disadvantages of visual representation

Advantages and Disadvantages of Visual Communication 

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In today’s world, visual communication has become an increasingly popular way to convey messages. Whether it’s through images, videos, or infographics, visuals can be a powerful tool in conveying information. However, like any communication method, there are also advantages and disadvantages to using visual communication. In this blog, we will explore the merits and demerits of visual communication and how to use it effectively.

What is visual communication? 

Visual communication involves utilizing visual components to express ideas or information. This type of communication relies on visual aids such as images, graphics, videos, animations, and diagrams, to enhance the meaning and impact of a message

Visual communication can take many forms, including graphic design, professional picture editing , illustration, animation, and video. By combining visuals with text and other design elements, visual communication can create a dynamic and engaging user experience that can capture and hold the viewer’s attention. 

The purpose of visual communication can range from providing information to persuading an audience, making it an essential aspect of marketing, advertising, and branding. Visual communication can be used across a variety of mediums, including print, digital, and social media, and the ability to convert image to video can enhance the impact of visual communication on these platforms. 

Check out our detailed guide on: Visual Communication: Examples, Types, Elements & Importance 

13 Advantages of disadvantages of visual communication? 

Visual communication is a powerful communication channel that has been used to convey information, ideas, and emotions. In this context, it is important to weigh the pros and cons of visual communication to determine its effectiveness in a given situation. 

Advantages of visual communication

1. Improved Comprehension: Visual communication can improve comprehension and understanding of complex information. By presenting information through visuals like diagrams, charts, and infographics, viewers can quickly and easily understand the information.

2. Increased Retention: Visuals are easier to remember and retain than text alone. This is because when information is presented in a visual format, it has a greater chance of being retained by individuals, resulting in better educational results.

3. Better Engagement: Using visuals in communication can be more captivating than relying solely on text. Human beings have an inherent inclination towards visual stimuli, and incorporating visual elements into your content can help to retain viewers’ attention for an extended period of time.

4. Increased Accessibility: Visual communication can make information more accessible to people with disabilities . For example, using captions and descriptive text with visuals can make them accessible to people with hearing or visual impairments.

5. Improved Clarity: Visuals can improve the clarity of your message. By using visuals to reinforce your message, you can ensure that viewers understand the point you’re trying to make.

6. Enhanced Emotional Connection: Visuals can create an emotional connection with viewers. By using visuals like images and videos, you can create a more powerful and emotional impact on your audience.

7. Improved Creativity: Visual communication can improve your creativity and imagination. By using visuals to express your ideas, you can come up with new and innovative ways to present information.

8. Increased Persuasiveness: Incorporating visuals in communication can be more effective in persuading the audience than relying solely on written or spoken words. Utilizing visuals to support the arguments, can present a more compelling and convincing case for the audience.

9. Better User Experience: Visuals can improve the user experience of your website or application. By using visuals like images and videos, you can create a more visually appealing and engaging experience for your users.

10. Increased Effectiveness: Visual communication can be more effective than text alone. By using visuals to support your message, you can increase the effectiveness of your communication and ensure that your message is received and understood by your audience.

11. Improving Brand identity: Visuals can be used to reinforce an identity of a brand. By using consistent visuals like color schemes, fonts, and logos, you can create a cohesive and recognizable brand image.

12. Increased Efficiency: Visual communication can be more efficient than text alone. By using visuals to convey information, you can communicate ideas more quickly and with less effort.

13. Improved Collaboration: Visual communication can improve collaboration between team members. By using visuals like diagrams and flowcharts, you can help team members better understand complex processes and work together more effectively.

Disadvantages of visual communication 

1. Inability to Convey Emotion: Visual communication can be limited in its ability to convey emotions or tone of voice, which can be important in certain contexts. For example, written communication can be difficult to interpret without understanding the writer’s intent or tone of voice, and visual aids may not be able to convey this information accurately. Similarly, some people may be more comfortable expressing themselves orally, making visual communication less effective in these situations.

2. Limited Accessibility: One of the main disadvantages of visual communication is that it may not be accessible to people with certain disabilities.  For example, Individuals having visual impairments will not be able to view or understand the visual message. Hence oral communication would be more suitable in these kinds of situations.  

3. Misinterpretation: Visual communication can be subject to misinterpretation, as individuals may interpret visuals differently. In addition, It can be difficult to convey complex ideas or information using visual aids alone, which can lead to confusion or misunderstandings. This is particularly true when the visual aids are not well designed or organized, or when they are used in isolation from other forms of communication like oral or written communication . 

4. Cultural Differences: Visuals may not be universally understood across different cultures. Symbols and images may have different meanings in different cultures, leading to misunderstandings and miscommunications.

5. Cost: Creating high-quality visuals can be costly and time-consuming, especially for businesses and organizations with limited resources.

6. Issue of Technological constraints: There may be certain technical limitations that could constrain the use of certain visuals. For example, some websites may not be able to display high-quality images or videos due to bandwidth limitations. In addition, technical constraints may also arise due to hardware and software limitations. Some older devices may not be compatible with certain image or video formats, which could affect the quality of the visuals. 

7. Inaccurate Representations: Visuals may not always accurately represent the information they are intended to convey. This can happen because of problems such as data inaccuracies or biases which may lead to misleading conclusions. 

8. Information Overload: Visual communication can also contribute to information overload. If too many visuals are used or if they are too complex, viewers may become overwhelmed and have difficulty processing the information.

9. Reliance on Technology: The use of technology plays a significant role in visual communication and it can be vulnerable to technical glitches and issues. This can disrupt communication and lead to frustration for viewers.

10. Ineffective for Certain Types of Information: Visual communication may not be the most effective way to convey certain types of information. For example, abstract concepts may be difficult to represent visually. Offen time complex or technical information may require written or oral communication to fully explain.

Related Reading:   Oral communication advantages and disadvantages  Written communication advantages and disadvantages 

11. Restricted Interaction: Visual communication may offer limited opportunities for interactivity compared to other forms of communication, such as written or verbal communication. This can limit the ability of viewers to ask questions or engage with the information presented. 

12. Limited Persuasiveness: Visual communication may not be as persuasive as other forms of communication. While visual aids can be persuasive and influential in some situations, they may not have the same impact as oral or written communication, particularly when it comes to more complex or nuanced arguments. This can be a big disadvantage of visual communication in situations where persuasion is important, such as in sales or marketing.

Lack of Personal Connection: Visual communication can lack a personal connection between the communicator and the audience, particularly when compared to oral communication. This can be a disadvantage in situations where building trust and rapport is important, such as in interpersonal relationships or business negotiations.

Examples of visual communication

Visual communication can take many different forms and can be used in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of visual communication:

1. Infographics: These are graphical representations of information or data that are designed to make complex information more easily understood.

2. Charts and graphs: Charts or graphs are graphical illustrations utilized to communicate patterns or connections within data or information.

3. Photographs: Photographs can be used to capture a moment or convey a mood or emotion.

4. Videos: Videos can be used to tell a story, demonstrate a process, or convey information.

5. Illustrations: Illustrations can be used to create a visual representation of an idea, concept, or story.

6. Logos and branding: Logos and branding can be used to visually represent a company or organization.

7. Signage: Signage can be used to convey information, such as directions or warnings, in a visual format. 

8. Posters: Posters can be used to convey a message or market a product or concept.

9. Web design: Web design incorporates visual elements, such as graphics and layout, to create an effective online presence.

10. Packaging design: Packaging design incorporates visual elements, such as color and graphics, to create a product’s visual identity.

What is the importance of visual communication? 

Effective transmission of information and messages heavily relies on visual communication. By using visuals, we can help audiences to comprehend information more easily, making it more likely that they will engage with and remember the message. Here are some key reasons why visual communication is important: 

Firstly, visual communication can simplify complex ideas and make them easier to understand. They provide a quick and easy way to convey information and help the audience remember the message.

In addition, visual communication possesses a broad-based appeal that surpasses linguistic and cultural obstacles , making them an efficient channel for connecting with a vast audience. 

Secondly, visual communication can evoke emotions and create a strong emotional impact. Images and videos have the power to elicit feelings and emotions in a way that text alone cannot. Creating an emotional bond of this nature can aid in developing confidence and cultivating a stronger relationship with the audience.

Lastly, visual communication can help businesses to improve the user experience by creating brand identity and recognition, making it easier for audiences to identify and remember a brand.

In summary, the importance of visual communication lies in its ability to simplify complex ideas, evoke emotions, and improve the overall user experience. It has become an essential tool for effective communication in a world where attention spans are short and information overload is prevalent.

Advantages and disadvantages of visual information

Visual information, such as images, videos, and infographics, has become increasingly prevalent in modern communication. However, like any other form of information, visual information has its own set of benefits and limitations.

Advantages of visual information

Improved comprehension and retention of information : Studies have shown that people remember visual information better than text alone, making it a valuable tool for communicating important information. By using visuals to break down complex ideas into digestible parts, we can help audiences to comprehend information more easily and retain it for longer periods of time.

Increased brand awareness and recognition: Visuals are an important tool for establishing brand identity and recognition. By using consistent visual elements such as logos, color schemes, and typography, businesses can create a distinct brand identity that is easily recognizable. 

Improved accessibility: Visual information can be a more accessible way of conveying information for people with learning disabilities, as it can simplify complex ideas and make them more understandable. For example, infographics can help to convey information that may be difficult to understand in a traditional text-based format. 

Disadvantages of visual information 

High chance of misinterpretation: One disadvantage of visual information is that it can sometimes be misinterpreted or misunderstood. For example, a chart or graph may be interpreted in different ways depending on the audience’s background knowledge or perspective. This can lead to confusion or miscommunication. 

Can be costly: Another disadvantage of visual information is that it can be time-consuming and expensive to create. High-quality visual information requires significant planning, design, and production time, which can be a challenge for organizations with limited resources. 

Advantages and disadvantages of visual symbols

Visual symbols are a form of visual communication that use images or icons to represent ideas, concepts, or objects. Like any form of communication, visual symbols have both advantages and disadvantages.

The Advantage of visual symbols: 

One of the main advantages of visual symbols is that they can be easily understood across different cultures and languages. Visual symbols can be universally recognized and do not require translation, making them a powerful tool for global communication. Additionally, visual symbols can convey complex ideas or concepts in a simple and memorable way, making them an effective tool for advertising and branding.

The disadvantage of visual symbols: 

Visual symbols can be open to misinterpretation or ambiguity. Different people may interpret the same symbol in different ways, based on their background, cultural context, or personal experiences. This can lead to confusion or miscommunication, particularly if the symbol is used in a critical or sensitive context.

Advantages and disadvantages of audio-visual communication

Audio-visual communication refers to the use of audio and visual aids such as videos, animations, and presentations to convey information. However audio-visual communication has its importance and limitations.

Advantages of audio-visual communication:

• Increases audience engagement and interest.
• Helps convey complex information more effectively.
• Appeals to different learning styles.
• It is possible to utilize audio-visual communication to elicit emotions and generate a more memorable encounter.
• Can be more effective in delivering messages compared to text-only communication.
• Improves understanding and retention of information.
• Can be used to build brand recognition and enhance user experience.
• Enables real-time communication and feedback.
• Can be more efficient and cost-effective than in-person communication.
• They can be effortlessly circulated and disseminated through multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of audio-visual communication:

• Requires technical skills and equipment.
• Technical problems such as equipment failure or poor internet connectivity can have a negative impact.
• May not be accessible to individuals with hearing or visual impairments.
• May not be as effective in conveying complex or nuanced information as text-only communication.
• Can be time-consuming to produce and edit.
• Can be costly to produce high-quality audio-visual content.
• In many situations, it can be difficult to measure the effectiveness of audio-visual communication.
• May require additional resources for translation or localization.
• May not be appropriate for all audiences or contexts.
• Can be affected by cultural differences or misunderstandings.

What are the effects of visual communication? 

Visual communication is a strong channel of communication that produces significant impacts on individuals and the entire society. One of the primary effects of visual communication is that it captures the audience’s attention and engages them.

By using a combination of design elements, such as color, typography, and imagery, visual communication can create a captivating experience that draws people in.

Another effect of visual communication is that it can also shape people’s perceptions and attitudes toward different ideas or products. By using various design elements and messaging, visual communication can create a specific brand image or evoke a certain emotion.  

Finally, visual communication can have a significant impact on society as a whole. It can be used to create awareness around important issues, shape public opinion, and promote social change. By using visual communication effectively, individuals and organizations can bring attention to important social issues and promote positive change.

How can visual communication be improved? 

Visual communication can be improved in several ways. Here are some tips to enhance the effectiveness of visual communication:

1. Understand the target audience: Before creating any visual communication, it is essential to understand the target audience’s needs, preferences, and expectations. This will help create visuals that resonate with them and improve engagement.

2. Simplify the message: Visual communication should be simple and easy to understand. Complex visuals can be confusing and turn off the audience. Simplifying the message ensures that the audience gets the point quickly.

3. Use clear and concise visuals: The visual elements should be clear, concise, and easy to read. Avoid using too many design elements or cluttered visuals that can confuse or overwhelm the audience.

4 Focus on the purpose: Visual communication should be created with a specific purpose in mind. The visual should be designed to achieve a specific goal, such as promoting a product or raising awareness for a cause.

