essay on physical development

Essay on Physical Development

Students are often asked to write an essay on Physical Development in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Physical Development

What is physical development.

Physical development is the way our bodies grow and change over time. From when we are babies until we become adults, our bodies go through many changes. We learn to crawl, walk, and run. Our muscles and bones get bigger and stronger. This growth lets us do more things as we get older.

Stages of Growth

There are different stages of growth, like being a baby, a child, a teenager, and then an adult. In each stage, we learn new skills. For example, babies learn to grab things, children learn to throw a ball, and teenagers might learn to drive.

Healthy Habits

Eating good food, exercising, and getting enough sleep are important for physical development. These habits help our bodies to grow well. If we eat junk food and sit all day, our bodies won’t be as strong or healthy.

Challenges in Growing

Sometimes, growing can be hard. We might get growing pains in our legs, or feel awkward when we suddenly get tall. It’s all normal. We just need to be patient and take care of our bodies.

Why Physical Development Matters

Growing up strong and healthy helps us to do things we enjoy, like playing sports or dancing. It also helps our minds because when our bodies feel good, we can think and learn better.

250 Words Essay on Physical Development

Physical development is the way our bodies grow and change over time. From the time we are babies until we become adults, our bodies go through many changes. This includes growing taller, gaining weight, and developing muscles. Kids might notice these changes in themselves and their friends.

As children grow, they get taller and their bodies change shape. They start as tiny babies and become bigger children. This growth happens because of something called hormones, which are like tiny messengers in our bodies that tell our bones and muscles to get bigger.

Moving and Learning

Physical development also involves learning how to move and use our bodies. This starts with babies learning to crawl and then walk. As kids get older, they learn to run, jump, and play sports. Their bodies become better at doing these things with practice.

Eating Right

To grow well, children need to eat healthy food. Foods like fruits, vegetables, grains, protein, and dairy help give kids the energy they need. Eating right helps their bones and muscles become strong and keeps them healthy as they grow up.

Staying Healthy

Staying active is important for physical development. When kids run around and play, they help their hearts and lungs get stronger. It’s also important to get enough sleep. Sleep helps the body rest and repair itself, so kids can keep growing strong.

Remember, every child grows at their own pace. It’s okay to be taller, shorter, or a different shape than your friends. What matters is that you are healthy and active!

500 Words Essay on Physical Development

Understanding physical development.

Physical development is how our bodies grow and change over time. From when we are babies until we become adults, our bodies go through many changes. This growth is not just about getting taller, but also about learning to move, touch, see, and hear better as we grow up.

Early Years

When babies are born, they can’t do much on their own. They can’t hold their head up, sit, or walk. But as they grow, they start to learn these skills. This is part of their physical development. By the time they are one year old, most babies can sit without help and are starting to crawl. Around two years old, many can walk and run. These are big steps in their growth.

Childhood Changes

As children get older, they keep growing and their bodies change. They become stronger and start to fine-tune their skills. They learn to jump, skip, and throw balls. Their hands become better at doing things like writing with a pencil or tying shoelaces. This part of physical development is important because it helps children to be more independent.

Teenage Growth Spurts

When children become teenagers, they hit a growth spurt. This means they grow a lot in a short amount of time. Boys and girls both get taller and their bodies start to look more like adult bodies. This can be a strange time because sometimes different parts of the body grow at different speeds. For example, feet or hands might get big before the rest of the body catches up.

For good physical development, it’s important to eat healthy foods, exercise, and get enough sleep. Eating fruits, vegetables, and proteins gives our bodies the energy and materials they need to grow. Exercise makes our muscles and bones strong. Sleep is when our bodies do a lot of growing and repairing. All these things help children and teenagers to develop in a healthy way.

Challenges in Physical Development

Sometimes, children face challenges in their physical development. Some might have trouble learning to move or may not grow as quickly as others. This can be because of different reasons like not getting the right foods, being sick, or having a condition they were born with. It’s important to remember that everyone grows at their own pace and that’s okay.

Physical development is a big part of growing up. It includes learning to move, growing taller, and changing as we get older. Everyone grows in their own unique way and at their own speed. Eating well, staying active, and getting plenty of rest can help everyone grow strong and healthy. Remember, every step in physical development, from taking the first step to the last growth spurt, is an important part of becoming who we are.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Human Growth and Development

Categories: Childhood Development

About this sample

Words: 481 |

Published: Jan 31, 2024

Words: 481 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

Theoretical foundations of human growth and development, physical development, cognitive development, social and emotional development, environmental and genetic influences on human growth and development, lifespan development.

Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Standard Edition, 7, 123-255.
Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: International Universities Press.

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Free Essay On Physical Development

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Exercise , Environment , Children , Skills , Sports , Development , Family , Physical Exercise

Words: 1300

Published: 12/12/2019

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Growth and development are major aspects of any creature on earth. Right from birth to death, there are various stages through which an individual develops. In human beings, there is development in various fronts. This essay will focus on development in the physical realm and how the development can be enhanced through the classroom setting.

Physical Development

Motor Development

Since birth, a human being goes through various stages of development. There are various developments that occur at this tender age. Chief among these developments is physical development that entails the acquisition of the motor skills. Children in the schooling years are usually at a stage where they acquire the motor skills, both gross and fine skills. According to Lecture 2 (2012) development of the motor skills starts right from the activities that a young individual starts engaging in. this is where there is learning on how to use the various parts of the body and the organs thereof.

At this stage, there are various requirements that are needed in order to enhance the development. Food and nutrition are important as this is the stage where the young individual also increases in mass. The World Bank (2011) indicates that the physical development of the child involves three factors: these are nutrition, health and the gross and fine motor skills. As a teacher interacting with the small children, it is necessary to identify the concerns of the children at this age as this is the only way through which their development can be easily enhanced.

In looking at the child’s developmental needs, it is worth noting that there are also some environmental factors that dictate how the development occurs. Child characteristics play a major role. This is where the abilities and capacities of the child determine how the child develops. There are also family characteristics such as parenting which determine the kind of person that the child becomes. A proper upbringing environment ensures healthy kids. Lastly, there are the community characteristics where the societal issues determine what gets into the child as it develops (World Bank, 2011).

Benefits of Physical Activity

There are many positive effects associated with physical exercise that a child gets involved in (Anon. n.d). Among these benefits is the development of a strong muscle system which aids in the development of the motor skills. As such, active children tend to be fit and more attentive that the inactive children. Here, it is worth noting that the child is developing growing in mass and weight. As such, it is important that physical activity is enhanced so as to ensure balanced development. Talking of balance in development, it is worth remembering that all play and no work makes Jack a mere toy. Therefore, in order to enhance a balanced development, the teacher should plan the time well so that there is time for play and time for other activities. This also helps in reducing fatigue (Lecture 2).

Physical activity also has positive effects on the development of the finer motor skills of an individual. Lecture 2 (2012) explains that children brought up in confinement tend to have problems not only in the physical sense but also in the emotional and social perspectives. This arises because the child is not used to interacting with the environment in a comprehensive manner. It is, therefore, important for the teacher to identify the children with such problems and know the proper methods to apply in order to enhance the development of the child.

Physical exercise also helps in easy acquisition of the finer motor skills (Grissmer et al, 2010). As the child’s interacts more closely with the environment, he is likely to observe some occurrences that might of interest to him. This provokes thinking and creativity. Ultimately, this leads to a greater comprehension of the universe which helps in becoming an all rounded person.

As it can be seen from this explanation, lack of exercises can pose serious threats to the development of the young child. To curb this issue, the teacher should identify the children who show signs of lack of exposure. They can then derive ways of incorporating them into the class activities so that they can earn to interact with others. This can help to streamline their development.

Physical Activity Facilitates Development in Other Areas

As indicated above, physical exercise not only helps in physical development but also in other aspects of life. For instance, in the social realm, physical exercise helps the child to acknowledge the need for teamwork as some activities can only be done through collaboration with others (Anon., n.d). Unless the child gets involved and observes this, there is likelihood that he would remain quite withdrawn and a solitary individual.

The exercises also help in the development of fine motor skill through exposure. As the child participates in the sporting activities, he is likely to encounter some challenges. For instance, there are some games that require the use of wits. Under such conditions, the child is forced to think beyond the obvious. As such, this facilitates the learning process where the child’s mind opens up to various possibilities. The mind develops such that it can accommodate more.

Lastly, there are benefits associated with health. A young child who is involved in various physical activities is likely to be stronger and more resilient than one who does not (Lecture 2, 2012). Therefore, it is important that the children should be engaged in physical activity as this has various benefits to their bodies.

Accommodating Physical Development in the Learning Set Up

In the early years of development, a child needs to have a lot of encouragement and support so as to successfully go through the physical development stages. The support should be at all levels of interaction with the child be it at school home or within the community. At the school setting, there are various provisions that can be made in order to accommodate the child’s developmental needs.

In the first instance, there should be some time in the school time table set apart for physical exercises in presence of the teacher. This is where the teacher can regulate the kind of activities that the children engage in. the activities should be guided in an informed manner so as to develop a specific part of the individual’s body (Lecture 2, 2012).

Besides this, there are the usual breaks that arise between lessons. At such times, the children should be let free to interact with others and with the environment. Besides enhancing physical development, this can go a long way in improving the intellectual abilities of the children as well.

In conclusion, this essay has looked at physical development as n important part of a child’s life. The aim of the paper was to show that a child needs the proper environment and guidance to enhance this development as it has various benefits to the individual. These benefits have been clearly indicated and the repercussions of non-compliance with proper exercising are also indicated. One thing comes out strongly that if children are expected to grow normally; they have to be given the right environment to do so.

Anon. (n.d). Chapter 5: Physical Development. (pdf) Grissmer, D., Grimm, K.J., Steele, J.S., Aiyer, S.M., & Murrah, M. (2010). Fine Motor Skills and Early Comprehension of the World: Two New School Readiness Indicators. Development Psychology, Vol. 46(5). American Psychological Association. Lecture 2. (2012).Development and Education: Biophysical Development. (ppt presentation) World Bank. (2011). Early Childhood Development: Needs Assessment and Indicators. Retrieved on 23rd March 2012 from http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTCY/EXTECD/0,,contentMDK:20200666~menuPK:524390~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:344939,00.html

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Physical Development of an Infant Essay

Infants develop very quickly and are influenced by various factors, for example, nutrition and the environment. Physical development refers to changes in body size – height, weight, and organ size (Graber, 2021). Certain growth milestones will help parents and pediatricians assess the baby’s health. Even though nutrition has the most significant impact on a child’s development, parents should also take care of some exercise and activity.

The first year after birth is a period of very rapid physical development. During the first year, the child’s body length increases by about 25 centimeters or almost 50% compared to birth (Graber, 2021). Their weight also gradually increases – after some fluctuations in the first two months, babies begin to gain a pound per month (Graber, 2021). Doctors use special tables adopted by the World Health Organization to monitor changes.

Other crucial physical development aspects are changes in head size, teeth appearance, and motor skills development. The head’s circumference reflects the brain’s size, and therefore it is measured until the child is three years old (Graber, 2021). The period and peculiarity of the appearance of teeth may differ in children as they depend on the heredity and presence of diseases. On average, they begin to appear at 5-9 months, and by the end of the first year, children have about six teeth (Graber, 2021). Motor skills are also essential: the fine motor is the hands’ movements responsible for grasping and taking, and the gross motor is body movements (Choi, Kang, & Chung, 2018). Parents must create favorable conditions for infants’ development and track all indicators.

Rapid growth requires much energy, so nutrition becomes critical in the child’s development. Most infants receive breast milk from their mothers for some time after birth, gradually transitioning to baby formula. A study by Choi et al. (2018) found that children who receive exclusively breastfeeding for up to 4 months better correspond to the developmental milestones. In turn, children receiving breast milk less than this period may have delays in development (Choi et al., 2018). Breastfeeding and stopping it is a crucial decision in the family affecting the baby. Bigman, Homedes, and Wilkinson (2021) note that cultural and social norms influence feeding duration. Given the importance of nutrition to infants, parents need to consider the best recommendations.

In addition to nutrition, parents need to take care of the physical activity and calmness of the baby. In particular, some exercises and massages recommended by specialists can have a beneficial impact on development (Alves & Alves, 2019). The psychological well-being of the child and mother is also significant. A study by Racine et al. (2018) found that the adverse experience of a child and a mother can lead to various diseases and interfere with a child’s development. Therefore, parents should carefully prepare for the appearance of babies and follow doctors’ instructions in the first months of their lives.

