwives, and Nurses to ensure the quality of nursing service [ 26 ]. Nurses, public health nurses and midwives are licensed after passing the national examination upon three or more years of standardized training, whereas assistant nurses are licensed after passing the prefectural examination upon a minimum of two years of standardized training. Once qualified, all types of nurses can work anywhere in Japan. In 2020, the total number of active nurses was 1.66 million with the ratio of nurses, public health nurses, midwives, and assistant nurses at 77%, 4%, 2%, and 17% respectively, whereas 0.02 million with the ratio at 78%, 4%, 2%, and 16% in Okinawa [ 27 ]. In this study, 26% were public health nurses and midwives combined and only one percent were assistant nurses, thus, our sample is unlikely to be representative of generalities. The educational backgrounds of our participants were unknown, but they may have had more opportunity to learn transcultural nursing than the general population because transcultural nursing has been recognized as a fundamental subject in nursing programs at the university level since 2014 [ 28 ]. However, only 16% of our participants answered that they had training in cross-cultural nursing, and there was no significance between age groups in our data. This was a noticeable difference from the previous studies in Europe where a majority of participants answered that they had been trained on cross-cultural care [ 8 , 12 ]. Our study indicates a situation where people are interested in intercultural care but lack the opportunity to receive training to improve their cross-cultural nursing skills, or the training did not sufficiently emphasize the importance of cross-cultural care due to a lack of expertise on the part of the trainers [ 28 ].

According to the results of the known group method, as more opportunities for cross-cultural exchange and care arise, there will be less resistance to cross-cultural care and higher cross-cultural competence. Those who had experience of caring for more than 15 foreign patients and those who had continuous intercultural interactions outside the workplace had higher CCCHP scores. Leininger stated that improving cross-cultural competence should be an ongoing process [ 2 , 4 ]. 37% of our participants expressed resistance to taking care of foreign patients by agreeing with EE 48 (“I prefer treating patients from the same cultural background”), but if healthcare workers are exposed to patients with different cultures, it may slowly but surely change their cross-cultural competence. In previous CCCHP-based studies, more than 90% of participants had the same nationality as the study site (German = 91.4%, Finnish = 90.8%, and Japanese = 99.7%). In this study, 44% of the participants noted that they had never had cross-cultural interactions outside the workplace, indicating that, for some people, work is the only place where they can experience different cultures.

Our cross-cultural experience is helpful to provide better quality of care to foreign patients, however, many healthcare professionals may not have chosen the profession because they are interested in cross-cultural exchange [ 29 ]. If they do not proactively seek cross-cultural experiences on their own, providing them with opportunities to reflect and learn cross-cultural skills and cultural sensitivity would help. In this study, 79% of the participants agreed with MC 38 (“I want to use the training and instruction”), which is 5% higher than that in Kamibayashi et al.’s study in Tokyo (72%) [ 30 ]. This may suggest that our participants reflected on their cultural care skills in the process of answering the questions and found that they hope to learn more about cross-cultural competence. It is also known that nurses prefer to receive cross-cultural training as on-the-job training during their working hours [ 30 ]. Therefore, it is helpful to understand the learning needs of each group and organization and develop the most suitable training to improve cross-cultural competence at the workplace. The modified J-CCCHP (i.e., J-CCCHP24) may work as a scale to understand the learning needs and motivators of individuals and organizations with regard to transcultural care training.

The MC and S scores in the abovementioned CCCHP-based studies were high among the participants in all three countries. This suggests that the high level of cross-cultural competence may only be a rough estimation. The reasons our participants had higher MC and S scores could be their work environment and the “ chanpuru culture ” (mixed culture) of Okinawans. Okinawa Prefecture was the only region invaded by the U.S. military after World War II. Since then, 40,000–50,000 soldiers and their families have remained stationed in the prefecture, and also, the tourism industry has developed well since the war [ 31 , 32 ]. There are designated medical facilities for the U.S. military, but some patients visit hospitals in Okinawa for specialized medical care and for convenience. In this study, 96% of the participants had experience caring for foreign patients and 72% had traveled overseas, which is higher than the national average, based on Noji’s study ( n  = 7494); 70% of the nursing staff had experienced caring for foreign patients and 29% had been abroad [ 10 ]. As a result, our participants could have higher MC and S scores compared to nurses in other prefectures.

Limitations

One of the great strengths of the CCCHP is that this scale can be shared by a variety of medical professions. However, the sample of the present study was confined to nurses for feasibility reasons. Further studies on the modified J-CCCHP are necessary to test it with multidisciplinary teams in organizations or nationwide, including physicians, pharmacists, laboratory technicians, and therapists. Moreover, repeating validation of the J-CCCHP with nurses in a different prefectural setting may be beneficial. This is because our sample is not necessarily representative of Japanese nurses.

Not all of the subscales had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of more than 0.80, which means that the internal consistency was not high but fair. If some variables are appropriate to Japanese healthcare professionals, especially in terms of culture and experience, it may improve the content validity and the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. In addition, other reliability tests should be conducted, such as test/re-test.

To translate the scale as a cross-cultural study, it was recommended to use more than one translation technique to ensure the equivalence, but also necessary to examine the meanings and connotations of words in the adapted language [ 33 ]. We did not invite Japanese experts to discuss the content of the questionnaire because CCCHP was not a new instrument, however considering how complicated it is to develop a universal cross-cultural instrument, it would be beneficial to confirm the content validation with experts in order to recognize the cross-cultural complexities.

This study introduced the CCCHP in the context of Japanese nurses in the prefecture of Okinawa and found that the original five-factor model was not a good fit to the data. The best fit was found to be the four-factor model J-CCCHP24 in which the measurement equation model was modified according to the results of EFA and modification index. The known group method showed a significant difference in the mean scores of groups divided by the characteristics as anticipated, suggesting that it can serve as a tool to measure the cross-cultural competence of Japanese nurses. However, since the data of this study were limited to only nursing staff in Okinawa Prefecture, it is necessary to further evaluate the reliability and practicality by conducting research in health care professions other than nursing and in other parts of Japan. This study can be said to be a blueprint for developing a tool to measure cross-cultural competence among Japanese healthcare professionals.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used in this current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Akaike’s information criteria

The Caffrey Cultural Competence in Healthcare Scale

Cross-Cultural Competence instrument for Healthcare Professionals

Confirmatory factor analysis

Comparative fit index

Emotion/Empathy

Exploratory factor analysis

Japanese version of Cross-Cultural Competence instrument for Healthcare Professionals, 5 factors and 27 items

Modified Japanese version of Cross-Cultural Competence instrument for Healthcare Professionals, 4 factors and 22 items

Modified Japanese version of Cross-Cultural Competence instrument for Healthcare Professionals, 4 factors and 24 items

Japan Medical Service Accreditation for International Patients

Knowledge/Awareness

Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy

Motivation/Curiosity

Quantile–Quantile plot

Root mean square error of approximation

Standard deviation

Skewness and kurtosis

Standardized root mean squared residual

Tucker-Lewis index

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all the nurses who responded to the questionnaire and the representatives of the healthcare and educational institutions in Okinawa for their support of our research project.

In order to use the web-based questionnaire through QuestionPro.com, this study was financially supported by the Department of Global Health in Graduate School of Health Sciences of the University of the Ryukyus.

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Shirai, C., Nonaka, D. & Kobayashi, J. Evaluating the cross-cultural competence instrument for healthcare professionals (CCCHP) among nurses in Okinawa, Japan. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 369 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10814-6

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Original research article, spent brewer’s yeast as a selective biosorbent for metal recovery from polymetallic waste streams.

• 1 K1-MET GmbH, Linz, Austria
• 2 Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, Institute of Environmental Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna BOKU, Tulln an der Donau, Austria
• 3 Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Tulln an der Donau, Austria

While the amount of electronic waste is increasing worldwide, the heterogeneity of electronic scrap makes the recycling very complicated. Hydrometallurgical methods are currently applied in e-waste recycling which tend to generate complex polymetallic solutions due to dissolution of all metal components. Although biosorption has previously been described as a viable option for metal recovery and removal from low-concentration or single-metal solutions, information about the application of selective metal biosorption from polymetallic solutions is missing. In this study, an environmentally friendly and selective biosorption approach, based on the pH-dependency of metal sorption processes is presented using spent brewer’s yeast to efficiently recover metals like aluminum, copper, zinc and nickel out of polymetallic solutions. Therefore, a design of experiment (DoE) approach was used to identify the effects of pH, metal, and biomass concentration, and optimize the biosorption efficiency for each individual metal. After process optimization with single-metal solutions, biosorption experiments with lyophilized waste yeast biomass were performed with synthetic polymetallic solutions where over 50% of aluminum at pH 3.5, over 40% of copper at pH 5.0 and over 70% of zinc at pH 7.5 could be removed. Moreover, more than 50% of copper at pH 3.5 and over 90% of zinc at pH 7.5 were recovered from a real polymetallic waste stream after leaching of printed-circuit boards. The reusability of yeast biomass was confirmed in five consecutive biosorption steps with little loss in metal recovery abilities. This proves that spent brewer’s yeast can be sustainably used to selectively recover metals from polymetallic waste streams different to previously reported studies.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT | The graphical abstract was created with BioRender.com .