5. Incorporate visual hierarchy: Visual hierarchy refers to the arrangement of visual elements in a way that guides the audience’s attention. Using a visual hierarchy ensures that the most critical information is highlighted and stands out.

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The Pitfalls of Visual Representations

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Visual Communication

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Visual communication involves the use of visual elements, such as drawings, illustrations and electronic images, to convey ideas and information to an audience. During presentations, business managers that properly use visual aids to communicate information will have greater success in maintaining the attention of their staff, and staff is more likely to remember the information. A potential downside of visual communication involves the use of poorly designed visual aids that are difficult to understand or see. If irrelevant information is presented, images can also be distracting and impede the understanding of concepts they should be trying to clarify.

Advantage: Aids Understanding

Technology has led to explosive growth in the use of images to communicate and understand the world around us. The use of internet technology has turned business users into active participants that can use words and images to communicate with customers and make their brands more visible to the world. Technology that provides images, video and apps gives business owners a variety of tools to use to attract customers and expand their markets. The combination of words and images has a powerful effect on the communication of ideas.

Advantage: Supports Oral Communication

Oral communication is enhanced when visual aids are used. It’s important to pair the correct visual aid with the type of oral information presented. For example, a manager discussing a data-intensive topic, such as a company’s fourth-quarter financial results, should consider passing out a handout that details the financial information. Presenting the information in a table format, or using a chart or graph to highlight key financial results, increases the audience's understanding and encourages participants to ask questions.

Disadvantage: Design Issues

If a visual aid is not properly designed for its intended use and audience, it can lead to a breakdown in communication. For example, a business person presenting a new product launch must consider the size and color of the product images he wants to show to the audience. The size of his audience determines the size of the pictures he will present. A large audience requires large images that might be shown on a screen so they are visible by everyone. A small audience, such as one that can be seated around a conference room table, can be shown images from a brochure.

Disadvantage: Distracts From the Message

A visual aid with the wrong information can cause a distraction and detract from the message the image is supposed to convey. For example, a discussion of a company's U.S. manufacturing plants might be accompanied by a map showing the location of these plants within their respective states. But if you include irrelevant information, such as tourist sites, it can distract the audience from the purpose of the map – to show the location of manufacturing plants. If you are making a presentation using slides, always try to be in charge of the remote or computer used to click to the next slide to ensure your words coincide with the graphics presented.

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Eileen Rojas holds a bachelor's and master's degree in accounting from Florida International University. She has more than 10 years of combined experience in auditing, accounting, financial analysis and business writing.

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Visual Learning: 10 Examples, Definition, Pros & Cons

Visual learning refers to the process of coming to understand information by seeing it – often, represented in graphs or films.

Teachers that utilize visual learning strategies present information in various visual formats such as: flowcharts, diagrams, videos, simulations, graphs, cartoons, coloring books, PPT slide shows, posters, movies, games, and flash cards.

Human beings are very visually-oriented creatures. Our visual system is central to many aspects of our lives. We can see the centrality of visual stimuli in the arts in the form of theatre and film, paintings and sculptures.

It plays a central role in our daily lives as we wear clothes and put on make-up to enhance our visual aesthetic. Fashion and beauty industries exist in every country and tally billions of dollars in sales a year.

However, despite the importance of visual stimuli, in educational contexts visual learning may not be suitable for all students. Because every student is different, visual learning may be effective for some, but not others.

Visual Learning as a Learning Style

Visual learning is the processing of visually presented information. A visual learning style, on the other hand, refers to times when visual learning is an individual’s preferred method of learning.

Whereas some students may be especially capable of visual learning, others may prefer to learn through other means, such as through text or auditory processing.

Others may prefer to have something to touch and manipulate.

This has led scholars to devise the concept of learning styles (see Pritchard, 2017). Each student has a different way of learning. Such scholars argue that teachers should utilize a range of instructional approaches that present information in a range of formats.

Over the years, a plethora of theoretical frameworks regarding learning styles has developed, with visual learning being a common category.

For instance, Neil Fleming’s VARK model (Fleming & Baume, 2006) contains four learning modalities : visual, auditory, reading and writing, and kinesthetic ( similar to tactile learning ).

Glossary Term: Visual Literacy

Visual literacy is a slightly different concept. It refers to a skill or the ability to decipher and create visually presented information.

Avgerinou and Pettersson (2011) point out the difficulty scholars have had in agreeing upon a definition of visual literacy. However, the one provided by Heinich et al. (1982) seems sufficient, despite the fact that it was offered last century:

“Visual literacy is the learned ability to interpret visual messages accurately and to create such messages.  Thus, interpretation and creation in visual literacy can be said to parallel reading and writing in print literacy” (p. 62).

Visual Learning Examples

• Concept Maps: A concept map is a way to graphically organize information that can enhance a student’s understanding of how different ideas are interconnected. Each concept is displayed as a circle, and students draw lines to other concepts/circles that are related in some way.  
• Data Animations: Large amounts of complex data can be presented in animation form. For example, explaining the economic growth and decline of various countries across decades can be demonstrated by animating the placement of each country’s economic rank year-over-year.
• PowerPoint Slides: Creating a PPT presentation that includes various charts and images can help convey meaning that cannot be accomplished through text alone.
• Gamification: Adding game elements to academic concepts generates student engagement and allows students to have a non-academic experience with academic concepts.
• Minecraft Education Edition: The Education Edition of Minecraft is a great way for students to learn programming skills and about academic subjects by creating their own visual stories.
• Dioramas: A diorama gives students a chance to create their own 3-D displays pertaining to academic subjects. For example, students can learn about animals and their habitats by constructing a scene in a shoebox.
• Interactive Smartboards: The interactive smartboard can display interactive charts, demonstrate complex principles in chemistry and physics, and even give preschoolers a chance to get out of their seats and touch the correct phoneme displayed on the board.
• Computer Simulations: It’s one thing to hear a lecture on the synaptic gap and neurotransmission. It’s quite another to see the process depicted in a sophisticated computer simulation.       
• Video Production: Students can learn about a key historical event by producing their own micro-play on video. The performance aspect is also visual and the end result is a student-designed video that depicts the crucial moments and characters of an important historical happening.
• Flowcharts: Complicated processes can be explained through a verbal explanation, but having a visual representation will be much more effective. Seeing each step sequentially helps students understand the big picture while at the same time seeing how each step is connected.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Visual Learning

1. strength: explaining the complex.

Very complex processes, such as those in physics, chemistry, and medicine, can be more easily understood through a visual format.

Well-done computer animations can show the dynamics of a complex process that simply cannot be discerned so thoroughly if presented through a verbal or text format.

2. Strength: Availability of Resources

Visual learning resources can be found within a few seconds on the internet. An image or video search will generate an incredible number of graphs, images, and videos which a teacher can easily download and incorporate into instruction.

3. Strength: Increases Student Engagement

Students today live in a very visual world. Short videos on social media and sites such as YouTube are viewed by students every day.

When in the classroom, listening or reading about academic concepts can lead to a lack of interest among students. However, presenting the same information in a visual format can pique interest and therefore increase student engagement.

4. Strength: Convenience

Visual learning resources are usually in a digital format. That means students can view the material just about anywhere, as long as they have their phone with them.

This convenience expands the opportunities for students to engage in learning. They no longer have to be seated at a desk to learn.

5. Strength: Efficiency

Visual learning is very efficient. For example, a lot of information can be presented in a short video lasting just a couple of minutes. However, to read and digest the same amount of information presented in text may consume many pages in a book.

Reading all of those pages may take three or four times longer than the same content presented in a video.

6. Weakness: Requires Equipment

When we think of the classroom, we usually envision a room well-equipped with video projectors and screens and teachers with laptops and laser pointers.

Unfortunately, that is a distorted perception of what exists in most of the world. A vast majority of classrooms around the globe are simply not equipped with the necessary hardware to capitalize on the value of visual learning material.

7. Weakness: Requires Less Thinking

Some visual learning activities, certainly not all, are passive experiences. For example, watching a video is a passive experience. The student simply needs to keep their eyes on the screen and let the information enter their mind.

This is a quite different cognitive process than needing to focus on a lecture and processing the meaning of each word spoken.

One is a passive cognitive process, while the other requires thinking.

8. Weakness: Can Create Edutainment Expectations

Because today’s students are so immersed in videos that are eye-catching and exciting to watch, it can create the expectation that education should be entertaining. This is not only unrealistic, but also may not be in the student’s best interest.

Learning to endure educational experiences that are not always pleasurable can help students develop self-discipline.

Disengaging from a learning experience simply because it is not entertaining denies students an opportunity for personal growth and the opportunity for them to develop higher-order thinking .

Case Study: Visual Learning in Ed. Teach

Applications of technology to improve classroom instruction has steadily increased as software has become more user friendly.

Numerous commercial products are available that can enhance students’ understanding of academic concepts, generate interest in technology, and improve higher-order thinking skills such as logical reasoning and problem-solving.

Many of those products capitalize on visual learning.

For example, Rodger et al. (2009) demonstrated the use of Alice to design lessons in math, language arts, and social studies. The program allows students to create their own interactive games, animations, and videos.

Scratch is a media tool that allows students to program their own interactive stories and games, which helps students build computational thinking and programming skills (Brennan & Resnick, 2012; Wilson et al., 2009). 

Kodu Game Lab is a 3-D visual programming platform that can enhance creativity and problem-solving skills (Stolee & Fristoe, 2011).

Hero et al. (2015) used MIT App to spark student interest in programming by enabling students to design their own Android-based apps and games.

These kinds of technology platforms, which utilize visual learning, can produce numerous educational benefits.

Visual learning is learning by seeing. Information is presented in a visual format such as a video, graph, or computer animation.

Although many students can benefit from visually presented information, not all will. Some students are more motivated to learn through auditory or textual channels, so they prefer to listen or read.

Recognizing that students differ in how they prefer to learn has led to the notion of learning styles. This is the idea that each student has a preferred way of learning and that therefore, teachers should design instructional strategies that suit various learning styles in a process called differentiation .

While visual learning has many advantages in terms of explaining complex processes and capturing student attention, there are also some disadvantages.

Most classrooms in the world are not equipped for visual learning. A reliance on visual learning can create the expectation in students that learning is passive and/or should be entertaining.

In other aspects, some visual learning formats can involve less active cognitive processing and fail to exercise a valuable mental skill known as thinking .

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Stolee, K. T., & Fristoe, T. (2011, March). Expressing computer science concepts through Kodu game lab. In Proceedings of the 42nd ACM technical symposium on Computer science education (pp. 99-104).

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Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Positive Punishment Examples
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• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ Perception Checking: 15 Examples and Definition

Chris Drew (PhD)

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• Open access
• Published: 19 July 2015

The role of visual representations in scientific practices: from conceptual understanding and knowledge generation to ‘seeing’ how science works

• Maria Evagorou 1 ,
• Sibel Erduran 2 &
• Terhi Mäntylä 3  

International Journal of STEM Education volume  2 , Article number:  11 ( 2015 ) Cite this article

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The use of visual representations (i.e., photographs, diagrams, models) has been part of science, and their use makes it possible for scientists to interact with and represent complex phenomena, not observable in other ways. Despite a wealth of research in science education on visual representations, the emphasis of such research has mainly been on the conceptual understanding when using visual representations and less on visual representations as epistemic objects. In this paper, we argue that by positioning visual representations as epistemic objects of scientific practices, science education can bring a renewed focus on how visualization contributes to knowledge formation in science from the learners’ perspective.

This is a theoretical paper, and in order to argue about the role of visualization, we first present a case study, that of the discovery of the structure of DNA that highlights the epistemic components of visual information in science. The second case study focuses on Faraday’s use of the lines of magnetic force. Faraday is known of his exploratory, creative, and yet systemic way of experimenting, and the visual reasoning leading to theoretical development was an inherent part of the experimentation. Third, we trace a contemporary account from science focusing on the experimental practices and how reproducibility of experimental procedures can be reinforced through video data.

Conclusions

Our conclusions suggest that in teaching science, the emphasis in visualization should shift from cognitive understanding—using the products of science to understand the content—to engaging in the processes of visualization. Furthermore, we suggest that is it essential to design curriculum materials and learning environments that create a social and epistemic context and invite students to engage in the practice of visualization as evidence, reasoning, experimental procedure, or a means of communication and reflect on these practices. Implications for teacher education include the need for teacher professional development programs to problematize the use of visual representations as epistemic objects that are part of scientific practices.

During the last decades, research and reform documents in science education across the world have been calling for an emphasis not only on the content but also on the processes of science (Bybee 2014 ; Eurydice 2012 ; Duschl and Bybee 2014 ; Osborne 2014 ; Schwartz et al. 2012 ), in order to make science accessible to the students and enable them to understand the epistemic foundation of science. Scientific practices, part of the process of science, are the cognitive and discursive activities that are targeted in science education to develop epistemic understanding and appreciation of the nature of science (Duschl et al. 2008 ) and have been the emphasis of recent reform documents in science education across the world (Achieve 2013 ; Eurydice 2012 ). With the term scientific practices, we refer to the processes that take place during scientific discoveries and include among others: asking questions, developing and using models, engaging in arguments, and constructing and communicating explanations (National Research Council 2012 ). The emphasis on scientific practices aims to move the teaching of science from knowledge to the understanding of the processes and the epistemic aspects of science. Additionally, by placing an emphasis on engaging students in scientific practices, we aim to help students acquire scientific knowledge in meaningful contexts that resemble the reality of scientific discoveries.