Thus, infants experience rapid physical development requiring consideration of various factors and careful monitoring. Babies’ height and weight increase, the head’s circumference changes, and they have their first teeth. Parents and doctors can track key milestones using special tables recommended by specialists. Moreover, children develop motor skills – they begin to move and grab various things. The infants must receive the necessary nutrition for the correct development and absence of problems. Parents contribute to the better growth of babies by creating favorable and calm conditions for them.

Alves, J. G. B., & Alves, G. V. (2019). Effects of physical activity on children’s growth. Jornal de Pediatria , 95 , S72-S78.

Bigman, G., Homedes, N., & Wilkinson, A. V. (2021). A commentary on ‘A systematic review examining the association between body image and infant feeding methods (breastfeeding vs. bottle-feeding)’. Journal of Health Psychology , 26 (8), 1126-1131.

Choi, H. J., Kang, S. K., & Chung, M. R. (2018). The relationship between exclusive breastfeeding and infant development: A 6-and 12-month follow-up study. Early Human Development , 127 , 42-47.

Graber, E. G. (2021). Physical growth of infants and children . Web.

Racine, N., Plamondon, A., Madigan, S., McDonald, S., & Tough, S. (2018). Maternal adverse childhood experiences and infant development. Pediatrics , 141 (4), 1-9.

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IvyPanda. (2023, May 9). Physical Development of an Infant. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-development-of-an-infant/

"Physical Development of an Infant." IvyPanda , 9 May 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/physical-development-of-an-infant/.

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IvyPanda . 2023. "Physical Development of an Infant." May 9, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-development-of-an-infant/.

1. IvyPanda . "Physical Development of an Infant." May 9, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-development-of-an-infant/.

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IvyPanda . "Physical Development of an Infant." May 9, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-development-of-an-infant/.

Body-Mass Index and Waist Circumference in Children
Breastfeeding and Children Immunity
Breastfeeding: Advantages and Disadvantages
Discussion: Barriers to Breastfeeding
Nutrition: the Anthropometric Measurements
The Breastfeeding Practices
Obesity Research: Hypothesis Testing and Statistics
Short and Long Term Health Benefits of Breast-Feeding
Anthropometric Implications For Nutritional Health
The Focus of Anthropometric Method
The Pathophysiology Course Reflection
Physiological Problems: Mr. Johnson's Case
Melatonin as a Prominent Hormone
Resting Positions and Recovery Time of Pulse Rate After Exercise
Heart and Changes in Homeostasis

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15 Module 15: Physical Development

Module 15. physical development throughout the lifespan.

Although the bulk of Unit 4 is primarily about cognitive and social development, people certainly develop in another obvious way, that is, physically. It is worth focusing exclusively on physical development at first, as it is one of the most obvious ways that people differ from each other. Although physical development is separated from cognitive and social development in this unit, you should realize that it does interact with them. First, many cognitive and social developments depend on prerequisite physical developments. Second, the different types of developments can influence each other. For example, in Module 17, you will learn about attachment, an infant’s emotional bond with a specific person, such as a parent. This is most clearly a social development. In order for an infant to be attached to a specific person, however, they must be able to recognize that person; this is a cognitive development. As the infant develops physically, they become able to move from location to location and can explore her environment. They can use the parent to whom they are attached as a secure base from which they feel confident to stray, so they can make discoveries that will enhance their further cognitive and social development.

This Module has three sections; it is organized principally by age. Section 15.1 describes the extraordinary changes that take place before birth and during childhood. At the moment of conception, the baby-to-be consists of exactly two cells; they divide and subdivide and differentiate rapidly so that nine months later an infant prepared to survive and learn in the world is born. Although the rate of change slows down dramatically after birth, physical developments in childhood are also remarkable, interesting, and important. Section 15.2 covers adolescent and adult development. In a striking reversal of the trend of decreasing rates of growth and change, the adolescent develops rapidly on the path to reaching sexual maturity. Adulthood is traditionally conceived as a period of decline. As you will see, the news is not nearly so pessimistic. Section 15.3 is the exception to the chronological organization of the first two sections in the module. The last section describes the changes that the brain undergoes from the prenatal period, all the way through to late adulthood.

15.1 Prenatal and child physical development

15.2 Adolescent and adult physical development

15.3 Brain development throughout the lifespan

READING WITH A PURPOSE

Remember and understand.

By reading and studying Module 15, you should be able to remember and describe:

Physical development in the embryo and fetus: zygote, neural tube, testes, ovaries, androgens, amniotic sac, placenta, teratogens, fetal alcohol syndrome, fetal alcohol effect (15.1)
Physical development in infancy and childhood (15.1)
Physical developments in adolescence and adulthood: adolescent growth spurt, puberty, primary sex characteristics, secondary sex characteristics (15.2)
Hormones and the endocrine system: hypothalamus and pituitary gland, gonads, androgens, testosterone, estrogens, progesterone, growth hormone
Increasing rates of obesity in adulthood: basal metabolic rate, muscle mass (15.2)
Brain development before birth: neural plate and neural tube, neural stem cells, migration (15.3)
Brain development in infancy and childhood: myelinization, synaptogenesis (15.3)
Brain development in adolescence and adulthood (15.3)

By reading and thinking about how the concepts in Module 15 apply to real life, you should be able to:

Recognize the characteristic physical features of different aged infants, children and adolescents (15.1 and 15.2)

Analyze, Evaluate, and Create

By reading and thinking about Module 15, participating in classroom activities, and completing out-of-class assignments, you should be able to:

Combine your knowledge of neurons and the brain from Unit 3 with the developments in Module 15 to predict some behavioral developments (Module 11 and 15; best done before reading the remainder of Unit 4)
Speculate whether the physical characteristics of people you know, especially older adults, are more likely to be a result of physical development or lifestyle changes (15.1 and 15.2)

15.1 Prenatal and Child Physical Development

Have you ever noticed how pregnant women often avoid some common objects and substances? Perhaps if you have been pregnant you have even done so yourself. Make a list of some of the “to be avoided” entities. Do you know what the specific risks associated with the listed entities are?
Did your parents ever tell you how old you were when you began to walk? If you are a parent, at what age did your children first walk? If you have more than one child, did they walk at the same age? Why do you think some children begin walking at different ages?

From two single cells—one among the largest in the human body, the other, the smallest—to a fully formed newborn infant in 266 days: It is a development in amount and form that will never be approached again in an individual human being.

Physical Development in the Embryo and Fetus

As you may recall from a biology class, when an egg is fertilized by a sperm cell, the resulting cell is called a zygote . The zygote, which contains the combined genetic information from the mother and father, quickly develops through the process of cell division. By about one week after fertilization, the cluster of about 100 cells attaches to the mother’s uterus, from which it begins to receive blood and nutrients; now it is called an embryo . At this stage, the embryo looks like a tiny, mostly-hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst .

During the following weeks, the cells of the embryo change their shapes and begin to relocate, as the embryo organizes itself. The different areas of cells develop into different body parts and organs. For example, one set of cells develops into the neural tube , which will eventually become the central nervous system (spinal cord and brain). By around five weeks, all of the organs have started developing, and although the embryo is only one-half inch long, the eyes, heart, and the beginnings of the arms and legs are visible. How does the embryo “know” how to organize itself? The embryo’s genes direct the specialization, along with hormones that are produced by the embryo itself. Because the embryo is especially sensitive during this time to hormones, which are chemicals, the period during which the major organs are first forming is also a time of great sensitivity to other chemicals, such as toxins.

zygote : the cell that results when an egg is fertilized by a sperm cell

embryo : the developing cells during the early period of gestation, the first 8-weeks in humans

blastocyst : an embryo about one week after fertilization (in humans); it resembles a hollowed-out ball of cells

neural tube : the embryonic precursor to the central nervous system

After 8 weeks, the embryo becomes a fetus ; at this point many of the major organs and parts can be recognized easily. The fetus grows rapidly over the next several months, from about 2 inches (about 5 centimeters) at 12 weeks to about 12 inches (30 centimeters) at 24 weeks and about 20 inches (50 centimeters) at birth.

The sex organs are among the last parts to become differentiated in the developing fetus. Prior to the seventh week, male and female embryos have indistinguishable primitive sex organs; they resemble female organs, by the way. If the 7-week old embryo has a Y chromosome (i.e., if it is male), the male gonads, called testes , begin to develop. If there is no Y chromosome, the female gonads, ovaries , develop. In a sexually mature person, the testes produce sperm, and the ovaries produce eggs. At this point, sex hormones begin to play a role. The newly-formed testes (in males) begin to produce androgens , a group of hormones that play a role in male traits and reproductive activity. These hormones cause the primitive sex organs to develop into male organs. In the absence of androgens, the organs develop into female organs.

fetus : the developing baby after 8 weeks of gestation

testes : male sex glands; they produce hormones and sperm

ovaries : female sex glands; they produce hormones and eggs

androgens : a group of hormones that play a role in male traits and reproductive activity; a fetus that is exposed to androgens will develop male sex organs

The developing fetus is housed in a very controlled environment, a fluid-filled sac called the amniotic sac ; it protects the fetus by acting as a shock absorber and temperature regulator. Outside substances can only get in through the placenta , the structure found at the attachment point between the fetus and the mother’s uterus. The placenta allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products. To prevent harmful substances from reaching the fetus, the placenta also acts as a kind of filter. It is a remarkable system, but alas, it is not perfect.

Occasionally, harmful substances from the environment outside of the fetus can reach it; they are called teratogens . Have you ever noticed the cautions posted in x-ray areas? Women are warned to tell the x-ray technician if they might be pregnant. This is because x-rays are a teratogen; they can cause the fetus’s developing organs to become deformed. Other teratogens include cigarette smoke, some prescription drugs, other drugs, such as caffeine and marijuana, lead, and paint fumes.

Alcohol is a very well-known teratogen. If the mother drinks heavily (five to six drinks or more per day) during pregnancy, the child is at a greater risk of developing fetal alcohol syndrome . Children who suffer from fetal alcohol syndrome grow slowly and have distinctive facial features, such as wide-set eyes, thin upper lip, and flattened bridge of the nose. Many fetal alcohol syndrome children catch up and lose the distinctive facial features as they develop (Steinhausen, Willms, &, Spohr 1994). They are not so fortunate with the other symptoms, however. Fetal alcohol syndrome is also characterized by brain damage and many cognitive and behavioral deficits. The damage can be severe enough to be observed using standard brain imaging techniques but is often simply inferred from behavioral and cognitive testing. The deficits include lower intelligence and academic achievement, increases in learning disabilities, poorer language skills, and increases in distractibility and hyperactivity. These effects of alcohol on a developing fetus are not all-or-none (Astley and Clarren, 2000). Rather, they are graded, and even moderate drinking during pregnancy is associated with less severe versions of many of the same effects (these less severe versions are sometimes called fetal alcohol effect ). Clearly, the best advice a pregnant woman can follow—and the advice given by the US Surgeon General—is to completely abstain from drinking alcohol. Women who drank alcohol before discovering that they were pregnant should stop immediately because further consumption would increase the risk of alcohol-related effects.

It is scary; sometimes it seems like the only way to keep a developing fetus safe is to live in a sterilized room and never go out, eat organic rice cakes only, and drink nothing except distilled water. If you have ever heard or wondered about a pregnant woman’s avoidance of wet paint, cigarette smoke (including second-hand smoke), caffeine, and even cat litter boxes, it is because of the possibility that substances contained in these common environmental elements can reach the fetus and disrupt its development. With a little bit of attention, guidance (from healthcare professionals and pregnancy books), and planning, however, the risk of damaging a fetus is actually very low. Still, many mothers-to-be choose to err on the side of caution and avoid substances that may pose little overall risk. This is probably a good idea because the consequences of a teratogen will last a lifetime.

amniotic sac : the fluid-filled sac that houses the developing fetus; it acts as a shock absorber and temperature regulator

placenta : the structure at the attachment point between the fetus and the mother’s uterus; it allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products and acts as a filter to keep out harmful substances

teratogen : a substance that can harm a developing fetus

fetal alcohol syndrome : a condition in children that results from high levels of alcohol exposure during the mother’s pregnancy

fetal alcohol effect : a condition in children that results from moderate levels of alcohol exposure during the mother’s pregnancy

During the remainder of the fetal stage, the fetus grows rapidly, and the organs develop so that the baby will be able to survive on its own when it is born. Obviously, the longer the fetus is able to develop in the uterus, the greater the chances of survival are. For example, a study in Sweden found that babies who are born at 22-26 weeks have about a 70% chance of surviving; those born at 22 weeks have only a 10% chance, while those born at 26 weeks have an 85% chance (The Express Group, 2009). In the US, infants overall have over a 99.3% chance of surviving to age 1.