1 Introduction

In 2019, 53.6 Mt of e-waste was generated worldwide, and it is predicted to exceed 74 Mt annually in 2030. While this rapid increase in the amount of e-waste is an environmental threat, it also provides a promising resource for valuable and critical materials ( Srivastav et al., 2023 ). Recovering these components from various e-waste sources would reduce the waste deposition problem and help solve supply issues of certain materials ( Zulkernain et al., 2023 ). Bioleaching has emerged as a promising method for metal recovery from e-waste; solubilizing valuable metals from different waste substrates. Among the e-waste streams, printed circuit boards (PCBs) are the most heterogenous, containing heavy metals as well as precious metals and non-metal elements ( Baniasadi et al., 2019 ). Successful PCB bioleaching has been performed in various studies using different microorganisms ( Gu et al., 2017 ; Zulkernain et al., 2023 ), but the selective recovery of the individual metals from the polymetallic leachate solutions remains challenging. Here, chemical precipitation is still one of the most widely and industrially applied processes. Kremser et al. (2022a) presented a combined approach where after bioleaching of basic oxygen furnace slag, metals like aluminum, manganese, chromium and vanadium could be selectively recovered by the addition of sodium hydroxide. Nevertheless, this process is not suitable for large amounts of waste solutions since it produces a high amount of contaminated sludge ( Costa et al., 2021 ). Solvent extraction is another method for the recovery of metals using an organic solvent phase. However, when it comes to multicomponent solutions containing elements with similar chemical and physical characteristics, solvent extraction faces some challenges ( Costa et al., 2020 ). Additionally, ion exchange is an effective technology for metal recovery, but the resins are rather costly, especially when compared to cheap biosorbents which can sometimes even be obtained from waste streams ( Volesky, 2001 ; Yaashikaa et al., 2021 ).

Promising results have been obtained by a variety of studies using biosorption as a strategy for metal removal. Biosorbents such as bacteria ( Rizvi et al., 2020 ), algae ( Bilal et al., 2018 ) and natural materials like chitosan ( Abhinaya et al., 2021 ) or clay ( Uddin, 2017 ) have been tested for their metal removal capacities. Additionally, biochar has attracted notable attention in recent years because of its good sorption ability for heavy metals. Despite the advantages of using biochar for metal adsorption, the separation of powdered biochar from wastewater might be challenging due to the small particle size and lower density ( Son et al., 2018 ). An alternative is fungal biomass which offers various advantages such as a high cell wall content with several functional groups available for metal binding. Saccharomyces cerevisiae can be obtained as the second major by-product from the brewing industry where the average amount of residual yeast from a larger fermentation is approximately 2.7 kg per m 3 of the final volume of beer ( Rachwał et al., 2020 ). Hence, some of the obvious advantages of using brewer’s yeast as biosorbent are the availability of large quantities of waste biomass, its low cost and eco-friendliness ( Costa et al., 2021 ). Besides, the chemical composition of Saccharomyces cerevisiae , including functional groups on the cell surface, is well described in literature, facilitating the discovery of structural changes upon metal binding and the understanding of the mechanisms involved ( Zinicovscaia et al., 2023 ). Nevertheless, there is limited published work exploring the potential of inactive residual S. cerevisiae from the brewing industry ( Gonçalves et al., 2023 ).

High metal recovery rates were achieved in multiple biosorption studies ( Yaashikaa et al., 2021 ); however, these studies mostly focus on removing single-metal ions. Fewer studies were conducted with real wastewater considering the influence of multi-metal ions ( Torres, 2020 ; Priyadarshanee and Das, 2021 ). Futalan et al. for example, showed a 1.06–1.44 fold and 1.32–1.81 fold decrease in adsorption capacity for Cu and Ni respectively, in a mixed solution when compared to a single-metal solution, using immobilized chitosan as a biosorbent ( Futalan et al., 2011 ). In a study by Bouhamed and co-workers, activated carbon from datestones was used to remove Cu 2+ , Ni 2+ , and Zn 2+ from real wastewater reporting an adsorption affinity order of Cu 2+ > Ni 2+ > Zn 2+ at pH 5.5 ( Bouhamed et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, Kulkarni and co-workers used industrial waste sludge containing Saccharomyces carlsbergensis and reported competitive biosorption of Ni 2+ and Cd 2+ and therefore a decrease in metal uptake with increasing co-ion concentration ( Kulkarni et al., 2019 ). Table 1 summarizes the adsorption potential of S. cerevisiae and other fungi from polymetallic solutions. In addition to the competitive binding behavior of the metal ions, the low selectivity of the biosorption process in general presents a disadvantage of this technology ( Yu et al., 2020 ). Some studies showed enhanced metal uptake after treating the yeast biomass with organic solvents ( Mapolelo and Torto, 2004 ; Yaashikaa et al., 2021 ) or alkaline solutions ( Farhan and Khadom, 2015 ; Mirmahdi et al., 2022 ) while additionally increasing the selectivity by changing the solution pH ( Kulkarni et al., 2019 ) or by displaying metal-binding peptides on the surface of the biosorbent ( Li et al., 2019 ).

TABLE 1 . Biosorption capacity of different industrial waste biosorbents from polymetallic solutions.

Interestingly, all the aforementioned studies describe the adsorption behavior of different biosorbents from mixed metal solutions at only one distinct pH value. In this study, different chemical and physical pre-treatment methods such as incubation with green solvents or at various temperatures were tested to optimize the yeast surface properties and hence improve selective metal binding. For the first time, a stepwise biosorption process is proposed where the economically important metals aluminum, copper, zinc, and nickel are selectively recovered out of polymetallic solutions onto spent brewer’s yeast surface with changing the solution pH. This provides an efficient and sustainable process for recovering multiple metals from real liquid waste streams. After desorption of the metal ions, the yeast biomass could be recycled and used up to 5 times making the process even more cost-effective.

2 Materials and methods

Chemicals of analytical grade were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Sigma-Aldrich, Austria) unless otherwise specified. The pH-value of different metal solutions was measured with a Mettler Toledo S220 pH-meter with a combined glass electrode (Mettler-Toledo GmbH, Austria).

2.1 Determination of metal concentrations

Metal concentrations in single-metal solutions were determined by using commercially available photometric cuvette tests LCK329, LCK360 or LCK337 (Hach Lange, Austria) for copper, zinc, or nickel respectively and were measured on a DR3900 spectrophotometer (Hach Lange, Austria). For the analysis of aluminum contents, a spectrophotometric assay based on the complex formation of metals with xylenol orange was set up. Briefly, 20 µl of sample was added to 1860 µl of potassium hydrogen phthalate buffer (0.05 M, pH 3.0). After addition of 120 µl of xylenol orange (1.58 * 10 −3  M), samples were incubated at 70°C for 8 min in an Eppendorf ® Thermomixer comfort (Eppendorf, Austria) to ensure complete color reaction. Afterwards, samples were cooled to approximately 22°C and the absorbance of 250 µl of each sample was measured with a TECAN Infinite 200 PRO M Plex Microplate Reader (Tecan, Switzerland) at 550 nm with 25 flashes per sample and a bandwidth of 9 nm. First, a calibration curve with samples of known aluminum concentrations ranging from 0 mg l −1 to 1.4 mg l −1 was created and this was subsequently used for the calculation of the aluminum content of the unknown samples.

For the determination of the metal concentration in polymetallic solutions, samples were measured with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) as described in a previous study ( Kremser et al., 2021 ). Briefly, samples were diluted with ultrapure water by a factor of 100 before analysis. A solution of Sc (400 μg l −1 ) was used as an internal standard to suppress possible matrix effects.

Biosorption experiments were performed using either 50 ml or 100 ml of metal solutions in Erlenmeyer flasks on a KOMET Variomag Poly stirring plate (Thermo Fisher Scientific, United States). All centrifugation steps were performed with an Eppendorf ® Centrifuge 5920 R (Eppendorf, Austria) for 10 min at 3,153 x g unless stated otherwise.

2.2 Yeast biomass

Around 20 l of spent brewer’s yeast ( S. cerevisiae ) were obtained from a local brewing company at the end of beer brewing process and centrifuged in 1-liter aliquots to separate yeast biomass and liquid brewing residues using a Sorvall Lynx6000 superspeed centrifuge (Thermo Fisher Scientific, United States) at 17,568 x g for 20 min. Cell pellets obtained after centrifugation were washed by resuspension in 1 liter deionized water followed by centrifugation. This washing step was repeated three times to remove remaining alcohol and sugars from the brewing process. After centrifugation, the yeast pellets were frozen at −20°C. Frozen yeast biomass was lyophilized using a CHRIST ® Alpha 1-4 LDplus freeze dryer (CHRIST, Germany), ground to a fine powder using a kitchen blender and stored in a benchtop desiccator to protect it from moisture. Sieve analysis was used to obtain the particle size distribution using a stacked sieve tower with mesh sizes ranging from 2 mm to 0.1 mm.

2.3 Pre-treatments of yeast biomass

2.3.1 physical pre-treatment.