Despite a wealth of research in science education on visual representations, the emphasis of such research has mainly been on the conceptual understanding when using visual representations and less on visual representations as epistemic objects. In this paper, we argue that by positioning visual representations as epistemic objects, science education can bring a renewed focus on how visualization contributes to knowledge formation in science from the learners’ perspective. Specifically, the use of visual representations (i.e., photographs, diagrams, tables, charts) has been part of science and over the years has evolved with the new technologies (i.e., from drawings to advanced digital images and three dimensional models). Visualization makes it possible for scientists to interact with complex phenomena (Richards 2003 ), and they might convey important evidence not observable in other ways. Visual representations as a tool to support cognitive understanding in science have been studied extensively (i.e., Gilbert 2010 ; Wu and Shah 2004 ). Studies in science education have explored the use of images in science textbooks (i.e., Dimopoulos et al. 2003 ; Bungum 2008 ), students’ representations or models when doing science (i.e., Gilbert et al. 2008 ; Dori et al. 2003 ; Lehrer and Schauble 2012 ; Schwarz et al. 2009 ), and students’ images of science and scientists (i.e., Chambers 1983 ). Therefore, studies in the field of science education have been using the term visualization as “the formation of an internal representation from an external representation” (Gilbert et al. 2008 , p. 4) or as a tool for conceptual understanding for students.

In this paper, we do not refer to visualization as mental image, model, or presentation only (Gilbert et al. 2008 ; Philips et al. 2010 ) but instead focus on visual representations or visualization as epistemic objects. Specifically, we refer to visualization as a process for knowledge production and growth in science. In this respect, modeling is an aspect of visualization, but what we are focusing on with visualization is not on the use of model as a tool for cognitive understanding (Gilbert 2010 ; Wu and Shah 2004 ) but the on the process of modeling as a scientific practice which includes the construction and use of models, the use of other representations, the communication in the groups with the use of the visual representation, and the appreciation of the difficulties that the science phase in this process. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to present through the history of science how visualization can be considered not only as a cognitive tool in science education but also as an epistemic object that can potentially support students to understand aspects of the nature of science.

Scientific practices and science education

According to the New Generation Science Standards (Achieve 2013 ), scientific practices refer to: asking questions and defining problems; developing and using models; planning and carrying out investigations; analyzing and interpreting data; using mathematical and computational thinking; constructing explanations and designing solutions; engaging in argument from evidence; and obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information. A significant aspect of scientific practices is that science learning is more than just about learning facts, concepts, theories, and laws. A fuller appreciation of science necessitates the understanding of the science relative to its epistemological grounding and the process that are involved in the production of knowledge (Hogan and Maglienti 2001 ; Wickman 2004 ).

The New Generation Science Standards is, among other changes, shifting away from science inquiry and towards the inclusion of scientific practices (Duschl and Bybee 2014 ; Osborne 2014 ). By comparing the abilities to do scientific inquiry (National Research Council 2000 ) with the set of scientific practices, it is evident that the latter is about engaging in the processes of doing science and experiencing in that way science in a more authentic way. Engaging in scientific practices according to Osborne ( 2014 ) “presents a more authentic picture of the endeavor that is science” (p.183) and also helps the students to develop a deeper understanding of the epistemic aspects of science. Furthermore, as Bybee ( 2014 ) argues, by engaging students in scientific practices, we involve them in an understanding of the nature of science and an understanding on the nature of scientific knowledge.

Science as a practice and scientific practices as a term emerged by the philosopher of science, Kuhn (Osborne 2014 ), refers to the processes in which the scientists engage during knowledge production and communication. The work that is followed by historians, philosophers, and sociologists of science (Latour 2011 ; Longino 2002 ; Nersessian 2008 ) revealed the scientific practices in which the scientists engage in and include among others theory development and specific ways of talking, modeling, and communicating the outcomes of science.

Visualization as an epistemic object

Schematic, pictorial symbols in the design of scientific instruments and analysis of the perceptual and functional information that is being stored in those images have been areas of investigation in philosophy of scientific experimentation (Gooding et al. 1993 ). The nature of visual perception, the relationship between thought and vision, and the role of reproducibility as a norm for experimental research form a central aspect of this domain of research in philosophy of science. For instance, Rothbart ( 1997 ) has argued that visualizations are commonplace in the theoretical sciences even if every scientific theory may not be defined by visualized models.

Visual representations (i.e., photographs, diagrams, tables, charts, models) have been used in science over the years to enable scientists to interact with complex phenomena (Richards 2003 ) and might convey important evidence not observable in other ways (Barber et al. 2006 ). Some authors (e.g., Ruivenkamp and Rip 2010 ) have argued that visualization is as a core activity of some scientific communities of practice (e.g., nanotechnology) while others (e.g., Lynch and Edgerton 1988 ) have differentiated the role of particular visualization techniques (e.g., of digital image processing in astronomy). Visualization in science includes the complex process through which scientists develop or produce imagery, schemes, and graphical representation, and therefore, what is of importance in this process is not only the result but also the methodology employed by the scientists, namely, how this result was produced. Visual representations in science may refer to objects that are believed to have some kind of material or physical existence but equally might refer to purely mental, conceptual, and abstract constructs (Pauwels 2006 ). More specifically, visual representations can be found for: (a) phenomena that are not observable with the eye (i.e., microscopic or macroscopic); (b) phenomena that do not exist as visual representations but can be translated as such (i.e., sound); and (c) in experimental settings to provide visual data representations (i.e., graphs presenting velocity of moving objects). Additionally, since science is not only about replicating reality but also about making it more understandable to people (either to the public or other scientists), visual representations are not only about reproducing the nature but also about: (a) functioning in helping solving a problem, (b) filling gaps in our knowledge, and (c) facilitating knowledge building or transfer (Lynch 2006 ).

Using or developing visual representations in the scientific practice can range from a straightforward to a complicated situation. More specifically, scientists can observe a phenomenon (i.e., mitosis) and represent it visually using a picture or diagram, which is quite straightforward. But they can also use a variety of complicated techniques (i.e., crystallography in the case of DNA studies) that are either available or need to be developed or refined in order to acquire the visual information that can be used in the process of theory development (i.e., Latour and Woolgar 1979 ). Furthermore, some visual representations need decoding, and the scientists need to learn how to read these images (i.e., radiologists); therefore, using visual representations in the process of science requires learning a new language that is specific to the medium/methods that is used (i.e., understanding an X-ray picture is different from understanding an MRI scan) and then communicating that language to other scientists and the public.

There are much intent and purposes of visual representations in scientific practices, as for example to make a diagnosis, compare, describe, and preserve for future study, verify and explore new territory, generate new data (Pauwels 2006 ), or present new methodologies. According to Latour and Woolgar ( 1979 ) and Knorr Cetina ( 1999 ), visual representations can be used either as primary data (i.e., image from a microscope). or can be used to help in concept development (i.e., models of DNA used by Watson and Crick), to uncover relationships and to make the abstract more concrete (graphs of sound waves). Therefore, visual representations and visual practices, in all forms, are an important aspect of the scientific practices in developing, clarifying, and transmitting scientific knowledge (Pauwels 2006 ).

Methods and Results: Merging Visualization and scientific practices in science

In this paper, we present three case studies that embody the working practices of scientists in an effort to present visualization as a scientific practice and present our argument about how visualization is a complex process that could include among others modeling and use of representation but is not only limited to that. The first case study explores the role of visualization in the construction of knowledge about the structure of DNA, using visuals as evidence. The second case study focuses on Faraday’s use of the lines of magnetic force and the visual reasoning leading to the theoretical development that was an inherent part of the experimentation. The third case study focuses on the current practices of scientists in the context of a peer-reviewed journal called the Journal of Visualized Experiments where the methodology is communicated through videotaped procedures. The three case studies represent the research interests of the three authors of this paper and were chosen to present how visualization as a practice can be involved in all stages of doing science, from hypothesizing and evaluating evidence (case study 1) to experimenting and reasoning (case study 2) to communicating the findings and methodology with the research community (case study 3), and represent in this way the three functions of visualization as presented by Lynch ( 2006 ). Furthermore, the last case study showcases how the development of visualization technologies has contributed to the communication of findings and methodologies in science and present in that way an aspect of current scientific practices. In all three cases, our approach is guided by the observation that the visual information is an integral part of scientific practices at the least and furthermore that they are particularly central in the scientific practices of science.

Case study 1: use visual representations as evidence in the discovery of DNA

The focus of the first case study is the discovery of the structure of DNA. The DNA was first isolated in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher, and by the late 1940s, it was known that it contained phosphate, sugar, and four nitrogen-containing chemical bases. However, no one had figured the structure of the DNA until Watson and Crick presented their model of DNA in 1953. Other than the social aspects of the discovery of the DNA, another important aspect was the role of visual evidence that led to knowledge development in the area. More specifically, by studying the personal accounts of Watson ( 1968 ) and Crick ( 1988 ) about the discovery of the structure of the DNA, the following main ideas regarding the role of visual representations in the production of knowledge can be identified: (a) The use of visual representations was an important part of knowledge growth and was often dependent upon the discovery of new technologies (i.e., better microscopes or better techniques in crystallography that would provide better visual representations as evidence of the helical structure of the DNA); and (b) Models (three-dimensional) were used as a way to represent the visual images (X-ray images) and connect them to the evidence provided by other sources to see whether the theory can be supported. Therefore, the model of DNA was built based on the combination of visual evidence and experimental data.

An example showcasing the importance of visual representations in the process of knowledge production in this case is provided by Watson, in his book The Double Helix (1968):

…since the middle of the summer Rosy [Rosalind Franklin] had had evidence for a new three-dimensional form of DNA. It occurred when the DNA 2molecules were surrounded by a large amount of water. When I asked what the pattern was like, Maurice went into the adjacent room to pick up a print of the new form they called the “B” structure. The instant I saw the picture, my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race. The pattern was unbelievably simpler than those previously obtained (A form). Moreover, the black cross of reflections which dominated the picture could arise only from a helical structure. With the A form the argument for the helix was never straightforward, and considerable ambiguity existed as to exactly which type of helical symmetry was present. With the B form however, mere inspection of its X-ray picture gave several of the vital helical parameters. (p. 167-169)

As suggested by Watson’s personal account of the discovery of the DNA, the photo taken by Rosalind Franklin (Fig.  1 ) convinced him that the DNA molecule must consist of two chains arranged in a paired helix, which resembles a spiral staircase or ladder, and on March 7, 1953, Watson and Crick finished and presented their model of the structure of DNA (Watson and Berry 2004 ; Watson 1968 ) which was based on the visual information provided by the X-ray image and their knowledge of chemistry.

X-ray chrystallography of DNA

In analyzing the visualization practice in this case study, we observe the following instances that highlight how the visual information played a role:

Asking questions and defining problems: The real world in the model of science can at some points only be observed through visual representations or representations, i.e., if we are using DNA as an example, the structure of DNA was only observable through the crystallography images produced by Rosalind Franklin in the laboratory. There was no other way to observe the structure of DNA, therefore the real world.

Analyzing and interpreting data: The images that resulted from crystallography as well as their interpretations served as the data for the scientists studying the structure of DNA.

Experimenting: The data in the form of visual information were used to predict the possible structure of the DNA.

Modeling: Based on the prediction, an actual three-dimensional model was prepared by Watson and Crick. The first model did not fit with the real world (refuted by Rosalind Franklin and her research group from King’s College) and Watson and Crick had to go through the same process again to find better visual evidence (better crystallography images) and create an improved visual model.

Example excerpts from Watson’s biography provide further evidence for how visualization practices were applied in the context of the discovery of DNA (Table  1 ).

In summary, by examining the history of the discovery of DNA, we showcased how visual data is used as scientific evidence in science, identifying in that way an aspect of the nature of science that is still unexplored in the history of science and an aspect that has been ignored in the teaching of science. Visual representations are used in many ways: as images, as models, as evidence to support or rebut a model, and as interpretations of reality.

Case study 2: applying visual reasoning in knowledge production, the example of the lines of magnetic force

The focus of this case study is on Faraday’s use of the lines of magnetic force. Faraday is known of his exploratory, creative, and yet systemic way of experimenting, and the visual reasoning leading to theoretical development was an inherent part of this experimentation (Gooding 2006 ). Faraday’s articles or notebooks do not include mathematical formulations; instead, they include images and illustrations from experimental devices and setups to the recapping of his theoretical ideas (Nersessian 2008 ). According to Gooding ( 2006 ), “Faraday’s visual method was designed not to copy apparent features of the world, but to analyse and replicate them” (2006, p. 46).