This 99.3% survival rate corresponds to an infant mortality rate of 5.8. This means that for every 1,000 live births in the US, 5.8 infants will die before they reach one year old. The United States’ rate is higher than you might guess. Monaco (1.60), Japan (2.0), and Iceland (2.10) have the lowest infant mortality rates in the world. The US rate is only the 55 th best in the world, worse than such countries as Canada, Czechia, Ireland, Belgium, Hong Kong, France, Germany, Slovenia, and the Netherlands. A staggering 18 countries have infant mortality rates above 60. Afghanistan’s rate is 110 per 1000 live births. Let us repeat that. In Afghanistan, for every 1,000 live births, 110 children will not survive to see their first birthday. (The infant mortality rates can be found in the CIA World Factbook, 2017). Countries that have extremely high infant mortality rates are, without exception, very poor. The children die from the disease (including AIDS), parasites, malnourishment, and poor sanitary conditions (Population Reference Bureau, 2004).

Within the US there are substantial differences in infant mortality for different ethnic groups. According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016), in the year 2016 Asians mortality rates had a rate of 3.6, White and Hispanic infant mortality rates were around 5.0, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islanders had a rate of 7.4, American Indian/Alaska Native had a rate of 9.4, and African Americans had a rate of 11.4, an infant death rate similar to Tonga’s (in 2017), the 99th ranked country in the world. The US Government’s Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Office of Minority Health had set up a goal to eliminate the racial and ethnic differences in infant mortality by the year 2010, but they were obviously unsuccessful. They have focused on the likely causes, such as medical problems and illnesses, lack of prenatal care, poor nutrition, smoking and substance abuse, but it is clear that more effort is necessary (CDC Office of Minority Health, 2004).

Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood

Newborns enter the world with a set of programmed behaviors. Several of these reflexes are clearly designed to help the infant to survive. For example, if you stroke the cheek of a newborn, they will turn their head toward the stroke; this is called the rooting reflex and it helps the newborn find their mother’s nipple. Newborns will also reflexively suck anything that touches their lips. Contrary to some people’s beliefs, newborns can see, just not very well (in the words of Module 12, their visual acuity is poor). Their clearest vision is for objects that are about nine inches away, almost exactly the distance between a nursing infant and his mother’s face. As you will see in Modules 16 and 17, newborns are actually quite a bit more capable than you might think, and they are prepared to make enormous strides in cognition and social relationships.

reflex : a programmed behavior that newborns can do when they are born

rooting reflex : a reflex in which an infant will turn its head toward something that strokes his or her cheek

Children are usually referred to as infants until they are two years old, although some people refer to children between one and two as toddlers. Physical development, or at least growth in size, slows dramatically during the first year, a trend that continues until the adolescent growth spurt. Think about what would happen if growth did not slow down. The fetus grew from 2 to 20 inches during the last 26 weeks before birth. If the new baby grew 18 inches every 26 weeks, it would be about 4 feet, 8 inches tall at one year. Parents complain now about their children outgrowing clothes too quickly. In the US, one-year-old babies actually average about 29 inches in height and weigh about 22 pounds, and two-year-olds average 34 inches and 28 pounds (National Center for Health Statistics, 2000).

Young parents sometimes have mixed feelings about one of the most important physical developments, their first child’s developing locomotion skills. Many parents compare notes with peers, swelling with pride when their child can crawl or walk earlier than another child. On the other hand, her newfound ability to move herself to a different location shows them how unprepared they really are for the rigors of vigilant parenting. For the first six months, a parent can be pretty sure that their child will be where they left her if they needed to leave her alone for a minute or two. An infant that can move around, though, requires constant attention and an extremely “child-proofed” house (e.g., electrical cords and all small objects safely out of reach, outlets covered, stairs barricaded).

Most children learn to walk some time around 1 year of age. The stages of development on the path to walking differ little across children, but the length of time the children stay on a particular stage does differ a lot. Sometime around four to five months old, infants learn to roll over. By seven months, most can sit up, and they begin crawling by around eight to nine months. Many infants can stand while holding on to something at the time they learn to crawl. From, then, they typically learn to walk while holding on to objects, then to full, albeit extremely unsteady walking (usually sometime around 12 to 14 months). Infants “wobble” when they walk; the side-to-side movements of each step can be larger than the forward progress. Also, each step covers a different distance, making for a very unsteady and irregular gait (Clark, Whiteall, & Phillips, 1988). As the infants get older, these irregularities even out and gait becomes more steady.

What about the pride that some parents feel from their children’s walking accomplishments? Do they really deserve any credit? Infants’ walking skills develop through increases in strength and balance; these increases come about via a combination of growth of the body, maturation of neurons, and experience. Experience can have some impact on the age at which an infant begins to walk, but the other two components must be in place. No matter how much practice you give a 4-month old infant, it will not help her walk at that time. Once the infant’s body is ready, however, early practice does seem to accelerate learning to walk. For example, one study found that daily “practice” over the first eight weeks after birth, in which parents guided the infants through a walking reflex, led the infants to walk two months earlier (9 months versus 11 months) than a “passively exercised” control group (Zelazo, Zelazo, and Kolb, 1972). Newborns have a walking reflex; if you hold them upright and allow their feet to contact a moving surface, they will move their legs as if walking. Infants whose parents worked them through this walking exercise for two and a half minutes per day for three weeks walked earlier than a group whose parents pumped their legs “bicycle-style” for the same amount of time. So, parents might have some impact on the age at which their children begin to walk.

You should realize, however, that it is not necessarily a good thing to have an infant who walks early. First, infants who begin walking at later ages will quickly catch up to earlier walkers, and later practice is the most important factor for improving walking skills (Adolph, Vereijken, & Shrout, 2003). Second, infants’ skulls are not yet fully formed; infants who walk very early may be more prone to injuries from falls because their skulls may not be ready for it (Gott, 1972).

There are really no physical milestones in later childhood as momentous as learning to walk. Rather, the remainder of the period is marked by continuing slow growth and development of more complex skills. Gross motor skills, such as running, jumping, skipping, and balancing begin developing first and continue to develop throughout childhood. For example, children’s ability to balance, the key skill underlying all standing skills, improves throughout the first decade (Roncesvalles, Woollacott, & Jensen, 2001). We tested a four-year-old, an eight-year-old, and an eleven-year-old on their ability to balance on one foot with their eyes closed. The four-year-old lasted three seconds. The eight and eleven-year-old were able to balance for a full two minutes, but the eight-year-old needed to hop around a lot in order to make it. Fine motor skills, the ones that use small muscles of the hands and fingers and require a fair amount of precision, begin developing later than gross motor skills. Perhaps the easiest way to see this is through children’s drawing skills. Children progress from scribbling at age two, to drawing simple shapes at three, to drawing recognizable pictures by about four or five (Kellogg, 1967).

Growth slows to about two to three inches and five pounds per year. It is as if the little body is lying in wait for the bombshell of puberty, which marks the beginning of adolescence.

Based on stories you might have heard from your family, do you think that your early experiences influenced the rate of any childhood physical developments, such as walking?
Which period of physical development do you find more interesting, the nine months before birth, or the two years after birth? Why?

15.2 Adolescent and Adult Physical Development

Think ahead to how your body will change over the next several decades. Be specific.
Are the changes generally good or bad?
Which changes seem in your control?
Assuming that there are some bad changes that you anticipate, is there anything you plan to do to prevent them?

From the prenatal period through infancy and childhood, we see a pattern in physical development, namely a slower and slower rate of change. With the advent of adolescence, there is a stark reversal of that trend. Seemingly overnight, the physical growth rate increases dramatically, and the individual who was a little boy or girl yesterday rapidly comes to resemble a man or woman. When we reach the end of adolescence and enter adulthood, physical growth stops completely. Common wisdom holds that people quickly reach their peak in adulthood, make it “over the hill,” and begin the gradual, but accelerating and inevitable decline. As is often the case, however, common wisdom is not exactly right. Let us now turn to physical development in adolescence and adulthood and see what, in fact, does typically happen.

Physical Changes in Adolescence

We’ll begin with the two immense physical changes that occur during adolescent development: sexual maturity and rapid growth, commonly known as the adolescent growth spurt. Puberty is the term used to describe the period during which the body reaches sexual maturity; it roughly corresponds to adolescence, or around the teenage years. But let us ignore these obvious signs of physical development for a moment and focus on the brain and biochemistry. Hormones help to explain how both the growth spurt and puberty take place.

puberty : the period during which an individual develops from childhood to sexual maturity

In Module 11, we briefly described the hypothalamus and pituitary gland; you may recall that the hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to release hormones. It is time to give you some details about the hormones released by the endocrine system, to which the pituitary gland belongs. The endocrine system is composed of several glands throughout the body; the principal function of these glands is to release chemicals called hormones. These hormones travel through the bloodstream to reach target areas elsewhere in the body, typically other glands or nervous system parts.

The glands that are important for sexual development and the growth spurt are the pituitary gland and the gonads , or sex glands. The pituitary gland is often called the master gland because one of its key functions is to release hormones that direct the activity of other glands, such as the gonads. The gonads, testes in males and ovaries in females, serve the dual function of producing sex hormones, and producing the sperm cells and ova (eggs). The most important sex hormones are androgens (especially testosterone , one specific kind of androgen), estrogens , and progesterone . Both testes and ovaries produce all three of the sex hormone types, but the testes produce more androgens and the ovaries produce more estrogens and progesterone. Consequently, androgens are often referred to as male sex hormones, whereas estrogens and progesterone are referred to as female sex hormones.

pituitary gland : a gland responsible for controlling vital body functions

endocrine system : the system of hormone-producing glands located throughout the body

gonads : sex glands; they produce sex hormones

androgens : a group of hormones that play a role in male traits and reproductive activity; the best-known androgen is testosterone

estrogens : a group of hormones that play a role in female traits and reproductive activity

progesterones : a group of hormones that play a role in female traits and reproductive activity

During adolescence, sex hormones trigger the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. Primary sex characteristics are the maturation of the reproductive organs. They become fully functioning and capable of reproduction during puberty. Secondary sex characteristics are other features that signal the maturation of the reproductive organs and distinguish men from women. They include growth of facial, body, pubic, and underarm hair; voice changes; changes in body shape; and growth of girls’ breasts. Basically, the pituitary gland increases its release of hormones that direct the testes and ovaries to release their own hormones. In boys, the increase in androgens leads to masculine physical features; in women, the increase in estrogens leads to feminine physical features.

primary sex characteristics : the maturation of the reproductive organs.

secondary sex characteristics : features that signal the maturation of the reproductive organs and help to distinguish men from women.

The Adolescent Growth Spurt. A second major function of the pituitary gland is to secrete growth hormone, which travels through the bloodstream to reach muscles and bones and causes them to, well, grow. At puberty, the pituitary gland also increases the amount of growth hormone it releases, leading to the adolescent growth spurt. There is enormous variability in the beginning of the growth spurt. Females usually start sooner than males. At the peak of the spurt, males average nearly 4 inches per year, and females at their peak growth average just over 3 inches per year. Many parents swear that their adolescent child grew an inch overnight. That is probably not true, but it would be very difficult to prove that it could not happen. During the total growth spurt, the average male will add 14.5 inches, while the average female will add nearly 13.5 inches. Females start the growth spurt sooner, so they are shorter at its beginning than boys are; this accounts for most of the difference in height between men and women (Tanner, 1991).

Different body parts grow at different rates, so the body proportions change dramatically during the growing period. This sometimes leads to anxiety and embarrassment about the adolescents’ beliefs that their feet or hands are too big, and about clumsiness or awkwardness (Downs, 1990).

Females finish growing taller at about 17, males at about 21; again, however, there is large variability. Weight and height increases occur at around the same time for males. For females, however, weight sometimes begins to increase earlier than height, leading some females and their parents to worry about weight gain (Spear, 2002).

So, at the end of the adolescent period, we see a bit of a parallel with what happened after the dramatic growth over the first year of life. This time, however, instead of a slowing of growth, there is an outright stopping. As you will see, however, the cessation of physical growth does not mean that development and change stop, and it certainly does not mean that unavoidable decline is right around the corner.