In addition to lyophilization, spent brewer’s yeast was oven-dried at 70°C until complete dryness in a drying chamber. In the same way, cell dry mass (CDM) of the washed and frozen yeast biomass was evaluated. The dried biomass was ground to a fine powder using a kitchen blender similar to the lyophilization experiments.

For the sonication treatment, 20 g of washed yeast biomass was resuspended in deionized water, placed into a Branson ® 5,800 ultrasonic bath (Thermo Fisher Scientific, United States) and sonicated for 15 min at 40 kHz and 45°C. Additionally, autoclaving was performed with 20 g of yeast biomass resuspended in deionized water for 15 min at 121°C using a benchtop autoclave (CertoClav Sterilizer GmbH, Austria). Centrifuged yeast pellets after sonication and autoclaving were stored at −20°C for further experiments.

2.3.2 Chemical pre-treatment

Chemical pre-treatments were performed using lyophilized yeast biomass. For ethanol or sodium hydroxide treatment, 5 g of freeze-dried yeast were resuspended in 62.5 ml of 70% ethanol or 1 M sodium hydroxide solution and stirred for 20 min at 550 rpm in the fume hood. After centrifugation, ethanol treated yeast pellets were washed 3 times and sodium hydroxide treated pellets 10 times with deionized water to remove the remaining ethanol/sodium hydroxide and were stored at −20°C.

2,2,5,5-Tetramethyltetrahydrofuran (TMO), which was synthesized as previously described ( Byrne et al., 2017 ) to >98% purity, and 2-Methyltetrahydrofuran (2-Methyl-THF) (≥99% purity), were tested as green solvents in biomass pre-treatment. Therefore, 6 g of yeast biomass were resuspended in 75 ml of TMO and 2-Methyl-THF each and shaken at 550 rpm over night at 22°C in the fume hood. The biomass was then allowed to settle down and the supernatant containing the solvent was decanted off. After the evaporation of the remaining solvent, yeast pellets were washed 3 times with deionized water and stored at −20°C.

2.4 Aqueous metal solutions

Metal stock solutions (1 g l −1 ) were prepared by dissolving 12.33 g of aluminumsulfate octadecahydrate (Al(SO 4 ) 3 · 18 H 2 O), 3.93 g of copper (II)-sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO 4 · 5 H 2 O), 4.48 g of nickel (II)-sulfate hexahydrate (NiSO 4 · 6 H 2 O) or 2.75 g of zincsulfate heptahydrate (ZnSO 4 · 7 H 2 O) in 1 l of deionized water each. For the biosorption tests, metal solutions were diluted to appropriate metal concentrations and the pH was adjusted using 0.5 M sulfuric acid or 0.5 M sodium hydroxide (Honeywell ® , United States).

2.5 Design of experiments (DoE) to establish the experimental conditions

The analytics software MODDE ® (Sartorius, Germany) was used to design a set of experiments by varying the factors pH, biomass concentration and metal concentration to test their effect on biosorption efficiencies. The final experimental plan included 18 individual experiments for each metal to be tested. Metal concentrations from 10 to 500 mg l −1 and biomass concentrations from 1 to 10 g l −1 were tested. To avoid metal precipitation due to increase in sample pH, 3 different pH values for each individual metal were selected with regard to existing literature and evaluated. Aluminum solutions were tested at pH 2.5, 3.0 and 4.0, copper solutions at 2.5, 4.0 and 5.5, zinc solutions at pH 3.0, 5.0 and 7.0 and nickel solutions at pH 3.0, 5.5 and 8.8.

2.6 Biosorption experiments

Following DoE experiments, the most promising metal and biomass concentrations of 100 mg l −1 and 10 g l −1 , respectively were applied for further biosorption experiments. For experiments that were performed with chemically or physically pre-treated biomass, the same concentration of biomass in cell dry weight was chosen. All biosorption experiments were performed in duplicate with 100 ml metal solution at 22°C for 60 min, stirring at 300 rpm followed by centrifugation to separate the yeast biomass from the metal solution. Metal concentrations of the supernatants were measured as described above. The amount of metal uptake by the yeast biomass and the biosorption efficiency were calculated using the following equations (Eqs 1 , 2 ):

where q [mg g −1 ] is the amount of metal adsorbed per amount of biomass used, m [g]; V [ml] is the volume of the biosorption reaction; E is the efficiency [%]; c 1 is the initial metal concentration [mg l −1 ] and c 2 is the metal concentration in the supernatant after the biosorption [mg l −1 ].

2.7 pH and temperature optimization experiments

In the optimization experiments, metal concentrations of 100 mg l −1 and a biomass concentration of 10 g l −1 were used. Contact time and stirring speed were kept constant, while two different pH values for aluminum, copper and zinc (3.0 and 3.5 for aluminum, 5.0 and 5.5 for copper, 7.0 and 7.5 for zinc), one pH value for nickel (8.5) and temperatures of 30°C, 40°C, and 50°C were tested. Optimization experiments were performed in 100 ml Erlenmeyer flasks using 50 ml metal solutions.

2.8 Sequential biosorption experiments of individual metals

Sequential biosorption experiments were performed in duplicates with 50 ml single metal solutions containing 100 mg l −1 metal in 100 ml Erlenmeyer flasks at pH values of 3.5 for aluminum, 5.0 for copper, 7.5 for zinc and 8.5 for nickel. Following pH adjustment, 10 g l −1 freeze-dried yeast was added to the metal solutions and biosorption experiments were performed at 22°C under stirring at 300 rpm. After 30 min, samples were centrifuged at 3,153 x g to separate the yeast biomass and metal solution. The metal concentration in the supernatant was determined, the pH of the metal solution was measured and if necessary, adjusted with 0.5 M H 2 SO 4 or 0.5 M NaOH. Then, 10 g l −1 of fresh biomass were added to the supernatant and the biosorption was continued as described above. This process was repeated until a biosorption efficiency of around 80% was reached.

In addition, bio-desorption experiments for Cu 2+ and Zn 2+ containing solutions were carried out. Therefore, the first biosorption step was performed as stated above. After the first centrifugation step, the metal containing supernatant was stored while the yeast cell pellet was resuspended in 25 ml biogenic sulfuric acid (pH 1.2) from a previous study ( Kremser et al., 2022b ) for bio-desorption of the metal ions and stirred at 300 rpm for 30 min at 22°C. After centrifugation, the yeast pellet was washed once with deionized water and resuspended in metal solution from the first biosorption step. Metal concentrations were measured after each step and the biosorption and bio-desorption process was repeated until a biosorption efficiency of around 80% was reached.

2.9 Selective biosorption from polymetallic solutions

Synthetic polymetallic solutions were prepared containing 100 mg l −1 of aluminum, copper, nickel and zinc each in 100 ml total volume. After adjusting the pH of the metal solution to 3.5, yeast biomass was added at a concentration of 10 g l −1 . The biosorption was performed in duplicate for 1 h while stirring at 300 rpm followed by a centrifugation step to separate yeast biomass from the metal solution. The pellet was stored at −20°C, following lyophilization for further sample characterization. The pH of the metal solution was measured, adjusted to 5.0, and 10 g l −1 fresh biomass was added for the next biosorption step. This was repeated for pH 7.5 and 8.5. A sample of 1 ml was taken after each biosorption round to determine the metal concentration via ICP-MS.

In a second approach, two different polymetallic bioleachate solutions obtained from printed-circuit boards (PCB) bioleaching with concentrated biogenic sulfuric acid were tested. According to metal concentrations ( Table 2 ), leachates were diluted to reach concentrations found suitable for the individual metals in the DoE screening. Leachate solution 1 was diluted 1:100 whereas the leachate solution 2 was diluted 1:20 in deionized water. Biosorption was performed in duplicates as described for the synthetic solutions.

TABLE 2 . Metal concentrations of the two different PCB leachate solutions.

2.10 Biomass characterization

To determine the surface characteristics of the lyophilized yeast biomass before and after biosorption, Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) measurements were performed on a PerkinElmer ® Spectrum 100 spectrometer (PerkinElmer, Austria) between 4,000 and 650 cm −1 . The samples were measured using 32 scans at a resolution of 2 cm −1 .

For the visualization of the biomass surface and the adsorbed metal ions, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) was performed on a Hitachi ® TM3030 (Hitachi, Japan) at an acceleration voltage of 15 kV for 60 s.

Furthermore, X-ray fluorescence measurements were conducted using a Niton™ XL3t GOLDD + XRF analyzer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, United States) with the default Soil Mode settings, a standard filter of 60 and a high and low filter of 20. Samples were measured in triplicates. Values for the corresponding metal peaks in the XRF spectra were averaged and used for statistical analysis using the statistics software SPSS ® (version 26) by IBM ® . Single factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) with multiple repeated measurements was performed to identify significant differences in recovery depending on the four different pH values. Hence, a general linear model with multiple repeated measurements was created by defining the inner subject factors to pH as the dependent variable and their number being four. Furthermore, the four pH values were assigned to the subject factor. The H 0 was defined as no difference between mean peaks at the different pH values tested. The level of significance was 0.05. Bonferroni correction was applied as a post hoc comparison. Pairwise comparison of the various combinations of pH values was analyzed and repeated for each metal, respectively.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 doe results for single metal biosorption.