The lines of force played a central role in Faraday’s research on electricity and magnetism and in the development of his “field theory” (Faraday 1852a ; Nersessian 1984 ). Before Faraday, the experiments with iron filings around magnets were known and the term “magnetic curves” was used for the iron filing patterns and also for the geometrical constructs derived from the mathematical theory of magnetism (Gooding et al. 1993 ). However, Faraday used the lines of force for explaining his experimental observations and in constructing the theory of forces in magnetism and electricity. Examples of Faraday’s different illustrations of lines of magnetic force are given in Fig.  2 . Faraday gave the following experiment-based definition for the lines of magnetic forces:

a Iron filing pattern in case of bar magnet drawn by Faraday (Faraday 1852b , Plate IX, p. 158, Fig. 1), b Faraday’s drawing of lines of magnetic force in case of cylinder magnet, where the experimental procedure, knife blade showing the direction of lines, is combined into drawing (Faraday, 1855, vol. 1, plate 1)

A line of magnetic force may be defined as that line which is described by a very small magnetic needle, when it is so moved in either direction correspondent to its length, that the needle is constantly a tangent to the line of motion; or it is that line along which, if a transverse wire be moved in either direction, there is no tendency to the formation of any current in the wire, whilst if moved in any other direction there is such a tendency; or it is that line which coincides with the direction of the magnecrystallic axis of a crystal of bismuth, which is carried in either direction along it. The direction of these lines about and amongst magnets and electric currents, is easily represented and understood, in a general manner, by the ordinary use of iron filings. (Faraday 1852a , p. 25 (3071))

The definition describes the connection between the experiments and the visual representation of the results. Initially, the lines of force were just geometric representations, but later, Faraday treated them as physical objects (Nersessian 1984 ; Pocovi and Finlay 2002 ):

I have sometimes used the term lines of force so vaguely, as to leave the reader doubtful whether I intended it as a merely representative idea of the forces, or as the description of the path along which the power was continuously exerted. … wherever the expression line of force is taken simply to represent the disposition of forces, it shall have the fullness of that meaning; but that wherever it may seem to represent the idea of the physical mode of transmission of the force, it expresses in that respect the opinion to which I incline at present. The opinion may be erroneous, and yet all that relates or refers to the disposition of the force will remain the same. (Faraday, 1852a , p. 55-56 (3075))

He also felt that the lines of force had greater explanatory power than the dominant theory of action-at-a-distance:

Now it appears to me that these lines may be employed with great advantage to represent nature, condition, direction and comparative amount of the magnetic forces; and that in many cases they have, to the physical reasoned at least, a superiority over that method which represents the forces as concentrated in centres of action… (Faraday, 1852a , p. 26 (3074))

For giving some insight to Faraday’s visual reasoning as an epistemic practice, the following examples of Faraday’s studies of the lines of magnetic force (Faraday 1852a , 1852b ) are presented:

(a) Asking questions and defining problems: The iron filing patterns formed the empirical basis for the visual model: 2D visualization of lines of magnetic force as presented in Fig.  2 . According to Faraday, these iron filing patterns were suitable for illustrating the direction and form of the magnetic lines of force (emphasis added):

It must be well understood that these forms give no indication by their appearance of the relative strength of the magnetic force at different places, inasmuch as the appearance of the lines depends greatly upon the quantity of filings and the amount of tapping; but the direction and forms of these lines are well given, and these indicate, in a considerable degree, the direction in which the forces increase and diminish . (Faraday 1852b , p.158 (3237))

Despite being static and two dimensional on paper, the lines of magnetic force were dynamical (Nersessian 1992 , 2008 ) and three dimensional for Faraday (see Fig.  2 b). For instance, Faraday described the lines of force “expanding”, “bending,” and “being cut” (Nersessian 1992 ). In Fig.  2 b, Faraday has summarized his experiment (bar magnet and knife blade) and its results (lines of force) in one picture.

(b) Analyzing and interpreting data: The model was so powerful for Faraday that he ended up thinking them as physical objects (e.g., Nersessian 1984 ), i.e., making interpretations of the way forces act. Of course, he made a lot of experiments for showing the physical existence of the lines of force, but he did not succeed in it (Nersessian 1984 ). The following quote illuminates Faraday’s use of the lines of force in different situations:

The study of these lines has, at different times, been greatly influential in leading me to various results, which I think prove their utility as well as fertility. Thus, the law of magneto-electric induction; the earth’s inductive action; the relation of magnetism and light; diamagnetic action and its law, and magnetocrystallic action, are the cases of this kind… (Faraday 1852a , p. 55 (3174))

(c) Experimenting: In Faraday's case, he used a lot of exploratory experiments; in case of lines of magnetic force, he used, e.g., iron filings, magnetic needles, or current carrying wires (see the quote above). The magnetic field is not directly observable and the representation of lines of force was a visual model, which includes the direction, form, and magnitude of field.

(d) Modeling: There is no denying that the lines of magnetic force are visual by nature. Faraday’s views of lines of force developed gradually during the years, and he applied and developed them in different contexts such as electromagnetic, electrostatic, and magnetic induction (Nersessian 1984 ). An example of Faraday’s explanation of the effect of the wire b’s position to experiment is given in Fig.  3 . In Fig.  3 , few magnetic lines of force are drawn, and in the quote below, Faraday is explaining the effect using these magnetic lines of force (emphasis added):

Picture of an experiment with different arrangements of wires ( a , b’ , b” ), magnet, and galvanometer. Note the lines of force drawn around the magnet. (Faraday 1852a , p. 34)

It will be evident by inspection of Fig. 3 , that, however the wires are carried away, the general result will, according to the assumed principles of action, be the same; for if a be the axial wire, and b’, b”, b”’ the equatorial wire, represented in three different positions, whatever magnetic lines of force pass across the latter wire in one position, will also pass it in the other, or in any other position which can be given to it. The distance of the wire at the place of intersection with the lines of force, has been shown, by the experiments (3093.), to be unimportant. (Faraday 1852a , p. 34 (3099))

In summary, by examining the history of Faraday’s use of lines of force, we showed how visual imagery and reasoning played an important part in Faraday’s construction and representation of his “field theory”. As Gooding has stated, “many of Faraday’s sketches are far more that depictions of observation, they are tools for reasoning with and about phenomena” (2006, p. 59).

Case study 3: visualizing scientific methods, the case of a journal

The focus of the third case study is the Journal of Visualized Experiments (JoVE) , a peer-reviewed publication indexed in PubMed. The journal devoted to the publication of biological, medical, chemical, and physical research in a video format. The journal describes its history as follows:

JoVE was established as a new tool in life science publication and communication, with participation of scientists from leading research institutions. JoVE takes advantage of video technology to capture and transmit the multiple facets and intricacies of life science research. Visualization greatly facilitates the understanding and efficient reproduction of both basic and complex experimental techniques, thereby addressing two of the biggest challenges faced by today's life science research community: i) low transparency and poor reproducibility of biological experiments and ii) time and labor-intensive nature of learning new experimental techniques. ( http://www.jove.com/ )

By examining the journal content, we generate a set of categories that can be considered as indicators of relevance and significance in terms of epistemic practices of science that have relevance for science education. For example, the quote above illustrates how scientists view some norms of scientific practice including the norms of “transparency” and “reproducibility” of experimental methods and results, and how the visual format of the journal facilitates the implementation of these norms. “Reproducibility” can be considered as an epistemic criterion that sits at the heart of what counts as an experimental procedure in science:

Investigating what should be reproducible and by whom leads to different types of experimental reproducibility, which can be observed to play different roles in experimental practice. A successful application of the strategy of reproducing an experiment is an achievement that may depend on certain isiosyncratic aspects of a local situation. Yet a purely local experiment that cannot be carried out by other experimenters and in other experimental contexts will, in the end be unproductive in science. (Sarkar and Pfeifer 2006 , p.270)

We now turn to an article on “Elevated Plus Maze for Mice” that is available for free on the journal website ( http://www.jove.com/video/1088/elevated-plus-maze-for-mice ). The purpose of this experiment was to investigate anxiety levels in mice through behavioral analysis. The journal article consists of a 9-min video accompanied by text. The video illustrates the handling of the mice in soundproof location with less light, worksheets with characteristics of mice, computer software, apparatus, resources, setting up the computer software, and the video recording of mouse behavior on the computer. The authors describe the apparatus that is used in the experiment and state how procedural differences exist between research groups that lead to difficulties in the interpretation of results:

The apparatus consists of open arms and closed arms, crossed in the middle perpendicularly to each other, and a center area. Mice are given access to all of the arms and are allowed to move freely between them. The number of entries into the open arms and the time spent in the open arms are used as indices of open space-induced anxiety in mice. Unfortunately, the procedural differences that exist between laboratories make it difficult to duplicate and compare results among laboratories.

The authors’ emphasis on the particularity of procedural context echoes in the observations of some philosophers of science:

It is not just the knowledge of experimental objects and phenomena but also their actual existence and occurrence that prove to be dependent on specific, productive interventions by the experimenters” (Sarkar and Pfeifer 2006 , pp. 270-271)

The inclusion of a video of the experimental procedure specifies what the apparatus looks like (Fig.  4 ) and how the behavior of the mice is captured through video recording that feeds into a computer (Fig.  5 ). Subsequently, a computer software which captures different variables such as the distance traveled, the number of entries, and the time spent on each arm of the apparatus. Here, there is visual information at different levels of representation ranging from reconfiguration of raw video data to representations that analyze the data around the variables in question (Fig.  6 ). The practice of levels of visual representations is not particular to the biological sciences. For instance, they are commonplace in nanotechnological practices:

Visual illustration of apparatus

Video processing of experimental set-up

Computer software for video input and variable recording

In the visualization processes, instruments are needed that can register the nanoscale and provide raw data, which needs to be transformed into images. Some Imaging Techniques have software incorporated already where this transformation automatically takes place, providing raw images. Raw data must be translated through the use of Graphic Software and software is also used for the further manipulation of images to highlight what is of interest to capture the (inferred) phenomena -- and to capture the reader. There are two levels of choice: Scientists have to choose which imaging technique and embedded software to use for the job at hand, and they will then have to follow the structure of the software. Within such software, there are explicit choices for the scientists, e.g. about colour coding, and ways of sharpening images. (Ruivenkamp and Rip 2010 , pp.14–15)

On the text that accompanies the video, the authors highlight the role of visualization in their experiment:

Visualization of the protocol will promote better understanding of the details of the entire experimental procedure, allowing for standardization of the protocols used in different laboratories and comparisons of the behavioral phenotypes of various strains of mutant mice assessed using this test.

The software that takes the video data and transforms it into various representations allows the researchers to collect data on mouse behavior more reliably. For instance, the distance traveled across the arms of the apparatus or the time spent on each arm would have been difficult to observe and record precisely. A further aspect to note is how the visualization of the experiment facilitates control of bias. The authors illustrate how the olfactory bias between experimental procedures carried on mice in sequence is avoided by cleaning the equipment.

Our discussion highlights the role of visualization in science, particularly with respect to presenting visualization as part of the scientific practices. We have used case studies from the history of science highlighting a scientist’s account of how visualization played a role in the discovery of DNA and the magnetic field and from a contemporary illustration of a science journal’s practices in incorporating visualization as a way to communicate new findings and methodologies. Our implicit aim in drawing from these case studies was the need to align science education with scientific practices, particularly in terms of how visual representations, stable or dynamic, can engage students in the processes of science and not only to be used as tools for cognitive development in science. Our approach was guided by the notion of “knowledge-as-practice” as advanced by Knorr Cetina ( 1999 ) who studied scientists and characterized their knowledge as practice, a characterization which shifts focus away from ideas inside scientists’ minds to practices that are cultural and deeply contextualized within fields of science. She suggests that people working together can be examined as epistemic cultures whose collective knowledge exists as practice.

It is important to stress, however, that visual representations are not used in isolation, but are supported by other types of evidence as well, or other theories (i.e., in order to understand the helical form of DNA, or the structure, chemistry knowledge was needed). More importantly, this finding can also have implications when teaching science as argument (e.g., Erduran and Jimenez-Aleixandre 2008 ), since the verbal evidence used in the science classroom to maintain an argument could be supported by visual evidence (either a model, representation, image, graph, etc.). For example, in a group of students discussing the outcomes of an introduced species in an ecosystem, pictures of the species and the ecosystem over time, and videos showing the changes in the ecosystem, and the special characteristics of the different species could serve as visual evidence to help the students support their arguments (Evagorou et al. 2012 ). Therefore, an important implication for the teaching of science is the use of visual representations as evidence in the science curriculum as part of knowledge production. Even though studies in the area of science education have focused on the use of models and modeling as a way to support students in the learning of science (Dori et al. 2003 ; Lehrer and Schauble 2012 ; Mendonça and Justi 2013 ; Papaevripidou et al. 2007 ) or on the use of images (i.e., Korfiatis et al. 2003 ), with the term using visuals as evidence, we refer to the collection of all forms of visuals and the processes involved.

Another aspect that was identified through the case studies is that of the visual reasoning (an integral part of Faraday’s investigations). Both the verbalization and visualization were part of the process of generating new knowledge (Gooding 2006 ). Even today, most of the textbooks use the lines of force (or just field lines) as a geometrical representation of field, and the number of field lines is connected to the quantity of flux. Often, the textbooks use the same kind of visual imagery than in what is used by scientists. However, when using images, only certain aspects or features of the phenomena or data are captured or highlighted, and often in tacit ways. Especially in textbooks, the process of producing the image is not presented and instead only the product—image—is left. This could easily lead to an idea of images (i.e., photos, graphs, visual model) being just representations of knowledge and, in the worse case, misinterpreted representations of knowledge as the results of Pocovi and Finlay ( 2002 ) in case of electric field lines show. In order to avoid this, the teachers should be able to explain how the images are produced (what features of phenomena or data the images captures, on what ground the features are chosen to that image, and what features are omitted); in this way, the role of visualization in knowledge production can be made “visible” to students by engaging them in the process of visualization.