Physical Changes in Adulthood

It is common for men and women to gain weight as they age. Both physical and lifestyle changes associated with aging contribute to these common increases. Further, being overweight can lead to a reduction in physical activity that can accelerate age-related changes, making a bit of a vicious cycle. Specifically, basal metabolic rate and muscle mass both decline as we age, beginning at around age 30 (Poehlman et al. 1990; Poehlman et al. 1993). Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy that our body expends when it is at rest; it represents the energy requirements (or the calories burned) for the basic functions of life, such as breathing, maintaining our heart rate, and supporting the cells of our body. As we age, those basic requirements decrease, meaning we burn fewer calories at rest. The cause of the decline is at least partially related to another loss due to aging, namely muscle mass , or the amount of lean muscle tissue in our bodies. Because our bodies use more energy maintaining muscle cells than fat cells, the loss of muscle cells leads to a lower BMR.

basal metabolic rate : the energy requirements for the basic functions of life

muscle mass : the amount of lean muscle tissue in a body

Maximum aerobic capacity, bone density, and flexibility all decline gradually over time, also beginning at around age 30 (Lim, 1999). Altogether, these declines are very bad news for the minuscule portion of the population who are currently at their peak strength and aerobic fitness. For example, consider the all-time greatest NBA basketball player, Michael Jordan, a man who was not only at his own physical capacity but was also a world-class athlete. From age 26 to 32, Mr. Jordan averaged a steady 31.5 points per game. From 1996 to 1998, when he was 33 to 35, his scoring began to drop a little, to an average of 29 points per game. Then, he retired for three years. At 38, Michael Jordan returned to the NBA for two final seasons, during which he scored only 21.5 points per game. Although many factors, such as the quality of one’s teammates and a player’s role on the team, contribute to a player’s scoring average, it is difficult to deny an age-related decline as part of the story. Oh, and if you disagree and think that Lebron James is the all-time greatest, you will have to write your own textbook to include that opinion.

For the rest of us who are not at our maximum physical capacities, the actual physical decline is so gradual that we barely notice it for years. When most people complain about physical decline beginning in their 30’s, they are very likely reporting on the results of the lifestyle side of the equation. As people settle into careers, many of them behind a desk, and take on family and other responsibilities, they find it difficult to exercise regularly and wind up leading far more sedentary lives (this, of course, also contributes to the increase in weight). Thus, the decline they experience is more of a detraining effect than anything else. The best news about the actual age-related physical decline is that it can be slowed with physical activity. What this means in practical terms is that unless you are currently at your maximum possible fitness, you can continue to increase strength and fitness for many years, as the benefits of activity will more than offset the small declines in your maximum capacity. For example, if you engage in muscle-building exercise (i.e., strength training), you can prevent the decline in muscle mass and the consequent decrease in BMR for many years. The declines do become more noticeable around age 55 to 60 (Lim, 1999), so even if you continue to exercise strenuously, you will probably begin to notice a drop off around then. One potential problem to keep in mind is that it becomes more difficult to exercise strenuously as we age. Range of motion, flexibility, as well as recovery time after exertion all deteriorate, making injuries more likely and slower to heal, and requiring more rest between workouts. Again, these declines begin gradually and accelerate as we age.

Did you or your parents keep track of your growth during your childhood and adolescence?
When did you start the rapid growth phase of adolescence?
What was the most you grew in any one year?
Do you remember when various physical developments, such as the growth of body hair and the beginnings of sexual maturity took place for you?
If you are over 30, have you noticed any declines yet? Have you noticed any physical areas in which you are still improving?

15.3 Brain Development Throughout the Lifespan

What do you think happens to the brain when it develops after birth? Hint: it is not the addition of new neurons.

It is true that brain development is a physical development in many ways no different from the others in this module. Because the brain, as the source of all of our behavior and mental processes, bears a special relationship to psychology, however, it is worth pulling it out (so to speak) and describing its changes in a section separate from the other physical developments. As you learn about the types of developments that take place at different times during the lifespan, as well as the different brain areas involved, you will begin to understand and appreciate many of the differences in the psychology of infants, children, adolescents, and adults.

Prenatal Brain Development

Recall that when the embryo begins organizing itself, one of the new specialized areas is the neural tube. The neural tube actually develops from a section called the neural plate, which appears by three weeks after conception. The cells in the neural plate are called neural stem cells ; they have the ability to develop into any cells of the nervous system, such as glial cells (the cells that support and communicate with neurons) and immature neurons (Varoqueaux and Brose, 2002). The cells at the top of the developing neural tube will become the brain; three distinct sections that will become the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain can be seen during the second month after conception. The rest of the neural tube develops into the spinal cord.

Once the neural tube is formed, the number of neurons increases rapidly. Then, they begin to move, or migrate to their eventual location. Migration is guided by chemicals contained in the particular areas through which the neurons move (Gleeson & Walsh, 2000; Golman & Lushkin, 1998). Although the cells are changing while they travel, they will not develop into a specific type of neuron or glial cell until they reach their destinations.

The main changes that the cells undergo while they are migrating is axon growth. Both axon and dendrite growth, which begins in earnest after the migration is completed, prepare the developing nervous system for the process of synaptogenesis , the formation of new synapses. Recall that a synapse is the small area where neural communication takes place, a “connection” between the axon of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron. Some synaptogenesis takes place before birth, but the bulk of it happens after the infant is born.

neural stem cells : primitive nerve cells that have the ability to develop into any cells of the nervous system

migration : the movement of neurons to their point of origin to their eventual location in the developing brain

synaptogenesis : the formation of new synapses between neurons

Infant and Child Brain Development

After birth, the infant’s brain does continue growing rapidly, approximately tripling in weight over the first year. A newborn’s brain has about 86 billion neurons. An adult’s brain has about 86 billion neurons. So, rather than adding new neurons, infant brain growth occurs primarily within the existing neurons. Myelin sheaths develop to cover many axons (this process is called myelinization ), and dendrites develop many new branches. The increase in dendrite branches allows the massive synaptogenesis to occur.

myelinization : the process in which myelin sheaths develop to cover many axons throughout the nervous system

Synaptogenesis is very selective. Specific axons hook up with specific target areas, resulting in the creation of many different types of synapses. It is among the more amazing engineering feats in the universe, with the brain ending up with some 100 trillion synapses, an extraordinarily complex network of interconnected neurons. Synapse formation is particularly massive in the cortex, the most important brain area for the higher intellectual functions. At the end of the major synaptogenesis during infancy, there are no “stray” neurons. Every neuron in the brain is connected, through synapses, with many others.

The major ways the developing brain accomplishes the final wiring is through the overproduction and later pruning of synapses and the death of unused neurons. Sometime during the first or second year, the number of synapses in particular brain areas reaches a maximum (the exact time depends on the brain area), each area containing many more synapses than will be present in the adult brain. Then, the pruning of the oversupply of synapses occurs largely through the “use it or lose it” principle. Synapses are activated by environmental stimulation; those that are not used die off, as do neurons that are left unconnected.

Research has shown that when infants are raised in impoverished environments, brain development suffers (Rutter, 1998; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Many parents, and more than a few marketers, have responded to these kinds of research findings by surrounding (or recommending to parents that they surround) their children with educational toys, games, and videos. These toys aren’t bad, but, the trouble is, that the research findings are likely being misinterpreted. Children that are in impoverished environments aren’t struggling because of a lack of educational toys, they are struggling because of a lack of social stimulation. It appears to be social stimulation, such as talking and singing, playing, and providing consistent and loving care, that is most needed for healthy brain development. Although the more rigorous academic kind of stimulation may be beneficial (future research may be able to tell us this), it almost certainly will not be if it takes the place of a more nurturing kind of environment.

The pruning of synapses makes it sound as if there is only loss after early childhood. Recall that neurons do continue to be generated throughout life, particularly in the hippocampus. Also, after the conclusion of the synaptogenesis burst in infancy, the brain continues to create new synapses; it does so at least throughout adolescence, just never as much as it did during infancy. Throughout life, the brain will continue to strengthen some synapses, often through using them, and weaken or eliminate others (Varoqueaux & Brose, 2002).

Adolescent and Adult Brain Development

Synaptogenesis slows dramatically by adolescence. Another critical process for brain development, myelinization, continues, however. In particular, the addition of myelin sheaths to axons is most pronounced in the prefrontal cortex during adolescence and early adulthood, making it the latest area of the brain to mature. This late development may very well be related to the cognitive developments that take place in adolescence (Kwon & Lawson, 2000).

Obviously, learning continues throughout life. Learning in the adult brain appears to involve the strengthening and modification of existing synapses, rather than the creation of new ones (Bourgeois, Goldman-Rakic, & Rakic, 2000; Varoqueaux & Brose, 2002). As a consequence, although the adult brain does undergo a reduction in the number of synapses over time, the reduction does not dramatically affect our ability to learn. Although the brain does continue to produce new neurons from stem cells throughout life, researchers have not yet discovered how these neurons are put to use.

Without a doubt, the big story about the adult brain is the decline. Synapses decline, plasticity (the brain’s ability to reorganize itself) declines, and so on. The story is not nearly as pessimistic as you might think, however. Biologist Robert Sapolsky (2004) notes that it is a myth that we lose enormous numbers of neurons as we age, an error based on researchers’ conclusions that the brains of people suffering from dementia showed the same brain changes as normal aging people. We do lose neurons as we age, but not nearly as many as common wisdom holds. Neuron loss is not distributed evenly throughout the brain either, which explains many other characteristics of aging people. The hippocampus, an important structure for memory, is one of the biggest losers. Finally, because of the reduction in synaptogenesis, the brain plasticity that we observe so readily in younger people, particularly children, is less dramatic in the older brain. Older people’s brains can recover from various types of damage, such as injuries or strokes, but the recovery is slow and it is usually not complete.

Compare the sections on physical development in this module to the one on brain development. Can you recognize parallels or mismatches between the two types of developments?

the cell that results when an egg is fertilized by a sperm cell

the developing cells during the early period of gestation, the first 8-weeks in humans.

an embryo about one week after fertilization (in humans); it resembles a hollowed-out ball of cells.

the embryonic precursor to the central nervous system.

the developing baby after 8 weeks of gestation.

male sex glands; they produce hormones and sperm.

female sex glands; they produce hormones and eggs.

a group of hormones that play a role in male traits and reproductive activity; a fetus that is exposed to androgens will develop male sex organs.

the fluid-filled sac that houses the developing fetus; it acts as a shock absorber and temperature regulator.

the structure at the attachment point between the fetus and the mother’s uterus; it allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products and acts as a filter to keep out harmful substances.

a substance that can harm a developing fetus.

a condition in a child that results from alcohol exposure during the mother's pregnancy.

a condition in children that results from moderate levels of alcohol exposure during the mother's pregnancy.

a programmed behavior that newborns can do when they are born.

reflex in which an infant will turn its head toward something that strokes his or her cheek.

the period during which an individual develops from childhood to sexual maturity.

a forebrain area just below the thalamus; it plays a role in motivation and it controls the pituitary gland

a gland responsible for controlling vital body functions.

the system of hormone-producing glands located throughout the body

sex glands; they produce sex hormones.

a group of hormones that play a role in female traits and reproductive activity

the maturation of the reproductive organs

features that signal the maturation of the reproductive organs and help to distinguish men from women.

the energy requirements for the basic functions of life.

the amount of lean muscle tissue in a body.

primitive nerve cells that have the ability to develop into any cells of the nervous system.

the movement of neurons to their point of origin to their eventual location in the developing brain.

the formation of new synapses between neurons.

the area between two adjacent neurons, where neural communication occurs

the process in which myelin sheaths develop to cover many axons throughout the nervous system.

Introduction to Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Ken Gray; Elizabeth Arnott-Hill; and Or'Shaundra Benson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Physical Development

Growth rates and motor skills.

Rates of growth generally slow during Middle Childhood. Typically, a child will gain about 5-7 pounds a year and grow about 2 inches per year. They also tend to slim down and gain muscle strength and lung capacity making it possible to engage in strenuous physical activity for long periods of time. The brain reaches its adult size at about age 7. The school-aged child can is better able to plan, coordinate activity using both left and right hemispheres of the brain, and to control emotional outbursts. Paying attention is also improved as the prefrontal cortex matures. And as the myelin continues to develop, the child’s reaction time also improves as well. One result of the slower rate of growth is an improvement in motor skills. Children of this age tend to sharpen their abilities to perform both gross motor skills such as riding a bike and fine motor skills such as cutting their fingernails.