As a first step, biosorption efficiencies were tested at different metal ion and biomass concentrations ranging from 10 to 500 mg l −1 and 1–10 g l −1 respectively, and at 3 different pH values for each metal ion. The results of these 18 experiments ( Supplementary Figures S1–S4 ) showed a maximum recovery rate for all the 4 metal ions when using less than 150 mg l −1 of metal ion and a biomass concentration higher than 9 g l −1 . Within these experimental settings it was predicted that the metal recovery of Ni 2+ at pH 8.0 and Al 3+ at pH 4.0 is approximately 40% whereas for Cu 2+ at pH 5.5 and for Zn 2+ at pH 7.0 metal recovery rates of above 60% can be reached. It was therefore decided to perform all future experiments with a metal ion concentration of 100 mg l −1 and 10 g l −1 of biomass to reach maximum metal recovery. Due to the large number of binding sites on the yeast surface, high adsorption efficiencies are usually observed during the first few minutes of interaction, whereas equilibrium is reached in approximately 1 h ( Farhan and Khadom, 2015 ; Ojima et al., 2019 ). Zinicovscaia and co-workers measured the adsorption kinetics of dead yeast biomass in an Ag + /Cu 2+ /Ni 2+ /Zn 2+ system and reported that equilibrium was achieved for all four metals after 45–60 min. These results suggest that electrostatic interactions on the yeast surface are the main driving force of biosorption ( Zinicovscaia et al., 2023 ). Since the biomass used in this study was also dead, the contact time for the biosorption experiments in this study was set to 1 h. In biosorption experiments the pH plays a crucial role in controlling the metal ion speciation in solution and the chemical configuration of the metal-binding functional groups on the biomass surface ( Zinicovscaia et al., 2021 ). Therefore, further pH optimization experiments were conducted.

3.2 pH and temperature optimization

To improve the biosorption efficiencies, two additional pH values for Al 3+ , Cu 2+ and Zn 2+ and one extra pH value for Ni 2+ were tested. For Cu 2+ , the biosorption efficiencies at pH 5.0 and 5.5 stayed the same at approximately 42%. For Al 3+ at pH 3.5 however, the biosorption increased to 60.2% compared to 44.2% at pH 3.0. For Zn 2+ at pH 7.5 and Ni 2+ at pH 8.5 a maximum recovery of 30.2% and 19.6% were achieved. As reported in literature, the point of zero charges for S. cerevisiae is around pH 4.0 ( Stathatou et al., 2022 ). In a study by De Rossi et al. (2020) a S. cerevisiae /alginate composite was used for the adsorption of heavy metals. By encapsulating the yeast biomass, the zero-charge point shifted to a more neutral pH of around 7.0. However, in the present study, no such immobilization method was applied. It was therefore assumed that the pH at which yeast biomass exhibits a charge of zero is in line with the reported value for S. cerevisiae itself. Based on this, at pH values below 4.0, protonation of the functional groups on the yeast surface is expected whereas at higher pH values the yeast surface may have an overall negative charge. This could be beneficial for attracting positively charged metal ions, if the biosorption is mainly driven by electrostatic interactions ( Stathatou et al., 2022 ; Zinicovscaia et al., 2023 ). According to the results of the DoE experiments, pH 3.5 for Al 3+ , 5.0 for Cu 2+ , 7.5 for Zn 2+ and 8.5 for Ni 2+ have been proven to be most suitable for removal of the respective metal ion out of single-metal solutions within these experimental conditions.

Temperature is also reported to have an influence on biosorption efficiencies, although this effect might be more relevant when using living biomass, since the metabolic activity increases when the temperature rises, until an optimum value is reached ( Torres, 2020 ). In this study, biosorption experiments were performed at the following 4 temperatures: 22°C (room temperature), 30°C, 40°C and 50°C ( Figure 1A ). For Cu 2+ , metal recovery of approximately 45% could be achieved at all 4 temperatures. In addition to this, for Ni 2+ the recovery stayed the same at approximately 21%. However, for Zn 2+ recovery an improvement in biosorption efficiencies was observed with rising temperatures, from 30.2% at 22°C to 37.6% at 40°C. At 50°C, there was precipitation visible which was also observed for the Ni 2+ solution at the highest temperature. The biosorption for Al 3+ stayed approximately the same with a slight increase from 60.2% to 66.3% at 50°C. Several studies described an increase in biosorption efficiencies for Ni 2+ , Cu 2+ and Zn 2+ with decreasing temperatures, indicating an exothermic process ( Farhan and Khadom, 2015 ; Kulkarni et al., 2019 ; Zinicovscaia et al., 2020 ). On the other hand, the biosorption of Al 3+ ions with different biosorbents was often reported as an endothermic process ( Costa et al., 2021 ). In this study, the increase in biosorption with increasing temperature was marginal and only measurable for Zn 2+ and Al 3+ . It was therefore decided to perform all further experiments at 22°C.

FIGURE 1 . Metal recoveries [%] after biosorption at 4 different temperatures (A) and various physical (B) and chemical (C) pre-treatment methods. Error bars indicate the standard deviation (SD) of two independent experiments ( n = 2).

3.3 Characterization of yeast biomass

Following biosorption experiments with single-metal solutions, FT-IR spectra of biosorbent loaded with and without metal ions were recorded. Figure 2A shows the characteristic absorbance peaks of lyophilized brewer’s yeast between 1,100 and 1,700 cm −1 . The most prominent peaks in this area correspond to the C=O stretching vibration of carboxyl groups and N-H bending of protein amide I band (1,644 cm −1 ), N-H bending and C-N stretching vibration of protein amide II band (1,533 cm −1 ) ( De Rossi et al., 2018 ; Zinicovscaia et al., 2023 ), C-O stretching vibration of COOH in uronic acid (1,393 cm −1 ) and C-N stretching vibration of amide band II (1,238 cm −1 ) ( Dong et al., 2009 ). After metal adsorption, changes could be observed in the yeast biomass spectra. Especially for the Al 3+ loaded biomass, where peaks at 1,533 and 1,393 cm −1 shifted to approximately 1,520 and 1,385 cm −1 , respectively. For the Cu 2+ , Zn 2+ and Ni 2+ loaded biomass there was a peak shift from 1,533 to 1,527 cm −1 observed. These results indicate the involvement of carboxyl and amide functional groups in metal adsorption onto the yeast surface as previously reported by Dong et al. and others ( Dong et al., 2009 ; Machado et al., 2009 ; Kulkarni et al., 2019 ).

FIGURE 2 . Characterization of lyophilized yeast biomass loaded with or without metal ions. The colored lines correspond to the yeast biomass loaded with the different metal ions whereas the grey line shows the untreated biomass control. (A) FT-IR spectra where the dashed lines indicate the characteristic absorbance peaks of lyophilized yeast biomass at the corresponding wavenumbers. (B) EDS analysis where the characteristic peaks for the adsorbed elements are labeled.

Surface images of the lyophilized yeast biomass before and after the metal biosorption ( Supplementary Figure S5 ) were taken, including EDS analysis. No morphological changes were observed after metal adsorption. While healthy yeast cells have a round and smooth surface, the yeast cells used in this study had a rough surface and the cell walls looked slightly shriveled. Many authors have described that crushing of the cells leads to the destruction of the cell membranes resulting in an increase in surface area and greater exposure of intracellular components thus increasing the sorbent binding sites ( Wang and Chen, 2006 ; Gonçalves et al., 2023 ). Additionally, it was reported that the surface of brewer’s yeast can become wrinkled and wizened after about 1 month of soaking in fermented liquor ( Wang et al., 2018 ; Kulkarni et al., 2019 ). The rough surface allows easier access for metal ions for the active sites, facilitating the biosorption process ( Zinicovscaia et al., 2023 ). In the present study, cells were partly aggregating. Particle distribution measurements revealed most particles (45%) were below 100 μm, 29% were between 0.1 and 0.5 mm and approximately 26% of the particles were bigger than 0.5 mm ( Supplementary Figure S6 ).

Following metal biosorption, characteristic peaks for aluminum (1.49 keV), copper (0.93 keV), zinc (1.01 keV) and nickel (0.85 keV) ( Socrates, 2001 ) Klicken oder tippen Sie hier, um Text einzugeben. were observed alongside all other components identified in the untreated biomass (sulfur at 2.31 keV and phosphorous at 2.01 keV) ( Figure 2B ). The presence of these metal ions on the surface of the biomass after biosorption as observed in the EDS analysis confirms the successful biosorption by spent brewer’s yeast. The distinct peak of potassium at 3.31 keV is only visible for the lyophilized control biomass and disappears once the metal adsorption takes place which points to ion-exchange between potassium and metal ions on the yeast surface as one of the main mechanisms involved in biosorption ( Dong et al., 2009 ).