The implication of these norms for science teaching and learning is numerous. The classroom contexts can model the generation, sharing and evaluation of evidence, and experimental procedures carried out by students, thereby promoting not only some contemporary cultural norms in scientific practice but also enabling the learning of criteria, standards, and heuristics that scientists use in making decisions on scientific methods. As we have demonstrated with the three case studies, visual representations are part of the process of knowledge growth and communication in science, as demonstrated with two examples from the history of science and an example from current scientific practices. Additionally, visual information, especially with the use of technology is a part of students’ everyday lives. Therefore, we suggest making use of students’ knowledge and technological skills (i.e., how to produce their own videos showing their experimental method or how to identify or provide appropriate visual evidence for a given topic), in order to teach them the aspects of the nature of science that are often neglected both in the history of science and the design of curriculum. Specifically, what we suggest in this paper is that students should actively engage in visualization processes in order to appreciate the diverse nature of doing science and engage in authentic scientific practices.

However, as a word of caution, we need to distinguish the products and processes involved in visualization practices in science:

If one considers scientific representations and the ways in which they can foster or thwart our understanding, it is clear that a mere object approach, which would devote all attention to the representation as a free-standing product of scientific labor, is inadequate. What is needed is a process approach: each visual representation should be linked with its context of production (Pauwels 2006 , p.21).

The aforementioned suggests that the emphasis in visualization should shift from cognitive understanding—using the products of science to understand the content—to engaging in the processes of visualization. Therefore, an implication for the teaching of science includes designing curriculum materials and learning environments that create a social and epistemic context and invite students to engage in the practice of visualization as evidence, reasoning, experimental procedure, or a means of communication (as presented in the three case studies) and reflect on these practices (Ryu et al. 2015 ).

Finally, a question that arises from including visualization in science education, as well as from including scientific practices in science education is whether teachers themselves are prepared to include them as part of their teaching (Bybee 2014 ). Teacher preparation programs and teacher education have been critiqued, studied, and rethought since the time they emerged (Cochran-Smith 2004 ). Despite the years of history in teacher training and teacher education, the debate about initial teacher training and its content still pertains in our community and in policy circles (Cochran-Smith 2004 ; Conway et al. 2009 ). In the last decades, the debate has shifted from a behavioral view of learning and teaching to a learning problem—focusing on that way not only on teachers’ knowledge, skills, and beliefs but also on making the connection of the aforementioned with how and if pupils learn (Cochran-Smith 2004 ). The Science Education in Europe report recommended that “Good quality teachers, with up-to-date knowledge and skills, are the foundation of any system of formal science education” (Osborne and Dillon 2008 , p.9).

However, questions such as what should be the emphasis on pre-service and in-service science teacher training, especially with the new emphasis on scientific practices, still remain unanswered. As Bybee ( 2014 ) argues, starting from the new emphasis on scientific practices in the NGSS, we should consider teacher preparation programs “that would provide undergraduates opportunities to learn the science content and practices in contexts that would be aligned with their future work as teachers” (p.218). Therefore, engaging pre- and in-service teachers in visualization as a scientific practice should be one of the purposes of teacher preparation programs.

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ME carried out the introductory literature review, the analysis of the first case study, and drafted the manuscript. SE carried out the analysis of the third case study and contributed towards the “Conclusions” section of the manuscript. TM carried out the second case study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Evagorou, M., Erduran, S. & Mäntylä, T. The role of visual representations in scientific practices: from conceptual understanding and knowledge generation to ‘seeing’ how science works. IJ STEM Ed 2 , 11 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-015-0024-x

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• Visual representations
• Epistemic practices
• Science learning

• Real functions
• Function representations

In this article we explain the different ways to represent mathematical functions and the advantages and disadvantages of each one.

Table of Contents

What are the ways to represent a function?

There are four ways to represent a mathematical function :

• Verbal: through a description in words.
• Algebraic: by means of an equation.
• Tabular: using a table of values.
• Visual: by means of an arrow diagram or a graph.

It is useful to transition from one representation to another to obtain a better idea of the function. We can recognize that certain functions are more naturally described by one method than another. 

Verbal representation

In this form, the functional relationship is described through a text with sufficient level of detail. 

• “A person's height depends on their age”
• “Human population depends on time”
• “The area of a rectangle is base times height”

Advantages:

• Provides an intuitive way to describe the function without the need for complex mathematical notation.
• It is easily understandable for individuals not familiar with mathematical notation.
• Can provide a more contextualized description of the functional relationship.

Disadvantages:

• May be ambiguous or imprecise compared to formal mathematical notation.
• Not suitable for complex functions that require detailed description.

Algebraic representation

In this form the function is expressed as an equation that relates the independent variable and the dependent variable. The letter x is generally used for the independent variable, and the letter y or the symbol f(x) for the dependent variable. This form is widely used in Calculus, along with graphical representation.

Through a formula or equation , we define the rule that two numbers must follow to be related. 

Examples: 

*f(x)=3x+1*

One way to interpret the first example is: two numbers x and y are related by the function if it happens that *y=x^2.* For example, the values *x=2, y=4* satisfy this, therefore, they are related. Similarly, the other expressions can be interpreted.

• Provides a precise, specific, and compact representation of the functional relationship.
• Allows for algebraic calculations and manipulations directly on the function.
• Useful for understanding the algebraic structure of the function, such as its roots, critical points, etc.
• Can be difficult to interpret for individuals not familiar with algebraic notation.
• Does not offer a direct representation of the function, prior analysis is required.
• In complicated functions, the algebraic expression can become difficult to handle.
• Not all functions can be represented by a single equation.

It is important to clarify that not every algebraic expression is a function . An inequality like *y<x* does not define a function. For any real number x , there is no unique y that is less than it. For example, if *x=4,* we have that *y=3,* *y=2,* *y=-20* are some of the numbers that satisfy the condition *y<4.*

Neither is the expression *x^2+y^2=1* a function. For example, the value *x=0* has two corresponding values that satisfy the equation: *y=1* and *y=-1.* As there must be a unique corresponding value for each x, the equation does not define a function.

Tabular representation

This is also called numeric representation. A table showing the values of the independent variable and the corresponding values of the dependent variable is presented. The table can be constructed horizontally or vertically. This form is generally used to record data from a real-life experiment. 

• Provides a complete list of ordered pairs of the function.
• Useful for calculating and comparing specific values of the function.
• Allows for a discrete representation of the function, useful for certain types of analysis.
• The behavior of the function between the given values cannot be known.
• Requires a large number of values to accurately represent a complex function.
• Not efficient for continuous or smooth functions, with infinite or very large domains.

Visual representation

The most commonly used form of visual representation is the graph of a function , which consists of the points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the pairs of input and output values of the function. 

The graph is then the set of points *(x, f(x)).* On the horizontal axis (x-axis) are the values of the independent variable and on the vertical axis (y-axis) are the corresponding values of the dependent variable.

The graph of a function is a useful representation to understand its behavior. If *(x,y)* is a point on the graph, then *y=f(x)* is the height of the graph at point x. This can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on the sign of f(x). Also, the domain and range can be displayed on the axes.

To graph a function, it can be useful to use another form of representation such as a table of values to determine the points that will compose the graph and then plot them. Another way is to directly use the algebraic representation to determine which value of y corresponds to each value of x we take.

The graph of a single-variable function is generally a curve in the plane. But not every curve in the plane is the graph of a function. If on a curve we notice that the same x corresponds to more than one y, we can rule out that it is a function.

The method to recognize this is called the vertical line test , which tells us that a curve in the Cartesian plane is the graph of a function if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.

Below are the advantages and disadvantages of visual representation with the function graph.

• Provides a clear visual representation of the function and its behavior.
• Allows easy identification of features such as slopes, maxima, minima, and inflection points.
• Useful for making qualitative predictions about the function's behavior.
• The accuracy of the representation depends on the scale and quality of the graph.
• It is not always possible to draw an accurate graph, especially for complex or discontinuous functions.
• It can be difficult to extract exact numerical values from the graph.

Another form of visual representation of a function is through an arrow diagram , also called an arrow map or sagittal diagram. This method shows the relationships between elements of an input set and an output set using arrows that go from each input element to the corresponding output element.

• Useful for representing relationships between input and output sets of a function.
• Provides an intuitive visual representation of how elements from one set are mapped to elements of another set.
• Can be helpful for visualizing transformations and mappings in discrete functions.
• Not suitable for representing continuous or smooth functions.
• May be limited in expressing complex relationships between sets.
• May be difficult to construct for functions with large domains or ranges.
• Does not provide detailed information about the functional behavior between mapped elements.

Daniel Machado

Advanced student of Mathematics at Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Químicas y Naturales. Universidad Nacional de Misiones, Argentina.

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What is a concept map?

Reading time: about 7 min

• Organization and evaluation
• Teamwork and collaboration

A concept map is a visual representation of an overarching topic and the relationships between individual ideas, images, or words that lend themselves to the larger picture. Using designated shapes, as well as labeled lines and arrows, concept maps can depict cause and effect, requirements, and contributions between items. Concept maps are ideal for developing logical thinking, dissecting complex systems, and contextualizing specific ideas within larger topics.

What is concept mapping?

Concept map vs. mind map.

Mind maps and concept maps are similar in their objectives, but their construction and use cases vary. Here is a rundown of how mind maps and concept maps differ:

• Concept maps are a bit more varied in how they depict relationships, while mind maps are typically limited to radial hierarchies and tree structures.
• Concept maps depict cross-linking between multiple relationships. Mind maps focus on a straightforward flow of ideas from one main topic, or a single parent/several children construction.
• Concept maps are typically applied in more formal business and academic settings, whereas mind maps are more spontaneous and flexible in their application.
• Concept maps explore ideas and concepts that have been introduced externally, such as theories or existing systems. Mind maps usually flesh out topics that have been generated internally.

Concept mapping is the process by which your selected concept or system is dissected into individual topics and relationships. In its simplest form, concept mapping may look something like a brainstorming session in which a main topic is explored, dissected, and organized into smaller relationships. However, this process can also involve knowledge modeling and assessment, system building, or a line or argument in which a system’s faults are deliberately exposed.

Depending on its application, concept mapping can take place individually or as a collaborative effort with a group of people. While it is possible to create a concept map by hand, a concept software such as Lucidspark allows for a much cleaner experience with the ability to modify your concept map as ideas evolve.

Advantages of concept mapping

Concept maps offer a number of advantages, both in their creation and the visual itself. Here are a few of the pros of implementing a concept map:

• They provide a “big picture” visualization of a topic while clearly defining the relationships within.
• They’re able to convey a large amount of information, clearly and succinctly.
• They assist with meta-cognitive and lexicon development, as well as memory retention.
• They can be used in a number of scenarios, from brainstorming to training and official documentation.
• They encourage out-of-the-box thinking.

Disadvantages of concept mapping

While there are numerous benefits to using a concept map, they may not be suitable for every scenario. Here are some of the shortcomings you may come across when using a concept map:

• They can be visually overwhelming or messy when used to explore large concepts.
• They limit users to using keywords, which can lead to vague concept maps.
• They can be more time-consuming than other forms of visualization.

Types of concept mapping

Depending on your situation, you can choose from one of four main types of concept maps:

Spider mapping : A spider concept map is organized by putting the central theme or idea in the center of the document, with subtopics branching out from the center theme. It’s typically the easiest type of concept map to make and understand.

Flowcharting : A flowchart concept map presents information in a linear format.

System mapping : A systems concept map presents information in a flowchart-like format with the addition of inputs and outputs throughout the diagram. These types of concept maps are considered the most thorough presentation of data.

Hierarchy mapping : In a hierarchy concept map, information is presented in descending order of importance from top to bottom. General data is placed at the top and becomes more specific as it moves down.

How to use concept maps

The brain’s ability to understand and retain knowledge depends heavily on how it’s presented. By creating a visual representation of potentially complicated relationships that make up a topic or system, you can deepen your understanding of a subject and increase your overall knowledge retention.

Concept maps in education

Concept maps are most widely used in academia and have a number of applications for both teachers and students to use as a study aid.

Concept maps for teachers:

• Creating concept maps is a useful pre-assessment to gauge student knowledge about a particular subject.
• Concept maps convey the intricacies of topics that might be difficult to explain orally or in a linear format.
• Concept maps can be used to further a student’s meta-cognitive, problem-solving, and strategic-thinking skills.
• Concept maps are great tools for encouraging creative and analytical thinking, individually or in groups.

Concept maps for studying:

• Concept maps can be used as a visual aid in memorizing vocabulary, events, or complex theories.
• Concept maps can act as outlines for writing assignments or projects.
• Concept maps can help visual learners take more effective notes.
• Concept maps provide useful visual structure for group brainstorming or planning sessions.