Organized Sports: Pros and Cons

Middle childhood seems to be a great time to introduce children to organized sports. And in fact, many parents do. Nearly 3 million children play soccer in the United States (listen to NPR’s “ Youth Soccer Coaches Encouraged to Ease Regimen ” story from 5/24/06). This activity promises to help children build social skills, improve athletically and learn a sense of competition. It has been suggested, however, that the emphasis on competition and athletic skill can be counterproductive and lead children to grow tired of the game and want to quit. In many respects, it appears that children’s activities are no longer children’s activities once adults become involved and approach the games as adults rather than children. The U. S. Soccer Federation recently advised coaches to reduce the amount of drilling engaged in during practice and to allow children to play more freely and to choose their own positions. The hope is that this will build on their love of the game and foster their natural talents.

New Concerns

Childhood obesity.

Rates: About 16 to 33 percent of American children are obese (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2005). This is defined as being at least 20 percent over their ideal weight. The percentage of obesity in school aged children has increased substantially since the 1960s and has in fact doubled since the 1980s.

Reasons: This is true in part because of the introduction of a steady diet of television and other sedentary activities. In addition, we have come to emphasize high fat, fast foods as a culture. Pizza, hamburgers, chicken nuggets and “lunchables” with soda have replaced more nutritious foods as staples.

Consequences: Children who are overweight tend to be ridiculed and teased by others. This can certainly be damaging to their self-image and popularity. In addition, obese children run the risk of suffering orthopedic problems such as knee injuries, and an increase risk of heart disease and stroke in adulthood. It’s hard for a child who is obese to become a non-obese adult. In addition, the number of cases of pediatric diabetes has risen dramatically in recent years.

Recommendations: Dieting is not really the answer. If you diet, your basal metabolic rate tends to decrease thereby making the body burn even fewer calories in order to maintain the weight. Increased activity is much more effective in lowering the weight and improving the child’s health and psychological well-being. Exercise reduces stress and being an overweight child, subjected to the ridicule of others can certainly be stressful. Parents should take caution against emphasizing diet alone to avoid the development of any obsession about dieting that can lead to eating disorders as teens. Again, increasing a child’s activity level is most helpful.

A Look at School Lunches: Many children in the United States buy their lunches in the school cafeteria, so it might be worthwhile to look at the nutritional content of school lunches. You can obtain this information through your local school district’s website. An example of a school menu and nutritional analysis from a school district in north central Texas is a meal consisting of pasta alfredo, bread stick, peach cup, tomato soup, and a brownie, and 2% milk and is in compliance with Federal Nutritional Guidelines of 108% calories, 24 % protein, 55 % carbohydrates, 27% fat, and 8% saturated fats, according to the website. Students may also purchase chips, cookies, or ice cream along with their meals. Many school districts rely on the sale of desert and other items in the lunchrooms to make additional revenues. Many children purchase these additional items and so our look at their nutritional intake should also take this into consideration.

Consider another menu from an elementary school in the state of Washington. This sample meal consists of chicken burger, tater tots, fruit and veggies and 1% or nonfat milk. This meal is also in compliance with Federal Nutrition Guidelines but has about 300 fewer calories. And, children are not allowed to purchase additional deserts such as cookies or ice cream.

Of course, children eat away from school as well. Listen to NPR’s Kids Have Easy Access to Junk Food to hear a story about how advertising and fast food restaurant locations may influence children’s diets.

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Physical Development in Early Adulthood

What you’ll learn to do: explain developmental tasks and physical changes during early adulthood.

A group of women doing a forward bend in a yoga class

In this section, we will see how young adults are often at their peak physically, sexually, and in terms of health and reproduction; yet they are also particularly at risk for injury, violence, substance abuse, sexually transmitted diseases, and more. As you read, consider whether or not you think young adults are in the prime of their lives.

Learning Outcomes

Summarize the developmental tasks of early adulthood
Describe physical development and health in early adulthood
Summarize risky behaviors and causes of death in early adulthood
Describe sexuality and fertility issues related to early adulthood

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

College students studying and talking on the grass.

Before we dive into the specific physical changes and experiences of early adulthood, let’s consider the key developmental tasks during this time—the ages between 18 and 40. The beginning of early adulthood, ages 18-25, is sometimes considered its own phase, emerging adulthood, but the developmental tasks that are the focus during emerging adulthood persist throughout the early adulthood years. Look at the list below and try to think of someone you know between 18 and 40 who fits each of the descriptions.

Havighurst (1972) describes some of the developmental tasks of young adults. These include:

Achieving autonomy: trying to establish oneself as an independent person with a life of one’s own
Establishing identity: more firmly establishing likes, dislikes, preferences, and philosophies
Developing emotional stability: becoming more stable emotionally which is considered a sign of maturing
Establishing a career: deciding on and pursuing a career or at least an initial career direction and pursuing an education
Finding intimacy: forming first close, long-term relationships
Becoming part of a group or community: young adults may, for the first time, become involved with various groups in the community. They may begin voting or volunteering to be part of civic organizations (scouts, church groups, etc.). This is especially true for those who participate in organizations as parents.
Establishing a residence and learning how to manage a household: learning how to budget and keep a home maintained.
Becoming a parent and rearing children: learning how to manage a household with children.
Making marital or relationship adjustments and learning to parent.

Think It Over

To what extent do you think these early adulthood developmental tasks have changed in the last several years? How might these tasks vary by culture?

The Physiological Peak

Young man in great physical condition doing a side plank.

People in their twenties and thirties are considered young adults. If you are in your early twenties, you are probably at the peak of your physiological development. Your body has completed its growth, though your brain is still developing (as explained in the previous module on adolescence). Physically, you are in the “prime of your life” as your reproductive system, motor ability, strength, and lung capacity are operating at their best. However, these systems will start a slow, gradual decline so that by the time you reach your mid to late 30s, you will begin to notice signs of aging. This includes a decline in your immune system, your response time, and in your ability to recover quickly from physical exertion. For example, you may have noticed that it takes you quite some time to stop panting after running to class or taking the stairs. But, remember that both nature and nurture continue to influence development. Getting out of shape is not an inevitable part of aging; it is probably due to the fact that you have become less physically active and have experienced greater stress. The good news is that there are things you can do to combat many of these changes. So keep in mind, as we continue to discuss the lifespan, that some of the changes we associate with aging can be prevented or turned around if we adopt healthier lifestyles.

In fact, research shows that the habits we establish in our twenties are related to certain health conditions in middle age, particularly the risk of heart disease. What are healthy habits that young adults can establish now that will prove beneficial in later life? Healthy habits include maintaining a lean body mass index, moderate alcohol intake, a smoke-free lifestyle, a healthy diet, and regular physical activity. When experts were asked to name one thing they would recommend young adults do to facilitate good health, their specific responses included: weighing self often, learning to cook, reducing sugar intake, developing an active lifestyle, eating vegetables, practicing portion control, establishing an exercise routine (especially a “post-party” routine, if relevant), and finding a job you love. [1]

Being overweight or obese is a real concern in early adulthood. Medical research shows that American men and women with moderate weight gain from early to middle adulthood have significantly increased risks of major chronic disease and mortality (Zheng, et al, 2017). [2] Given the fact that American men and women tend to gain about one to two pounds per year from early to middle adulthood, developing healthy nutrition and exercise habits across adulthood is important (Nichols, 2017). [3]

This video explains how the brain continues to develop into adulthood.

A Healthy, but Risky Time

Early adulthood tends to be a time of relatively good health. For instance, in the United States, adults ages 18-44 have the lowest percentage of physician office visits than any other age group, younger or older. However, early adulthood seems to be a particularly risky time for violent deaths (rates vary by gender, race, and ethnicity). The leading causes of death for both age groups 15-24 and 25-34 in the U.S. are unintentional injury, suicide, and homicide. Cancer and heart disease follow as the fourth and fifth top causes of death among young adults (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019).

Substance Abuse

Rates of violent death are influenced by substance abuse, which peaks during early adulthood. Some young adults use drugs and alcohol as a way of coping with stress from family, personal relationships, or concerns over being on one’s own. Others “use” because they have friends who use and in the early 20s, there is still a good deal of pressure to conform. Youth transitioning into adulthood have some of the highest rates of alcohol and substance abuse. For instance, rates of binge drinking (drinking five or more drinks on a single occasion) in 2014 were: 28.5 percent for people ages 18 to 20 and 43.3 percent for people ages 21-25. [4] Recent data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention show increases in drug overdose deaths between 2006 and 2016 (with higher rates among males), but with the steepest increases between 2014 and 2016 occurring among males aged 24-34 and females aged 24-34 and 35-44. Rates vary by other factors including race and geography; increased use and abuse of opioids may also play a role.

To learn more about opioid drugs and the current opioid crisis, please watch the following video:

Drugs impair judgment, reduce inhibitions, and alter mood, all of which can lead to dangerous behavior. Reckless driving, violent altercations, and forced sexual encounters are some examples. College campuses are notorious for binge drinking, which is particularly concerning since alcohol plays a role in over half of all student sexual assaults. Alcohol is involved nearly 90 percent of the time in acquaintance rape (when the perpetrator knows the victim). Over 40 percent of sexual assaults involve alcohol use by the victim and almost 70 percent involve alcohol use by the perpetrator. [5] .

Link to Learning

After she was the victim of an assault in London, college student Ione Wells published a letter to her attacker in a student newspaper that went viral and sparked the #NotGuilty campaign against sexual violence and victim-blaming. Watch Ione Wells’ TED talk “How We Talk About Sexual Assault Online” (https://www.ted.com/talks/ione_wells_how_we_talk_about_sexual_assault_online?referrer=playlist-the_conversation_around_sexual_assault) to learn more [Note: this is a sensitive topic.]

Drug and alcohol use increase the risk of sexually transmitted infections because people are more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior when under the influence. This includes having sex with someone who has had multiple partners, having anal sex without the use of a condom, having multiple partners, or having sex with someone whose history is unknown. Such risky sexual behavior puts individuals at increased risk for both sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). STDs are especially common among young people. There are about 20 million new cases of STDs each year in the United States and about half of those infections are in people between the ages of 15 and 24. Also, young people are the most likely to be unaware of their HIV infection, with half not knowing they have the virus (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019).

Sex and Fertility in Early Adulthood

Sexual responsiveness and reproduction in early adulthood, sexual responsiveness.

Men and women tend to reach their peak of sexual responsiveness at different ages. For men, sexual responsiveness tends to peak in the late teens and early twenties . Sexual arousal can easily occur in response to physical stimulation or fantasizing. Sexual responsiveness begins a slow decline in the late twenties and into the thirties although a man may continue to be sexually active throughout adulthood. Over time, a man may require more intense stimulation in order to become aroused. Women often find that they become more sexually responsive throughout their 20s and 30s and may peak in the late 30s or early 40s. This is likely due to greater self-confidence and reduced inhibitions about sexuality.

There are a wide variety of factors that influence sexual relationships during emerging adulthood; this includes beliefs about certain sexual behaviors and marriage. For example, among emerging adults in the United States, it is common for oral sex to not be considered “real sex”. In the 1950s and 1960s, about 75 percent of people between the ages of 20–24 engaged in premarital sex; today, that number is 90 percent. Unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections and diseases (STIs/STDs) are a central issue. As individuals move through emerging adulthood, they are more likely to engage in monogamous sexual relationships and practice safe sex.

Reproduction

For many couples, early adulthood is the time for having children. However, delaying childbearing until the late 20s or early 30s has become more common in the United States. The mean age of first-time mothers in the United States increased 1.4 years, from 24.9 in 2000 to 26.3 in 2014. This shift can primarily be attributed to a larger number of first births to older women along with fewer births to mothers under age 20 (CDC, 2016). [6]

Couples delay childbearing for a number of reasons. Women are now more likely to attend college and begin careers before starting families. And both men and women are delaying marriage until they are in their late 20s and early 30s. In 2018, the average age for a first marriage in the United States was 29.8 for men and 27.8 for women. [7]

Infertility

Infertility affects about 6.7 million women or 11 percent of the reproductive age population (American Society of Reproductive Medicine [ASRM], 2006-2010. Male factors create infertility in about a third of the cases. For men, the most common cause is a lack of sperm production or low sperm production. Female factors cause infertility in another third of cases. For women, one of the most common causes of infertility is ovulation disorder. Other causes of female infertility include blocked fallopian tubes, which can occur when a woman has had pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) or endometriosis . PID is experienced by 1 out of 7 women in the United States and leads to infertility about 20 percent of the time. One of the major causes of PID is Chlamydia , the most commonly diagnosed sexually transmitted infection in young women. Another cause of pelvic inflammatory disease is gonorrhea . Both male and female factors contribute to the remainder of cases of infertility and approximately 20 percent are unexplained.