3.4 The effect of physical and chemical pre-treatment methods for yeast biomass

Various pre-treatment methods have been described in literature to optimize the yeast cell surface for biosorption ( Yaashikaa et al., 2021 ). Therefore, the effect of different physical and chemical pre-treatment methods on the biosorption efficiencies were tested. When using the untreated yeast biomass, recovery rates of 45.9% for Cu 2+ , 51.8% for Zn 2+ and 29.1% for Ni 2+ were achieved. The physical pre-treatment methods did not improve the biosorption efficiencies for those metals ( Figure 1B ). For Al 3+ , however, 57.6% of the metal was removed from the solution with the untreated biomass, and 60.2% from the solution with lyophilized biomass. The other 3 pre-treatment methods did not improve the biosorption of Al 3+ , and after sonication of the biomass precipitation was observed. In addition, there was no significant increase in biosorption after chemical pre-treatment with one exception. When the yeast biomass was pre-treated with sodium hydroxide, the biosorption efficiency of Cu 2+ was significantly increased by 5.7% ( Figure 1C ). An increase in biosorption efficiency for Cu 2+ of caustic treated yeast biomass was also described by Göksungur et al. (2005) and could be explained by the removal of proteins from the cell surface that could form non-adsorbable complexes with the metal ions. As observed by Mapolelo and Torto, chemical pre-treatments e.g., with green solvents, disrupt and permeabilize the cell membrane and therefore expose latent metal binding sites ( Mapolelo and Torto, 2004 ). Since the yeast biomass used in these experiments comes from the fermentation industry at the end of the beer brewing process, there is a possibility of natural autolysis resulting in a change of cell morphology and degradation of cell membrane components ( Wang et al., 2018 ) as could be observed in the SEM pictures. These changes in cell surface compared to healthy yeast cells might explain why the pre-treatments did not further improve the biosorption efficiencies.

3.5 Selective biosorption from polymetallic solutions

Selective biosorption experiments were performed with synthetic solutions containing 100 mg l −1 of each metal, adding 10 g l −1 of fresh lyophilized yeast biomass after each pH adjustment step. Remaining metal content in the supernatant was analyzed by ICP-MS ( Figure 3A ). At pH 3.5, 53.2% of Al 3+ were adsorbed onto the yeast surface whereas most of the Zn 2+ and Ni 2+ stayed in solution. In addition, only 15.0% of Cu 2+ was removed from the solution at the initial biosorption step. Following pH adjustment to 5.0, 42.4% of the remaining Cu 2+ in solution was adsorbed onto fresh biomass. The residual Al 3+ was at that point almost completely removed from the solution (>97%). This is explained by the formation of less soluble aluminum hydroxide species starting at pH 4 and hence precipitation, as Costa et al. suggested ( Costa et al., 2021 ). During the next biosorption step at pH 7.5, 74.8% of Zn 2+ could be adsorbed onto the yeast surface and additional 15.4% of Cu 2+ were removed. The removal efficiency of Cu 2+ at this step needs to be evaluated with care as copper starts to precipitate at pH 6.4 ( Zinicovscaia et al., 2023 ). At the last pH step of 8.5, Zn 2+ was almost completely removed (>98%) whereas more than 50% of the initial Ni 2+ amount was still in solution. Unexpectedly, the biosorption of Ni 2+ worked best at pH 7.5 where 23.3% of Ni 2+ were removed from the solution compared to 7.8% at pH 8.5. While ICP-MS results revealed the remaining metal concentration in the solutions after biosorption, XRF measures the metal appearance on the yeast surface ( Figure 3D ). Therefore, a similar trend in selective metal adsorption was observed with both methods. A one-way ANOVA analysis was performed to compare the effect of the four different solution pH on the metal recovery efficiencies revealing a significant difference in nickel adsorption between pH 7.5 and 8.5, indicating a more efficient nickel removal at pH 7.5 ( Table 3 ). When measuring the yeast biomass after the adsorption in synthetic solution, there is a characteristic peak for Cu 2+ visible after the adsorption at pH 3.5 and 5.0 compared to lower peaks at pH 7.5 and 8.5. One-way ANOVA analysis revealed statistically significant differences between pH 5.0 and pH 7.5 or 8.5 for the copper adsorption highlighting the higher copper adsorption at pH 5.0 ( Table 3 ). Even more prominent is the Zn 2+ peak after the biosorption at pH 7.5. As previously observed, the characteristic peak for Ni 2+ appears at pH 5.0 and 7.5 and a smaller one is observed at pH 8.5. From these experiments it was concluded that the selective biosorption of metals from a synthetic polymetallic solution worked exceptionally well for Al 3+ , Cu 2+ and Zn 2+ at their predefined pH values of 3.5, 5.0 and 7.5, respectively, and the same approach was adapted for the metal recovery out of pregnant PCB bioleaching solutions.

FIGURE 3 . Solution and biomass analysis after the stepwise biosorption process for aluminum, copper, zinc and nickel at the corresponding pH values. Results of the ICP-MS analysis after biosorption from synthetic solution (A) , leachate solution 1 (B) and leachate solution 2 (C) . The strong color indicates the metal concentration [mg l −1 ] after the biosorption step at the indicated pH value, the faded color shows the starting metal concentration [mg l −1 ] of each step. XRF spectra of the yeast biomass after the biosorption from synthetic (D) , leachate solution 1 (E) and leachate solution 2 (F) . The colors indicate at which solution pH the biomass was used. The characteristic peaks for the elements at their specific fluorescent energies are labeled.

TABLE 3 . Results of the one-way ANOVA analysis along with the post hoc Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons of XRF results during the synthetic solution biosorption experiment. Values for the standard error (SD) and adjusted p -values are reported.

It is important to note that since the PCB material is very heterogenous there can be other chemical compounds present in the leachate solutions which could interfere with the biosorption capacity for the four metals investigated. Vijayaraghavan and Balasubramanian state that the presence of co-ions strongly affects the removal capacity of the biosorbent towards the ion of interest. Since several chemical groups and components of the biomass surface play an essential role in the passive process of biosorption, complicated interactions are expected in the presence of many ions ( Vijayaraghavan and Balasubramanian, 2015 ). Kulkarni and co-workers for instance described the competitive behavior of Ni 2+ and Cd 2+ for vacant sites on brewery sludge ( Kulkarni et al., 2019 ). Moreover, S. cerevisiae was investigated by several authors for the removal of other metal ions, e.g., Pb 2+ ( Stathatou et al., 2022 ), Co 2+ ( Savastru et al., 2022 ) or Cr 6+ ( De Rossi et al., 2018 ).

The two different PCB leachate solutions analyzed in this study have very high Cu 2+ and Zn 2+ concentrations ( Table 2 ). Both solutions were diluted to reach suitable concentrations of the metals as determined by the DoE screening. There was approximately 75 and 40 times less Ni 2+ than Cu 2+ in solution 1 and 2, respectively, and the Al 3+ content in both leaching solutions was even lower. Their metal recovery rates could therefore not be evaluated. Metal ions such as Cr 6+ , Co 2+ or Mn 2+ that could potentially interfere with biosorption were very low in concentration and others like Cd 2+ , Fe 2+ or Pb 2+ were under the detection limit for ICP-MS ( Supplementary Table S1 ) and were not considered in further discussion. It is worth mentioning that there was an increase in Mg 2+ concentration in the synthetic as well as in both leachate solutions measured after each biosorption step ( Supplementary Table S1 ). This observation is in line with the results of several other authors who describe the displacement of cellular metal ions (K + , Mg 2+ , Na + , Ca + ) as evidence that ion exchange is the dominant mechanisms in biosorption of heavy metals ( Torres, 2020 ; Zinicovscaia et al., 2020 ).

Interestingly, after the first biosorption at a pH of 3.5, 56.1% of Cu 2+ in leachate solution 1% and 54.1% in leachate solution 2 were recovered. In addition, 36.2% of Zn 2+ in solution 1% and 14.2% in solution 2 were adsorbed. When pH was adjusted to 5.0, an additional 24.0% and 18.0% of Cu 2+ and 40.1% and 31.0% of Zn 2+ were removed out of solution 1 and 2. After that the Cu 2+ concentration in the solutions stayed approximately the same during the last two pH steps. At pH 7.5 almost all the remaining Zn 2+ was removed from the diluted leachate solutions (>92% total removal of Zn 2+ for leachate solution 1 and >97% for leachate solution 2) which was the same for the synthetic solution where a total removal of Zn 2+ of 93.2% was achieved after biosorption at pH 7.5 ( Figures 3A–C ). The maximum Cu 2+ removal from the PCB leachate solutions is approximately 80% for leachate solution 1% and 72% for leachate solution 2 at pH 5.0. These results fit well with the biosorption of Cu 2+ from the synthetic solution where a total of 72.8% of Cu 2+ was removed at pH 7.5. These observations for the leachate solutions were reinforced by the XRF results where a peak emerged after adsorption at pH 3.5. This characteristic Cu 2+ peak is also observed at pH 5.0 and still visible at pH 7.5 where the specific peak for Zn 2+ appeared ( Figures 3E,F ). This indicates that Al 3+ ions preferentially bind to the yeast surface at pH 3.5 but in the absence of Al 3+ , Cu 2+ ions bind to the yeast surface also at a lower pH value. It is described in literature that the sorption capacities of different metal ions follow the order of decreasing electronegativity ( Igberase et al., 2017 ). The electronegativity of aluminum (1.61) is lower than that of copper (1.90) pointing to a higher affinity of the Al 3+ ions to the yeast surface. Thus, with the absence of Al 3+ ions in the leachate solutions and the experimental conditions presented here, it would be possible to perform the Cu 2+ biosorption at pH 3.5 and directly adapt the pH to 7.5 for the zinc biosorption without an additional step at pH 5.0.