Concept maps in business

While concept maps are used primarily in education, business concept mapping has evolved as a useful tool for a wide variety of business scenarios:

• Concept maps can model inventory and cash flows, market analysis, and product development.
• A concept map can help teams gain universal understanding concerning team knowledge, business requirements, and more.
• Concept mapping can enhance software design and the formulation of projects.
• A concept map can help teams break down complex ideas, relationships, and dependencies.
• Concept maps can be used to establish a consistent language for a client or project.

How to make a concept map

Follow these steps to create a thorough, organized concept map that meets your needs:

1. Select a drawing medium : Although a concept map can be created by hand, paper and ink don’t offer the same flexibility as a concept mapping software. Lucidspark not only allows for free-form ideation and organized concept exploration, but it allows for your work to be modified, saved, and shared effortlessly.

2. Select a main topic : Your main topic can be any number of abstract or physical concepts. To narrow down your search, try asking yourself or your team a focus question that clearly identifies a problem, process, or area of exploration. Your concept map should ultimately serve to answer that question.

3. Identify key concepts : Once your main topic has been identified, you can begin to list related ideas and order them from general to most specific. Your list should include anywhere from 15 to 25 topics. Go through your list and describe each topic simply using 1 or 2 words.

4. Organize each concept using shapes and lines : Place your concepts in order from most general (at the top of your page) to most specific (at the bottom). Use lines and arrows to draw connections between main concepts and specific, using verbs such as “requires” or “facilitates” to describe the relationship between the two. Once this has been completed, you can label relationships between concepts on the same level.

5. Examine your map for accuracy : Once each element has been added to your concept map, take a look to see that your concept map is an accurate representation of your main topic. Make sure your diagram answers your focus question and that each element has been correctly positioned within your document. You can use Lucidspark’s freehand drawing, sticky notes, and other collaborative features to draw attention to important relationships or point out areas that require further attention. 

Concept maps require creativity, structure, and critical thinking—all of which are easily facilitated by Lucidspark’s intuitive canvas and formatting features. Take advantage of this free-form environment to expand, organize, and share your ideas on your terms. With Lucidspark, you can effortlessly take each of your ideas from ideation to planning to action. 

Check out our library of brainstorming and ideation templates to kickstart your next project.

About Lucidspark

Lucidspark, a cloud-based virtual whiteboard, is a core component of Lucid Software's Visual Collaboration Suite. This cutting-edge digital canvas brings teams together to brainstorm, collaborate, and consolidate collective thinking into actionable next steps—all in real time. Lucid is proud to serve top businesses around the world, including customers such as Google, GE, and NBC Universal, and 99% of the Fortune 500. Lucid partners with industry leaders, including Google, Atlassian, and Microsoft. Since its founding, Lucid has received numerous awards for its products, business, and workplace culture. For more information, visit lucidspark.com.

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Visual Representation in Mathematics

Print Resource

by Ian Matheson and Nancy Hutchinson 

Mathematics is a subject that deals with abstract ideas in order to solve problems. Information can be represented with numbers, words, and other types of symbols. Representing information with symbols can be a difficult practice for students with learning disabilities (LDs) to understand, and eventually begin to use themselves.

Information is often represented visually in mathematics as a method of organizing, extending, or replacing other methods of presentation. Visual representation in mathematics involves creating and forming models that reflect mathematical information (van Garderen & Montague, 2003).

LDs and Problem-Solving

Although there are a number of problem solving strategies that students use in mathematics, good problem solvers usually construct a representation of the problem to help them comprehend it (van Garderen & Montague, 2003). Students with LDs can have an especially challenging experience solving problems in math, and research suggests that their use of visual representation strategies differs from their typically-achieving peers in:

• frequency of use (Montague, 1997),
• type of visual representations used (van Garderen & Montague, 2003), and
• quality of visual representations (van Garderen, Scheuermann, & Jackson, 2012b).

Creating a visual representation to solve a problem in mathematics is a process that involves:

• processing the information in the problem,
• selecting important information, and
• identifying the goal of the problem.

Students with LDs struggle with visual representation in mathematics because they typically have difficulties processing information (Swanson, Lussier, & Orosco, 2013).

Visual representation is an important skill because higher-level math and science courses increasingly draw on visualization and spatial reasoning skills to solve problems (Zhang, Ding, Stegall, & Mo, 2012). Additionally, it is simply another strategy that students can use when they are thinking of the best way to answer a problem in mathematics.

The Importance of Explicit Instruction

Perhaps the most consistent message in the literature about visual representation in mathematics is that it needs to be explicitly taught to students. Representing information visually is not a skill that comes naturally to students, and so it must be taught and practiced.

When first introducing a new skill to students, it is important to model the skill in order for them to see how it is used followed by opportunity for students to try it themselves.

Click here to access the article  Explicit Instruction: A Teaching Strategy in Reading, Writing, and Mathematics for Students with Learning Disabilities .

The concrete-representational-abstract (CRA) approach to instructing students is a method of explicit instruction that is supported by research as being effective for students with LDs (Doabler, Fien, Nelson-Walker, & Baker, 2012; Mancl, Miller, & Kennedy, 2012). The concrete level involves the use of objects to represent mathematical information (e.g., counters, cubes); the representational level involves the drawing of pictures to represent the objects that were used in the previous level; and the abstract level replaces pictures of objects with mathematical symbols and numbers.

Click here to access the article Concrete-Representational-Abstract: And Instructional Strategy for Math .

Scaffolding is another approach to teaching visual representation to students with LDs that is supported by research (van Garderen, Scheuermann, & Jackson, 2012a). Scaffolding involves the use of temporary supports during the learning process as needed by the student. Providing a student with an incomplete diagram and having them finish it and then use it to solve a problem is an example of a scaffolding technique.

Types of Visual Representation

When you are talking about visual representation in mathematics, you may be talking about representing information on a page with a diagram or chart , or representing information in your head with an image . Fortunately, researchers have focussed on helping students improve their visual representation both externally (e.g., van Garderen, 2007) and internally (e.g., Zhang et al., 2012). Developing both external and internal visual representation strategies is important for students as both help support student learning in mathematics for different types of problems.

In addition to the distinction between internal and external visual representations, researchers have also outlined differences in visual imagery based on the purpose. Pictorial imagery is used for representing the visual appearance of objects or information. Schematic imagery is used for representing the spatial relationships between objects or information. While both can be used to help students learn and solve problems in mathematics, schematic imagery is more effective as a method for supporting problem solving. Students with LDs are more likely to use pictorial imagery when solving problems in math (van Garderen & Montague, 2003).

External Visual Representation

Diagrams and graphic organizers are two types of external visual representations that are used in mathematics, and both are supported by research for use with students with LDs. This is a type of visual representation that can be modelled to students as it is something that can be seen on a page or on the board at the front of the class.

Diagrams are visual displays that use the important information in mathematical problems. They are typically used to demonstrate how the important information is related , and can be used to organize information as well as to compute the answer to a problem. A common type of diagram might be a drawing that a student creates to represent the objects within a word problem.

Individuals with LDs may have a poorer understanding of what a diagram is, as well as when and how to use it (van Garderen et al., 2012b). Diagrams are effective for students with LDs as they can help highlight essential information and leave out information that is not necessary for solving a problem. This can simplify the problem-solving process (Kolloffel et al., 2009).

Distinctions can be made between pictorial diagrams and schematic diagrams . An example of a pictorial diagram would be a drawing of the important objects within a word problem, while a schematic diagram would be a drawing that includes the spatial relationships between the objects. As mentioned earlier, schematic diagrams are more useful for students and typically result in more success with problem solving (van Garderen & Montague, 2003).

Tree Diagrams

A tree diagram is a method of representing independent events or conditions related to an action, and it is often used to teach students probability theory.

This type of diagram might be used to teach students about probability through coin flipping or through drawing from a deck of cards. It is considered a powerful method of teaching probability in math, and is a great example of a visual representation that is a diagram (Kolloffel, Eysink, de Jong, & Wilhelm, 2009).

Number Lines

A number line is another type of diagram that is being used increasingly by mathematicians (Gersten et al., 2009). A number line consists of a straight line that has equally spaced numbers along it on points, and can be easily drawn by students for use when solving problems.

Number lines are often used for the teaching of integers , as well as for simple addition and subtraction problems, as they provide students with a visual that they can touch to keep track of their place .

Graphic Organizers

A graphic organizer is another type of external visual representation that is often used in mathematics. There are many types of graphic organizers and each have situations that they are best used for. While graphic organizers are often thought of simply as organizational tools , they can be used to make rapid inferences to solve different types of problems.

Research supports the idea that students with language disorders may benefit from learning and instruction using nonverbal information such as a graphic organizer (Ives, 2007).  Additionally, the use of graphic organizers to support learning has been found to improve the comprehension of facts and text for students with LDs at all ages (Dexter & Hughes, 2011), as well as enhancing conceptual understanding in mathematics (Ives, 2007).

Graphic organizers may be a great support for students with LDs because they take some of the organizational pressure off these individuals who may have difficulty sorting through information and seeing the relationships between different mathematical objects or concepts (Ives, 2007).

Four main types of graphic organizers can be used in mathematics:

1. Semantic Maps

A semantic map is one type of graphic organizer that can be used to support learning in mathematics. This type of graphic organizer is mainly used to relate conceptual information , and could be used to support conceptual learning in mathematics.

One example might be to use a semantic map to help young students who are learning to classify shapes into different categories. While shapes might be the main heading, students might organize shapes into further sub-heading such as round, symmetrical, right-angle, etc.

2. Semantic Feature Analysis

A semantic feature analysis is another type of graphic organizer. This graphic organizer is characterized by a matrix format , where features or characteristics of objects or concepts are displayed. A semantic feature analysis might be used to compare shapes in geometry, where comparisons could be made between number of sides, vertices, types of angles, etc.

3. Syntactic/Semantic Feature Analysis

A syntactic/semantic feature analysis is similar to the semantic feature analysis, but sentences are added in to help students identify specific features about each object.

An example sentence that might follow the matrix is “ A ________ has the most sides of all of the shapes we have looked at. ”

4. Visual Displays

Selecting the Appropriate Graphic Organizer

Though each type of graphic organizer can be used for learning mathematics by individuals with LDs, the differences in their design suggest that they may be best used in specific situations.

• Semantic maps and Semantic feature analyses are considered to be better for recalling facts though they are more difficult to understand and to learn how to use (Dexter & Hughes, 2011).
• Syntactic/semantic feature analyses and visual displays are considered to be more efficient for making computations to solve problems, and for recalling the information within these types of graphic organizers (Dexter & Hughes, 2011).

The advantages to each type of graphic organizer suggest that initial instruction of a mathematical concept may be best with more complicated graphic organizers, and that independent review and studying could be done with less complicated graphic organizers to improve recall of information for students with LDs (Dexter & Hughes, 2011).

Explicit Instruction of External Visual Representation

It is important to remember that explicit instruction is necessary for both diagrams and graphic organizers. This instruction should highlight the purpose of each type of external visual representation, as well as when and how to use them .  Both types of external visual representations can be easily modelled for students as educators can physically construct them and explain their thinking as they do so in front of students.

In a study conducted by van Garderen (2007), the researcher examined the effectiveness of a three-phase instructional strategy for teaching students with LDs to use diagrams in mathematics:

• The first phase involved explicit instruction about what diagrams are, as well as how and when they are used.
• The second phase connected the use of diagrams to one-step word problems , where students created diagrams that represented the information that they knew and the information that they did not know.
• The third phase was focused on two-step word problems which have more than one unknown piece of information, and students used diagrams to determine the ultimate goal of the problem, as well as the secondary pieces of information that they would need to find in order to compute the ultimate goal.

Teaching students with LDs to use diagrams with this sequence of explicit instruction resulted in improved performance , satisfaction of the students, and students were also more likely to use diagrams with other types of problems.

Internal Visual Representation

While external visual representation can be easy to model and teach explicitly to students, internal visual representation is not as easy to show students as it is a mental exercise. A visual schematic representation involves the creation or recall of visual imagery to represent information.

Students are often asked to visualize the problem in order to better understand it and solve it. This can be a difficult task for students and it should not be assumed that this is a skill that all students already possess .

To create a mental picture when solving a word problem in math, students must combine information from the problem with their prior knowledge of the topic. While students cannot see the mental images that their teachers create, it is still possible to walk students through the process of creating the mental image as a verbal model , or even to draw images of what they are seeing in their head to make it more explicit.

Click here to access the article Verbalization in Math Problem-Solving .

A group of researchers (Krawec, Huang, Montague, Kressler, Melia de Alba, 2012) developed an intervention to support students with LDs as they solve problems in mathematics. The intervention was aimed at explicitly instructing students about the cognitive processes that proficient problem solvers use in math, including visualization . The intervention was delivered by teachers who were trained to follow a sequence of instruction that included teaching visualizing to the students. The intervention involved the teachers “ thinking aloud ” as they progressed through the stages of the problem solving process. Students who were a part of the intervention reported using more strategies when solving problems in math, including the strategy of visualizing the problem (Krawec et al., 2012).

Visual-Chunking

One strategy that teachers can use to support their students with LDs in creating internal visual representations is known as visual-chunking representation .  Chunking is the practice of combining bits of information that are related in some way in order to reduce the overall amount of information for easier processing.  For students with LDs, a reduction in the amount of information to be processed can make exercises such as math problem solving much easier.