Watch this video to learn more about the reasons for infertility and the main treatment methods available for conceiving.

Fertility Treatment

The majority of infertility cases (85-90 percent) are treated using fertility drugs to increase ovulation or with surgical procedures to repair the reproductive organs or remove scar tissue from the reproductive tract. In vitro fertilization (IVF) is used to treat infertility in less than 5 percent of case s. IVF is used when a woman has blocked or deformed fallopian tubes or sometimes when a man has a very low sperm count. This procedure involves removing eggs from the female and fertilizing the eggs outside the woman’s body. The fertilized egg is then reinserted in the woman’s uterus. The average cost of an IVF cycle in the U.S. is $10,000-15,000 and the average live delivery rate for IVF in 2005 was 31.6 percent per retrieval. IVF makes up about 99 percent of artificial reproductive procedures. [ASRM, 2006-2010]

Less common procedures include gamete intrafallopian tube transfer (GIFT) which involves implanting both sperm and ova into the fallopian tube and fertilization is allowed to occur naturally. Zygote intrafallopian tube transfer (ZIFT) is another procedure in which sperm and ova are fertilized outside of the woman’s body and the fertilized egg or zygote is then implanted in the fallopian tube. This allows the zygote to travel down the fallopian tube and embed in the lining of the uterus naturally.

Insurance coverage for infertility is required in fourteen states, but the amount and type of coverage available vary greatly (ASRM, 2006-2010). The majority of couples seeking treatment for infertility pay much of the cost. Consequently, infertility treatment is much more accessible to couples with higher incomes. However, grants and funding sour ces may be available for lower-income couples seeking infertility treatment.

Fertility for Singles and Same-Sex Couples

The journey to parenthood may look different for singles same-sex couples. However, there are several viable options available to them to have their own biological children. Men and women may choose to donate their sperm or eggs to help others reproduce for monetary or humanitarian reasons. Some gay couples may decide to have a surrogate pregnancy. One or both of the men would provide the sperm and choose a carrier. The chosen woman may be the source of the egg and uterus or the woman could be a third party that carries the created embryo.

Reciprocal IVF is used by couples who both possess female reproductive organs. Using in vitro fertilization, eggs are removed from one partner to be used to make embryos that the other partner will hopefully carry in a successful pregnancy.

Artificial insemination ( AI ) is the deliberate introduction of sperm into a female’s cervix or uterine cavity for the purpose of achieving a pregnancy through in vivo fertilization by means other than sexual intercourse. AI is most often used by single women who desire to give birth to their own child, women who are in a lesbian relationship, or women who are in a heterosexual relationship but with a male partner who is infertile or who has a physical impairment which prevents intercourse. The sperm used could be anonymous or from a known donor.

Parker-Pope, T. (October 17, 2016). The 8 Health Habits Experts Say You Need in Your 20s. NY Times . https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/10/16/well/live/health-tips-for-your-20s.html ↵
Zheng, Y., Manson, J.E., Yuan, C., Liang, M.H., Grodstein, F., Stampfer, M.J., Willett, W.C., & Hu, F.B. (2017, July 18). Associations of weight gain from early to middle adulthood with major health outcomes later in life. JAMA, 318(3): 255-272. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.7092 ↵
Nichols, H. (2017, July 18). Weight gain in early adulthood linked to health risks later in life. Medical News Today. ↵
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2018). SAMHSA . Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/behavioral-health-equity ↵
Alcohol.org (2018). Sexual Assaults on College Campuses Involving Alcohol. Retrieved from https://www.alcohol.org/effects/sexual-assault-college-campus/ ↵
T.J. Mathews, M.S. and Brady E. Hamilton, Ph.D. Mean Age of Mothers is on the Rise: United States, 2000–2014. NCHS Data Brief No. 232, January 2016. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db232.htm. ↵
U.S Census Bureau (2018) Historical Marital Status Tables. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/families/marital.html ↵

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Physical Development in Early Childhood: Milestones From 0 to 6

By: Author Tanja McIlroy

Posted on Last updated: 29 November 2022

Categories Gross Motor Skills

Although every child develops at their own pace, they do follow fairly predictable milestones, especially when it comes to their physical development.

This article shares the common stages of a child’s physical development in early childhood.

A child’s motor and physical development depends on four things:

The development of the brain and body parts.
The control a child has over each body part.
How a child learns about their body .
Learning to use both sides of their body.

A child’s physical skills are an important part of their holistic development and affect all areas of their growth and learning.

Children need to develop physically in early childhood so they can do everyday tasks. Each motor skill is necessary for them to become fully independent.

Motor skills can be categorized into two main groups: gross motor and fine motor . Both work together to help you perform basic everyday functions that you often take for granted.

Pin - Physical development: Milestones from 0 to 6

Gross motor skills involve the large movements of the body. The bigger muscles are engaged in helping to move and function.

Gross motor development involves a child’s muscles, balance, core, posture, coordination, and endurance.

Fine motor skills involve the smaller movements a child makes. From grabbing a toy to writing, these are fine motor skills your child develops during the early years of their life.

Fine motor skills are just as important as gross motor skills and need to develop in order to succeed academically as well as be independent.

Child holding a crayon with good fine motor control

Here are the main stages of physical development a child typically follows from birth to the first six years of their life, according to Marike de Witt, author of the book “ The Young Child in Context: A psycho-social perspective “.

While every child develops at their own pace, these are general guidelines to follow.

Birth to 6 Months

Gross Motor:

Newborns begin to lift their chin and hold their head upright.
As they grow older, they start to lift their torso and raise their upper body.
They begin to roll back and forth.
Towards six months, they can sit by themselves and move all their limbs freely.

Fine Motor:

Early on, children develop a strong grip.
They then start to become aware of their hands and feet and start moving each finger and toe independently.
Children start out simply holding a toy without knowing what it is, and eventually shake and pull on toys.
They begin to hold their bottles and other objects in their hands.

7 – 12 Months

As they reach this stage, children start supporting their weight more.
They start to crawl and try to stand and walk with assistance.
Towards the end of this stage, they begin to stop needing assistance and can stand independently.

Children start to pick up things precisely by using their index finger along with their thumbs.
They can feed themselves and pick up objects on their own.
As they play, they learn to drop one toy to pick up another one.
Now that they are a year old, they start to take their first few steps.
They learn to throw objects and play more sport-like games.
As they near two years of age, they walk independently and can walk backwards as well.
They start to grab cups and drink out of them.
Some typical skills you will notice include pointing at objects they desire, building towers out of blocks, scribbling, turning the pages of books, and starting to eat on their own.
Now children can run and climb onto objects.
You will notice them shaking their heads and swinging their limbs.
They will also start to dance, roll, balance, and jump up and down.
This is the stage they enjoy playing at playgrounds as well.
They love to build towers using blocks.
They are able to open a door and undress.
You will notice them enjoying playing in water and sand by filling containers.
Learning how to paint is also a typical development at this stage.
Once they are 3, they start jumping from steps and balancing on one leg.
Their coordination and balance really improve as they learn to walk upstairs with one foot at a time and throw a ball without falling over.

You will start to see them drawing lines and circles while cutting and folding paper as well.
They can dress a doll and can button clothes themselves.
You will see them take an interest in more chores as they can make their bed and set the table.
Your child will zoom by you as they run quickly and learn to ride a tricycle.
They skip, hop, and jump all the while using one leg.
This is the time period when they are super active.

Children become really good at folding papers if they follow an example.
They can also thread beads and cut quite well.
You will see an improvement in their drawing and painting abilities.
They will also start to use clay and mould different objects.
This is typically the time children start playing soccer because they can kick a ball while running. They will be able to control their bodies while playing sports and doing other physical activities.
They are able to control their larger muscles with more ease than the smaller muscles.
Climbing is also an activity you will see during this age.
Drawing and copying objects they see is performed a lot better at this stage. You will see more circles, crosses and squares in the pictures they draw.
Soon you will see people, cars, and houses in their drawings as well.
Their ability to hold a pencil improves and they begin to cut with more control.
They will start to jump rope once they turn six years old.
You will see the more adventurous side of their personality as they tumble, roll, skip, and run around all day long.
They enjoy running up stairs without help.
At six years old, children can draw a house with windows and doors included.
They enjoy tearing paper and can do so neatly along the edge.
Their writing and letter formation start to improve.

Encouraging Physical Development in Children

Parents and teachers are crucial in helping develop their children physically in the early stages.

Both fine and gross motor skills are developed through everyday activities. It is important to find a balance between helping them develop their skills and letting them play freely and develop them independently.

There are many things you can do to encourage the physical development of your children:

As they are learning to grasp items, place the toy or object on the ground and let them reach for it. This will encourage them to develop both their fine and gross motor skills.
Tummy time is also a crucial aspect of your infant’s development. Allow time each day for them to spend time on their stomachs.
As they grow older, play a game of Simon Says to help them become more aware of their body parts.

Children love to play with playdough. Doing so helps them develop the smaller muscles in their fingers but also engages their creative side.
Pegboards are a great toy to help your children learn to hold objects and develop control.
Encourage your kids to play outside to help them develop their gross motor skills. Playing in the sand and water is a great way to help your children develop as they grow older. They learn to have better control over their muscles as they build with the sand and play in the water.
Playing with blocks has a similar effect on them but also aids in helping them to develop strong thinking skills.
You can play a game of throw and catch with your children. This helps them develop their hand-eye coordination and focus.
Drawing or painting helps them to develop their fine motor skills along with cutting out or tearing up objects. Make shapes for them to draw in or cut out, and have them try to get as close as they can to the line. This enables them to have better control over their hand muscles.

Developing motor skills is a crucial part of the early stages of children’s lives. You make all the difference as a parent or teacher in helping them develop physically.

Make sure to spend time each day practising and playing with them to help them grow strong and independent.

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Friday 16th of December 2022

Thanks for this enriching information. It is an eye opener. I am very grateful.

Tanja Mcilroy

Saturday 17th of December 2022

You're welcome, Jane! I'm glad you find it useful.

Sunday 11th of December 2022

Good evening, this information is so interesting, good job. I would like to cite it on a word document in order to do my homework, please would you mind giving me the date in which you write this information?

Monday 12th of December 2022

Thanks for reading!

Hi there, it was published on 19 July 2021. Thanks for reading!

Friday 21st of August 2020

though I haven't started out your resources with my toddlers yet but I hope to find them really useful.

I will keep you posted with my progress.

Keep up the good work!

Tuesday 25th of August 2020

I hope you'll enjoy them! Thank you

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Physical Developmental Milestones: Infants and Toddlers

Young children rapidly grow, develop, and achieve important milestones between birth and age 3, creating the foundation for later growth. Physical development is one domain of infant and toddler development. It relates to changes, growth, and skill development of the body, including development of muscles and senses. This lesson will introduce developmental milestones in addition to influences on early physical growth and development.

Identify infant and toddler physical and motor developmental milestones and ways to support development for all infants and toddlers.
Describe the brain’s role in infant and toddler physical development.
Recognize influences of physical growth and development.

Physical Development From the Start

Healthy babies are born with fully developed systems that allow their bodies to function, such as their ability to suck, swallow, and breathe. In order to support the best possible physical development, all infants require responsive care from loving adults, proper nutrition, and appropriate and stimulating environments. Infant and toddler physical development occurs rapidly over the first years of a child’s life. It is essential that caregivers understand the various stages of infant and toddler physical development so that they can respond to children’s needs appropriately.

Infants are born to explore the world around them. While each child will grow to master many of the stages in physical development on their own schedule, infants are often eager to progress from those innate abilities to further movement of their mouth, eyes, and bodies as they seek people and objects of comfort or interest. They continue practicing skills and building one form of physical movement upon another, step by step as they move closer to desired objects. Through ongoing observation and frequent conversations with families you can learn what infants are able to do, what they’re learning to do, and what areas they are needing your support in.