3.6 Sequential biosorption and desorption studies

The capacity for regeneration and reuse of a biosorbent is of high importance since it increases the economic and environmental feasibility of the biosorption process ( Costa et al., 2021 ). Reuse of the yeast biomass could make the metal recovery even more cost-effective while at the same time lowering the dependency on the continuous supply of the adsorbent ( Costa et al., 2020 ). As described in Section 3.5 of this study, the PCB leachate solutions had a high concentration of Cu 2+ and Zn 2+ but contained only very low amounts of Al 3+ and Ni 2+ . Hence, first regeneration and reuse tests were performed for the biosorption of Cu 2+ and Zn 2+ . Sequential biosorption experiments with synthetic single-metal solutions already showed promising results by increasing the metal removal capacity up to 90% after 4 rounds for Cu 2+ and after 5 rounds for Zn 2+ when using fresh biomass for each round ( Figure 4 ). In this study biogenic sulfuric acid that was produced in a previous project ( Kremser et al., 2022a ) was applied for the desorption of metal ions from the yeast surface. Diluted biogenic sulfuric acid at a pH of 1.2 could be effectively used to desorb Zn 2+ and Cu 2+ ions, therefore enabling the reuse of the biosorbent and reaching metal removal efficiencies of up to 83.6% for Zn 2+ and 89.6% for Cu 2+ after 5 rounds ( Figure 4 ). However, Cu 2+ biosorption was more efficient than Zn 2+ biosorption when reusing the yeast biomass. Studies have shown that sulfuric acid at pH 1.1 can be efficiently used to desorb Cu 2+ ions ( Jung et al., 2022 ). On the other hand, hydrochloric acid is most commonly used for eluting heavy metal ions requiring different eluent concentrations for the various metals ( Yaashikaa et al., 2021 ). Most biosorbents rely on ion-exchange as a main biosorption mechanism and desorption with mild to strong acids results in exchanging the adsorbed metal ions on the biosorbent surface with protons. Considering that acidic solutions are common waste streams ( Vijayaraghavan and Balasubramanian, 2015 ) this further underlines the merits of using acids as desorbing agents.

FIGURE 4 . Results of the sequential biosorption experiments using either fresh biomass (strong color) or reused biomass after desorption with biogenic sulfuric acid (fainted color) for each new round.

4 Conclusion

Several studies have investigated the removal of specific metal ions from different waste stream highlighting solution pH as one of the most important parameters for successful metal recovery. In this study, the optimal pH values for aluminum, copper, zinc and nickel biosorption were determined and combined to a stepwise biosorption approach. Using an industrial waste-biomass such as spent brewer’s yeast kept the costs of this process low. Moreover, spent brewer’s yeast proofed to be an excellent candidate for the selective metal recovery from PCB leachate solutions containing high amounts of Cu 2+ and Zn 2+ . High recovery rates of Al 3+ , Cu 2+ and Zn 2+ could be achieved and a preferential binding of Al 3+ over Cu 2+ was demonstrated at a low pH value. In addition, it was established that the yeast biomass could be reused several times to increase the removal of Cu 2+ and Zn 2+ from synthetic solutions, making the process even more economically feasible. Nevertheless, the parameters for the Ni 2+ biosorption can still be improved to reach higher recovery rates. The current study showed that a stepwise biosorption approach using spent brewer’s yeast can be used for the selective recycling of metals from PCB leachate solutions. However, further studies focusing on different waste streams need to include a careful analysis of potential interfering metal ions.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

AS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing–original draft. LJ: Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Writing–review and editing. KK: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Visualization, Writing–review and editing. GG: Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing–review and editing.

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This study received funding from the module FuLIBatteR which is supported by COMET (Competence Center for Excellent Technologies), the Austrian program for competence centers. COMET is funded by the Federal Ministry for Climate Action, Environment, Energy, Mobility, Innovation and Technology, the Federal Ministry for Labour and Economy, the Federal States of Upper Austria and Styria as well as the Styrian Business Promotion Agency (SFG). Furthermore, Upper Austrian Research GmbH continuously supports the module. Besides the public funding from COMET, this research project is partially financed by the company partners Audi, BRAIN Biotech, Ebner Industrieofenbau, RHI Magnesita, Saubermacher, TÜV SÜD Landesgesellschaft Österreich, voestalpine High-Performance Metals, and VTU Engineering and the scientific partners acib, Coventry University, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, and UVR-FIA. The funder was not involved in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, the writing of this article or the decision to submit it for publication.

Acknowledgments

XRF measurements and the statistical analysis were carried out with the help ofDipl.-Ing. Aleksander Jandric from the Institute of Waste Management and Circularity at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna. ICP-MS analysis of polymetallic solutions were kindly provided by Dr. Tomas Vaculovic from the Department of Chemistry at the Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.

Conflict of interest

Author AS was employed by company K1-MET GmbH, Linz, Austria.

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbioe.2024.1345112/full#supplementary-material

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Wang, J., and Chen, C. (2006). Biosorption of heavy metals by Saccharomyces cerevisiae : a review. Biotechnol. Adv. 24 (5), 427–451. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2006.03.001

Wang, J., Li, M., Zheng, F., Niu, C., Liu, C., Li, Q., et al. (2018). Cell wall polysaccharides: before and after autolysis of brewer’s yeast. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 34 (9), 137–138. doi:10.1007/s11274-018-2508-6

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Zinicovscaia, I., Yushin, N., Abdusamadzoda, D., Grozdov, D., and Shvetsova, M. (2020). Efficient removal of metals from synthetic and real galvanic zinc-containing effluents by Brewer’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Materials 13 (16), 3624. doi:10.3390/MA13163624

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Keywords: biosorption, brewer’s yeast, low-cost biosorbent, selective metal recovery, printed circuit board leachate solutions

Citation: Sieber A, Jelic LR, Kremser K and Guebitz GM (2024) Spent brewer’s yeast as a selective biosorbent for metal recovery from polymetallic waste streams. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 12:1345112. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1345112

Received: 27 November 2023; Accepted: 25 January 2024; Published: 12 March 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Sieber, Jelic, Kremser and Guebitz. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Klemens Kremser, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Biotechnologies to Recover Critical Metals

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Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Table of Contents

Research paper format is an essential aspect of academic writing that plays a crucial role in the communication of research findings . The format of a research paper depends on various factors such as the discipline, style guide, and purpose of the research. It includes guidelines for the structure, citation style, referencing , and other elements of the paper that contribute to its overall presentation and coherence. Adhering to the appropriate research paper format is vital for ensuring that the research is accurately and effectively communicated to the intended audience. In this era of information, it is essential to understand the different research paper formats and their guidelines to communicate research effectively, accurately, and with the required level of detail. This post aims to provide an overview of some of the common research paper formats used in academic writing.

Research Paper Formats

Research Paper Formats are as follows:

• APA (American Psychological Association) format
• MLA (Modern Language Association) format
• Chicago/Turabian style
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) format
• AMA (American Medical Association) style
• Harvard style
• Vancouver style
• ACS (American Chemical Society) style
• ASA (American Sociological Association) style
• APSA (American Political Science Association) style

APA (American Psychological Association) Format

Here is a general APA format for a research paper:

• Title Page: The title page should include the title of your paper, your name, and your institutional affiliation. It should also include a running head, which is a shortened version of the title, and a page number in the upper right-hand corner.
• Abstract : The abstract is a brief summary of your paper, typically 150-250 words. It should include the purpose of your research, the main findings, and any implications or conclusions that can be drawn.
• Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on your topic, state the purpose of your research, and present your research question or hypothesis. It should also include a brief literature review that discusses previous research on your topic.
• Methods: The methods section should describe the procedures you used to collect and analyze your data. It should include information on the participants, the materials and instruments used, and the statistical analyses performed.
• Results: The results section should present the findings of your research in a clear and concise manner. Use tables and figures to help illustrate your results.
• Discussion : The discussion section should interpret your results and relate them back to your research question or hypothesis. It should also discuss the implications of your findings and any limitations of your study.
• References : The references section should include a list of all sources cited in your paper. Follow APA formatting guidelines for your citations and references.

Some additional tips for formatting your APA research paper:

• Use 12-point Times New Roman font throughout the paper.
• Double-space all text, including the references.
• Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the page.
• Indent the first line of each paragraph by 0.5 inches.
• Use a hanging indent for the references (the first line should be flush with the left margin, and all subsequent lines should be indented).
• Number all pages, including the title page and references page, in the upper right-hand corner.

APA Research Paper Format Template

APA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

Title Page:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Institutional affiliation
• A brief summary of the main points of the paper, including the research question, methods, findings, and conclusions. The abstract should be no more than 250 words.