A group of researchers examined one method of visual-chunking for students with difficulties in math, where students were working with geometric shapes and transformations (Zhang et al., 2012). One group received series of nets of geometric shapes, while another group received the same nets, though sections had been shaded or “chunked” in an effort to see if it made a difference in their transformations. The group that received the visual-chunking support performed better than the other group, and found the exercise to be easier when provided with the visual-chunking support (Zhang et al., 2012).

Visual Schematic Representations

Visual schematic representations have been shown to be effective for individuals with specific difficulties in math, which can include LDs (Swanson et al., 2013). Instructing students about how to create internal visual representations can be difficult as it does not easily lend itself to explicit instructional techniques . Despite this challenge, teachers can still support the development of this skill by creating diagrams of their mental images as well as by thinking aloud as they are visualizing while problem solving.

The use of visual representation during instruction and learning tends to be an effective practice across a number of subjects , including mathematics (Gersten et al., 2009). While using visual representation alone as a teaching method does produce significant learning improvements for students in mathematics, these improvements are even greater when other teaching methods are used as well (Gersten et al., 2009).

Having students represent mathematical information verbally and in written form along with visual representation is encouraged. For students with LD, both receiving instruction and solving problems in a number of ways will help support their deeper understanding of concepts and operations in mathematics (Suh & Moyer, 2007).

The importance of using explicit instruction to teach students how to make visual representations cannot be overstated. The CRA method is an example of an effective sequence of explicitly instructing students with LD to use visual representation as a step towards the use of mathematical symbols exclusively (Mancl et al., 2012).

There are many types of diagrams (Kolloffel et al., 2009) and graphic organizers (Dexter & Hughes, 2011) that can be effectively used support students with LD in mathematics. While internal visual representation can be difficult to model, strategies do exist that can support students with LD as they develop this skill (Zhang et al., 2012).  Educators are encouraged to use a combination of external and internal visual representation strategies in their instruction to students in the interest of helping students develop both types of skills.

Related Resources on the LD@school Website

Click here to access the article Mind Maps .

Click here to access the article LDs in Mathematics: Evidence-Based Interventions, Strategies, and Resources .

Dexter, D. D., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). Graphic organizers and students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. Learning Disability Quarterly, 34 , 51-72.

Doabler, C. T., Fien, H., Nelson-Walker, N. J., & Baker, S. K. (2012). Evaluating three elementary mathematics programs for presence of eight research-based instructional design principles. Learning Disability Quarterly, 35 , 200-211.

Gersten, R., Chard, D. J., Jayanthi, M., Baker, S. K., Morphy, P., & Flojo, J. (2009). Mathematics instruction for students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis of instructional components. Review of Educational Research, 79 , 1202-1242.

Ives, B. (2007). Graphics organizers applied to secondary algebra instruction for students with learning disorders. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 22 , 110-118.

Kolloffel, B., Eysink, T. H., de Jong, T., & Wilhelm, P. (2009). The effects of representational format on learning combinatorics from an interactive computer simulation. Instructional Science, 37 , 503-517.

Krawec, J., Huang, J., Montague, M., Kressler, B., Melia de Alba, A. (2012). The effects of cognitive strategy instruction on knowledge of math problem-solving processes of middle school students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 36 , 80-92.

Mancl, D. B., Miller, S. P., & Kennedy, M. (2012). Using the concrete-representational-abstract sequence with integrated strategy instruction to teach subtraction with regrouping to students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 27 , 152-166.

Montague, M. (1997). Cognitive strategy instruction in mathematics for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30 , 164–177.

Suh, J., & Moyer, P. S. (2007). Developing students’ representational fluency using virtual and physical algebra balances. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 26 , 155-173.

Swanson, H. L., Lussier, C., & Orosco, M. (2013). Effects of cognitive strategy interventions and cognitive moderators on word problem solving in children at risk for problem solving difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 28 , 170-183.

van Garderen, D. (2007). Teaching students with LD to use diagrams to solve mathematical word problems. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40 , 540-553.

van Garderen, D., & Montague, M. (2003). Visual-spatial representation, mathematical problem solving, and students of varying abilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18 , 246-254.

van Garderen, D., Scheuermann, A., & Jackson, C. (2012a). Developing representational ability in mathematics for students with learning disabilities: A content analysis of grades 6 and 7 textbooks. Learning Disability Quarterly, 35 , 24-38.

van Garderen, D., Scheuermann, A., & Jackson, C. (2012b). Examining how students with diverse abilities use diagrams to solve mathematics word problems. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 36 , 145-160.

Zhang, D., Ding, Y., Stegall, J., & Mo, L. (2012). The effect of visual-chunking-representation accommodation on geometry testing for students with math disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 27 , 167-177.

Searches were conducted of the literature for content appropriate for this topic that was published in scientific journals and other academic sources. The search included online database searches (ERIC, PsycINFO, Queen’s Summons, and Google Scholar). The gathered materials were checked for relevance by analysing data in this hierarchical order: (a) titles; (b) abstracts; (c) method; and (d) entire text.

Relevant journals’ archives were also hand-searched between issues from 2010 and the most recent issues. These journals included Learning Disability Quarterly, Journal of Learning Disabilities, and Learning Disabilities Research & Practice.

Nancy L. Hutchinson is a professor of Cognitive Studies in the Faculty of Education at Queen’s University. Her research has focused on teaching students with learning disabilities (e.g., math and career development) and on enhancing workplace learning and co-operative education for students with disabilities and those at risk of dropping out of school. In the past five years, in addition to her research on transition out of school, Nancy has worked with a collaborative research group involving researchers from Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia on transition into school of children with severe disabilities. She teaches courses on inclusive education in the preservice teacher education program as well as doctoral seminars on social cognition and master’s courses on topics including learning disabilities, inclusion, and qualitative research. She has published six editions of a textbook on teaching students with disabilities in the regular classroom and two editions of a companion casebook.

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The Best Reviewed Games of 2024 (So Far)

All 24 games that ign has scored 8 or higher this year..

2023 is a tough act to follow. IGN awarded 83 games a review score of 8 or higher last year, including five 10s — among which were two generational greats in Baldur’s Gate 3 and The Legend of Zelda: Tears of the Kingdom. A year later, the release calendar looks comparatively light, with Switch all but certainly in its final year as Nintendo’s primary console and Sony not releasing " any new major existing franchise titles " until 2025.

Despite the relative sparsity, 2024 is not without its big hitters: Several Q1 games — Helldivers 2, Final Fantasy 7 Rebirth, and Dragon’s Dogma 2, to name a few — have been released to critical acclaim and commercial success, with dozens of high-potential games still to come, including Star Wars Outlaws, Elden Ring Shadow of the Erdtree, Senua’s Saga Hellblade 2, and Hades 2.

With Q1 officially behind us, we’ve compiled an ongoing list of every game and expansion released in 2024 that received a review score of 8 or higher from IGN. These are the 24 best-reviewed games of 2024 (so far).

This list will be updated as new releases receive qualifying review scores.

Best Reviewed Games of 2024 (So Far)

Review Score: 8 (“Great”)

These games leave us with something outstanding to remember them by, usually novel gameplay ideas for single-player or multiplayer, clever characters and writing, noteworthy graphics and sound, or some combination thereof. If we have major complaints, there are more than enough excellent qualities to cancel them out.

Botany Manor

From our review: Clever clues entwine with Botany Manor ’s charming old English setting to make a lighthearted first-person puzzler worth tending to. Figuring out how to grow its fantastical plants kept me on my toes, and the blossoming flora painting onto the pages of my herbarium with bright colors gave me a comforting sense of achievement. I was more invested in deciphering its puzzles than I was reading the notes and letters that make up its fairly one-note story, but the variety of surreal seeds with unique traits in each new area gave an exciting cadence to the somewhat repetitive act of tracking down clues. Botany Manor is a laid-back game that doesn’t ask you to do too much, simply grow some strange plants and decompress – and sometimes that’s exactly what you need. – Saniya Ahmed

Call of Duty: Warzone Mobile

From our review: It's tough to think of a mobile game that comes as close to giving the full-scale multiplayer experience as Call of Duty: Warzone Mobile does. There's nothing here that reinvents Warzone, but that isn’t the point. Though the touch controls put you at a clear disadvantage to anybody using a Bluetooth controller and your phone may struggle to keep the frame rate and textures smooth if it isn’t the latest and greatest, Warzone Mobile excellently uses maps and gameplay elements to provide a fast and fun battle royale experience. If you’re already into Warzone, cross-progression makes it feel like an extension of the game you already like, with more opportunities to play it more often. It’s fair to say that the best thing about Warzone Mobile is that it makes it easier to play more Warzone. – Phil Hornshaw

Deep Rock Galactic: Survivor Early Access

From our review: While Deep Rock Galactic: Survivor ’s Early Access status is clear in the limited number of modes and maps it currently contains, it doesn't feel unpolished or annoying to play at all. Translating the adventurous, raucous, party game spirit of its shooter big brother to a single-player roguelite about as well as anyone could have, it's an enjoyable addition to one of my favorite franchises. Whether it’s first-person or top-down, wielding a small arsenal of wonderful, punchy weapons as I sprint through critter-filled caverns on my murderous quest for loot and glory warms my stony heart. – Leana Hafer

Dragon’s Dogma 2

From our review: Dragon’s Dogma 2 is a strange and wonderful game that seems haunted by some of yesteryear’s bugaboos. It is a retelling and reimplementation of all of those wonderful ideas from the 2012 cult-classic, including an awesome dynamic world and some of the best combat in the genre that integrates a subtle but amazingly complex physics system. On the other hand, its finicky ally AI, clunky climbing, choppy frame rate, and camera with a habit of going haywire at the worst times are all “features” I wish hadn’t been brought back for another round. Even so, there’s an action-RPG here that’s richly rewarding and incomparable to its contemporaries if you can be patient with its quirks and open to embracing its hands-off open-world and quest designs. – Jarrett Green

Enshrouded Early Access

From our review: Enshrouded will likely be an instant hit for anyone who’s ever wanted to build a castle in a fantasy world full of danger, and it makes all that building fun and easy with an intuitive set of tools. But even if you don’t care much about crafting or building, Enshrouded’s RPG systems are already solid enough to carry you through its open world for a few dozen hours – even if its vague story isn’t all that powerful, its puzzles are forgettable, and its combat and movement systems could use some fine-tuning. Thankfully, there’s usually no pressure to do anything but try to unlock the next visually-breathtaking area, and that made for a smooth 62-hour journey. – Gabriel Moss

Expeditions: A Mudrunner Game

From our review: Expeditions: A MudRunner Game certainly isn’t a replacement for the supremely addictive SnowRunner, but its more untamed wilderness maps and huge truckload of exploration-focused missions do see it function as a very worthwhile complementary experience – despite some aggravating mission gating and a bit of an unfriendly map screen. Its unique brand of slow-paced bushwhacking won’t ever be for everybody, but successfully taking a truck on a trek through terrain that the toughest trailblazers would fear to tread is still an oddly satisfying challenge that proves the journey is always more important than the destination. – Luke Reilly

Granblue Fantasy: Relink

From our review: Granblue Fantasy: Relink bucks the RPG genre’s usual trend of long and slow-paced stories, but the relative brevity of its campaign doesn’t compromise on the quality of its storytelling. Its mobile game origins don’t always translate over well, feeling a little thin in some aspects, but questing with friends in multiplayer is very exciting – even if the lack of crossplay is disappointing. However, Relink’s fun action combat and interesting cast of characters has kept me happily playing long after I beat the final boss. – George Yang

From our review: Last Epoch is an impressive, time-bending action RPG that combines rich customization with modern action. In the mechanical sense, it serves as an important stepping stone between Diablo and Path of Exile – but even without making direct comparisons, it competently stands on its own merits thanks to a flurry of unique, intertwining systems and a strong endgame that make it difficult to resist pouring an entire weekend into its endless loops. Just don’t let its poorly told story or the handful of bugs that have yet to be squashed discourage you from seeing this adventure through to the end of time. – Gabriel Moss

MLB The Show 24

From our review: Hank Aaron’s motto was “Always keep swinging,” and MLB The Show 24 does just that. It continues to push the envelope for what a baseball sim can be by adding a deep respect for the history of the sport on top of its already excellent gameplay. Season 2 of the Negro leagues is off to a fantastic start, and I can’t wait for the next episode to drop. The addition of women to that and Road to The Show emphasize Sony San Diego’s commitment to the idea that baseball is for everyone. With great new features like Custom Game Entry in Franchise, and seamless integration of Major League Baseball’s latest changes, not even a lackluster Storyline and a Diamond Dynasty mode in flux can change the fact that this is a great way to play baseball. – Justin Koreis

Palworld Early Access (Steam Version)

From our review: Even in its Early Access state, Palworld is amusingly irreverent, has a surprising amount of content and deep survival mechanics, and is absurdly difficult to put down. It’s impossible to overlook just how shamelessly it takes ideas and designs from Pokémon, it’s got some unsurprising bugs and performance issues, and the work of keeping your base’s supplies topped off needs a little retuning – but when you’re riding on the back of a flying dragon while shooting a blue duck with an assault rifle, most of those blemishes wash away entirely. This is already one of my favorite survival games, and I’m incredibly excited to see how it evolves. – Travis Northup