Infants develop physically from the top down, starting with their head and neck. At birth, an infant has a very difficult time holding up their head because their neck muscles are not strong enough to provide support. As infants and toddlers grow, their determination to master movement, balance, and fine- and gross-motor skills remains strong. Rolling and crawling occur as infants develop skill in using their large-muscle groups. Grasping and picking up objects with fingers are part of small-muscle growth.

Influences on Early Physical Growth and Development

There is no exact age at which all infants should be able to grasp objects or hold up their head without support. Physical development occurs at different times for all children depending on many factors, such as a child’s unique characteristics, the family’s values and culture, and access to available resources. However, many infants and toddlers experience developmental milestones within similar timeframes of growth. The information on the chart below is a comprehensive list of physical development milestones that children typically develop during infancy and toddlerhood . A brief version of this information aimed at parents can be found in an easy-to-use checklist from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the Apply section.

Examples of Physical Development Milestones – Infants and Toddlers

Holds head up when on tummy
Kicks both arms and legs while on back
Briefly relaxes hands from fists for short periods
Grasps adult finger
Raises head and chest while lying on stomach
Primitive reflexes present, including the rooting and sucking reflex
Holds head steady without support
Maintains hold of a toy placed in their hands
Swings arm at objects
Brings hands to mouth
Pushes up from ground onto elbows when lying on tummy
Rolls from tummy to back and may roll from back to tummy
Pushes arms straight when on tummy
Uses hands to support when sitting
Supports weight equally on legs when standing with support
Moves into the sitting position without support
Transfers items from one hand to the other
Uses fingers as a “rake” to pull food and objects towards self
Sits without support
Lowers body with control while using support
Pulls up to stand
Walks or “cruises” along furniture for support
Drinks from a cup without a lid with adult support
Uses thumb and finger “pincer grasp” to pick up small items
Takes a few steps independently
Feeds themself finger foods
Squats to pick up an object from the floor and then stands up without support
Makes marks on paper using crayon
Walks independently
Drinks from a cup
Tries to use a spoon
Climbs on and off furniture independently
Tries to kick a ball after observing an adult

24 Months/ 2 Years

Kicks a ball
Walks up and down the stairs while holding on for support
Eats with a spoon
Turns doorknobs

30 Months Years

Uses hands to twist and unscrew objects
Takes off loose clothing alone
Jumps off the ground with both feet
Can turn book pages one at a time

36 Months/ 3 Years

Strings items onto a string such as large beads or macaroni
Dresses self in loose clothing
Uses a fork
Pedals a tricycle

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021). Developmental Milestones. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/pdf/FULL-LIST-CDC_LTSAE-Checklists2021_Eng_FNL2_508.pdf

All children develop at different rates, so keep in mind that the milestones above are simply the average ages at which specific skills are observed.

Certain conditions must exist for an infant or toddler to grow and develop. A young child’s basic physical needs, include:

Food (nutritious and age-appropriate)
Shelter (protection from harm)
Clean air and environment
Health and dental care
Activity and rest

We also know that the way we ourselves were raised is important to our understanding of how and in what contexts children develop. The values and beliefs held by our family and culture contribute to our knowledge of growth and development.

Culture Affects How We See and Interpret Behaviors and Development

Understanding the practices, beliefs, and values of the families you support can help you understand how culture shapes so many parts of an infant’s and toddler’s development. Without this understanding, it is difficult to interpret the infant’s or toddler’s behaviors and development. For example, you may believe it is important to help toddlers learn to become independent and begin to feed themselves using their fine motor skills. A family, however, may not view independence as important because they believe it is more valuable to depend upon one another.

Other influences on infant and toddler physical growth and development are:

Prenatal care and development including, genetic inheritance and makeup, family growth patterns, exposure to drugs and alcohol, and birth experience
Prematurity (birth before the 38th week of development) and a low birth weight may result in respiration difficulties, vision problems, feeding and digestive problems
Temperament, or other ways an infant or toddler approaches and interacts with their world
Family’s composition, lifestyle, level of education, and housing
Maturation, or the genetic or biological development that reflects a pattern of growth from conception through adolescence
Developmental delays or disabilities, including health and medical concerns

Review the handout, Infant and Toddler Physical Development located below in the Learn activities section to learn more about important milestones in physical development, as well as variations in the rate of physical development for infants and toddlers.

The Brain’s Role in Physical Development

You can easily observe infants making movements with their bodies and refining their motor skills. Thanks to advances in research and technology, we can now also see how the brain changes and grows as young children develop. At birth, the brain is 25 percent of its adult size, and by age 5, it reaches 90 percent of adult size. Infants’ and toddlers’ early-life interactions and experiences help them make sense of the world and form connections between different parts of the brain.

These supportive experiences and connections help improve coordination and strengthen muscles. As infants repeat and practice different movements, such as turning their heads, rooting, or reaching for an object, they build and maintain connections between brain cells. In essence, the brain is busy making sense of surroundings and learning from experiences.

It is important for infants and toddlers to have time for these new experiences and to explore the world around them with a trusted and caring family child care provider. Repeated exposure to experiences with trusted caregivers allows children to feel safe and secure, and allows them to focus on experimenting, developing, and mastering new skills. The safe place that you create for their exploration ensures that their brains are able to focus on learning, developing, and making connections. If infants and toddlers do not have nurturing and responsive adults to help make them feel safe, their brains will instinctually focus on survival. This kind of stress on a child’s brain may make them more hesitant to engage in exploration, and experimentation; causing them to have less opportunities to create and strengthen connections in the brain that further their growth and skill development.

Supporting Physical Development for All Learners

Physical development, including gross and fine motor skills, consumes the interest of infants and toddlers as they practice learned skills and look to develop new ones. Healthy physical development is dependent on adequate nutrition, brain development, the central nervous system, muscles, bones, and the interactions and experiences offered to infants and toddlers. All children develop at their own pace but recognizing signs of possible developmental delays during infancy or toddlerhood allows early intervention to be more effective than if the delays are not acknowledged until later in childhood. Below are some characteristics of possible physical concerns and developmental delays by various sources:

Signs of Impaired Physical Development - Infants & Toddlers

Delays in physical development may affect more than gross and fine motor skills. For example, if an infant is unable to smile at parents or lift their arms to be picked up, this could affect social and emotional development in terms of relationship building. Recognizing some of the delays listed above can be critical to a child’s development. The connections in a baby’s brain are most adaptable in the first three years of life. These connections, also called neural circuits, are the foundation for learning, behavior, and health. Over time, these connections become harder to change. Early intervention can help children improve their abilities and learn new skills.

If you have concerns about an infant’s or toddler’s physical development, be sure to speak with your coach, trainer, administrator and/or the child’s parent. They may wish to share your concerns with the child’s health-care provider. Early intervention can help children improve their abilities and learn new skills. To find your state or territory’s early intervention contact information, go to: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/parents/states.html

For more information, including what to say when you contact early intervention and how to get support for your family, visit: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/concerned.html

Physical Development in Infants and Toddlers

How can you make sure you are providing age-appropriate experiences to support infant and toddler physical development? Take a moment to read and review the sets of guidelines on the following webpage from SHAPE America (Society of Health and Physical Educators, formerly known as the National Association for Sport and Physical Education, or NASPE): https://www.shapeamerica.org/standards/guidelines/activestart.aspx .

Next, try one or more of the following activities with the infants or toddlers in your care:

When an infant is awake and active, offer tummy time — lay the baby on the floor on his or her tummy while you interact with the infant. Provide stimulating and high contrast toys or pictures for the infant to look at. Because suffocation is swift and silent, remember to never leave an infant alone when they are on their stomach—not even for a second.
Hold an infant or dance with a toddler to music. Toddlers can also swing colorful scarves in the air, dance, or play maracas while the music is playing.
Encourage imitation of gestures and other movement experiences in which mobile infants and toddlers can use their bodies to interact and play.
Have toddlers experience kicking, catching, rolling, and bouncing balls.
Encourage toddlers to scribble on paper with crayons.

Incorporate daily physical play into your daily routines. Infants and toddlers enjoy being active!

Infant and Toddler Physical Development

Review the handout, Scenarios: Gross and Fine Motor Development below, and consider what you have learned so far throughout this lesson. In the activity, think about which characteristics or behaviors would be considered fine motor skills and which would be considered gross motor skills. Then write these down and think about possible ways you could support the young children in each scenario.

You can also review the Infant and Toddler Physical Development handout in the Learn section for additional ideas.

Once finished, share your thoughts and responses with your trainer, coach or family child care administrator.

Scenarios: Gross and Fine Motor Development

Consider using the following resources in your family child care program. Use the Milestone Moments document to monitor the physical development of the children in your program. Parents may be interested in the Milestone Tracker Mobile App from the CDC, which they can access using this link: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/milestones-app.html . The resource, What Grown-Ups Understand About Child Development , is a national benchmark survey sponsored in part by ZERO TO THREE. Read over the survey findings of this study and think about your work with families and the way you gather and share information with them regarding the physical development of the infants and toddlers in your care.

Milestone Moments

Milestone moments - spanish, what grown-ups understand about child development, demonstrate.

Allen, K. E., & Marotz, L. (2001). By the ages: Behavior and development of children pre-birth through eight. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.

Berger, S. E., & Adolph, K. E. (2003). Infants use handrails as tools in a locomotor task. Developmental Psychology , 39 : 594-605.

Blakemore, C. (2003). Movement is essential to learning. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 74 (9): 22-25, 41.

Bosco, F. M., Friedman, O., & Leslie, A. M. (2006). Recognition of pretend and real actions in play by 1- and 2-year-olds: Early success and why they fail. Cognitive Development, 21: 1-10.

Bourgeois, K. S., Akhawar, A. W., Neal, S. A., & Lockman, J. J. (2005). Infant manual exploration of objects, surfaces, and their interrelations. Infancy, 8: 233–252.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Developmental milestones . https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/pdf/FULL-LIST-CDC_LTSAE-Checklists2021_Eng_FNL2_508.pdf

Claxton, L. J., Keen, R., & McCarty, M. E. (2003). Evidence of motor planning in infant reaching behavior. Psychological Science, 14: 354-356.

Clearfield, M. W., Osborne, C. N., & Mullen, M. (2008). Learning by looking: Infants’ social looking behavior across the transition from crawling to walking. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 100: 297-307.

Comfort, R. L. (2005). Learning to play: Play deprivation among young children in foster care. Zero to Three, 25: 50-53.

Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. (2002). Ages and stages questionnaire(ASQ). https://agesandstages.com/

The National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center (NECTAC). (2011). The importance of early intervention for infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families . https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED522123.pdf

Ward, M., Lee, S., & Lipper, E. (2000). Failure to thrive is associated with disorganized infant-mother attachment and unresolved maternal attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 21 (6): 428-442.

Waters, E., Weinfield, N., & Hamilton, C. (2000). The stability of attachment from infancy to adolescence end early adulthood: General discussion. Child Development, 71 (3): 703-706.

Zeanah, C. (Ed.). (2000). Handbook of Infant Mental Health (2nd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.

Physical Development in Late Adulthood

Diana Lang; Nick Cone; Sonja Ann Miller; Daniel Dickman; Urtano Annele; K. Jyvakorpi Satu; and E. Strandberg Timo

An elderly couple walking down a street with a dog; The man with a cane and the woman is hunched over

In this section, you’ll learn more about physical changes in late adulthood. We are continually learning more about how to promote greater health during the aging process. [1]

Watch this clip from Marco Pahor, a professor in the University of Florida department of aging and geriatric research, as he discusses his research about ways physical activity affects the mobility of older adults and how it may result in longer life, lower medical costs, and increased long-term independence.

You can view the transcript for “Study proves physical activity helps maintain mobility in older adults” here (opens in new window) .

Defining Late Adulthood: Age or Quality of Life?

Ernestine Shephard in a bikini flexing her muscles for a bodybuilding shoot.

We are considered in late adulthood from the time we reach our mid-sixties until death. Because we are living longer, late adulthood is getting longer. Whether we start counting at 65, as demographers may suggest, or later, there is a greater proportion of people alive in late adulthood than anytime in world history. A 10-year-old child today has a 50 percent chance of living to age 104. Some demographers have even speculated that the first person ever to live to be 150 is alive today.