Introduction:

• Background information on the topic of the research paper
• Research question or hypothesis
• Significance of the study
• Overview of the research methods and design
• Brief summary of the main findings
• Participants: description of the sample population, including the number of participants and their characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, etc.)
• Materials: description of any materials used in the study (e.g., survey questions, experimental apparatus)
• Procedure: detailed description of the steps taken to conduct the study
• Presentation of the findings of the study, including statistical analyses if applicable
• Tables and figures may be included to illustrate the results

Discussion:

• Interpretation of the results in light of the research question and hypothesis
• Implications of the study for the field
• Limitations of the study
• Suggestions for future research

References:

• A list of all sources cited in the paper, in APA format

Formatting guidelines:

• Double-spaced
• 12-point font (Times New Roman or Arial)
• 1-inch margins on all sides
• Page numbers in the top right corner
• Headings and subheadings should be used to organize the paper
• The first line of each paragraph should be indented
• Quotations of 40 or more words should be set off in a block quote with no quotation marks
• In-text citations should include the author’s last name and year of publication (e.g., Smith, 2019)

APA Research Paper Format Example

APA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health

University of XYZ

This study examines the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students. Data was collected through a survey of 500 students at the University of XYZ. Results suggest that social media use is significantly related to symptoms of depression and anxiety, and that the negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users.

Social media has become an increasingly important aspect of modern life, especially among young adults. While social media can have many positive effects, such as connecting people across distances and sharing information, there is growing concern about its impact on mental health. This study aims to examine the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students.

Participants: Participants were 500 college students at the University of XYZ, recruited through online advertisements and flyers posted on campus. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 25, with a mean age of 20.5 years. The sample was 60% female, 40% male, and 5% identified as non-binary or gender non-conforming.

Data was collected through an online survey administered through Qualtrics. The survey consisted of several measures, including the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) for depression symptoms, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) for anxiety symptoms, and questions about social media use.

Procedure :

Participants were asked to complete the online survey at their convenience. The survey took approximately 20-30 minutes to complete. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple regression analysis.

Results indicated that social media use was significantly related to symptoms of depression (r = .32, p < .001) and anxiety (r = .29, p < .001). Regression analysis indicated that frequency of social media use was a significant predictor of both depression symptoms (β = .24, p < .001) and anxiety symptoms (β = .20, p < .001), even when controlling for age, gender, and other relevant factors.

The results of this study suggest that social media use is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety among college students. The negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users. These findings have important implications for mental health professionals and educators, who should consider addressing the potential negative effects of social media use in their work with young adults.

References :

References should be listed in alphabetical order according to the author’s last name. For example:

• Chou, H. T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They are happier and having better lives than I am”: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’ lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(2), 117-121.
• Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among U.S. adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3-17.

Note: This is just a sample Example do not use this in your assignment.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format is as follows:

• Page Layout : Use 8.5 x 11-inch white paper, with 1-inch margins on all sides. The font should be 12-point Times New Roman or a similar serif font.
• Heading and Title : The first page of your research paper should include a heading and a title. The heading should include your name, your instructor’s name, the course title, and the date. The title should be centered and in title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
• In-Text Citations : Use parenthetical citations to indicate the source of your information. The citation should include the author’s last name and the page number(s) of the source. For example: (Smith 23).
• Works Cited Page : At the end of your paper, include a Works Cited page that lists all the sources you used in your research. Each entry should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the medium of publication.
• Formatting Quotations : Use double quotation marks for short quotations and block quotations for longer quotations. Indent the entire quotation five spaces from the left margin.
• Formatting the Body : Use a clear and readable font and double-space your text throughout. The first line of each paragraph should be indented one-half inch from the left margin.

MLA Research Paper Template

MLA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

• Use 8.5 x 11 inch white paper.
• Use a 12-point font, such as Times New Roman.
• Use double-spacing throughout the entire paper, including the title page and works cited page.
• Set the margins to 1 inch on all sides.
• Use page numbers in the upper right corner, beginning with the first page of text.
• Include a centered title for the research paper, using title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
• Include your name, instructor’s name, course name, and date in the upper left corner, double-spaced.

In-Text Citations

• When quoting or paraphrasing information from sources, include an in-text citation within the text of your paper.
• Use the author’s last name and the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence, before the punctuation mark.
• If the author’s name is mentioned in the sentence, only include the page number in parentheses.

Works Cited Page

• List all sources cited in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.
• Each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and medium of publication.
• Use italics for book and journal titles, and quotation marks for article and chapter titles.
• For online sources, include the date of access and the URL.

Here is an example of how the first page of a research paper in MLA format should look:

Headings and Subheadings

• Use headings and subheadings to organize your paper and make it easier to read.
• Use numerals to number your headings and subheadings (e.g. 1, 2, 3), and capitalize the first letter of each word.
• The main heading should be centered and in boldface type, while subheadings should be left-aligned and in italics.
• Use only one space after each period or punctuation mark.
• Use quotation marks to indicate direct quotes from a source.
• If the quote is more than four lines, format it as a block quote, indented one inch from the left margin and without quotation marks.
• Use ellipses (…) to indicate omitted words from a quote, and brackets ([…]) to indicate added words.

Works Cited Examples

• Book: Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication Year.
• Journal Article: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, publication date, page numbers.
• Website: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Title of Website, publication date, URL. Accessed date.

Here is an example of how a works cited entry for a book should look:

Smith, John. The Art of Writing Research Papers. Penguin, 2021.

MLA Research Paper Example

MLA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

Your Professor’s Name

Course Name and Number

Date (in Day Month Year format)

Word Count (not including title page or Works Cited)

Title: The Impact of Video Games on Aggression Levels

Video games have become a popular form of entertainment among people of all ages. However, the impact of video games on aggression levels has been a subject of debate among scholars and researchers. While some argue that video games promote aggression and violent behavior, others argue that there is no clear link between video games and aggression levels. This research paper aims to explore the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults.

Background:

The debate on the impact of video games on aggression levels has been ongoing for several years. According to the American Psychological Association, exposure to violent media, including video games, can increase aggression levels in children and adolescents. However, some researchers argue that there is no clear evidence to support this claim. Several studies have been conducted to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels, but the results have been mixed.

Methodology:

This research paper used a quantitative research approach to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults. A sample of 100 young adults between the ages of 18 and 25 was selected for the study. The participants were asked to complete a questionnaire that measured their aggression levels and their video game habits.

The results of the study showed that there was a significant correlation between video game habits and aggression levels among young adults. The participants who reported playing violent video games for more than 5 hours per week had higher aggression levels than those who played less than 5 hours per week. The study also found that male participants were more likely to play violent video games and had higher aggression levels than female participants.

The findings of this study support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to note that the study only examined the impact of video games on aggression levels and did not take into account other factors that may contribute to aggressive behavior. It is also important to note that not all video games promote violence and aggression, and some games may have a positive impact on cognitive and social skills.

Conclusion :

In conclusion, this research paper provides evidence to support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to conduct further research to examine the impact of video games on other aspects of behavior and to explore the potential benefits of video games. Parents and educators should be aware of the potential impact of video games on aggression levels and should encourage young adults to engage in a variety of activities that promote cognitive and social skills.

Works Cited:

• American Psychological Association. (2017). Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/08/violent-video-games
• Ferguson, C. J. (2015). Do Angry Birds make for angry children? A meta-analysis of video game influences on children’s and adolescents’ aggression, mental health, prosocial behavior, and academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 646-666.
• Gentile, D. A., Swing, E. L., Lim, C. G., & Khoo, A. (2012). Video game playing, attention problems, and impulsiveness: Evidence of bidirectional causality. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(1), 62-70.
• Greitemeyer, T. (2014). Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 530-548.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chicago/Turabian Formate is as follows:

• Margins : Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the paper.
• Font : Use a readable font such as Times New Roman or Arial, and use a 12-point font size.
• Page numbering : Number all pages in the upper right-hand corner, beginning with the first page of text. Use Arabic numerals.
• Title page: Include a title page with the title of the paper, your name, course title and number, instructor’s name, and the date. The title should be centered on the page and in title case (capitalize the first letter of each word).
• Headings: Use headings to organize your paper. The first level of headings should be centered and in boldface or italics. The second level of headings should be left-aligned and in boldface or italics. Use as many levels of headings as necessary to organize your paper.
• In-text citations : Use footnotes or endnotes to cite sources within the text of your paper. The first citation for each source should be a full citation, and subsequent citations can be shortened. Use superscript numbers to indicate footnotes or endnotes.
• Bibliography : Include a bibliography at the end of your paper, listing all sources cited in your paper. The bibliography should be in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, and each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and date of publication.
• Formatting of quotations: Use block quotations for quotations that are longer than four lines. Indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin, and do not use quotation marks. Single-space the quotation, and double-space between paragraphs.
• Tables and figures: Use tables and figures to present data and illustrations. Number each table and figure sequentially, and provide a brief title for each. Place tables and figures as close as possible to the text that refers to them.
• Spelling and grammar : Use correct spelling and grammar throughout your paper. Proofread carefully for errors.