Prince of Persia: The Lost Crown

From our review​​: Prince of Persia: The Lost Crown captures not only what made games such as The Sands of Time so good, but it irons out a lot of the little issues that plagued the 3D games in this series by opting for a 2D perspective – and owning it. It also works extremely well as a traditional Metroidvania, sticking with tried-and-true elements of the genre but executing on them with precision. The story can feel a bit jumbled at times, but it's the fast and fun combat system, the tight and satisfying controls, and the stylish look and feel that elevate Sargon’s journey and make The Lost Crown a worthy successor to the best of the Prince of Persia legacy. – Phil Hornshaw

Splatoon 3: Side Order

From our review: With already excellent weapon variety and intense combat, Splatoon 3 is a perfect fit for a roguelite game mode. Side Order ’s outstanding new enemies and powerful set of abilities result in the craziest combat power trips Splatoon has ever seen. It does occasionally stumble when implementing its roguelite elements, leading to some repetitive boss fights and poor pacing. But even with those issues, this DLC is still a blast. Add in another stellar soundtrack and a distinct style that sets it apart from the rest of the series, and Side Order is a worthwhile stop at the Splatoon 3 buffet. – Logan Plant

Stargate: Timekeepers

From our review: I'm pretty pleased with the first seven episodes of Stargate: Timekeepers . SG-1 and Atlantis have been off the air for 15 years now, and it sounds like we won't be getting any more Shadow Tactics games. So to get an experience that combines both of those bygone things I adore so effectively is a great surprise. I wish the story and characters had a bit more depth to them, and there are some issues with enemy behavior and missing keyboard shortcuts that could use a bit more polish. But overall, I would gladly venture forth through this stargate again. – Leana Hafer

The Thaumaturge

From our review: The Thaumaturge is a slow, text heavy caper that is often curious and sometimes captivating, weaving revolutionary labor politics and mysticism together to create a unique and charming piece of historical science fiction. It is eurojank through and through, filled with criss-crossing systems like gathering observations, Thaumaturge abilities, and combat that are all fun and engaging despite the sometimes hitchy controls, clunky conversations, and odd voice overs that make this journey a bumpy one. But if a little jank didn’t stop you from enjoying RPGs like Vampyr or The Witcher, you’ll be well equipped for this otherwise exciting ghost story. – Jarrett Green

Turnip Boy Robs a Bank

From our review: Turnip Boy has already committed a bunch of crimes, and he does even more in Turnip Boy Robs a Bank . While it’s not much longer than its predecessor and has similar pacing problems towards the end, this sequel has gotten a huge overhaul for the better. It’s changed genres from a dungeon crawler to an action roguelite, with massive improvements to the combat that help make that switch work. And with more quests to complete, more jokes to laugh at, and more secrets to uncover, it still holds onto what made its predecessor so charming. It goes to show that there’s always room for Turnip Boy in our lives, even if he’s killed way more people (veggies?) since the last time we saw him. – Carli Velocci

From our review: WWE 2K24 is clear proof that 2K and Visual Concepts have certainly hit their stride when it comes to making today’s package better on the whole than yesterday’s. While not drastically different, there are enough new little features added to every inch of this iteration that make it well worth climbing back into the ring. Old enemies still have their number, though, such as making its docuseries Showcase mode feel good to actually play, creating a more consistent tone and pacing in MyRise, and getting more of the current day roster up to the high visual bar that’s currently only hit by its most popular superstars. But even with those lingering annoyances, WWE 2K24 puts an impressive cap on a three year run of great wrestling games. – Jarrett Green

Best Reviewed Games 2024

Review Score: 9 (“Amazing”)

We enthusiastically recommend that you add these games to your to-play list. If we call a game Amazing, that means something about it seriously impressed us, whether it’s an inspired new idea or an exceptional take on an old one. We expect to look back at it as one of the highlights of its time and genre.

From our review: Remarkably approachable with complex systems waiting for those willing to lose themselves to it, Balatro successfully assembles the infinitely fun gameplay loop that every great roguelike sets out to create. It takes the fundamentally simple nature of poker’s scoring hands and shuffles in deep mechanics that don’t feel like a chore to learn but are always thrilling to exploit. A deck-builder of endlessly satisfying proportions, it's the sort of fun that threatens to derail whole weekend plans as you stay awake far too late staring into the eyes of a jester tempting you in for just one more run. Simply put, Balatro is no joker, but in fact, ace. – Simon Cardy

Final Fantasy 7 Rebirth

From our review: Final Fantasy VII Rebirth impressively builds off of what Remake set in motion as both a best-in-class action-RPG full of exciting challenge and depth, and as an awe-inspiring recreation of a world that has meant so much to so many for so long. After 82 hours to finish the main story and complete a decent chunk of sidequests and optional activities, there's still much to be done, making this pivotal section of the original feel absolutely massive. Minigames, sidequests, and other enticing diversions fill the spaces of its vast and sprawling regions, painting a new and more vivid picture of these familiar locations. But more than just being filled with things to do, Rebirth is often a powerful representation of Final Fantasy VII's most memorable qualities. It does fumble the execution of its ending, getting caught up in the mess of its multiple twisting timelines, but new moments and the overarching journey manage to evoke a deeper sense of reflection in spite of that. So, for as flawed as parts of how this classic has been reimagined might be, Rebirth still stands out as something both thrilling and unexpectedly impactful. – Michael Higham

Helldivers 2

From our review: Helldivers 2 is the rare modern multiplayer game that does almost everything right. It gives you a ton of freedom, feels fantastic to play, and has a smart progression system that doesn’t nickel and dime you or rely too much on a paid battle pass. It manages to keep its missions fresh by introducing a ton of enemies, modifiers, and objectives, and varying them in interesting ways. There are some matchmaking and performance issues that still need to be worked out, and you can only go so far by yourself or with random players – but if you’ve got a solid squad, it’s an incredible time, and certainly one of the most fun multiplayer shooters I’ve played in years. When I’m not Helldiving, I’m thinking about Helldiving, counting down the time until my next drop. Now, if you’ll excuse me, I’m going to pour myself a nice, hot cup of Liber-tea and get back at it. Those bugs and robots look like they could use some freedom, and Managed Democracy isn’t going to spread itself. For Super Earth! – Will Borger

Like a Dragon: Infinite Wealth

From our review: Like a Dragon: Infinite Wealth ’s overhauled combat system injects some welcome flexibility and flash into every turn, its difficulty curve has been pruned of nasty spikes to remove the need for repetitive grinding we endured in the last turn-based game, and its spectacular Hawaiian setting is crammed with enough enjoyable activities to overload even the most ambitious of holiday itineraries. A compelling, country-hopping crime story kept me on the hook like a freshly lured barracuda for the 50 hours it took to complete, and the vibrant new job classes and unique combat arenas ensured that the fighting continued to feel fresh. Sprawling, enthralling, and packed with dynamic brawling, Like a Dragon: Infinite Wealth isn’t just the best turn-based Like a Dragon game, it’s one of the greatest games in the entire series. – Tristan Ogilvie

Persona 3 Reload

From our review: A stellar visual overhaul and countless small changes and additions beyond it leave a significant impact, making Persona 3 Reload a more fully realized version of a beloved RPG. Although still dated in some respects, quality of life improvements and new features refresh its exciting turn-based combat and add depth to its touching story moments. Through an incredible new voice cast that embodies these unforgettable characters and an endearing soundtrack to reforge its identity, Persona 3 Reload tells a powerful, timeless story of tragedy and hope with sharp emotional sincerity. This is the kind of remake I’ve hoped for, and even after spending 70 hours to see it all the way to its conclusion, I still find it hard to believe it's real. – Michael Higham

Sons of the Forest

From our review: Sons of the Forest takes everything its predecessor did well and does it a little bit better. And considering how much I enjoyed the original, I can easily recommend this strong follow-up. Exploring a huge, beautiful, deadly island through the changing seasons is a treat on its own. The new base building mechanics could entertain me for days without ever touching the main story. And to top it all off, we have smarter and more unsettling enemy behavior paired with thoughtfully improved combat. The technical polish and touched up story since its Early Access release round out what is easily one of my favorite open world survival crafting games ever. – Leana Hafer

From our review: Tekken 8 is an amazing new entry in the long-running series. Interesting tweaks to its classic fighting systems, a full suite of fun offline modes, great new characters, incredible training tools, and a vastly improved online experience all add up to a fighting game I will be playing for many years to come. By honoring its legacy, but continuing to move forward, Tekken 8 manages to stand out as something special. – Ronny Barrier

Unicorn Overlord

From our review: Reflecting on the incredibly diverse and remarkably creative world I explored across my 45-hour journey, any issues I had with Unicorn Overlord ended up feeling like nothing more than nitpicks. The tactical combat system is unique and complex while also being easy to understand, expertly blending mechanics from many of its peers with smart new additions of its own. The interesting terrain across the continent of Fevrith makes every fight feel unique, with some of the best map gimmicks I’ve seen in any strategy RPG. Because the campaign is told through the eyes of a diverse and creative cast, its trope-filled fantasy story is elevated in a way that a more traditional storytelling style wouldn't manage. The shorter, more personal stories work wonderfully to support a loop of exploration and liberation that had me begging to see one more tale told, one more town rebuilt, and one more battle fought. – Eric Zalewski

Jordan covers games, shows, and movies as a freelance writer for IGN.

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Proposed commission settlement could hurt veteran home buyers

Under current rules for va loans, they cannot pay anything toward realtor fees..

As the market scrambles to prepare for changes in the way most residential real estate is bought and sold, people who served in the military, earning the right to a low-cost Veterans’ Affairs loan, may have to forgo the protection of a real estate agent’s representation.

The main complaint of the class-action lawsuit against the National Association of Realtors, several large brokerages, and many Multiple Listing Service operations was simple: Home sellers don’t want to pay the buyer’s agent commission. The settlement makes it much easier for them to opt out.

VA loans come with two important advantages: Their interest rates are typically about a half of a percentage point lower than the typical 30-year, fixed-rate mortgage. Even better, they allow for no money down on these loans.

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But they also prohibit buyers from paying their agents or rolling agent fees into the loan.

From the VA Lenders Handbook : “Fees or commissions charged by a real estate agent or broker in connection with a VA loan may not be charged to or paid by the veteran-purchaser.”

And buyer’s agents probably don’t want to work for free. So if sellers refuse to pay a buyer’s agent commission on a VA loan, they are effectively prohibiting veterans from buying their property.

“I don’t know where all the consumer advocates and veteran advocates are,” said Paul J. Cervone , a Lamacchia Realty agent who specializes in working with veterans. “But they should be screaming from the rooftops, because this is going to absolutely disadvantage VA buyers in the future.”

Cervone said it’s important to recognize that the settlement is still fairly new and isn’t expected to be approved and take effect before July. The parties reached settlement agreements twice before only to have the Department of Justice oppose them.

In March, Kevin Sears , a Massachusetts real estate agent and NAR president, sent a letter to the VA urging them to update their rules: “VA buyers are immediately at a disadvantage, potentially forcing them to forgo professional representation, lose a property in an already limited inventory [situation], choose a different loan product, or exit the market entirely.”

Shant Banosian, a branch manager and loan officer at Guaranteed Rate, said the VA should change its rules because veterans already are at a disadvantage in a competitive real estate market.

“The VA program allows for a zero down payment or a small down payment without the borrower even having to pay PMI [private mortgage insurance], and they have the best rates in the market in my opinion,” he said. “It’s a great loan product, but, unfortunately, most sellers perceive offers with bigger down payments as being stronger. These rule changes are only going to make it harder for veterans to buy homes. And this is a really important group of people. These are people that have gone above and beyond for our country.”

According to the Massachusetts attorney general’s website: “State and federal laws prohibit discrimination in the sale and rental of housing by property owners, landlords, property managers, mortgage lenders, and real estate agents. These fair housing laws make it unlawful to discriminate based on: race, color, national origin, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, disability, ancestry, genetic information, marital status, veteran or active military status, age, familial status (i.e., children), and source of income (i.e., Section 8 voucher).”

Both the secretary of the Massachusetts Department of Veterans Services and the attorney general’s office declined to comment on the proposed settlement.

Cervone said that when he presents a no-money-down veteran’s offer to a homeowner, he tries to emphasize that the things sellers truly care about most are the terms of the deal and the net proceeds of the sale. He said it’s a mistake to discount an offer because of the size of the down payment.

“A VA loan, just like an FHA loan, is what is needed for a lot of first-time home buyers because they’re just starting out and don’t have deep pockets,” Cervone said. “They don’t have an extra $10,000 or more for a down payment. They can’t wrap my fee into the loan. They can’t take a closing-cost contribution from a seller and use that to pay a buyer’s agent. So ultimately, they’re totally disadvantaged. These federal programs are there to help people who need and deserve it, and who is more deserving than somebody who has served in the military?”

Jim Morrison can be reached at [email protected] . Follow him on X @jimmorrison617 . Follow Address on X @GlobeHomes , and subscribe to the Address newsletter at Boston.com/address-newsletter .