About 15.2 percent of the U.S. population or 49.2 million Americans are 65 and older. [2] This number is expected to grow to 98.2 million by the year 2060, at which time people in this age group will comprise nearly one in four U.S. residents. Of this number, 19.7 million will be age 85 or older. Developmental changes vary considerably among this population, so it is further divided into categories of 65 plus, 85 plus, and centenarians for comparison by the census. [3]

Demographers use chronological age categories to classify individuals in late adulthood. Developmentalists, however, divide this population in to categories based on physical and psychosocial well-being, in order to describe one’s functional age. The “young old” are healthy and active. The “old old” experience some health problems and difficulty with daily living activities. The “oldest old” are frail and often in need of care. A 98 year old woman who still lives independently, has no major illnesses, and is able to take a daily walk would be considered as having a functional age of “young old”. Therefore, o ptimal aging refers to those who enjoy better health and social well-being than average (Figure 2).

Normal aging refers to those who seem to have the same health and social concerns as most of those in the population. However, there is still much being done to understand exactly what normal aging means. Impaired aging refers to those who experience poor health and dependence to a greater extent than would be considered normal. Aging successfully involves making adjustments as needed in order to continue living as independently and actively as possible. This is referred to as selective optimization with compensation. Selective Optimization With Compensation is a strategy for improving health and well being in older adults and a model for successful aging. It is recommended that seniors select and optimize their best abilities and most intact functions while compensating for declines and losses. This means, for example, that a person who can no longer drive, is able to find alternative transportation , or a person who is compensating for having less energy, learns how to reorganize the daily routine to avoid overexertion. Perhaps nurses and other allied health professionals working with this population will begin to focus more on helping patients remain independent by optimizing their best functions and abilities rather than on simply treating illnesses. Promoting health and independence are essential for successful aging.

Systematic examination of old age is a new field inspired by the unprecedented number of people living long enough to become elderly. Developmental psychologists Paul and Margret Baltes have proposed a model of adaptive competence for the entire life span, but the emphasis here is on old age. Their model SOC (Selection, Optimization, and Compensation) is illustrated with engaging vignettes of people leading fulfilling lives, including writers Betty Friedan and Joan Erikson, and dancer Bud Mercer. Segments of the cognitive tests used by the Baltes in assessing the mental abilities of older people are shown. Although the video clip show below is old and dated, it remains an intellectually appealing video in which the Baltes discuss personality components that generally lead to positive aging experiences.

You can view the transcript for “Aging Successfully: The Psychological Aspects of Growing Old (Davidson Films, Inc.)” here (opens in new window) .

Age Categories

Senescence, or biological aging, is the gradual deterioration of functional characteristics (Figure 3). [4]

The Young Old — 65 to 74

Elderly man reading the newspaper on a park bench.

These 18.3 million Americans tend to report greater health and social well-being than older adults. Having good or excellent health is reported by 41 percent of this age group. [5] Their lives are more similar to those of midlife adults than those who are 85 and older. This group is less likely to require long-term care, to be dependent or to be poor, and more likely to be married, working for pleasure rather than income, and living independently. About 65 percent of men and 50 percent of women between the ages of 65-69 continue to work full-time. [6]

Physical activity tends to decrease with age, despite the dramatic health benefits enjoyed by those who exercise. People with more education and income are more likely to continue being physically active. And males are more likely to engage in physical activity than are females. The majority of the young-old continue to live independently. Only about 3 percent of those 65-74 need help with daily living skills as compared with about 22.9 percent of people over 85. Another way to consider this is that 97 percent of people between 65-74 and 77 percent of people over 85 do not require assistance! This age group is less likely to experience heart disease, cancer, or stroke than the old, but nearly as likely to experience depression. [7]

The Old Old—75 to 84

This age group is more likely to experience limitations on physical activity due to chronic disease such as arthritis, heart conditions, hypertension (especially for women), and hearing or visual impairments. Rates of death due to heart disease, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease are double that experienced by people 65-74. Poverty rates are 3 percent higher (12 percent) than for those between 65 and 74. However, the majority of these 12.9 million Americans live independently or with relatives. Widowhood is more common in this group-especially among women.

The Oldest Old—85 plus

The number of people 85 and older is 34 times greater than in 1900 and now includes 5.7 million Americans. This group is more likely to require long-term care and to be in nursing homes. However, of the 38.9 million American over 65, only 1.6 million require nursing home care. Sixty-eight percent live with relatives and 27 percent live alone. [8] [9]

The Centenarians

Centenarians , or people aged 100 or older, are both rare and distinct from the rest of the older population (Figure 4). Although uncommon, the number of people living past age 100 is on the rise; between the year 2000 and 2014, then number of centenarians increased by over 43.6%, from 50,281 in 2000 to 72,197 in 2014. [10] In 2010, over half (62.5 percent) of the 53,364 centenarians were age 100 or 101. [11]

This number is expected to increase to 601,000 by the year 2050. [12] The majority is between ages 100 and 104 and eighty percent are women. Out of almost 7 billion people on the planet, about 25 are over 110. Most live in Japan, a few live the in United States and three live in France (National Institutes of Health, 2006). These “super-Centenarians” have led varied lives and probably do not give us any single answers about living longer. Jeanne Clement smoked until she was 117. She lived to be 122. She also ate a diet rich in olive oil and rode a bicycle until she was 100. Her family had a history of longevity. Pitskhelauri [13] suggests that moderate diet, continued work and activity, inclusion in family and community life, and exercise and relaxation are important ingredients for long life.

Recent research on longevity reveals that people in some regions of the world live significantly longer than people elsewhere. Efforts to study the common factors between these areas and the people who live there is known as blue zone research (Figure 5). Blue zones are regions of the world where Dan Buettner claims people live much longer than average. The term first appeared in his November 2005 National Geographic magazine cover story, “The Secrets of a Long Life.” Buettner identified five regions as “Blue Zones”: Okinawa (Japan); Sardinia (Italy); Nicoya (Costa Rica); Icaria (Greece); and the Seventh-day Adventists in Loma Linda, California. He offers an explanation, based on data and first hand observations, for why these populations live healthier and longer lives than others.

A Venn diagram shows three intersecting circles, each representing a different blue zone. One circle is labeled “Loma Linda, United States”, one is labeled “Sardinia, Italy”, and the last is labeled “Okinawa, Japan.” The diagram shows the healthy habits each region shares that contribute to a longer lifespan. All three regions share the following attributes: family, no smoking, plant-based diet, constant moderate physical activity, social engagement, and legumes. Sardinia and Loma Linda share the following attributes: eating whole grains and being culturally isolated. Sardinia and Okinawa share the following attributes: empowering women, having sunshine, and gardening. Okinawa and Loma Linda share the following attributes: high soy consumption, no alcohol consumption, and practicing faith. Loma Linda has the following attributes: Healthy social circles and eating nuts. Sardinia has the following attributes: consuming lava beans and high polyphenol wine. Okinawa has the following attributes: residents don’t experience “time urgency, there is likability, and they use turmeric.

The people inhabiting blue zones share common lifestyle characteristics that contribute to their longevity. The Venn diagram below highlights the following six shared characteristics among the people of Okinawa, Sardinia, and Loma Linda blue zones. Though not a lifestyle choice, they also live as isolated populations with a related gene pool.

Family, put ahead of other concerns
Less smoking
Semi-vegetarianism, when the majority of food consumed is derived from plants
Constant moderate physical activity as an inseparable part of life
Social engagement, when people of all ages are socially active and integrated into their communities
Legumes are commonly consumed

In his book, Buettner provides a list of nine lessons, covering the lifestyle of blue zones people:

Moderate, regular physical activity
Life purpose
Stress reduction
Moderate caloric intake
Plant-based diet
Moderate alcohol intake, especially wine
Engagement in spirituality or religion
Engagement in family life
Engagement in social life

Successful Aging

“Successful aging” is a concept that describes the quality of aging. Studies continually use a variety of definitions for “successful aging.” For this book, “successful aging” is defined as encompassing the physical, functional, social, and psychological health domains of an individual. [14] [15] [16] [17] Because a variety of terms and dimensions of successful aging are used, we have included Figure 6 as a brief overview.

A map of terms related to successful ageing, including subjective and objective factors, such as biomedical aspects (health, physical function, and cognitive function) and psychosocial factors (being active and well adapted in life).

Most definitions of “successful aging” also include objective measurements of outcomes based on an individual’s overall health and functionality. [18]

Although definitions of successful aging are value-laden, Rowe and Kahn [19] defined three criteria of successful aging that are useful for research and behavioral interventions. They include:

Relative avoidance of disease, disability, and risk factors, like high blood pressure, smoking, or obesity
Maintenance of high physical and cognitive functioning
Active engagement in social and productive activities

For example, research has demonstrated that age-related declines in cognitive functioning across the adult life span may be slowed through physical exercise and lifestyle interventions. [20]

Another way that older adults can respond to the challenges of aging is through compensation. Specifically, selective optimization with compensation is used when the elder makes adjustments, as needed, in order to continue living as independently and actively as possible . [21] When older adults lose functioning, referred to as loss-based selection, they may first use new resources/technologies or continually practice tasks to maintain their skills. However, when tasks become too difficult, they may compensate by choosing other ways to achieve their goals. For example, a person who can no longer drive needs to find alternative transportation, or a person who is compensating for having less energy, learns how to reorganize the daily routine to avoid over-exertion.

This chapter was adapted from select chapters in Waymaker Lifespan Development , authored by Sonja Ann Miller and Daniel Dickman for Lumen Learning and available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license . The section on Successful Aging is adapted from "Definitions of successful ageing: A brief review of a multidimensional concept" by Urtano Annele, K. Jyvakorpi Satu, and E. Strandberg Timo, available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Some selections from Lumen Learning were adapted from previously shared content from Laura Overstreet's Lifespan Psychology , Wikipedia, and The Noba Project . ↵
US Census Bureau. (2018, April 10). The Nation's Older Population Is Still Growing, Census Bureau Reports. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2017/cb17-100.html ↵
US Census Bureau. (2018, August 03). Newsroom. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2017/cb17-ff08.html ↵
Senescence. (n.d.). https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/senescence ↵
Chapman, D. P., Williams, S. M., Strine, T. W., Anda, R. F., & Moore, M. J. (2006, February 18). Preventing Chronic Disease: April 2006: 05_0167. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2006/apr/05_0167.htm ↵
He, W., Sengupta, M., Velkoff, V., & DeBarros, K. (n.d.). U. S. Census Bureau, Current Popluation Reports, P23‐209, 65+ in the United States: 2005 (United States, U. S. Census Bureau). www.census.gov/prod/1/pop/p23‐190/p23‐190.html ↵
Newsroom: Facts for Features & Special Editions: Facts for Features: Older Americans Month: May 2010. (2011, February 22). Census Bureau Home Page. http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb10-ff06.html ↵
Jiaquan, X. (2016). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Mortality Among Centenarians in the United States, 2000─2014. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db233.pdf. ↵
Berger, K. S. (2005). The developing person through the life span (6th ed.). New York: Worth. ↵
Cosco, T. D., Prina, A. M., Perales, J., Stephan, B. C. M., & Brayne, C. (2014). Operational definitions of successful aging: a systematic review. International Psychogeriatrics , 26 (3), 373–381. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610213002287 ↵
Fries, J. F. (1980). Aging, natural death, and the compression of morbidity. The New England Journal of Medicine , 303 (3), 130–135. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198007173030304 ↵
Martin, P., Kelly, N., Kahana, B., Kahana, E., Willcox, B. J., Willcox, D. C., & Poon, L. W. (2015). Defining successful aging: a tangible or elusive concept? The Gerontologist, 55 (1), 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnu044 ↵
Depp, C. A., & Jeste, D. V. (2006). Definitions and predictors of successful aging: A comprehensive review of larger quantitative studies. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry , 14 (1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.jgp.0000192501.03069.bc ↵
Fernández-Ballesteros, R. (2019). The concept of successful aging and related terms. In The Cambridge Handbook of Successful Aging (pp. 6–22). Cambridge University Press. ↵
Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R. L. (1997). Successful aging. The Gerontologist, 37 (4), 433–440. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/37.4.433 ↵
Baltes, B. B., & Dickson, M. W. (2001). Using life-span models in industrial-organizational psychology: The theory of selective optimization with compensation. Applied Developmental Science, 5 (1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0501_5 ↵

Physical Development in Late Adulthood Copyright © 2022 by Diana Lang; Nick Cone; Sonja Ann Miller; Daniel Dickman; Urtano Annele; K. Jyvakorpi Satu; and E. Strandberg Timo is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

COMMENTS

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