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template is as folows:

Title of Paper

Name of Student

Professor’s Name

I. Introduction

A. Background Information

B. Research Question

C. Thesis Statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of Existing Literature

B. Analysis of Key Literature

C. Identification of Gaps in Literature

III. Methodology

A. Research Design

B. Data Collection

C. Data Analysis

IV. Results

A. Presentation of Findings

B. Analysis of Findings

C. Discussion of Implications

V. Conclusion

A. Summary of Findings

B. Implications for Future Research

C. Conclusion

VI. References

A. Bibliography

B. In-Text Citations

VII. Appendices (if necessary)

A. Data Tables

C. Additional Supporting Materials

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Example

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Political Engagement

Name: John Smith

Class: POLS 101

Professor: Dr. Jane Doe

Date: April 8, 2023

I. Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives. People use social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram to connect with friends and family, share their opinions, and stay informed about current events. With the rise of social media, there has been a growing interest in understanding its impact on various aspects of society, including political engagement. In this paper, I will examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, specifically focusing on how social media influences political participation and political attitudes.

II. Literature Review:

There is a growing body of literature on the impact of social media on political engagement. Some scholars argue that social media has a positive effect on political participation by providing new channels for political communication and mobilization (Delli Carpini & Keeter, 1996; Putnam, 2000). Others, however, suggest that social media can have a negative impact on political engagement by creating filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue (Pariser, 2011; Sunstein, 2001).

III. Methodology:

To examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, I conducted a survey of 500 college students. The survey included questions about social media use, political participation, and political attitudes. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Iv. Results:

The results of the survey indicate that social media use is positively associated with political participation. Specifically, respondents who reported using social media to discuss politics were more likely to have participated in a political campaign, attended a political rally, or contacted a political representative. Additionally, social media use was found to be associated with more positive attitudes towards political engagement, such as increased trust in government and belief in the effectiveness of political action.

V. Conclusion:

The findings of this study suggest that social media has a positive impact on political engagement, by providing new opportunities for political communication and mobilization. However, there is also a need for caution, as social media can also create filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue. Future research should continue to explore the complex relationship between social media and political engagement, and develop strategies to harness the potential benefits of social media while mitigating its potential negative effects.

Vii. References:

• Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. Yale University Press.
• Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you. Penguin.
• Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.
• Sunstein, C. R. (2001). Republic.com. Princeton University Press.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Format

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Research Paper Format is as follows:

• Title : A concise and informative title that accurately reflects the content of the paper.
• Abstract : A brief summary of the paper, typically no more than 250 words, that includes the purpose of the study, the methods used, the key findings, and the main conclusions.
• Introduction : An overview of the background, context, and motivation for the research, including a clear statement of the problem being addressed and the objectives of the study.
• Literature review: A critical analysis of the relevant research and scholarship on the topic, including a discussion of any gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
• Methodology : A detailed description of the methods used to collect and analyze data, including any experiments or simulations, data collection instruments or procedures, and statistical analyses.
• Results : A clear and concise presentation of the findings, including any relevant tables, graphs, or figures.
• Discussion : A detailed interpretation of the results, including a comparison of the findings with previous research, a discussion of the implications of the results, and any recommendations for future research.
• Conclusion : A summary of the key findings and main conclusions of the study.
• References : A list of all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to IEEE guidelines.

In addition to these elements, an IEEE research paper should also follow certain formatting guidelines, including using 12-point font, double-spaced text, and numbered headings and subheadings. Additionally, any tables, figures, or equations should be clearly labeled and referenced in the text.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) Style Research Paper Format:

• Title Page: This page includes the title of the paper, the author’s name, institutional affiliation, and any acknowledgments or disclaimers.
• Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the paper that outlines the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of the study. It is typically limited to 250 words or less.
• Introduction: The introduction provides a background of the research problem, defines the research question, and outlines the objectives and hypotheses of the study.
• Methods: The methods section describes the research design, participants, procedures, and instruments used to collect and analyze data.
• Results: The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and charts where appropriate.
• Discussion: The discussion section interprets the results, explains their significance, and relates them to previous research in the field.
• Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main points of the paper, discusses the implications of the findings, and suggests future research directions.
• References: The reference list includes all sources cited in the paper, listed in alphabetical order by author’s last name.

In addition to these sections, the AMA format requires that authors follow specific guidelines for citing sources in the text and formatting their references. The AMA style uses a superscript number system for in-text citations and provides specific formats for different types of sources, such as books, journal articles, and websites.

Harvard Style

Harvard Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date of submission.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should outline the main points of your research and highlight your findings.
• Introduction : This section should introduce your research topic, provide background information, and outline your research question or thesis statement.
• Literature review: This section should review the relevant literature on your topic, including previous research studies, academic articles, and other sources.
• Methodology : This section should describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including any data collection methods, research instruments, and sampling techniques.
• Results : This section should present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables, graphs, and other visual aids if necessary.
• Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and relate them to the broader research question or thesis statement. You should also discuss the implications of your research and suggest areas for future study.
• Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and provide a final statement on the significance of your research.
• References : This is a list of all the sources you cited in your paper, presented in alphabetical order by author name. Each citation should include the author’s name, the title of the source, the publication date, and other relevant information.

In addition to these sections, a Harvard Style research paper may also include a table of contents, appendices, and other supplementary materials as needed. It is important to follow the specific formatting guidelines provided by your instructor or academic institution when preparing your research paper in Harvard Style.

Vancouver Style

Vancouver Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The Vancouver citation style is commonly used in the biomedical sciences and is known for its use of numbered references. Here is a basic format for a research paper using the Vancouver citation style:

• Title page: Include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your research paper, usually no more than 250 words.
• Introduction : Provide some background information on your topic and state the purpose of your research.
• Methods : Describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including the study design, data collection, and statistical analysis.
• Results : Present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables and figures as needed.
• Discussion : Interpret your results and explain their significance. Also, discuss any limitations of your study and suggest directions for future research.
• References : List all of the sources you cited in your paper in numerical order. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the article or book, the name of the journal or publisher, the year of publication, and the page numbers.

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The American Chemical Society (ACS) Style is a citation style commonly used in chemistry and related fields. When formatting a research paper in ACS Style, here are some guidelines to follow:

• Paper Size and Margins : Use standard 8.5″ x 11″ paper with 1-inch margins on all sides.
• Font: Use a 12-point serif font (such as Times New Roman) for the main text. The title should be in bold and a larger font size.
• Title Page : The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the date of submission. The title should be centered on the page and written in bold font. The authors’ names should be centered below the title, followed by their affiliations and the date.
• Abstract : The abstract should be a brief summary of the paper, no more than 250 words. It should be on a separate page and include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the text of the abstract.
• Main Text : The main text should be organized into sections with headings that clearly indicate the content of each section. The introduction should provide background information and state the research question or hypothesis. The methods section should describe the procedures used in the study. The results section should present the findings of the study, and the discussion section should interpret the results and provide conclusions.
• References: Use the ACS Style guide to format the references cited in the paper. In-text citations should be numbered sequentially throughout the text and listed in numerical order at the end of the paper.
• Figures and Tables: Figures and tables should be numbered sequentially and referenced in the text. Each should have a descriptive caption that explains its content. Figures should be submitted in a high-quality electronic format.
• Supporting Information: Additional information such as data, graphs, and videos may be included as supporting information. This should be included in a separate file and referenced in the main text.
• Acknowledgments : Acknowledge any funding sources or individuals who contributed to the research.

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title Page: The title page of an ASA style research paper should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, and the institutional affiliation. The title should be centered and should be in title case (the first letter of each major word should be capitalized).
• Abstract: An abstract is a brief summary of the paper that should appear on a separate page immediately following the title page. The abstract should be no more than 200 words in length and should summarize the main points of the paper.
• Main Body: The main body of the paper should begin on a new page following the abstract page. The paper should be double-spaced, with 1-inch margins on all sides, and should be written in 12-point Times New Roman font. The main body of the paper should include an introduction, a literature review, a methodology section, results, and a discussion.
• References : The reference section should appear on a separate page at the end of the paper. All sources cited in the paper should be listed in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the date of publication.
• Appendices : Appendices are optional and should only be included if they contain information that is relevant to the study but too lengthy to be included in the main body of the paper. If you include appendices, each one should be labeled with a letter (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) and should be referenced in the main body of the paper.

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title Page: The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, the name of the course or instructor, and the date.
• Abstract : An abstract is typically not required in APSA style papers, but if one is included, it should be brief and summarize the main points of the paper.
• Introduction : The introduction should provide an overview of the research topic, the research question, and the main argument or thesis of the paper.
• Literature Review : The literature review should summarize the existing research on the topic and provide a context for the research question.
• Methods : The methods section should describe the research methods used in the paper, including data collection and analysis.
• Results : The results section should present the findings of the research.
• Discussion : The discussion section should interpret the results and connect them back to the research question and argument.
• Conclusion : The conclusion should summarize the main findings and implications of the research.
• References : The reference list should include all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to APSA style guidelines.

In-text citations in APSA style use parenthetical citation, which includes the author’s last name, publication year, and page number(s) if applicable. For example, (Smith 2010, 25).

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Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 23, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-research/

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